Table of Contents

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY.................................................................... 3

CASTE SYSTEM............................................................................................................ 32
COMMUNALISM........................................................................................................... 47
REGIONALISM............................................................................................................. 56
SECULARISM............................................................................................................... 63
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY.................................................... 67
POVERTY AND HUNGER ISSUES.................................................................................86
SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT...........................................................................................108
EDUCATION IN INDIA................................................................................................ 164
SKILL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA................................................................................195
HEALTH...................................................................................................................... 215
URBANISATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES.............................................................. 267
SALIENT FEATURES OF
INDIAN SOCIETY
PYQ
[2023] Do you think marriage as a sacrament is losing its value in Modern India?
[2022] Analyze the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region, and religion.
[2022] Explore and evaluate the impact of ‘Work From Home’ on family relationships.
[2021] How does Indian Society maintain continuity in traditional social values? Enumerate the
changes taking place in it.
[2020] Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree?
[2019] What makes Indian society unique in sustaining its culture? Discuss.
[2019] Do we have cultural pockets of small India all over the nation? Elaborate with examples.
[2017] The spirit of tolerance and love is not only an interesting feature of Indian society from very
early times, but it is also playing an important part at the present. Elaborate.
[2015] Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in
building a national identity.
[2014] The life cycle of a joint family depends on economic factors rather than social values. Discuss.
Answer Writing Framework
Introduction
1. Start with the definition of the concept and a quote associated with it
2. Can also provide a contextual introduction
3. “India is, the cradle of the human race, birthplace of human speech, mother of history, the
grandmother of legend, & great grandmother of tradition.” - Mark Twain
4. "In India, the family is a microcosm of society, reflecting its values, traditions, and
contradictions." - For Family
5. “Marriage as not a mere convention, but an implicit condition of human society.” - Dr.
Radhakrishnan

Main Body
1. For 15 Mark questions briefly provide a classification chart after the introduction
2. Generally, questions from this topic need a ‘BALANCED’ Approach. So, provide both Positive
and Negative arguments
3. Framework - Institutional and Stakeholder

Institution Positive Negative

Culture Customs and Traditions, Orthodoxy, Patriarchy,

philosophy, Tolerance and rising consumerism and
accommodation, Pluralism, unity materialism
in diversity, spiritualism

Family Collectivism, Economic and Gender Roles, Violence,

Psychological support, intergenerational
socialization conflicts, increasing
divorce rates

Society Source of value system, Social Stigma, obscurantism,

Mobility, modernization, caste discrimination,
Sanskritization communalism

Economy Gender roles, Dual income Care economy,

households feminization of poverty,
access to resources

Education Autonomy, awareness Inequality, rural-urban

divide

Legal-constitutional FR, Progressive laws and Social acceptability,

judgments top-down approach,
loopholes, and misuse
 4. Stakeholder

Stakeholder Positive Negative

Individual Autonomy and Rights, Burden of collectivism

Emotional and financial
support,

Women Greater autonomy and Patriarchy, violence,

equitable division of work security, social
expectations and stigma

Children Socialization, identity Limits on individual

agency. Impact on health,
education

Elderly Culture of Respect Nucleralization of family,

isolation

Technology Awareness and assertion, Dilution of bonds, digital

opportunities divide

5. Try to substantiate points using constitutional provisions, examples, data, and SC judgments.
6. Try to use diagrammatic representation to establish interlinking

Conclusion
1. Try to provide a Futuristic conclusion. Use key phrases like ‘unity in diversity’ etc and link
them to policy objectives like SDG, Panchpran, ek bharat shreshth bharat etc.
2. Can also use a quote and link it to the core demand of the question

1. According to J.H. Fichter- “A society may be defined as a network of interconnected major

groups viewed as a unit and sharing a common culture.”
2. R.M. Maclever has defined society as “a web of social relations which is always changing.”
3. Anthony Giddens defines globalization as "the intensification of worldwide social
relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events
occurring many miles away and vice versa."
4. Patrilineal society: A society in which descent/ancestry is determined through the father’s
line and continued through the father is termed as a patrilineal society.
5. Patrilocal society: A society in which, there is a change in residence of the wife to the
village/house of the husband, after marriage, is called a patrilocal society.
6. Matrilineal society: In Matrilineal society, descent is determined through the mother's line
and also continued through the mother. Property and family names are also carried forward
through mothers. Eg- Garo and Khasi tribes in Meghalaya and Nayars of Kerala.
7. Matrilocal society: A society in which the husband comes to reside in the house/village of
the wife upon marriage, is termed as a matrilocal society. Such a society is also matriarchal and
matrilineal.
Quotes
1. “Our ability to reach unity in diversity will be our civilization's beauty and test.” Mahatma
Gandhi.
2. “If America is a melting-pot, then India is a thali, where each dish tastes different, but they
belong together and complement each other in making the meal a satisfying repast.” - Shashi
Tharoor
3. “India is, the cradle of the human race, birthplace of human speech, mother of history, the
grandmother of legend, & great grandmother of tradition.” - Mark Twain
4. So far as I am able to judge, India is the most extraordinary country that the sun visits on its
rounds. Nothing seems to have been forgotten, nothing overlooked.- Mark Twain
5. “India will teach us the tolerance and gentleness of a mature mind, understanding spirit and a
unifying, pacifying love for all human beings.” Will Durant

Important phrases that can be used:

1. Nehru - inherent Cosmopolitanism
2. Mosaic of Cultures: Rabindranath Tagore
3. Iravati Karve: Epitome of the World.
4. Will Durant: India was the motherland of our race

Data

Geographical snowbound Himalayas, northern plains, arid deserts, Deccan

plateau, coastal plains, and islands. Geographical diversity and
specificity.

Linguistic Austric, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan, Inda-European.

Report of the Census Commissioner 2011- 121 languages spoken by

over 10,000 people 19,500 languages or dialects spoken

People's Linguistic Survey of India-G.N. Devy: 780 major

languages, 66 different scripts

Religious All India Religion Census Data 2011:

Hindu -79.80%
Muslim 14.23%
Christian 2.30%
Sikh 1.72%
Buddhist 0.70%
Jain 0.37%
Other Religion 0.66%
Not stated 0.24%

Racial Diversity B.S. Guha identified:

Negrito Proto-Australoid, Mongoloid Mediterranean, Western
Brachycephals, Nordic

Family, Marriage, and Patrilineal, Patrilocal, and Patriarchal families in most of India.
Kinship Matrilineal families of Kerala, North East

Tribes The total population of Scheduled Tribes is 10.43 crore as per

the Census 2011 which accounts for 8.6 per cent of the country's
total population.

MAJOR TRIBES
Jammu & Kashmir -Sippi, Beda, Balti
Himachal Pradesh-Gaddi, Kanaura, Gujjar
Rajasthan-Bhil, Damor, Dhanka
Sikkim- Bhutia, Lepcha
Arunachal Pradesh -Kuki, Mikir,
Madhya Pradesh- Gond, Kamar, kol
Chhattisgarh- Baiga, Korba, Abhuj Maria

Salient features of society -

1. Civilizational Continuity:
In his book "Discovery of
India," Nehru highlights the
remarkable continuity of
Indian civilization from the
Indus Valley to the present,
exemplified by the
preservation of cultural
elements. Eg- the Tribhanga
posture, central to Indian
dance forms, is depicted in the
Mohenjo-Daro bronze
sculpture.
2. Inherent Pluralism due to
interaction with various
cultures, including Greeks,
Mughals to Europeans, who played pivotal roles in integrating their influences into Indian
society. Eg - Akbar’s Din-i-ilahi.
3. Philosophical and Spiritual Foundations: rooted in a diverse array of traditions such as
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It influence social, ethical, and personal
behaviors and shape the overall societal ethos, and promote a worldview centered on spiritual
growth and moral values. Eg- the practice of Ahimsa
4. Unity in Diversity in India emerged from historical fusion and accommodation, embodying
the principle of “unity without uniformity and diversity without fragmentation.” This concept
recognizes that differences enrich human interactions. Eg- more than 1,000,650 languages are
spoken in India.
5. Dynamic and syncretic: Cultural syncretism is when distinct aspects of different cultures
blend to make something new and unique. Eg: The language of Urdu has developed out of
Arabic and Hindavi, the Bhakti movement, and Sufi movements that inspired each other. The
Rashtrapati Bhawan is an architectural splendor created from the fusion of European, Rajput,
and Mughal design.
 6. Traditionalism with modernity: While many modern gyms have opened across the nation,
yoga has only gained more popularity in recent times. Western food is equally popular as
Indian food. Indowestern fusion has been a popular theme in the performing arts.
7. Scientific Heritage: Eg- the concept of zero and advancements in astronomy by scholars like
Aryabhata. Modern achievements are epitomized by ISRO's successful Mars Orbiter Mission,
demonstrating a continuous tradition of scientific excellence. Other examples - Raja Sawai Jai
Singh-astronomical observatories-Jantar Mantar; translation of Euclid's Geometry to Sanskrit.
8. Coexistence with Nature in the spirit of Prithvi Sukta, which offers a salutation to Mother
Earth. Eg- Bugun tribe of Arunachal Pradesh, Bishnois of Rajasthan.
9. Patriarchy: grants greater authority and privilege to men in both public and private spheres,
influencing various aspects of life including legal rights, property ownership, and familial roles.
Eg- Sarpanch Pati Raj
10. Tolerance and Mutual Respect: Buddhism and Jainism propagated these values through
their ancient scriptures. The concept of "sarva dharma-sam-bhava" is the foundation of the
Indian Model of secularism (Article 25-30).

Continuity and change in social features:

Continuity:
1. Cultural Practices: - Festivals and ceremonies continue to be observed, reinforcing
traditional values and beliefs. Eg- Onam in Kerala, Pongal in TN, Durga Puja in Eastern India
2. Life-cycle rituals, such as marriage (Saptapadi) and funeral rites, continue to follow ancient
traditions. M.N. Srinivas noted the "Sanskritization" process where lower castes adopt
rituals of upper castes, showing continuity in ritual practices. Eg- Lower caste communities
adopting vegetarianism
3. Family Structure:
a. Joint family systems persist in many parts of India, emphasizing familial bonds and
collective responsibility.
b. Respect for elders and adherence to hierarchical family roles remain prevalent.
c. Marriage Customs: Traditional practices like arranged marriages are still prevalent,
although there is a growing acceptance of love marriages and inter-caste/inter-religious
unions.
4. Religious Traditions: Practices like pilgrimage and religious festivals uphold spiritual
beliefs and customs. Ex- Kumbhmela
5. Education and Learning
a. Gurukul System: Elements of the ancient Gurukul system of learning can still be
seen in modern educational practices. Eg- Rishi Valley School in Andhra Pradesh
b. Traditional Knowledge: Ayurveda, Yoga, and other traditional sciences continue to
be practiced and respected globally.
6. Philosophical and Ethical Systems
a. Dharma and Karma: The concepts of Dharma (duty) and Karma (action) continue
to guide ethical and moral decisions in Indian society.
b. Spiritual Practices: Meditation, pilgrimage, and other spiritual practices retain their
importance in everyday life.
7. Caste System: identity politics
a. Despite efforts towards social reform, caste-based identities continue to influence
social interactions and occupations. Eg- Manual Scavanging
 b. Endogamous marriage practices reinforce caste boundaries and social hierarchies.
Eg- Honor Killings
c. Louis Dumont's book "Homo Hierarchicus" outlines the enduring nature of caste
as a social institution. Eg- Caste-based panchayats
8. Constitutional provisions - Concerning the right to religion (article 25) and the protection
of one's own culture reflects this continuity. Even the Indian model of secularism under the
Indian Constitution is based on ‘Sarva Dharma Samabhav’.
9. Social media plays a significant role in preserving and reviving traditional social values by
sharing and promoting cultural practices, festivals, and art forms. Eg- during the COVID-19
pandemic, many temples broadcasted live puja ceremonies. Popularization of traditional dance
forms like Bharatnatyam through Youtube

Changes in Indian Society:

1. Political -
a. Breaking the caste hierarchy because of reservation and electoral politics. eg-
President Murmu.
b. Women's Empowerment: Increased participation of women in politics is a
significant change, reflecting broader gender equality movements.
2. Economic:
a. Economic Diversification due to LPG
reforms: Shift from a primarily agrarian
economy to one that includes
manufacturing and services, with a
growing emphasis on technology and
knowledge sectors.
b. Education and Urbanization:
According to Dipankar Gupta,
Urbanization and employment
opportunities in diverse sectors offer
upward social mobility and alter
traditional social hierarchies.
3. Social - Impact of Globalization
a. Substantial shift towards consumerism, and materialism as against traditional
values of minimalism and non-ostentation.
b. Urbanization - Migration to urban areas leads to the breakdown of traditional
community structures and promotes individualism and nuclear family setups.
c. Social Mobility: Increased opportunities for upward social mobility through
education and employment, challenging traditional socio-economic hierarchies.
4. Modernization theory of Yogendra Singh -
a. Cultural Hybridization - Modernization in India leads to a blend of traditional and
modern values, creating a unique cultural hybrid.
b. Structural Differentiation, where traditional roles and institutions evolve to meet
new functional needs. Eg- transformation of joint family systems into nuclear families
in urban areas.
5. Changing Family Dynamics:
a. A decline in the prevalence of joint families and increasing divorce rates
reflect shifting family structures and values. 78% of Urban households have three to
 four members. According to the Census 2011, the number of nuclear families in urban
India increased by 29% from 2001.
b. Marriage Customs: Changes in traditional practices, such as increased acceptance of
love and inter-caste marriages. A 2018 study by the India Human Development Survey
found that 5% of marriages in urban areas were inter-caste, compared to 2% in rural
areas.
c. Increasing Divorce Rates reflect changing societal values and attitudes towards
marriage and individualism.
d. Changing Roles: Gender roles within families are evolving, with more women
participating in the workforce. Female literacy rate increased from 53.67% in 2001 to
64.63% in 2011
6. Technological - The influence of social media platforms facilitates cross-cultural
interactions and challenges traditional norms. Eg- Metoo Movement
7. Legal Reforms:
a. According to Nivedita Menon, the struggle for gender and sexual rights is reshaping
societal norms and challenging traditional boundaries, promoting gender equality
and social justice. Eg- Triple Talaq Act, #MeToo Movement
b. LGBTQ+ Rights: Decriminalization of homosexuality (Section 377) and increasing
social acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals.

Indian society exhibits a dynamic interplay between continuity in traditional values and adaptation to
changing social realities. While longstanding cultural practices endure, socioeconomic
transformations, globalization, and legal reforms herald a new era of social change, emphasizing
inclusivity, equality, and diversity.

Customs and Traditions -

As a source of continuity
1. Cultural Identity: Festivals like Diwali and Holi which are celebrated with traditional rituals,
foods, and songs, serve as recurring reminders of a shared heritage and foster a sense of
belonging and continuity among the community. Eg- Traditional attire during festivals.
According to M.N. Srinivas, festivals act as a ‘social glue’.
2. Family Structure and Values: Traditions like joint family living promote a sense of
continuity and shared responsibility, reinforcing the social and familial bonds.
3. Social Cohesion: Community feasts and village festivals promote unity and bring people
together.
4. Marriage and Rituals: Marriage in India is more than a legal union; it is a confluence of
elaborate rituals and traditions, from matchmaking and celebrations to post-marriage customs
like Grihapravesh, which ensure the continuation of cultural norms and social structures.
5. Caste-based Practices - Ritual purity and pollution rules followed by different caste
groups. André Béteille argues that caste-based customs play a significant role in maintaining
social structure and order in rural India.
6. Education and Learning: Traditional forms of learning and literature, such as the Gurukul
system of education or the transmission of Vedic chanting, emphasize oral transmission and
personal mentorship, ensuring that knowledge is passed on intact across generations.
7. Art and Craft: Traditional Indian arts and crafts like Madhubani paintings, Kalamkari, and
handicrafts like pottery and weaving are not only economic activities but also cultural
expressions passed through generations.
 8. Religious Practices: Religious customs, whether it’s the daily prayers, the sacred thread
ceremony (Upanayana), or the pilgrimage (Yatra), bind individuals to their forebears, fostering
a continuity of belief systems and communal life.

As an Impediment to Modernity:

1. Resistance to Change: In some rural and conservative communities, traditional lifestyles

are highly valued, and any change (Eg- modern agriculture techniques, medical practices (like
vaccinations), or even the adoption of digital technologies) is often met with suspicion or
outright resistance.
2. Social Stratification: Traditions associated with caste (Eg- endogamy, occupations, etc)
restrict social mobility and access to resources perpetuating a cycle of economic and social
inequality that is at odds with modern democratic principles and the notion of equal
opportunity.
3. Gender Norms: Patriarchal customs like dowry perpetuate gender inequality leading to the
continuation of social evils like female infanticide, child marriage etc, thus violating
constitutional principles under Article 14, 42, 52A.
4. Conflict with Modern Values: Adherence to customs and traditions can curtail Individual
agency and freedom and hinder social progress and equality. Eg- Honor killing, child marriage
5. Marriage and Family Structures: Traditional customs like endogamy limit individual
choice and foster social stratification. Additionally, the stigma associated with divorce and
remarriage traps individuals in unhappy or abusive relationships, contrary to modern notions
of personal freedom and human rights.
6. Religious Practices and Superstitions can sometimes undermine public health and
scientific reasoning. Eg- reliance on religious or magical cures instead of medical treatment,
astrological considerations in decision-making etc.
7. Social Innovations and Legal Reforms: traditional views on LGBTQ+ rights prevent the
acceptance and integration of LGBTQ+ individuals into mainstream society, conflicting with
modern ideals of inclusivity and human rights.

While customs maintain cultural heritage, certain traditions impede social progress by perpetuating
inequalities and conflicting with modern values. Balancing tradition with progressive values is crucial
for India's inclusive development.

Diversity -
If God had so wished, he would have made all Indians speak one language. The unity of India has been
and shall always be a unity in diversity - Rabindranath Tagore

Peace is not unity in similarity but unity in diversity, in the comparison and conciliation of differences-
Mikhail Gorbachev.

Our ability to reach Unity in Diversity will be the beauty and test of our civilization -Mahatma
Gandhi.
Types
1. Cultural- India's cultural diversity is vividly manifested in its festivals, cuisine, clothing,
music, dance, art, and literature.
a. festivals such as Diwali and Eid, each marked by distinctive traditions.
b. Culinary styles vary from region to region, offering a spectrum of flavors from the
biryanis of Hyderabad to the seafood of Kerala.
c. Traditional attire like sarees and dhotis change style across different states,
reflecting local customs.
d. Music and dance forms range from classical styles like Bharatanatyam to folk
traditions like Bhangra.
e. Art and architecture showcase a diversity from Mughal designs in the north to
Dravidian temples in the south.
f. Literature too is rich, spanning from ancient Sanskrit epics to modern Indian and
English writings, illustrating the depth of India’s cultural narrative.
2. regional -
a. State Division: India has 28 states and 8 Union Territories, each with distinct
cultural identities.
b. Intra-State Diversity: States like Maharashtra exhibit sub-regional identities such as
Vidarbha, Konkan, Marathwada, and West Maharashtra.
3. geographical (data given above)
4. Religious (data given above)
5. Ethnic
Ethnic groups in Features Area located in
India

Indo-Aryans Largest ethnic group, northern, central, and

approx 72% of the population. western regions of
India.

Dravidians Second-largest ethnic group, southern parts of India.

comprising around 25% of the
population.

Mongoloids Small ethnic group, representing northeastern regions

about 3% of the population.

Other ethnic groups Tibeto-Burmans, Austro-Asiatics,

and the Andamanese.

6. Caste - According to Sujatha Gidla (Ants among elephants), Caste is the invisible arm that
turns every gear in nearly every system of the country
a. According to the 2011 Census, Scheduled Castes constitute about 16.6% of the
population, and Scheduled Tribes make up 8.6%.
b. Other Backward Classes (OBC): Estimates suggest OBCs form about 41% of the
population.
 7. Language - As per the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, India has the
largest number of endangered languages globally, totaling 197. (Data given above)
8. Tribal-
a. As per the Census 2011, the tribal population constitutes about 8.9% of the total
population and 11.3% of the total rural population.
b. In the states of Punjab and Haryana, as well as the union territories of Delhi, Chandigarh, and
Puducherry, there are no tribes officially recognized as Scheduled Tribes.
c. Mizoram and Lakshadweep have high proportions of their populations belonging to Scheduled
Tribes, at 94.43% and 94.79% respectively.
d. Among the major states, Chhattisgarh has the largest proportion of the Scheduled Tribe
population at 30.62% followed by Jharkhand at 26.21%.
e. 71% of India’s Scheduled Tribes population is concentrated in six states: Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Jharkhand.

Region Tribes

Himalayan region Gaddi, the Jaunsari, the Naga, etc

Middle India Munda, the Santal, etc

Western India Bhil, the Grasia

South India Toda, the Chenchu

Andaman and Nicobar Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens

Diversity and National Identity (Unity in diversity) -

Diversity Building National Identity Threat to National Identity

Geography Despite its diversity, India has long been Uneven Resource Distribution
identified as a distinct geographical entity and Regional Isolation Due to
throughout various ages. Natural Barriers.
Shared Natural Resources (Ganga, Indus), Eg- Sons of Soil movement in
Common Identity, and Heritage (Taj Mahal) Maharashtra, Interstate
contribute to a collective national identity disputes
transcending regional or ethnic differences.

Language Hindi is a lingua franca in the majority parts of There are disputes over the official
India. The dual-language framework language.
(Hindi-English) helps maintain administrative Other issues like linguistic
coherence and encourages a pan-Indian reorganization
identity among diverse language speakers. Eg- The anti-Hindi agitation in
Tamil Nadu during the 1960s

Ideology diversity has given way to tolerance, Ideological differences related to

righteousness, love, and recognition of nationalism, secularism, and
differences, through the notion of Vasudeva regional autonomy often ignite
 Kutumbakam and sarv dharma tensions.
samabhav.

Religion The religious diversity of India is celebrated as Communal tensions and conflicts,
a core aspect of Indian identity, promoting a often fueled by extremist
culture of pluralism and mutual respect. ideologies and political
manipulation, have led to riots.

Cultural Cultural heritage in India is honored and Ethnic tensions: The 2014
Heritage promoted through initiatives such as Ek Kokrajhar conflict between Bodos
Bharat Shreshtha Bharat, as well as the and Bengali-speaking Muslims,
development of Buddhist Circuits and and recent Manipur clashes
Ramayan Circuits. highlight ethnic strife.

Polity The Preamble of the Indian Constitution Disputes over resource

contains constitutional ideals such as distribution, language policies, and
secularism, socialism, liberty, equality, and state boundaries have sometimes
justice, instilling a sense of political and fueled regionalism and separatism.
administrative unity in India. Eg - Khalistan issue

Secularism Secularism is a concept that integrates Communalism: Sudha Pai in

Gandhi's Sarva Dharma Sambhava, Nehru's "Everyday Communalism in the
Dharmnirpekshta, and Ambedkar's advocacy Grassroots" emphasizes the
for minority rights, while the S.R. Bommai localized and politically
case emphasizes its active role and recognition manipulated nature of
as a fundamental aspect of India's basic communalism at the grassroots
structure. level, while Christophe Jaffrelot
highlights its institutionalization
within Indian politics and the
exacerbation of communal
tensions by socio-economic
insecurities. Eg- Delhi riots of
2020.

Economic economic unity has been fostered through Regional and socio-economic
Integration integration, evidenced by post-1991 LPG inequalities can lead to social
reforms, the implementation of GST, and the unrest. Eg- Naxalite insurgency in
economically backward regions.
establishment of a One Nation One Market
system. Developmental Imbalance:
Disparities in infrastructure and
opportunities like the North-South
development gap, as highlighted by
Ashish Bose's concept of BIMARU
vs TTAKK states, contribute to
regional disparities.
Philosophic The philosophical bond in India is exemplified Hate Crimes, Mob Lynching:
al Bond by Kabir's concept of Amarpur (eternal city), Incidents like the 2015 Dadri
Ravidas's vision of Begumpura, Akbar's lynching of Mohammad Akhlaq
Din-e-ilahi, and Ashoka's edicts promoting and the 2020 Palghar lynching
tolerance and paternalism, all serving as point to rising intolerance and
unifying principles. vigilantism which undermine
social cohesion and trust in the
justice system.

Cultural differences between Rural and Urban areas:

RURAL URBAN

Social Structure Traditional social structure, Diverse social structure,

strong kinship ties, and greater mobility, and
community cohesion. Eg- Joint interaction among individuals
family from varied backgrounds. Eg-
‘Apartment Culture’

Socialisation Family and community-based Influenced by formal

Processes socialization, transmission of education, media, and
traditional norms and values exposure to diverse cultural
through rituals and collective influences, leading to a
activities. Eg- Festivals cosmopolitan worldview.

Division of Labor The traditional division of labor, Specialized division of labor,

roles determined by gender, age, occupational mobility based on
and caste, centered around education, skills, and market
agriculture. demands. Eg- Managerial
Revolution

Cultural Practices and Strong ties to traditional Fusion of traditional and

Symbols cultural practices and symbols, modern expressions, cultural
reinforce social cohesion. Eg- convergence in urban spaces.
Jallikattu

Power Dynamics and Hierarchical power structures, The catalyst for social change,
Social Change resistance to change, and innovation, and cultural
maintenance of social exchange, challenging
inequalities. Eg- Khap traditional norms.
Panchayats
Lifestyle and Pace of generally slower, with a stronger characterized by a fast-paced
Life: emphasis on community lifestyle, with a focus on
interactions and traditional efficiency and modern
practices. conveniences.

Family and Marriage System

Kinship
Kinship refers to the complex system of social relationships that form an integral part of the social
structure in all human societies. It is mainly recognized through blood relations (consanguinity) and
marriage (affinity).

Key aspects:

a. Blood Relations: Kinship is based on biological relationships.

b. Marital Relations: Kinship extends through marital ties, spouses and their relatives.
c. Fictive Kinship: This includes relationships formed through social bonds, like adoption.
d. Social Functions: Kinship systems help define roles, responsibilities, and authority within
families and communities.
e. Economic and Political Roles: Kinship influences economic transactions and political
alliances at the inter and intra community level.

Family
According to George Peter Murdock, ‘The family is a social group characterized by common
residence, economic co-operation and reproduction.
Family is viewed as a universal social institution as it existed in all kinds of societies from
hunting-gathering to industrial societies.

Features of family

1. Universality of the Family: It is recognized as a fundamental social unit globally, the family
performs essential roles for both the individual and society.
2. Legitimacy of Relationships: Families are typically formed through legally and socially
sanctioned unions, primarily between spouses, that may include procreation and upbringing of
children.
3. Emotional Bonding: Families are pivotal in providing emotional stability; members share
bonds of love, care, and protection, often sacrificing personal desires for the collective good.
4. Regulatory Framework: Family dynamics and interactions are shaped by societal norms
and legal regulations, ensuring structured relationships within the family.
5. Shared Living Space: Families generally share a common residence, which is crucial for
nurturing and rearing children.
6. Heritage and Lineage: Families carry a specific kinship name that identifies their lineage,
essential for recognizing familial descent and heritage.
Types of family

1. Nuclear Family: It consists of a husband and wife, along with their unmarried children.
Minimal interdependent relationships with extended relatives usually characterize it.
2. Joint or Extended Family: This type of family includes multiple generations living under
one roof—grandparents, parents, grandchildren, siblings, and their spouses and children, all
functioning together as a single unit.
3. Blended Family: It is created when two people bring children from previous relationships or
marriages and they come together to establish a new family entity.
4. Single-parent Family: Here, usually one parent has primary caregiving duties for the
children. This can be the result of divorce, separation, the death of a partner, or a personal
choice.
5. Foster Family: Foster families serve as temporary homes for children who are unable to live
with their birth parents. They offer care and support until the children can either return to
their birth families or a permanent solution is found.
6. Chosen Family: This is formed from emotional ties rather than biological ones. These
families provide members with a sense of
belonging, support, and care.

Functions

1. Socialization: A survey by a major

Indian sociological institute found that
around 74% of Indian children learn their
primary social and cultural norms within
the family setting.
2. Economic Maintenance: Family
businesses contribute to about 60% of
India's GDP, according to the
Confederation of Indian Industry.
3. Emotional/Psychological Support: A
study indicates that 85% of Indians rely
primarily on family support during
emotional or psychological distress.
4. Regulation of Sexual Behavior:
Families in India commonly oversee relationships and marriages, with arranged marriages still
prevalent, involving family in spouse selection.
5. Procreation: In rural areas, larger families are encouraged for additional labor and securing
care for elderly family members, reflecting a higher Total Fertility Rate in these regions.
6. Educational Maintenance: Indian families prioritize education, with a high percentage of
children receiving private tutoring, reflecting the family's role in educational decisions.
CHANGING IN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
1. Ronald Fletcher also calls the family a multifunctional social institution, but whose
secondary functions are today performed by bureaucratic organizations. Eg- nurseries, and
daycare services
2. Shift to Nuclear Families: Data from the Indian census indicates that the proportion of
nuclear families has risen from 41% in 2001 to 53% in 2011.
3. Neo-Local Residence: Due to industrialization and urbanization, neo-local residence has
become more common, with young married couples opting to live near their places of
employment rather than with extended family.
4. Changing Gender Roles: shared responsibilities in household chores and child-rearing are
becoming more common. (Arlie Hochschild’s concept of the “Second Shift”)
5. Economic Functions: Families are adapting to dual-income structures, with both
partners contributing financially. Economic decisions, including investments and savings, are
increasingly made jointly by spouses.
6. Socialization and Values: The role of the family in socializing children is evolving, with
greater exposure to diverse values and cultures through media and technology.
7. Marriage Patterns: There is a growing acceptance of love marriages, inter-caste marriages,
and live-in relationships. The age of marriage is rising, with individuals prioritizing education
and careers before settling down.
8. Elder Care: With the decline of joint families, elder care is becoming a challenge, leading to
the rise of old-age homes and professional caregiving services.
9. Technological Influence: Technology is reshaping family interactions, with digital
communication becoming integral to maintaining relationships. Eg- family WhatsApp groups
10. Reproductive Choices: Families are having fewer children, influenced by economic
considerations and personal choices. As per NFHS-5, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) has
declined to 2.0 children per woman in 2021.
11. Emotional and Psychological Support: The family’s role in providing emotional and
psychological support is evolving, with a greater openness to seeking external help, such as
therapy and counseling.
12. Fluid Family Dynamics: The focus on career and professional growth has led to the
phenomenon of the 'weekend family', where couples primarily spend time together on
weekends due to demanding work schedules.

Joint vs Nuclear family

FEATURES JOINT NUCLEAR

Structure It includes multiple generations single unit with parents and

living under one roof. their children

Economic Resources and expenses are typically Parents are the primary earners
Model pooled together

Socialization Children learn social norms and more focused attention from
values. It helps enhance communal parents but may have fewer
ties and respect for elders. interactions

Support System daily domestic duties are shared They have to manage
among many members. independently or systems like
daycare etc have risen.

Decision Decisions are made by senior family Decisions are made

Making members, with less autonomy for democratically within the
younger generations.
 household and children have
more say in decision making.

Emotional They have closer parent-child They offer a broader emotional

Dynamics relationships due to direct interaction. connection.

Life Cycle of Joint Family System

1. Formation
a. Founding Members: A joint family typically begins with a patriarch and matriarch,
their sons, and their families living together.
b. Common Resources: Initially, resources such as land, property, and income are
pooled together and managed collectively.
2. Expansion
a. Increase in Members: The family expands as children marry and have their own
children. The family size increases, sometimes extending to three or four generations
living together.
b. Role Distribution: Roles and responsibilities are divided among members based on
age, gender, and ability. Elders typically make decisions, while younger members
contribute through labor and financial support. (Talcott Parsons’ theory of the
"functional fit")
3. Consolidation - Stabilization Stage
a. Economic Cooperation: Family businesses or agricultural activities often thrive due
to collective effort and pooled resources.
b. Social Support: The joint family provides social security, emotional support, and care
for the elderly and children. (Emile Durkheim’s concept of "mechanical
solidarity")
4. Fragmentation - Transitional Stage
a. Conflicts and Strains: Differences in opinions, lifestyles, and economic aspirations
among family members can lead to conflicts.
b. Economic Changes: Industrialization, urbanization, and increased mobility often
pull younger members away from the traditional family setting.
5. Transformation - Modernization Stage
a. Nuclear Family Emergence, where individual families live separately while
maintaining loose ties with the extended family.
b. Adapting Roles: The roles within the family adapt to the needs of smaller family
units, with a focus on immediate family responsibilities.
6. Decline and Adaptation - Final Stage
a. Shift to Nuclear Families: The prevalence of nuclear families increases, especially in
urban areas, due to economic and social pressures.
b. New Forms of Family Support: New support structures, such as old-age homes
and daycare centers, emerge to fulfill roles traditionally held by the joint family.
c. Ulrich Beck’s "risk society" theory suggests that modern families adapt to the
uncertainties and demands of contemporary life by forming new support networks.
Marriage
Marriage is a legal and cultural agreement between two people that sets their rights and
responsibilities, legitimizes their personal and sexual relationship, and is generally intended to be
permanent.

In India, marriage is often about family alliances more than just the bond between the couple.
Children from the marriage are recognized as the legitimate heirs of the couple, which is crucial for
inheritance.

According to Emile Durkheim marriage is a social institution that contributes significantly to social
cohesion and stability.

“Marriage as not a mere convention, but an implicit condition of human society.” - Dr.
Radhakrishnan

Types of marriage -

Based on the number of Monogamy: At a particular time, a man or woman remains

partners involved: married to only one woman or man

Polygamy More than one spouse at a given time. It is of 2

types:
Polygyny: meaning where one man marries
multiple women. eg-Baigas and Gonds
Polyandry: meaning where one woman
marries multiple men.
eg-Toda, Kota, Khasa and Ladhaki Bota

Based on spouse Endogamy Marriage within one caste, sub-caste, and

selection tribe.
eg- Indian arranged marriage is based on
caste endogamy

Exogamy Marriage outside one’s kin group. Eg- India

practices gotra exogamy, i.e. one cannot marry
a person belonging to the same gotra.

Levirate type of marriage in which a man marries the

widow of his deceased brother.

Contemporary types of Open marriage in which both partners consent that

marriage marriage having an extramarital connection is
acceptable and will not be viewed as infidelity.

Same-Sex Marriage between two individuals of the same

Marriage sex
Significance of marriage institution in Indian society
1. Social Structure and Stability: Structural Functionalism theory (Talcott Parsons)
emphasizes the role of marriage in maintaining social order through the socialization of
children and the stabilization of adult personalities.
2. cultural continuity: In Hindu marriages, the 'Saptapadi' or 'Seven Steps' ritual symbolizes
the couple's vows and commitments, embodying cultural continuity.
3. Economic and Social Alliances: Historically, marriages in India have been seen as
strategic alliances between families, often involving considerations of economic benefit and
social status.
4. Legal and Social Recognition: Marriage provides legal recognition and civil rights in the
spheres of inheritance, taxation, and welfare benefits. Eg- Hindu Succession Act, 1956
5. Gender Roles and Expectations: George Murdock (theory of Cultural Universals in
Families) holds that marriage is a universal cultural element essential for defining family roles
and regulating societal norms.
6. It is a Source of emotional security and companionship by providing a network of
support that is valued highly in Indian society. ‘Behind every successful man, there is a
woman’.
7. Community Identity and Belonging: Marriage ceremonies often involve extensive
community participation, reinforcing communal ties and a sense of belonging. Eg- ‘Big fat
Indian weddings’

Constitutional and Legal provisions related to marriage:

Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty): In Shafin Jahan v. Asokan K.M. & Ors.
(2018) and in the Hadiya case, SC clarified that Article 21 included the right to marry a
person of one's choice. The judgment addressed issues of personal autonomy and freedom in
the context of inter-religious marriage.
2. Article 14 (Right to Equality): In "Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India" (2018), the SC
decriminalized homosexuality by slashing Section 377 of IPC.
3. Article 15 (Prohibition of Discrimination): Prohibits discrimination, particularly in ensuring
equal rights in marriage and its dissolution. Eg- In "Joseph Shine v. Union of India", the
SC decriminalized adultery by striking down Section 497 of IPC.

Legal Provisions
1. The Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872
2. The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937
3. The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936
4. The Special Marriage Act, 1954: Allows for civil marriage (court marriage) without regard to
the religion or faith followed by either party.
5. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Governs marriage among Hindus as well as Buddhists, Sikhs,
and Jains.
6. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: Replaces earlier legislation to prevent child
marriages, setting the minimum age of marriage at 21 for males and 18 for females.
7. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Protects wives or female live-in
partners from violence at the hands of a husband or male live-in partner or his relatives,
reinforcing women's rights within marriage.

Changes in the stability of marriages in the marriage system

 1. Decline of Arranged Marriages: The rise of matrimonial websites and dating apps like
Shaadi.com and Tinder which offer individuals the ability to exercise personal choice in
selecting partners shows this trend.
2. Rise of Love and Inter-Caste Marriages- According to the India Human Development
Survey (IHDS), inter-caste marriages have risen from about 10% in 2005 to around 15% in
2015.
3. Legal Reforms and Women's Rights: Due to the Implementation of the Domestic
Violence Act (2005) there is an increase in the reporting of domestic abuse cases. Another
important SC decision was to outlaw triple talaq (instant divorce) among Muslims to protect
the rights of Muslim women.
4. Changes in the aim and purpose of marriage: In traditional societies, the primary
objective of marriage is ‘dharma’ or duty, especially among Hindus. But today the modern
objective of marriage is more related to ‘life-long companionship’ between husband and
wife.
5. Changing Role of Women - Dual-income households have become more common, and
women are increasingly contributing to family decision-making and financial planning.
6. Same-sex relationships: Although same-sex marriage is not yet legal in India, a 2022
survey by Ipsos found that 37% of Indians supported same-sex marriage, showing a
significant cultural shift. In Navtej Singh Johar case SC decriminalized homosexuality
which led to further discussions on changing societal outlook.
7. Changes in the stability of marriage: The number of divorce petitions has seen a rise,
majorly in metropolitan cities.
8. Live in relationships: Urban regions, particularly IT hubs like Bangalore and Hyderabad,
have seen a rise in cohabitation among young working professionals.
9. Delayed Marriages: The median age at first marriage in India has increased from 19.3 years
in 1990 to 22.1 years in 2019 for women, indicating a trend towards delayed marriages.

Negative Changes
1. Commercialization of Marriage - Increasingly, families feel pressured to spend exorbitant
amounts on wedding ceremonies, sometimes leading to significant financial strain and debt.
Eg- ‘The big fat Indian weddings’.
2. Dowry System Persistence:
3. Erosion of Traditional Support Systems: With the shift towards nuclear families,
traditional support systems provided by extended families are weakening.
4. Consumerism and Materialism: The emphasis on material possessions and lifestyle
overshadows the emotional and relational aspects of marriage, leading to conflicts and
dissatisfaction.
5. Impact of Social Media: Couples experience pressure to present an idealized version of
their relationship online, leading to stress and potential conflicts in real life.
6. Influence of Western Culture: Differences in expectations regarding independence,
gender roles, and family dynamics cause friction between spouses and between generations.

Reasons for changes

1. Economic Independence: Amartya Sen's work on women's agency and economic
participation underscores the link between focus on career advancement and delayed
marriages. Further, a study by the ICRW indicates that there is a growing acceptance in India
for women working outside the home and participating equally in household decision-making.
2. Higher Education Levels: Sociologist Patricia Uberoi's research indicates that education
leads to more egalitarian marital relationships and changes in marital norms. Increasing
education levels has led to greater autonomy in marriage choices.
 3. Demographic changes- Changes in demographic patterns, such as lower birth rates (2.1%)
and increased life expectancy (72), influence family and marriage structures, leading to a
greater focus on companionate marriages and personal fulfillment.
4. Globalization and Cultural Exchange- Exposure to global cultures through media, travel,
and the internet influences marriage practices by introducing new ideas about relationships,
individualism, and personal freedom. Eg- movies like "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" promote
the idea of love marriages and individual choice
5. Legal Reforms - The impact of legal reforms can be seen in the decrease of child marriages in
India. UNICEF reports a significant decline, with 27% of girls married before 18 in 2016
compared to 47% in 2006.
6. Urbanization and Migration: - According to the 2011 Census of India, 31.16% of the
population lives in urban areas. In cities like Mumbai and Delhi, nuclear families are more
common, reducing the influence of extended family on marriage decisions.
7. Technological Advancements - Data from Statista (2021) shows that the online dating
market in India is expected to grow annually by 11.03% (CAGR 2021-2025), highlighting the
increasing role of technology in forming relationships.
8. Social Acceptance of Divorce - The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reports show
a gradual increase in the number of divorces filed in major Indian cities, reflecting changing
social norms regarding marriage dissolution.
9. Advocacy and Activism- The decriminalization of homosexuality in India in 2018 by
Supreme Court and ongoing discussions around same-sex marriage laws demonstrate the
impact of sustained advocacy and societal shifts.

Impact

POSITIVE NEGATIVE

Decline of Increased autonomy and Potential family conflicts due to

Arranged personal fulfillment in non-traditional choices.
Marriages choosing partners.

Rise of Love and Enhances social integration Can lead to social ostracism or
Inter-Caste and reduces caste and honor-related violence in
Marriages religious barriers. conservative areas.
Eg-case of Ankit Saxena, who
was murdered in Delhi in 2018
due to his interfaith
relationship

Legal Reforms Empowers women and can lead to misuse of laws in

protects children within contentious divorce or custody
marital homes. battles. Eg- Misuse of domestic
violence Act

Recognition of Promotes equality and Cultural backlash from

Same-Sex acceptance for LGBTQ+ conservative sectors of society.
Marriages communities.

Increased Divorce Allows individuals to leave Can impact the emotional and
Rates unhealthy or unsatisfactory financial stability of families,
marriages. especially children.

Cohabitation Offers a way to test May face legal or social

Before Marriage compatibility before legal challenges, especially in
 commitments. inheritance and parental rights.

Delayed Marriages Better personal career May lead to social pressures

and reduced fertility options
due to later marriages. Eg-
Japan

Marriage age for women -

The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021 has sought to amend the Prohibition of
Child Marriage Act, 2006, to increase the minimum age of marriage for women from 18 to 21 years.

Arguments in favor

1. Equality Between Genders: Raising the marriage age to 21 for women promotes gender
equality, ensuring both sexes have the same legal standards.
2. Health and Maternity Benefits: Older age at first marriage can contribute to better health
outcomes for both mothers and children because of better prenatal care and healthier
pregnancies.
3. Reduction in Domestic Violence and Child Marriage - The NFHS-4 reports that
women who marry before the age of 18 are more likely to experience domestic violence.
Feminist theorists like Nussbaum argue that raising the marriage age can contribute to
reducing vulnerabilities and enhancing women’s agency.
4. Educational and Career Opportunities: Delaying the age of marriage allows women more
time to complete their education and establish their careers which can lead to better economic
independence for women and improve societal and family health.
5. Improved Family Planning and Reduced Fertility Rates: Later marriages can
contribute to reduced birth rates, which can have a positive effect on population growth
management. Eg- Kerala, with a higher average marriage age, has a total fertility rate (TFR) of
1.8. In contrast, Bihar, with a lower average marriage age, has a TFR of 3.4.
6. Social and Psychological Benefits - Psychologist Erik Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development suggest that young adulthood is a critical period for identity
formation and establishing intimate relationships. Delaying marriage allows individuals more
time to develop a strong sense of self, leading to healthier relationships.
Challenges in Increasing the Marriage Age
1. Cultural and Social Norms: Anthropologist Daniel Miller argues that cultural
practices and traditions are deeply embedded in social structures, and abrupt changes imposed
from outside can lead to social tension and resistance.
2. Economic Implications for Families - For many families, especially in rural areas,
marrying daughters off at a younger age reduces the economic burden on the family, including
expenses for education and daily upkeep. Delaying marriage could impose additional
financial pressures.
3. Disregard for Personal Choice: The increase could be seen as an overreach of government
into personal choices, especially where individuals are ready and willing to marry before the
age of 21.
4. Implementation Challenges: In rural Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, early marriage is often
seen as a way to ensure the protection and honor of young girls. Efforts to enforce higher
marriage ages have sometimes been met with local resistance and non-compliance.
5. Potential for Increase in Illegal Marriages: Raising the legal age can lead to an increase
in unregistered or illegally conducted marriages, similar to the prohibition impacts in the US.
6. Potential for Increased Social Stigma - In conservative regions of India, such as parts of
Haryana and UP, women who are not married by their mid-twenties often face societal
scrutiny and stigma, which can affect their mental well-being and social standing.

Way Forward
1. The Task Force on Women’s Age of Marriage - recommends increasing access to
education and employment for women, raising public awareness about the benefits of delaying
marriage, and ensuring the enforcement of the new legal age through stricter laws and
community engagement.
2. Education and awareness campaigns - The "Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao" campaign, can be
expanded to include messages about the importance of delaying marriage.
3. Economic incentives and support to families to alleviate the financial burden of delaying
marriage for their daughters. Eg- conditional cash transfer programs like "Kanyashree
Prakalpa" in West Bengal
4. Strengthening Legal Enforcement and Support Systems - Eg- Setting up local
committees and task forces in high-risk areas to monitor compliance with marriage-age laws
and provide support to at-risk girls.
5. Cultural Sensitivity and Community Engagement Community-led initiatives in states
like Rajasthan and Haryana have shown that engaging with local leaders and involving the
community in decision-making can positively change attitudes towards marriage age.
6. Addressing Underlying Socio-Economic Issues - Integrating marriage age initiatives
with broader development programs like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to
address interconnected issues of poverty, education, and gender equality.

Same-sex marriage
It grants same-sex couples the same legal and social recognition, rights, and privileges that are
traditionally associated with marriage, including property rights, inheritance rights, and the ability to
make decisions for each other in medical emergencies.

SC Judgment
1. In 2023 SC said there was no fundamental right to marry and that the Court could not
recognize an LGBTQIA+ person's right to marry under the Special Marriage Act.
2. It has also rejected the demands for the re-interpretation of the Special Marriage Act (SMA)
1954 to include the word “spouses” in place of “man and woman”.
 3. SC also held that though CARA provisions prohibiting queer couples from adoption are
discriminatory, cannot be overturned by the judiciary. The legislature and executive must take
the necessary steps to address this issue.

Arguments in favor

1. Same-sex marriage as a matter of rights -The Constitution prohibits under article

Articles 14 and 15 the state from discriminating based on sex. SC has also interpreted “sex” to
include “sexual orientation” in the Navtej Singh Johar case.
2. Same-sex marriage is a matter of privacy- Privacy includes at its core the preservation of
personal intimacies, the sanctity of family life, marriage, procreation, the home, and sexual
orientation.
3. Legal protection- The legalization of same-sex marriage will provide legal protection to
homosexual couples and rights such as adoption, inheritance, and property rights.
4. Legalising same-sex marriages would encourage social acceptance of LGBT individuals and
relationships, reducing discrimination and stigma.
5. Progressive realisation of rights and Transformative constitutionalism where the
law is used as a tool to achieve social justice and equality.
6. Pursuit of happiness: Homosexuality is not an offense, it is just a way of the pursuit of
happiness, a way to achieve sexual happiness or desire.
7. Issues with the definition: Section 377 assumes that a natural sexual act is that which is
performed for procreation. Hence, it thereby labels all forms of the non-procreative sexual act
as unnatural.
8. Many countries recognize: According to the global think tank Council of Foreign Relations,
same-sex marriages are legal in at least 30 countries, including the United States, Australia,
Canada, and France.
Arguments against
1. Religious sanctions: Same-sex acts are punishable by death in Arab countries. No religion
openly embraces same-sex marriage. More or less, they are considered unnatural everywhere.
2. Legal revamp required: The registration of marriage of same-sex persons also results in a
violation of existing personal as well as codified law provisions — such as ‘degrees of prohibited
relationship’; ‘conditions of marriage’; ‘ceremonial and ritual requirements’ under the personal
laws governing the individuals”.
3. Burden of collectivity: Our society is very community oriented and individualism is not
encouraged so any expression of homosexuality is seen as an attempt to renounce tradition and
promote individualism.
4. Impact on Adopted Children- In Indian society, where the LGBTQIA+ community is not
universally accepted, children adopted by LGBTQIA+ couples may face societal stigma,
discrimination, and mental health challenges.
5. Moral and Ethical Concerns: The social order in our Country is religion-based which
views procreation as an obligation for the execution of various religious ceremonies and thus
considers same-sex marriages as against the natural order of things.
6. Social stigma: Apart from the harsh legal scenario, same-sex marriages are still
unimaginable as any instance of sexual relations between a couple of the same sex draws
hatred and disgust.
7. Slippery Slope Argument - It suggests that redefining marriage once could open the door
to more radical changes in the future, potentially including polygamy or other non-traditional
unions.
Way Forward
1. Forming the committee under the cabinet secretary as directed by SC to reform legal
provisions related to the same-sex marriage
 2. Awareness campaigns to promote equality and acceptance of all sexual orientations and to
broaden public opinion about the LGBTQIA+ community.

Rising divorce rates

According to a report by the United Nations, despite having the lowest divorce rate globally
(around 1.1%) India has witnessed a rise in divorce cases in the past few years. This trend
is even more prominent for couples who have been in long-term marriages of 20 years or more. There
has been a 350% increase in divorce rates in India over the last two decades. 53% of
divorces filed in India are by people aged 25-34 years old.

1. For Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs, divorce proceedings are governed by the Hindu
Marriage Act of 1955. Muslims adhere to the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage
Act of 1939.
2. For Parsis, the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936 applies, while Christians are
guided by the Indian Divorce Act of 1869. Inter-community marriages fall under
the purview of the Special Marriages Act of 1954.

Reasons for an increasing

rate of divorce
1. Changing family dynamics- with the rise
of smaller nuclear families and more
egalitarian relationships, couples may face
greater pressure to juggle individual
needs and aspirations while maintaining a
strong marital bond.
2. Changing attitudes - A significant
contributor to the rising divorce rates is the
remarkable growth of Indian women in
recent years — both financially and
socially. Societal attitudes toward divorce
have shifted over time, making it more
socially acceptable for individuals.
3. As children leave the home and couples enter the empty nest phase, they may find themselves
rediscovering each other and facing new challenges. Couples may find that they no longer have
a shared focus or common goals.
4. Infidelity and trust - its occurrence is more common in longer-term marriages due to the
greater opportunities for connection and temptation that exist in today’s interconnected world.
5. As life expectancy has increased, people may find themselves wanting to make the
most of their remaining years. This means as people age, their priorities may shift. Some
may reevaluate what they want from life and relationships, leading to the realization that they
want something different from what their current marriage provides.
6. Unresolved conflicts - When too many differences or problems can’t be worked out, the
marriage may break down. Long-standing issues or unresolved conflicts in a marriage
may become more pronounced over time.
7. Legal Reforms: Reforms in family laws and divorce procedures have made the legal process
more accessible and streamlined. Amendments in divorce laws, such as the introduction of
"no-fault" divorce, have simplified the divorce process and reduced the burden of
proving grounds for divorce.
 8. Domestic Violence and Dowry Harassment: Instances of domestic violence and dowry
harassment remain prevalent in some parts of India. Increased awareness and support for
victims have encouraged more women to take legal action, seeking divorce as a means to
escape abusive relationships.
9. Interference of Extended Family: In joint family setups, interference from extended
family members can lead to conflicts and disagreements between spouses, making it difficult to
sustain a harmonious marriage.

Impact of Increasing Divorce Rates

Category Positive Impacts Negative Impacts

Family Structure Encourages the formation of Leads to an increase in

nuclear families, which may be single-parent households, causing
more manageable financially and potential economic and emotional
emotionally. strain.

Social Norms Greater acceptance of divorce Changing social norms can lead to
and Attitudes reduces the stigma associated with conflicts with traditional values,
it, promoting mental well-being. causing generational tensions.

Gender Roles Empower women to leave abusive Women may face social backlash
and or unsatisfactory marriages, and stigmatization for choosing
Empowerment promoting gender equality. divorce.

Economic Financial independence and job Financial strain due to

Implications opportunities for women may single-income households and the
increase as they seek economic cost of legal fees and alimony.
stability.

Legal and Policy Legal reforms may make divorce Complex and lengthy legal
Changes processes more accessible and processes can be financially and
fair. emotionally taxing.

Child Custody Laws are evolving to prioritize the Children of divorced parents may
and Support best interests of the child in experience emotional and
custody cases. psychological stress, affecting their
development.

Mental Health Individuals may experience Increased rates of depression,

and Well-being personal growth and improved anxiety, and loneliness among
mental health after leaving divorced individuals.
unhappy marriages.

Social Cohesion Opens pathways for societal Potential weakening of the

progress towards individual traditional family unit, leading to a
autonomy and personal loss of social support systems.
happiness.
While these factors contribute to the rising trend in divorce by
mutual consent in metros, the prevalence of this trend may be
relatively lower in Tier 2 cities or rural areas due to factors such as:

1. Conservative Societal Norms: Tier 2 cities and rural areas may still uphold more
conservative values and norms, which could discourage couples from considering divorce as a
socially acceptable option.
2. Stronger Family and Community Bonds: Tight-knit communities in smaller cities and
rural areas may exert greater social pressure to maintain marriages and discourage divorce.
3. Economic Interdependence: Economic conditions in Tier 2 cities and rural areas
may result in higher economic interdependence between spouses, making the
prospect of divorce financially challenging.
4. Limited Access to Resources and Information Accessibility: Limited access to
educational and informational resources in rural areas may contribute to lower awareness
about legal options and procedures for divorce.
5. Cultural Stigma: There may be a greater stigma attached to divorce in conservative societies,
dissuading individuals from seeking this option even in the face of marital difficulties.

As India progresses, the dynamics of marital relationships are poised for further changes.
Society must establish support systems and counseling services to assist couples in resolving their
issues and considering alternatives to divorce whenever feasible. Furthermore, initiatives aimed at
challenging prevailing cultural norms and enhancing gender equality can foster healthier and
more enduring marriages in the times ahead.

Impact of COVID on marriage

Émile Durkheim's concepts of social solidarity and anomie provide insights on both impacts. On
one hand, increased solidarity might emerge from shared experiences of hardship, influencing
more supportive marital and familial relationships. On the other hand, the disruption to normal
social life could lead to anomie—a state of normlessness where individuals feel disconnected and
destabilized.

Positive Impacts
1. Simpler Weddings: A survey by a matrimonial site found that 67% of respondents preferred
simpler, cost-effective weddings post-pandemic.
2. Shifts in Gender Roles and Expectations: Lockdowns have forced a renegotiation of
household duties, which has led to more egalitarian relationships.
3. Strengthened Bonds: Shared experiences during challenging times enhanced mutual
support and resilience. A survey by the Institute for Family Studies (IFS) in 2020 found that
58% of married people reported that the pandemic had made them appreciate their spouse
more.
4. Increased Communication: Time together allowed for resolving conflicts and addressing
relationship issues more effectively.
5. Focus on Work-Life Balance: Remote work and flexible schedules provided more
opportunities for couples to balance professional and personal lives. Jointly managing
household responsibilities and childcare fostered cooperation and teamwork.
6. Reevaluation of Priorities: The pandemic prompted couples to reassess their values and
life goals, leading to a renewed focus on family and relationships. (Maslow’s concept of
Hierarchy of Needs)
7. Health and Well-being: Joint activities such as exercising, cooking, and engaging in hobbies
promoted well-being and shared interests.
Negative Impacts
1. Delayed Marriages: The lockdowns led to the postponement of over 80% of weddings
planned for the summer season of 2020, disrupting financial and logistic plans.
2. Increased Domestic Violence: The National Commission for Women reported a doubling
of domestic violence complaints in April 2020 compared to the previous month.
3. Financial Strain: Economic surveys noted that job losses and pay cuts during the pandemic
affected millions, increasing financial pressures on married couples.
4. Mental Health Challenges: A survey by the Indian Psychiatric Society observed a 20%
increase in consultations for marital issues during the pandemic, highlighting the strain on
relationships.
5. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild said the pandemic has intensified the "second shift." This
term refers to the additional domestic labor that women often undertake alongside
professional work.
6. Increased Divorce Rates: Prolonged periods of enforced togetherness led some couples to
realize irreconcilable differences. 25% increase in cases in late 2020.
7. Impact on Children: Parents faced the additional stress of home-schooling, which, coupled
with work-from-home pressures, led to conflicts and strain in marriages.

Live in Relationships
Recently, the Uttarakhand government tabled the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) 2024 Bill in the
Uttarakhand Assembly. All live-in relationships will have to be registered with the registering
authority notified under the law. If any of the partners is less than 21 years old, the registrar will
inform the parents of the couple and forward the registration to the local police station. Children born
out of live-in relationships will have all legal rights. If one of the partners is married, will not be
allowed

In S. Khushboo v. Kanniammal case, the Supreme Court held that a living relationship comes
within the ambit of the Right to Life under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. The Supreme Court
observed, “Though the concept of live-in relationship is considered immoral by the society, but is
definitely not illegal in the eyes of the law.”

In D. Velusamy vs. D. Patchaiammal case, the Supreme Court held that a live-in relationship can
be presumed to be a valid marriage if the couple has lived together for a long time and there is
evidence to show that they have held themselves out to society as being akin to spouses.

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: in V.K.V. Sarma case, the
Supreme Court held that a live-in relationship is akin to a marital relationship and is protected under
the Domestic Violence Act, 2005.

Maintenance Rights: The Supreme Court and various High Courts have ruled that women in
long-term live-in relationships can claim maintenance under Section 125 of the CrPC, which
provides for the maintenance of wives, children, and parents.

Arguments in favor
1. Right to Personal Liberty and Choice as enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution of
India, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty. Adults have the right to choose
their living arrangements without societal or legal interference.
2. Modern Societal Dynamics: Live-in relationships exemplify the idea of "pure
relationship," (Anthony Giddens) as they are based on mutual consent and the pursuit of
individual happiness without the formal binding of marriage.
3. Gender Equality: Supporting live-in relationships legally reinforces gender equality by
providing women the same rights and protections in non-marital relationships as they would
 have in traditional marriages. This is crucial in a society where marriage can sometimes result
in the subordination of women.
4. Compatibility Check: Allows partners to assess compatibility before committing to marriage
and reduces the risk of divorce by ensuring better understanding.
5. Protection Against Exploitation: Legal recognition provides a framework to protect the
rights of individuals in live-in relationships, especially women and children, who might
otherwise be vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.
6. Preventing Legal Vacuum: By acknowledging live-in relationships, the law closes gaps
where individuals could otherwise exploit the lack of legal clarity for personal benefit, such as
denying maintenance rights or property rights after the dissolution of long-term relationships.
7. Promoting Responsibility in Relationships: Legal frameworks around live-in
relationships can promote responsible behavior among partners, encouraging them to consider
the implications of their relationship in terms of mutual support, property rights, and the
welfare of children, if any.

Arguments against
1. Cultural and Moral Values: Many argue that live-in relationships contravene traditional
Indian values and the sanctity of marriage as an institution.
2. Religious and Ethical Objections: Various religious groups in India oppose the
legalization of live-in relationships because they contradict religious teachings and doctrines
about marriage and sexual relationships.
3. Legal and Social Complications: Critics argue that legal recognition of live-in relationships
could lead to complex legal and social issues, such as disputes over property, maintenance, and
inheritance rights, especially in the absence of clear legal guidelines or in the case of
relationship breakdown.
4. Impact on Children: Concerns exist about the stability and social acceptance of children
born into or raised in live-in relationships. Children might face social stigma and legal
ambiguities regarding parental rights and inheritance.
5. Impact on Marriage: Marriage is considered a stabilizing force in society, and diminishing
its importance could affect social structure and family stability.
6. Potential for Abuse: the informal nature of live-in relationships could make it easier for
partners to abandon their responsibilities, potentially leading to increased vulnerability and
exploitation, especially of women.
7. Societal Order and Stability: Some argue that encouraging live-in relationships could lead
to a breakdown of societal order, as traditional family structures are seen as foundational
elements of a stable and orderly society.
Way forward
1. Legal Reforms: Establish Clear Legal Protections similar to those available to married
couples. Eg- Many states in the US recognize cohabitation agreements, providing legal
protection to partners in live-in relationships regarding property, finances, and inheritance.
2. Public Awareness Campaigns: to educate the public about the benefits of live-in
relationships, such as flexibility and mutual respect, to change societal perceptions and
promote Social Acceptance.
3. Support Systems: Provide access to counseling and support services for couples in live-in
relationships to help them navigate challenges and strengthen their bonds.
4. Child Rights and Welfare: Promote initiatives to ensure children from live-in relationships
are accepted and treated equally in educational and social settings.
5. Workplace Policies: Encourage employers to extend benefits to partners in live-in
relationships, such as health insurance and leave policies. Also, implement workplace
diversity training programs to promote understanding and acceptance of different
relationship forms.
CASTE SYSTEM
PYQs
[2023] Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static?

[2020] Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-cultural Indian Society? Elaborate
your answer with illustrations.

[2018] “The caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, the caste
system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment.

[2015] Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for the assertion of Dalit
identity work towards the annihilation of caste.

Caste is an endogamous and hereditary subdivision of an ethnic unit occupying a position of superior
or inferior rank of social esteem in comparison with other such subdivisions and having a common
name, common traditional occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in matters of mobility,
distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogeneous community.

A caste system is defined as a system that comprises several endogamous groups, recruited by birth;
with hereditary membership, which within the group determines many behaviours, expectations,
obligations, and evaluation of individuals.

The caste System entails the ranking of people

according to ascribed statuses; provides rules
regulating the inter-relationships between members of
different castes and creates mutual dependence of the
castes through the division of labour

The caste system is underpinned by values of ritual

purity and impurity, which justify segregation and
division of labour. Eg- only Brahmins can lead religious
rituals.

Mahatma Gandhi - If Hindu society has been able to stand, it is because it is founded on the caste
system”.

Ambedkar - On caste
"Caste is not just a division of labour, it is a division of labourers."

"The caste system is not a divine institution. It is a human institution, and it can be changed by human
effort.

Karl Marx - In his essay on- ‘The Future Results of British Rule in India’, characterised the
Indian castes as “the most decisive impediment to India’s progress and power”.
Origin
Ancient age:
1. The caste system is associated with the Hindu religion, as per Rig Veda, there were four
categories known as ‘varnas’ - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
2. It is only in the post-Vedic period that caste becomes the rigid institution.
3. It is from the post-Vedic period, the old distinction of Arya and Sudra appears as Dvija and
Sudra, The first three classes are called Dvija (twice-born) because they have to go through the
initiation ceremony which is symbolic of rebirth. “The Sudra was called “ekajati” (once born).
4. Caste system developed on rigid lines post Mauryan Period, especially after the establishment
of the Sunga dynasty by Pushyamitra Sunga (184 BC). This dynasty was an ardent patron of
‘Brahmanism’.

Colonial times
1. Land revenue settlements gave legal recognition to the caste-based rights of the upper class
that became landowners in the modern sense.
2. The government passed various acts like ‘The Caste Disabilities Removal Act-1850′, ‘The
Widow Remarriage Act-1856′, and ‘the Special Marriage Act- , 1872’ which marks the drastic
changes in the Caste system.
3. Government of India Act 1935 gave legal recognition to the SC and ST by marking out special
treatment by the state.
4. The caste system was affected by some of the social movements like ‘The Arya Samaj
Movement’, ‘The Dev Samaj’ and ‘The Sanatan Dharm Sabha’ and several other
social-movements attacked the traditionally established ‘Caste System’.

Post-colonial times
1. The enactment of constitutions Article 15 – which ‘Prohibits discrimination on the grounds of
religion, sex, place of birth, race and caste’, helped in reduction of the rigidity of the Caste
system.
2. Though scholars like Majumdar D.N. (l956), SrinivasM.N. (l961) and others have stated that
the caste system is fastly changing and is weakening over time, but it is not being disintegrated
or abolished.

Sociological Theories related to a caste system

1. Racial Theory: As per Herbert Risley, the caste system in India originated with the migration
of Indo-Aryans from Persia. The term "varna," meaning colour, originally distinguished Aryans
from the native Dasas. They enslaved the non-Aryans and sometimes married them, leading to
the emergence of castes. Offspring from these mixed marriages were considered lower caste.
2. Ritual Theory: A person's caste was identified by the rituals they performed. Eg - Brahmins
conducted Vishnu Shanti Yajna, Kshatriyas performed Ashwamedha Yajna, Vaishyas did
rituals for personal benefit, and Shudras engaged in graveyard tantricism. This theory was not
widely accepted.
3. Occupational Theory (Newfield): According to Newfield, “Function and function alone is
responsible for the origin of caste structure in India.” With functional differentiation, there
came occupational differentiation and numerous sub-castes such as Lohar(blacksmith),
Chamar(tanner), and Teli(oil-pressers).
4. Evolution Theory: According to this theory, the caste system is the result of a long process of
social evolution. Like: Hereditary occupations; The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves
pure; The lack of rigid unitary control of the state; The unwillingness of rulers to enforce a
 uniform standard of law and custom; The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’ doctrines also explain the
origin of caste system. Etc.
5. Attributional Approach: Focuses on defining caste by its inherent characteristics, such as
endogamy and food taboos, and analyses the structure of relations based on these fixed
attributes. J H Hutton's "Caste in India" emphasises endogamy and food taboos as central
features, influencing caste interactions and restrictions.
6. Interactional Approach: Examines the local empirical context and hierarchies,
emphasising how ritual and secular factors interact, with an underlying ideology of purity and
hierarchy integrating the caste system. Scholars like F.G. Bailey and McKim Marriott
highlight how ritual and secular hierarchies overlap. Eg: Bailey's study of Bisipara village in
Orissa shows changes in caste dynamics post-Independence when Kshatriyas' economic
decline led to a decrease in their ritual ranking.

Characteristics of Caste System

1. Ascriptiveness: Caste is determined by birth, and membership can be revoked for violating
caste rules. Marriage is restricted within the same caste. Eg: A person's caste status and
marriage eligibility are set at birth and enforced by the community.
2. Endogamy: Marriage within one's own caste is strictly enforced, prohibiting inter-caste
marriages.Eg: Marriages between Brahmins and Dalits are traditionally forbidden.
3. Segmental Division/social stratification: Indian society is divided into various castes,
each with its own distinct lifestyle and social patterns. Eg: Different castes have specific roles,
such as Brahmins as priests and Kshatriyas as warriors.
4. Hierarchy: Castes are ranked based on notions of purity and impurity, creating a social
ladder. Eg: Brahmins, who perform religious duties, are at the top, while sweepers are at the
bottom due to their 'impure' work.
5. Commensality: Restrictions on eating and drinking with members of other castes, reflecting
the caste hierarchy. Eg: A Brahmin may refuse to eat food prepared by a Dalit.
6. Socio-Economic Interdependence/Jajmani system: Castes are traditionally associated
with specific occupations, creating a system of economic interdependence. Eg: Baniyas,
engaged in business, rely on Brahmins for performing rituals.
7. Purity and Impurity: Castes are ranked based on ritual purity, which is influenced by
occupation, language, dress, and food habits. Eg: Consuming non-vegetarian food or alcohol is
considered impure and is associated with lower castes.
8. Distinction in Customs: Each caste has distinct customs, language, and dress patterns. Eg:
High castes use pure, literary language, while low castes use a local dialect with mixed words.
Difference between caste and varna system -
VARNA CASTE
Literally ‘Varna’ means colour and originates Caste or ‘Jati’ originates from the root word
from the word ‘Vri’ meaning the choice of one’s ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste is
occupation. Hence Varna is concerned with one’s concerned with birth.
colour or occupation.

A theoretical framework dividing society into A more detailed and complex social stratification
four broad classes (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, within each Varna, with thousands of sub-castes
Vaishyas, Shudras). (jatis).

Based on roles and duties in society. Based on birth, occupation, and social practices.

It is an all-India phenomenon. There are regional variations mostly based on

linguistic differences.

The Varna hierarchy is based on the concepts of Caste-class correlation is not always positive,
purity and pollution, dividing society into higher There may be variations in the placement due to
and lower classes. There is generally a positive economic, political, and educational status of
correlation between Varna and social class. various groups.

the mobility pattern is more flexible, with Caste system is based on rigid principles and
potential for mobility based on virtues and mobility in the ladder is checked. It is based on a
duties. With the acquisition of talents, an closed type of stratification.
individual may improve upon his previous status
and vice-versa

Varna system is free from socio-economic and The caste system imposes many restrictions on
political disabilities as well as restrictions. the members.

Not formally recognized in modern legal Recognized in legal contexts, e.g., affirmative
systems. action policies.

Relevance of Caste in Understanding Indian

Society
Positive aspect
1. It plays a crucial role in the process of socialisation by teaching individuals the culture,
traditions, values, and norms of their society.
2. Political Dynamics: According to Rajni Kothari, politicisation of caste in India played a
very important role in developing party politics. “Caste needs politics as much as politics
needs caste.” Eg- Caste-based political parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
3. He also says that caste leads to “secularisation of the social system”. Eg- the emergence
of dominant elites with a common secular outlook.
4. Understanding Social Stratification: The caste system provides a framework for
understanding the hierarchical structure of Indian society, determining social status, roles, and
interactions.
 5. Cultural Identity: Caste identity fosters group cohesion and a sense of belonging, as
members of a caste share common customs, rituals, and traditions.
6. Economic Organisation: Caste plays a significant role in economic organisation by
assigning specific occupations to different castes, ensuring specialisation and continuity of
skills and trades.
7. Social Mobility and Change: The concept of "Sanskritization" shows how lower castes
adopt higher caste practices to improve their status, illustrating the potential for social
mobility within the caste system. Eg. Gond tribe ruling clan became Raja Gond
8. Social Control and Norm Enforcement: The caste system enforces social norms and
discipline through concepts of ritual purity and impurity, with caste panchayats (local councils)
upholding these norms.
9. Marriage and Kinship Patterns: Endogamy (marriage within the same caste) helps
maintain social boundaries and purity, ensuring that caste lines remain distinct and cultural
traditions are preserved.
10. Religious Functions: Caste is closely linked to religious functions, with specific castes
assigned particular religious roles and duties, reinforcing social hierarchy.
11. Modernization and Continuity: Caste remains relevant in modern society by adapting to
changes such as urbanisation and education, while retaining traditional roles and structures,
especially in rural areas. Eg. Caste based Matrimonial apps

Negative aspect
(Dysfunctions of the caste
system)
1. The caste system is a check on
economic-intellectual
advancement and social reforms
because it keeps economic and
intellectual opportunities confined to a
certain section of the population only.
2. It undermines the efficiency of labor and
prevents perfect mobility of labor,
capital, and productive effort
3. It perpetuates the exploitation of the
economically weaker and socially
inferior castes, especially the untouchables. Eg- 90% of manual scavengers in India are Dalits
4. It has inflicted untold hardships on women through its insistence on practices like child
marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, seclusion of women, etc. Eg- honor killings in
Haryana
5. Vote Bank Politics- It opposes real democracy by giving political monopoly to certain castes
historically and acting as a vote bank in modern politics. Eg- Emergence of dominant castes.
6. Hindrance to National Unity - Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in politics, reservation
in jobs and education, inter-caste marriages etc. eg: Demand for Jat reservation, and agitation
by Patidar community.
7. It has given scope for religious conversion. The lower caste people are getting converted to
Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.
8. An obstacle to Modernization - The caste system by compelling an individual to act strictly
in accordance with caste norms stands in the way of modernization, by opposing change. Eg-
ban on wearing jeans for girls in Khap Panchayats.
Need for eradication of caste
1. Constitutional vision- our constitution envisions the eradication of caste through Article 15
and 17 ( against discrimination and untouchability).
2. Equality- it is our Fundamental right under Article 14 ensures equal treatment before the law
which will help reduce socio-economic disparities among different castes.
3. Human Rights- Protects the inherent dignity of every individual. Aligns with global human
rights principles and treaties. It will aid in reconstructing social identities beyond caste
boundaries.
4. Social Mobility: eradication will help in social empowerment, economic progress, and
increasing quality of education irrespective of caste. It will help break down rigid caste
barriers.
5. Inclusive growth- it will promote Social Cohesion and reduce caste-based conflicts.
6. Socialization: Educates future generations to move away from caste-based discrimination.

Changes in the caste system

1. Marriage - Increased education has resulted in the weakening of certain marriage rules and a
rise in inter-caste marriage: Inter-caste marriages on Western models have become more
common in recent years due to economic and social necessity. Eg. Less than 10%
2. Political Mobilization- Caste groups have organized politically to gain representation and
rights, changing the power dynamics within society.
3. Social Mobility
a. The invisibility of caste: The caste system now appears to be invisible for upper
castes, urban middle and upper classes, as the urban class has become more important
than the upper caste. Eg. Harold Gould’s study of Lucknow rikshaw alas showed they
are secular at work but follow caste rules at home like rituals, endogamy, etc
b. Decline in Brahmin supremacy as a result of the secularisation and westernization
processes. Eg. Satyashodhak marriages doesn't involve Brahmin priests
c. Emergence of dominant caste: With changing social caste equations, a few castes
are emerging as dominant castes, and they play a crucial role in politics. Eg- the Jats of
Haryana, the Yadavs of Bihar, and the Marathas of Maharashtra.
d. Changes in commensality: People are no longer restricted to their original
locations. Due to their migration, it is quite challenging to adhere to the rules regarding
their eating habits.
4. Employment
a. Occupational changes: In a caste-ridden society, occupations were hereditary,
however, with industrialization and modernisation the rigidity of the caste system has
broken down, which led to occupational changes
b. Attitudinal changes: Within the system, there have been noticeable changes in how
people feel about castes. This has to do with losing faith in the system's own ascriptive
pattern and jurisdiction.
c. Visibility of caste: With more politics and caste nexus, caste identity is gaining
prominence in society. It has become a tool of vote bank politics. Eg- Bahujan Samaj
Party in India
5. Caste has grown beyond Hinduism: In fact, caste is an important factor for marriage,
death, and other ceremonial rites even among Muslims and Christians. Eg: For Dalits
converting to Christianity, states like Kerala have separate community names, separate
cemeteries, etc.
6. New identities and associational forms
a. Politicisation of caste
b. Caste Associations - organizations like Maratha Mahasangh and Jat Mahasabha
work towards addressing the socio-economic issues faced by their respective
communities.
 c. Professional Networks - Professional networks based on caste help members
connect, share opportunities, and support each other in career advancement. Eg- Dalit
chamber of commerce
d. Economic Cooperatives - Eg- Weaver cooperatives among the Langa caste in
Andhra Pradesh support traditional handloom weavers by providing raw materials and
marketing their products.
e. Social media and online platforms have become new spaces for caste-based
identity formation, advocacy, and community building. Eg- #jaibheem trend
f. Caste-based NGOs - Eg- Navsarjan Trust in Gujarat works to eliminate
discrimination against Dalits and improve their socio-economic conditions.
g. Caste identities are reinforced through reservation policies in educational
institutions, creating a sense of solidarity among students from similar backgrounds.
Eg- Student groups and organisations in universities, like the Ambedkar Students'
Association.
h. Urban Migration and New Caste Identities - Eg- In Chennai, Nadar migrants
have formed strong networks and associations, such as the Nadar Mahajana Sangam.
In areas like Dharavi, Bihari migrants have established support groups that provide
assistance with housing, employment opportunities, and community support.

Reasons for change

1. Sanskritization (M.N. Srinivas)
2. Legal Reforms - Abolition of untouchability (Article 17), affirmative action policies like
reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs in education and employment are aimed at eradicating
caste-based discrimination and promoting equality.
3. Educational Advancements - Reservation in educational institutions has enabled
marginalized communities to pursue higher education and secure professional jobs.
4. Economic Development - Economic liberalization and growth have created new job
opportunities, reducing reliance on traditional caste-based occupations.
5. Urbanization - Migration to urban areas has diluted rigid caste distinctions and fostered
more merit-based interactions. Eg - In cities, people from diverse caste backgrounds live and
work together, leading to a decrease in caste-based segregation.
6. Westernization and Modernisation: Modernisation has caused the caste system to
become more flexible due to its scientific outlook, rational attitudes, industrialization,
urbanization, high standard of living, and broad viewpoint.
7. Globalization- Globalization has introduced new cultural values and economic opportunities
that challenge traditional caste roles. Exposure to global ideas of equality and human rights
has influenced younger generations to question caste-based practices.
8. Democratic decentralization: Through the introduction of Panchayati Raj, local
self-government has been created in the villages. The reservation provided in the Panchayati
Raj system has allowed the lower castes to empower themselves.
9. Dominant caste - castes with large populations granted land rights through partial land
reforms after Independence. This led to their significant economic, political, and social power
in their regions. Eg- Yadavs in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, Reddys and Kammas in Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana, Vokkaligas, and Lingayats in Karnataka
10. Social Movements - Social movements led by marginalized communities have raised
awareness and demanded equal rights. Eg - Movements like the Dalit Panthers and leaders like
B.R. Ambedkar have been instrumental in advocating for the rights of lower castes.
11. Media Influence - Media coverage and social campaigns have highlighted caste-based issues
and promoted social equality. Eg - Movies, literature, and campaigns against practices like
manual scavenging have brought greater attention to caste injustices.
Continuity in the Caste System
1. Marriage Practices - Endogamy, or marriage within the same caste, remains a strong social
norm, reinforcing caste boundaries. The share of inter-caste marriage is less than 10%. Eg-
matrimonial advertisements demand brides and grooms from particular communities.
2. Residential and social segregation/Ghettoisation based on caste continues to exist,
particularly in rural areas. In many villages, Dalits live in separate areas and are often denied
access to common resources like wells and temples.
3. Caste-based Occupations - Traditional caste-based occupations persist, especially in rural
areas, where many still follow hereditary professions. Eg- manual scavenging
4. Educational Inequities - Despite affirmative action policies, disparities in educational
attainment persist along caste lines. According to the Census 2011, the literacy rate in India
was 73% but literacy rate for SCs was 66.1% and for STs was even lower at 59%.
5. Economic Inequality - Dalits and Adivasis are overrepresented among the poor and
underrepresented in higher-income occupations and business ownership. In 83.55% of
Scheduled Caste (SC) households and 86.53% of Scheduled Tribe (ST) households, the
highest-earning member earns less than Rs 5,000 per month. Dalit and Adivasi households
earn 21% and 34% less than the national average annual household income, respectively, while
Upper Caste households earn nearly 47% more than this average
6. Caste-based violence and discrimination remain prevalent, with instances of atrocities
against lower castes reported frequently. Eg- National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
reported a 1.2% increase in crimes against Dalits in 2021
7. Cultural Practices - reservation of priest positions to Brahmins. Certain religious rituals and
temple roles are restricted to specific castes, reinforcing traditional social order.

Reasons for the Continuance of Caste-Based Discrimination in the Modern

Age:
1. Endogamy - share of inter-caste marriage is less than 10%. A 2022 survey found that 50% of
Indians still hold prejudices against inter-caste marriages (Pew Research Center).
2. Caste Prestige: A sense of superiority within one's caste leads to loyalty towards their own
caste and often results in disrespect towards lower castes. Eg- 70% of rural Indians still adhere
to caste-based rituals and customs (Oxfam India, 2021).
3. Urbanisation Impact : Urbanisation indirectly supports casteism. Migrants from rural areas
to urban centres often seek support from their caste groups, reinforcing caste ties.
4. Transport and Communication : Improved transport and communication facilitate the
organisation of caste groups and spread casteist sentiments through newspapers and other
media. Eg- Kshatriya Mahasabha
5. Illiteracy : Illiteracy fosters reliance on religious dogmas, customs, and superstitions.
Practices like 'Jati Dharma' lead to negative reactions to anti-caste movements. Eg- religious
justifications continue to underpin caste-based discrimination.
6. Social Segregation - Segregated Dalit neighborhoods have 28% fewer public schools and
35% fewer healthcare facilities (Feminism in India, 2023).
7. Economic Dependencies - Many traditional caste-based occupations still exist,
perpetuating economic dependencies and social hierarchies.
8. Political Exploitation - Caste is often used as a tool for political mobilization, with parties
appealing to caste-based vote banks. Eg- Maratha-OBC divison in Maharashtra
9. Ineffective Legal Enforcement - Despite laws against caste discrimination, enforcement is
weak, and perpetrators often go unpunished. As per NCRB data, Only 25% of reported
caste-based crimes result in convictions.
Difference between Urban and rural caste
systemDalit movements
URBAN RURAL
Social Structure More fluid and less rigid, with More rigid and hierarchical, with
increased opportunities for clear distinctions and adherence to
inter-caste interactions and traditional caste roles.
marriages.

Occupational Roles Greater occupational mobility and Occupations often remain

diversity; caste-based occupations traditional and caste-based
are less prevalent.

Social Interactions Increased anonymity and social Daily life and social interactions are
mixing often governed by caste norms and
traditions.

Discrimination Caste-based discrimination is subtler More explicit and pervasive

and often less overt; legal caste-based discrimination, with
frameworks and awareness may social and economic consequences.
mitigate direct discrimination

Marriage Patterns Higher incidence of inter-caste Predominantly endogamous (within

marriages, influenced by education the same caste), with strong societal
and modern values pressure to conform.

Political Influence Political dynamics may be influenced Caste plays a significant role in local
by caste, but with a broader spectrum politics, with voting patterns and
of factors at play. political alliances often caste-based.

Access to Resource More equitable access to resources Access to resources is often

such as education, healthcare, and mediated by caste, with higher
employment; however, disparities castes enjoying better facilities and
still exist. opportunities.

Ghanshyam Shah classifies Dalit movements into two categories: reformative and alternative.
Reformative movements aim to reform the caste system to address the problem of untouchability. In
contrast, alternative movements seek to create a new socio-cultural structure through religious
conversion, education, economic advancement, and political power.

Category Name Description

Movements Dalit Panthers A radical movement founded in 1972 in

Maharashtra, inspired by the Black Panthers.

Bhim Army Founded in 2015 by Chandrashekhar Azad in

Uttar Pradesh, focuses on Dalit rights.
 Namantar Andolan A movement for renaming Marathwada
University after Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Dalit Shoshit Samaj Founded by Kanshiram in 1981, focused on

Sangharsh Samiti fighting caste oppression.

Elgar Parishad Organised in 2017 to commemorate the Battle of

Bhima Koregaon and highlight Dalit issues.

Writers Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Key works include "Annihilation of Caste" and
"The Buddha and His Dhamma".

Omprakash Valmiki Known for his autobiography "Joothan".

Arundhati Roy Author of "The Doctor and the Saint", a book on

Ambedkar and Gandhi.

Kancha Ilaiah Shepherd Author of "Why I Am Not a Hindu" and

"Post-Hindu India".

Bama Faustina Known for her novel "Karukku".

Entrepreneurs Kalpana Saroj CEO of Kamani Tubes, often referred to as the

original 'Slumdog Millionaire'.

Milind Kamble Founder of the Dalit Indian Chamber of

Commerce and Industry (DICCI).

Ashok Khade CEO of DAS Offshore Engineering, a successful

entrepreneur in the oil and gas sector.

Parmeshwar Pansare Founder of Jai Bhim Vikas Education

Foundation, promoting education among Dalits.

Suraj Yengde Dalit intellectual and author of "Caste Matters",

involved in various entrepreneurial ventures.

Atrocities Hathras Case (2020) Gang rape and murder of a Dalit woman

Una Flogging Incident Public flogging of Dalit men in Una, Gujarat, for
(2016) allegedly skinning a dead cow.

Rohith Vemula (2016) Suicide of Dalit PhD student at Hyderabad

Central University due to caste discrimination.

Bhima Koregaon Clashes during the commemoration of the Battle

Violence (2018) of Bhima Koregaon, highlighting caste tensions
and resulting in several arrests.

Sikar Case (2019) A Dalit man in Sikar, Rajasthan, was beaten to

death for allegedly stealing water from a
higher-caste family's well.
 Tamil Nadu Caste In July 2022, a Dalit boy in Tamil Nadu was
Violence (2022) attacked and killed for reportedly drawing water
from an upper-caste well.

Telangana Case (2023) In February 2023, a Dalit woman in Telangana

was assaulted and paraded naked for resisting
land encroachment by upper-caste individuals.

Karnataka Incident In September 2023, a Dalit man was beaten to

(2023) death in Karnataka for allegedly entering a
temple.

Uttar Pradesh Incident In March 2024, a Dalit family in Uttar Pradesh

(2024) was attacked and their house set on fire due to a
land dispute with upper-caste individuals.

Madhya Pradesh Case In May 2024, a Dalit girl in Madhya Pradesh was
(2024) assaulted and left critically injured by
upper-caste men for refusing to work in their
fields.

Peeing Incident (2023) In July 2023, a video surfaced showing a man

urinating on a Dalit youth in Sidhi, Madhya
Pradesh.

Tamil Nadu Around 200 Dalit families threatened to

embrace Islam after they were denied
permission to attend a temple festival in Karur
region.

Case Judgment

Dr. Subhash Kashinath Required prior sanction for prosecuting public servants
Mahajan vs. State of under SC/ST Act; later overturned due to backlash.
Maharashtra

State of Karnataka vs. Appa Social boycotts of Dalits are unconstitutional; emphasized
Balu Ingale the need to protect Dalits' dignity and equality.

Lata Singh vs. State of Uttar Adults have the right to marry anyone of their choice;
Pradesh harassment or violence against inter-caste couples is illegal.

Union of India vs. R. Rajesh Upheld reservation in promotions for SC/ST employees in
government jobs to ensure equality.
Evolution
1. Pre Independence
a. Bhakti movement
- This movement in 15th century was a popular movement which treated all
sections of society equally and it developed two traditions of Saguna and
Nirguna.
- It became more popular among the dalits in urban areas in the early 20th
century as it promised social equality and provided the possibility of
salvation for all.
b. Neo-Vedantik Movements
- These movements attempted to remove untouchability by taking the dalits
into the fold of the caste system. Eg- Arya Samaj
- Some neo-Vedantic movements and non-Brahmin movements played
catalytic role in developing anti-caste or anti Hinduism dalit movements in
some parts of the country. Eg- Satyashodhak Samaj and self-respect movements
in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, Adhi Dharma and Adi Andhra movement in
Bengal and Adi-Hindu movement in Uttar Pradesh
c. Sanskritisation Movement - Dalit leaders pursued 'Sanskritization' to elevate their
caste status by adopting Brahman customs such as vegetarianism, wearing sandalwood
paste on the forehead, and donning the sacred thread. Leaders like Swami Thykkad
(Kerala), Pandi Sunder Lai Sagar (UP), Muldas Vaishya (Gujarat), and Moon Vithoba
Raoji Pande (Maharashtra) embraced these higher caste cultural norms.
d. Gandhi’s Contribution- Gandhi advocated for the upliftment of untouchables,
founding the Harijan Sevak Sang in 1932. Emphasized social equality and removal of
untouchability from Hinduism.
e. Ambedkar’s Contribution - Ambedkar led movements for Dalit rights, such as the
Satyagraha for water access in Mahad (1927) and temple entry in Nasik (1930).
Founded the Scheduled Castes Federation to promote political and social rights for
Dalits.

2. Post-Independence Dalit Movements

a. B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhist Dalit Movement - First Law Minister, Chair of the
Constitution Drafting Committee, ensured civil liberties and abolition of
untouchability. Advocated for and led mass conversions to Buddhism as a means of
Dalit emancipation; converted himself and 500,000 followers in 1956.
b. Dalit Panthers - Established by Namdeo Dhasal, J.V. Pawar, and Arun Kamble in
1972 in Maharashtra. Influenced by Ambedkar, Phule, Marx, and inspired by the Black
Panther Party; emphasized militancy and revolutionary attitudes.
c. Contribution of Kanshi Ram - Founded Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in 1984 to
uplift Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, OBCs, and religious minorities. Emphasized
"Social Transformation and Economic Emancipation" through education and
organization, inspired by Ambedkar and other Dalit leaders.
3. Contemporary Dalit Movement
a. Changing Dalit Consciousness - According to S S Dube, dalit consciousness in
traditional India was a challenge to orthodox Brahmanism and Hindu values whereas
in contemporary India, Dalit identity is more a matter of search for rights, justice and
equality rather than just being concerned with rebellion against Hinduism. Eg- protest
against death of Rohit Vemula.
b. Political Assertion - According to Andre Betielle, Dalit mobilization in contemporary
India is greatly driven by political interest rather than by discriminatory cultural past.
Eg- Bhim Army
 c. Yogendra Singh equates Dalit consciousness with class consciousness to
bring forward the view that Dalit mobilization in India is driving Indian society in the
direction of modernization giving importance to the principles of equality against the
principle of hierarchy.
4. Present Trend
a. Increased Militancy: This trend reflects a growing frustration with persistent
discrimination and a demand for more immediate and tangible changes. Eg- Elgar
Parishad and subsequent violence in Bhima Koregaon in 2018
b. Sub-caste Assertion: This trend highlights the diversity within the Dalit community
and addresses intra-caste inequalities and discrimination. Eg- Matang Samaj
Sangharsh Samiti
c. Middle-class Activism: This group uses its resources and education to advocate for
Dalit rights and to challenge systemic inequalities. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of
Commerce and Industry (DICCI)
d. Public Symbolism: The use of symbols, public rallies, and cultural events has
become more prominent in the Dalit movement. This help in raising awareness,
fostering unity, and keeping the issues of Dalit rights in the public eye. Eg- celebration
of Ambedkar Jayanti
e. Rightward Shift: This shift involves aligning with political parties or ideologies that
promise economic development and social mobility, albeit sometimes at the cost of
broader social justice goals. Eg- Republican Party of India (Athawale) faction

Positive impact
Social Mobility and Empowerment
1. Increased Representation : Eg- Ram Nath Kovind
2. Educational Opportunities: Reservation policies have increased Dalit enrollment in higher
education. In 2022, over 14% of students in higher education institutions belonged to
Scheduled Castes (SC).
3. Economic Upliftment : The Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI)
reports that there are now over 5,000 Dalit-owned enterprises contributing significantly to the
economy. Eg- Kalpana Saroj, CEO of Kamani Tubes
Reduction of Social Discrimination
1. Abolition of Untouchability: Legal reforms like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, have led to a reduction in practices of untouchability.
2. Awareness and Advocacy: Movements such as the Dalit Panthers have raised awareness
and advocated for Dalit rights, leading to a more inclusive society .
Cultural Revival and Identity Formation
1. Cultural Assertion : The contributions of Dalit leaders and activists are now more widely
recognized and celebrated, leading to a broader acceptance and respect for Dalit identity.
2. Literary Contributions: Dalit assertion has led to the revival and preservation of Dalit
culture and history, promoting pride in their heritage and countering negative stereotypes. Eg-
writers like Omprakash Valmiki and artists like Sudarshan Shetty
Political Mobilization and Activism
1. Political Organisations: The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) has mobilised Dalits politically,
helping them secure political representation and influence .
2. Grassroots Movements: Movements like the Ambedkarite movement have empowered
local Dalit communities to fight against caste injustices .
Legal Reforms and Constitutional Safeguards
1. Legal Framework : Laws such as the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act have provided
legal recourse for Dalits facing caste-based violence .
Societal Attitudes and Norms
1. Changing Mindsets: Dalit movements have contributed to changing societal attitudes
towards caste, promoting more inclusive and egalitarian values.
2. Inter-Caste Interactions: Increased social interactions between different castes have led to
a gradual reduction in caste-based prejudices .\

Dalit issues entrenched in:

Political Domain
1. Political Fragmentation - Internal tensions and disintegration within the Dalit movement,
as well as its incapacity to shape public policy. Eg- multiple factions of Republic Party of India
2. Leadership crisis - the Dalit movement lacks discipline and coherence and has remained
fractured and episodic, lacking a pan-Indian Dalit identity and ideology.

Social Domain:
1. Caste-Based Discrimination: Dalits face discrimination in various aspects of social life,
including access to public spaces, inter-caste marriages, and social interactions. This
discrimination is deeply ingrained and continues to affect the daily lives of Dalits. Eg- As per
NCRB, More than 1.9 lakh cases of crime against dalits were registered against Dalits in last 4
years.
2. Social Exclusion leading to a sense of alienation and marginalisation. Eg- Dalits are
prohibited from entering temples or participating in religious ceremonies in many areas.
3. Violence and Intimidation especially when they assert their rights or challenge caste-based
norms. Eg- Una Flogging case

Economic Domain:
1. Occupational Segregation: Due to historical discrimination and contemporary biases,
dalits are often relegated to low-paying and menial jobs, perpetuating their economic
marginalisation. Eg- A 2019 media analysis by the CSDS revealed that Dalits are
underrepresented in Indian media, comprising less than 5% of journalists.
2. Landlessness and Displacement: The Agricultural Census of 2015-16 reported that Dalits
own only about 9% of the total agricultural land. According to data published by the Census of
India, 71% Dalits are landless labourers who work on land they do not own. In rural areas,
58.4% Dalit households do not own land at all.
3. Limited Access to Education and Skills: literacy level among Dalits is pegged at 66.1 per
cent, far below the national average of 73 per cent (Census of India 2011).

Cultural Domain:
1. Cultural Stigma: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, in his writings, highlighted how Hindu religious texts
and rituals propagate the idea of Dalits being 'untouchable' and impure. This cultural stigma is
a significant barrier to social mobility and equality. These stereotypes are perpetuated through
literature, media, and popular culture, reinforcing caste-based prejudices.
2. Exclusion from Cultural Spaces: Dalits are often excluded from mainstream cultural
spaces and events, which are dominated by upper castes. This exclusion reinforces their
marginalisation and limits their opportunities for cultural expression.
3. Cultural Appropriation: N. Sukumar, argues that cultural appropriation by dominant
castes erases the unique identity of Dalit traditions and commodifies and dilutes their cultural
significance. Eg- A study by the Ambedkar University Delhi in 2022 found that many
traditional Dalit art forms, such as the 'Parai' drumming and 'Madiga' leatherwork, have been
co-opted by upper-caste artists and commercialized.
Structural Domain:
1. Caste-Based Hierarch - The caste system in India is a deeply entrenched social structure
that perpetuates systemic inequalities and hierarchies. According to the 2019 India Human
Development Survey, Dalits constitute over 16% of the population but hold only 5% of top
positions in business and government sectors.
2. Lack of Access to Justice: International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN) reports
that less than 2 percent of rape cases against Dalit women result in convictions, compared to
around 25 per cent against women in India generally.
3. Institutional Discrimination: Sociologist Gopal Guru highlights that institutional
discrimination against Dalits is not just a result of individual prejudices but is embedded in the
structural functioning of these institutions. This form of discrimination is often subtle but
pervasive, making it difficult for Dalits to overcome systemic barriers.

A comprehensive approach to solve the issue

1. Developing an alternative epistemological worldview model based on alternative
culture, philosophy, identities, psychology, and outlook. This can be done by celebrating Dalit
culture (Dravidian culture), Dalit civilisation (Indus civilisation), Dalit spirituality (Buddhism),
Dalit writings (protest literatures), and Dalit philosophy (Charvak-Lokayat philosophy)
2. Legal Reforms and Enforcement: Improving the training of police officers and
sensitization in dealing with atrocity cases along with increasing awareness about several legal
remedies and different rights available to the marginalised community.
3. Education and Awareness: Promoting education and awareness programs to challenge
caste-based prejudices and stereotypes. Eg- The Navsarjan Trust in Gujarat runs education
and awareness programs to empower Dalit communities and challenge discrimination.
4. Economic Empowerment: Dalit-focussed alternate investment finance (AIF) and private
equity (PE) funds along with creation of an inclusivity cell in banks and lending
institutions/NBFCs in order to inform, educate and foster Dalit entrepreneurship.
5. The government should take immediate steps: to stop the scourge of caste system by
a. constituting fast track courts for giving immediate justice to the victims;
b. accelerating the “skill development” program so that the disprivileged community
can acquire alternate skills; and, lastly

The judiciary and executive branches should reaffirm their commitment to upholding individuality
and fundamental equality, particularly for the underprivileged within traditional groups. For ex- In
Surya Narayan Chaudhury v. State of Rajasthan, SC prohibited temples from discriminating
against Dalits’ right to worship and enter the sacrosanct spaces.

Economic Empowerment of Marginalised Communities through schemes such as Stand-Up India,

PMKVY, and Mudra Yojana, along with 2nd generation land reforms for more equitable
distribution of land, and collaboration and dialogue among Civil Society organisations, government
agencies, and marginalised communities to address caste discrimination.
COMMUNALISM
PYQs
[2018] ‘Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving
suitable illustrations.

[2017] Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how
the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017)

Communalism is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion. According to Bipan Chandra,

communalism is a belief system that a group of people who practice a particular religion share similar
social, political, and economic interests.

Ram Ahuja defined communalism as a belief that is characterized by strong antagonism practiced by
the members of one community against the people of another community.

Communalism is about politics and not about religion. Although communalists are intensely involved
with religion, there is no necessary relationship between personal faith and communalism. The key
factor is the attitude towards those who believe in other kinds of identities, including other
religion-based identities.
Quotes
"Communalism is the negation of the spirit of religion. The communalist is a traitor to the cause of
religion and to his own nation." - Jawaharlal Nehru

"The poison of communalism should not be allowed to spread. It is the duty of every Indian to ensure
that communal harmony is maintained and that we do not let divisive forces tear our country apart." -
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

"The idea of India, as a nation, should be inclusive, embracing all its diverse elements. Communalism
is a scourge that undermines the very essence of our unity." - Rabindranath Tagore
"Communalism is fundamentally a form of sectarianism, which seeks to divide and polarize society. It
thrives on fear and mistrust” - Amartya Sen

"Communalism is a pathology of the collective mind. It turns legitimate concerns for cultural survival
into paranoia and hatred." - Ashis Nandy

"Communalism is a manifestation of the failure of the state to protect the rights and identities of all its
citizens equally. It is a sign of political decay and social fragmentation." - Rajni Kothari

Historical background
1. Ancient India was united with no communal feelings, people were tolerant of other cultures
and traditions. This can be seen in Ashoka’s Dhamma which focused on religious tolerance.
2. In medieval history, it was Babur who for the first time used Jihad(religious war) on India to
gain the support of his army, when he lost his kingdom in Fargana to his uncle.
3. But, even in medieval India, few rulers were tolerant of other religions. Eg: establishment
Din-i-ilahi and Ibadat Khana by Akbar.
4. However, Rulers like Aurangzeb, known for their intolerance towards other religions,
deepened communal differences in India by imposing taxes on non-Muslim practices,
destroying temples, enforcing conversions, and killing Sikh gurus.
5. Communalism in modern India is a 20th-century concept. It is a product of the
divide-and-rule policy of the British
- Partition of Bengal in 1905
- Religious Revivalism in 1924: The Shuddhi and Sangathan movements among the
Hindus and the Tabligh and Tanzim religious movement among the Muslims invoked
religious revivalism.
- Communal Violence (1923-30): The violence began with the Moplah Rebellion
which intensified hatred among the Hindus and Muslims in the Malabar region. The
most serious riots happened at Saharanpur in connection with the Muharram festival.
- Communal Award, 1932: To fuel communalism and appease various communities,
the British provided separate representation for Muslims, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Indian
Christians, Europeans, Landlords, the depressed classes, and commerce and industry.

Pre-Independence(liberalphase)
1. Communalism in India got its initial start in the 1880s when Syed Ahmed Khan opposed
the national movement initiated by the Indian National Congress.
2. Prominent Muslims like Aga Khan, Nawab Moshin-ul-Mulk etc., founded the All India
Muslim League to consolidate Muslim interests.
3. Simultaneously, Hindu communalism was manifested in organizations like the Punjab
Hindu Sabha (1909), All India Hindu Mahasabha, etc.
 4. Revivalist movements like Arya Samaj, Shuddhi Movement (among Hindus), Wahabi
Movement,(among Muslims) etc. gave further impetus to communalist tendencies.
Pre-independence (extremist phase)
1. Post-1937, India witnessed extreme communalism based on the politics of fear,
psychosis, and irrationality. Communalism also became the only political recourse of
colonial authorities and their policy of divide and rule.
2. M.A. Jinnah declared that Muslims would be suppressed under the Hindu-dominated
Congress after the British left India. Thus, the only recourse would be a separate state for
Muslims i.e. creation of Pakistan.
3. The Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), demanded that the
non-Hindu groups of India adopt the Hindu culture and language and hold the Hindu
religion in reverence.

6. Post Independence
a. Partition of India, 1947 - The 1947 Partition led to mass displacement and violence,
with millions migrating and widespread killings and rapes. Refugee rehabilitation
became a significant challenge.
b. No major communal disturbances occurred until 1961 when the Jabalpur riots
erupted due to economic competition between Hindu and Muslim bidi manufacturers.
c. Anti-Sikh Riots, 1984 - Following Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's assassination by
her Sikh bodyguards, anti-Sikh riots resulted in thousands of Sikh deaths and
widespread violence.
d. Ethnic Cleansing of Kashmiri Pandits, 1989 - Extremist Islamic terrorism in
Kashmir in 1989 led to the mass killing and exodus of Kashmiri Pandits, who became
refugees in their own country.
e. Babri Masjid Demolition, 1992 - The 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid by
Hindu activists led to extensive riots and heightened Hindu-Muslim tensions.
f. Gujarat Riots, 2002 - A fire on the Sabarmati Express in 2002 ignited severe
Hindu-Muslim violence in Gujarat, resulting in extensive loss of life and ongoing legal
battles.
g. Assam Communal Violence, 2012 - In 2012, ethnic clashes between Bodos and
Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam led to significant violence and fatalities.
h. Muzaffarnagar Violence, 2013 - Ethnic clashes between Jats and Muslims in
Muzaffarnagar in 2013, fueled by social media and eve-teasing incidents, resulted in
substantial violence.
i. Delhi Riots, 2020 - In February 2020, communal violence over the Citizenship
Amendment Act (CAA) led to over 50 deaths, hundreds of injuries, and widespread
homelessness in Delhi.
Stages of Communalism
Bipan Chandra in "India's Struggle for Freedom" has given 3 elements:
1. Communal Consciousness: Described
as "the first bedrock of communal ideology."
It is a belief that people from similar
religious communities have common
secular interests, such as political,
economic, social, and cultural interests. Eg-
formation of the Muslim League in 1906
2. Liberal communalism: The belief that
people belonging to different religious
communities do not share common secular
interests, be they social, economic, cultural,
or political. This belief leads to a perception
of division and separateness among
different religious communities. Eg- Hindu
Mahasabha's ideology in the early 20th century
3. Extreme communalism: The stage where relationships between different religious
communities are seen as mutually incompatible, hostile, and antagonistic. This perception
leads to open conflict and deep-seated enmity among communities. Eg- Partition of India in
1947

Features of Communalism
1. One of the characteristic features of communalism is its claim that religious identity
overrides everything else. Whether one is poor or rich, whatever one’s occupation, caste, or
political beliefs, it is religion alone that counts.
2. Belief in the Superiority of One's Own Community in terms of culture, religion, and
social values. This sense of superiority can lead to exclusionary practices and
discrimination against other communities.
3. Economic Competition - Communalism often frames economic disparities and competition
as issues between different religious communities. Eg- the 1961 Jabalpur riots stemmed from
an economic rivalry between Hindu and Muslim bidi manufacturers.
4. Historical Grievances and perceived past injustices to justify current hostilities and
conflicts. These narratives are used to rally communities against perceived enemies. Eg- The
invocation of historical conflicts, such as the Mughal rule over India, to justify contemporary
animosities between Hindus and Muslims.
5. Communal Violence - Communalism often manifests in violent clashes between different
religious communities, leading to loss of life, property, and social cohesion. Eg- The 2002
Gujarat riots.
6. It propagates an intense dislike of other religions and stands for the elimination of other
religions and their values. This Cultural and Religious Intolerance leads to opposition to
interfaith interactions and exchanges. Eg- Resistance to interfaith marriages and social events
as seen in various "Love Jihad" cases.
7. Distrust of Other Groups - This distrust is often cultivated and perpetuated through
propaganda, historical grievances, and socio-political narratives.
8. Social Segregation - Communalism encourages communities' physical and social
segregation, reducing interaction and fostering a lack of understanding and empathy between
groups. Eg- Segregated residential areas, schools, and workplaces can create echo chambers
where communal prejudices are reinforced.
9. Use of Religion for Political Mobilization - Political leaders and parties often use
religious sentiments to mobilize support and consolidate power. This politicization of religion
can intensify communal identities and lead to polarization.
 10. Propaganda and Misinformation through media and social networks is a common feature
of communalism. This can incite hatred and violence by spreading falsehoods about other
communities.
11. Institutional Bias - Communalism can infiltrate state and societal institutions, leading to
biased practices and policies that discriminate against certain communities.

Types of Communalism
Sociologist T.K. Oomen has given 6 fold classification
Dimension Description Example

Assimilationist Small religious groups are The integration of smaller

integrated into larger ones. Christian denominations into
mainstream Protestantism.

Welfarist Focus on the welfare and JITO for the Jain community.
betterment of a specific
community.

Retreatist The community advises Bahaism religion prohibits its

members to either participate members from political
in or abstain from politics. participation

Retaliatory One community harms The 2002 Gujarat riots

members of another in rivalry.

Separatist Demand for a distinct identity demand for Greater Nagalim,

and separation from a larger Bodoland, etc.
group.

Secessionist A group demands to secede The demand for Khalistan,

from a state or nation for a independent Tamil Eelam by the
separate political identity. LTTE in Sri Lanka.

Other Types
Type Description Example

Political Use of communal identities for Muslim League and Hindu

Communalism political mobilization. This leads to Mahasabha
political polarization and
communal violence

Economic Economic disparities are framed as Syed Ahmad Khan established

Communalism communal issues. It exacerbates Muhammadan
economic inequalities and tensions Anglo-Oriental College in
1875
Recent examples of Twitter trend
of banning Halal Meet
Cultural Emphasis on the cultural identity Burka tradition in the Muslim
Communalism of a community. It manifests in community.
cultural hegemony,, violence, and Promotion of Hindi as a national
imposition of a dominant culture language and the resistance by
on others. Tamil Nadu

Social Community-oriented social Opposition to valentines Day and

Communalism behavior and practices. It violence by groups such as
Reinforces social segregation and Bajrang Dal in Megacities
discrimination, hinders social
integration, and perpetuates social
inequality.

Religious Strict adherence to religious certain orthodox Jewish

Communalism practices and beliefs leads to communities in Israel promote
segregation. Promotes religious religious exclusivity
intolerance, social exclusion, and
undermines secularism.

Ethnic Focus on ethnic identity and Ethnic conflicts in Rwanda

Communalism solidarity. This leads to ethnic between Hutus and Tutsis.
violence, displacement, and The recent conflict in Manipur
genocide between Kuki and Meitei

Linguistic Emphasis on linguistic identity and Tamil language rights movement

Communalism differences. It Causes linguistic in Sri Lanka.
chauvinism and hinders national
integration

Caste-Based Focus on caste identity and Jat agitation for OBC status.
Communalism hierarchy. It obstructs social
mobility and undermines social
cohesion.

Factors aiding Communalism in India

1. Historical Legacy
a. Colonial Policies: The British adopted a 'Divide and Rule' strategy, fostering
divisions between Hindus and Muslims. This was evident in the partition of Bengal in
1905, which was based on religious lines.
b. Partition of India: The partition in 1947 led to large-scale violence and mass
migrations, sowing seeds of distrust and hostility between communities. Over a million
people were killed, and 15 million were displaced.
2. Political Factors
a. Identity Politics - Strong identification with religion over national identity is misused
by politicians to mobilize support. Eg- the demolition of the Babri Masjid in
1992 was used by some political groups to polarize voters.
b. Secularism Implementation: Weak enforcement of secular principles has allowed
communal ideologies to flourish. The lack of strict action against hate speech by
political leaders contributes to the problem.
3. Economic Factors
a. Economic Disparities: Economic inequality exacerbates communal tensions. In
regions with high poverty rates, such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, there are frequent
communal clashes due to competition for resources.
 b. Unemployment: High unemployment rates among youth, make them vulnerable to
communal propaganda. Eg- the 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots had significant participation
from unemployed youths.
4. Social Factors
a. Caste and Religion: The overlap of caste and religious identities strengthens
communal divisions. In many parts of India, such as Tamil Nadu, caste-based and
religious tensions often intersect.
b. Cultural Practices: Practices like 'ghar wapsi' (reconversion to Hinduism) by some
groups and issues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu imposition create friction
between religious communities.
5. Media and Communication
a. Sensationalism: Media often sensationalizes communal issues for TRPs, worsening
tensions. During the Delhi riots of 2020, certain news channels were accused of biased
reporting that incited further violence.
b. Social Media: Platforms like Facebook and WhatsApp are used to spread communal
propaganda quickly. Fake news and inflammatory posts played a significant role in the
2018 Dhule mob lynching incident.
6. Weak Governance and Law Enforcement
a. Inadequate Response: Often, there is a lack of timely action against communal
violence. The slow response during the 2002 Gujarat riots
b. Impunity: Perpetrators of communal violence often go unpunished, emboldening
others. The 1984 anti-Sikh riots saw many culprits evading justice for decades.
7. Religious Organizations - Organizations like SIMI promote radical ideologies that
contribute to communal tensions. The activities of these groups often incite violence and
hatred.
8. Psychological Causes
a. Prejudices and Biases: Deep-rooted prejudices and stereotypes against other
religious communities fuel communal tensions. Eg- global rise in Islamophobia post
9/11 attacks
b. Fear and Insecurity: Perceptions of threat and fear, fueled by communal
propaganda and incidents, lead to the rise of communalism. Eg- Fear of
Demographic Change was a major factor behind the 2012 Assam riots between
Bodos and Muslims.

Theories on Communalism
1. Ethnic Competition Theory (Horowitz, 1985) - communalism arises from competition
between ethnic groups for limited resources, such as jobs, education, and political power.
2. Primordialism (Clifford Geertz, 1963) - communalism is rooted in the ancient, deep-seated
bonds of kinship, language, religion, and tradition. These bonds are seen as natural and
immutable.
3. Constructivism (Benedict Anderson, 1983) - communal identities are socially constructed
through historical processes, colonial legacies, and political manipulation. These identities are
flexible and can be reshaped by social and political changes.
4. Instrumentalism (Paul Brass, 1991) - Instrumentalism views communalism as a tool used by
political elites to mobilize support and gain power. Communal identities are seen as
instrumental in achieving political goals.
5. Modernization Theory (Karl Deutsch, 1961) - communalism arises as a reaction to the
disruptions caused by modernization and social change. As traditional social structures break
down, people seek security in communal identities.
6. Relative Deprivation Theory (Ted Robert Gurr, 1970) -perceived discrepancies between
expected and actual living standards fuel communalism. When a community feels deprived
relative to others, it resorts to communalism as a form of protest.
Consequences of Communalism
Communal violence obstructs economic development, social progress, cultural assimilation, and
political tolerance.
Political
a. Political Polarization - Communalism can lead to increased political polarization, with
political parties exploiting religious divisions to gain support, thereby undermining democratic
processes and secularism.
b. Undermining National Unity - People are guided by vested and narrow interests due to
communalism, they tend to prioritize community interest over the national interest. Eg-
Khalistan Movement
Economic
a. Hinders economic progress: According to the Global Peace Index (2022), India ranked
72nd, and the economic cost of violence is as much as 6% of GDP.
b. Obstruction to Development - Frequent communal riots in Uttar Pradesh have diverted
government resources towards maintaining law and order, away from development initiatives.
c. Threatens demographic dividend: The flow of labor from productive activities is diverted
to unproductive activities; this kills the vibrant demography in communal violence.
Social
a. Social Segregation - Communalism reinforces social divisions, leading to communities
living in isolated enclaves with limited interaction, which perpetuates mistrust and hostility.
Eg- In cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad, distinct Hindu and Muslim neighborhoods have
emerged, with minimal social interaction between the communities.
b. Human Rights Violations - Communal conflicts often lead to gross human rights
violations, including mass killings, sexual violence, forced displacement, and destruction of
property. Eg- Bilkis Bano
c. Displacement and Refugee Crises - Eg- the 1989 exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the
Kashmir Valley due to communal violence led to a large displaced population living in refugee
camps in Jammu and other parts of India.
d. Sow suspicion in society: Communalism sows the seeds of suspicion among the members
of society which puts the community at a disadvantage. Eg- Muslims were denied medical
treatment for being suspected as ‘Super spreaders’ during Covid-19.

Cultural Erosion - Communalism can lead to the erosion of cultural heritage, as violence and
segregation diminish the rich cultural exchanges that occur in a pluralistic society.

Psychological Trauma - Individuals and communities affected by communal violence often suffer
from long-term psychological trauma, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD).

Steps to check the growth of Communalism

1. Encouraging Interfaith Dialogue, cultural exchange programs, and educational initiatives
to foster understanding and respect among different communities. Eg. the Inter-religious
Council of Kenya, Interfaith councils in the US
2. Community Policing such as the Jan Maithri Suraksha project of Kerala.
3. Addressing Socio-Economic Inequalities to reduce competition and tensions between
communities. (Sachar Committee and Ranganath Mishra Commission)
4. Holding Political Leaders Accountable: Strictly enforcing the Model Code of Conduct by
the Election Commission of India to prevent communal rhetoric during elections.
5. Media Monitoring: strict implementation of the Information Technology (Intermediary
Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, to regulate online content.
6. Implementing Legal Measures: Enforce strict laws against hate speech and communal
violence under sections 153A and 295A of the Indian Penal Code.
 7. Educational Reforms - Amartya Sen emphasizes the role of education in promoting a sense
of shared identity and reducing communal prejudices.
8. Civil Society Engagement - Engagement with NGOs like the Citizens for Justice and Peace
in promoting communal harmony and legal support for victims of communal violence.
9. Grassroots conflict Resolution Mechanisms like Peace Committees in Maharashtra
that involve community leaders in resolving local conflicts.
10. Addressing historical issues - Truth and Reconciliation Commissions on lines of
post-conflict societies like South Africa, which focus on healing and rebuilding communal
relationships.
11. Sachar Committee: Appointed in 2005, it recommended the establishment of the Equal
Opportunity Commission.
12. Ranganath Misra Commission: It recommended 10% and 5% reservations for Muslim and
other minorities respectively in center and state government jobs.
13. 2nd ARC’s recommendations to curb religious conflicts:
a. District Peace Committees/Integration Councils
b. Mohalla Committees to identify local problems with the potential to degenerate into
communal conflicts.
c. Setting up of special courts for expeditious trial of cases related to communal
violence.
d. Prescription of norms of relief and rehabilitation.

SC judgments
1. S.R. Bommai vs. Union of India (1994) - secularism as a basic feature of the
Constitution.
2. Tehseen S. Poonawalla vs. Union of India (2018) - The Supreme Court issued
guidelines to curb mob violence and lynching. It directed the state governments to appoint
nodal officers in each district to take proactive steps.
3. Prakash Singh vs. Union of India (2006) - The Supreme Court laid down directives for
police reforms, including the establishment of a Police Complaints Authority and fixed tenure
for key police officials.
4. Aruna Roy vs. Union of India (2002) - underscored the importance of maintaining a
secular curriculum in educational institutions.
5. State of Karnataka vs. Dr. Praveen Togadia (2004) - SC held that the right to free
speech and movement can be reasonably restricted to prevent communal violence and
maintain public order.
REGIONALISM
PYQ
1. Growing feeling of regionalism is an important factor in the generation of demand for a separate
state. Discuss. (2013)
2. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribution of benefits of development on a
regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your answer. (2016)
3. Has the formation of linguistic States strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? (2016)
4. In the context of diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the
States? Give reasons with examples for your viewpoint. (2017)
5. Discuss whether formation of new states in recent times is beneficial or not for the economy of
India. (2018)
6. Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness?
Argue. (2020)

Introduction to Regionalism

Definition

Region is generally defined as “a homogeneous area with physical and cultural characteristics distinct
from those of neighbouring areas”. Region provides the basis for the emergence of regional identity.
It results in loyalty towards the region and ultimately takes the shape and form of regionalism.

The term regionalism has two connotations:

a. In a negative sense, it is excessive attachment to one’s region in preference to country or
state. It can threaten nation-building efforts such as the demand for Khalistan in Punjab
which is giving rise to terrorism and violence within and outside Punjab. As a process it plays a
role within the nation as well as outside it i.e. at international level.
b. In a positive sense, it means people’s love for their region, culture, language etc., with a view
to maintain their independent identity. Positive regionalism encourages people to develop a
sense of brotherhood and commonness on the basis of common language, religion or historical
background. Ex: Creation of state of Jharkhand.

What is not regionalism

1. Local patriotism and loyalty to a locality or region or state and its language and culture do
not constitute regionalism nor are they disruptive to the nation. They are quite consistent with
national patriotism and loyalty to the nation.
 2. To have pride in one’s region or state is also not regionalism. A person can be conscious of
his or her distinct regional identity of being a Tamil or a Punjabi, a Bengali or a Gujarati
without being any the less proud of being an Indian, or being hostile to people from other
regions.
3. Aspiring to or making special efforts to develop one’s state or region or to remove
poverty and implement social justice there, is not to be branded as regionalism. In fact, a
certain inter-regional rivalry around the achievement of such positive goals would be quite
healthy, in fact we have too little of it.
4. Defending the federal features of the constitution is also not to be seen as regionalism.
The demand for a separate state within the Indian union or for an autonomous region within
an existing state, or for devolution of power below the state level is also not regionalist.

Historical Context of Regionalism in India

1. Pre- independence: The politics of regionalism started with the implementation of
constitutional reforms under Government of India Acts of 1909, 1919, and 1935. The
establishment and role of the Justice Party in Chennai, in pre- independence period are
examples of emerging regionalism in India.
2. Dravidian movement: It was also known as self-respect movement and it initially focused
on empowering Dalits, non- Brahmins, and poor people. Later it stood against the imposition
of Hindi as the sole official language in non-Hindi speaking areas. But it was the demand of
carving out their own Dravida Nadu, which made it a secessionist movement. The movement,
however, declined and today the movement has given birth to several prominent regional
parties after many splits and factionalism.
3. Linguistic reorganisation of states: In the 1950s and 1960s, intense ethnic mass
mobilisation, with a violent character, was the main force for creation of states on linguistic
basis. Started with the Potti Sriramulu movement in AP and spread to all parts of the
country. Culminated in formation of SRC and linguistic division of States.
4. North-east: In 1970s and 1980s, the main focus of reorganisation was India’s North-east. The
basis of reorganisation was tribal insurgency for separation and statehood. North-eastern
States Reorganisation Act, 1971 upgraded the Union Territories of Manipur, Tripura and
Meghalaya to full statehood, and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh (then tribal districts) to
Union Territories.
5. Khalistan movement: It was during the 1980s that Khalistan movement with its aim to
create a Sikh homeland cropped up in the Punjab. Thus this movement falls more in the
category of a separatist movement. Apart from this, there have been several other secessionist
movements namely, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, etc.
6. Creation of new States in 2000: In the creation of three new states in 2000, namely
Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal and Jharkhand, language did not play a prominent role. Rather, a
combination of ethnicity based on tribal identity, language, regional deprivation and ecology
provided the basis for intense regionalism resulting in statehood.
7. Telangana movement: In the years after the formation of Andhra Pradesh state, people of
Telangana expressed dissatisfaction over how the agreements and guarantees were
implemented. Discontent with the 1956 Gentleman’s agreement intensified in January
1969, when the guarantees that had been agreed on were supposed to lapse. It led to creation of
Telangana in 2008.
Constitutional Provisions
1. The 73rd and 74th amendment acts addressed the regional aspiration by devolving power
and resources to be used as per regional needs.
2. The regions under 5th and 6th Schedule enjoy certain autonomy which give them scope to
maintain their own culture and develop according to their own need.
3. The provision of PESA Act, 1996 is a step towards reconciling with the regional aspirations.
4. Art. 371 has special provisions helpful in addressing concerns of some states.

Factors Contributing to Regionalism

1. Geographical: After independence, people often associated their regional identity with
specific geographical boundaries. The integration of Princely States led to the merger of
smaller states into larger new states, causing a conflict of loyalties among citizens. Ex-The
integration of Hyderabad State into Andhra Pradesh in 1956 led to prolonged agitation and
eventual creation of Telangana in 2014.
2. Historical Factors: History supported regionalism with cultural heritage, folklore, myths
and symbolism. The most striking example is that of Dravida Kazhagam (DK) and the Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra and Telugu Desam
(TDP) in Andhra Pradesh.
3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity : Language is a crucial marker of group identity,
expressing the shared life, thoughts, and values of a community. It unites people and motivates
collective efforts toward a common future. Ex: The formation of linguistic states in India, such
as Andhra Pradesh for Telugu speakers in 1953, demonstrated how language can unify people
and drive regional development.
4. Caste and religion: Tamil regionalism gained ground as a result of non-Brahmin movement.
Non-Brahmin castes of Tamil speaking region had been able to provide a powerful united
thrust against Brahmins
5. Economic Disparities: it is the crux of regional politics. The resources are limited while the
demand for resources for the development of various regions is unlimited. Unequal
Distribution of Developmental Benefits(Economic Marginalisation) have led to regional
imbalances and wide economic disparities. This is the reason why movements of separate
Uttarakhand state in the hill districts of UP, a Jharkhand state carved out of parts of Bihar and
the demand of the state of Bodoland comprising a part of Assam are taking place.
6. Political Aspirations: Politics as such does not create regionalism. It only accentuates
regionalism. Ex: Sons of soil movement in Maharashtra. Regional political parties like TDP
(Andhra Pradesh), DMK (Tamil Nadu), Akali Dal (Punjab) have been surviving because of
regional sentiments.

Types of Regionalism
1. Supra-State Regionalism: Supra-state regionalism involves shared interests among people
residing in multiple states, working towards promoting regional autonomy and local agendas.
It suggests that a larger state with common interests has higher chances of success than
smaller states. E.g. North Eastern states in India.
 2. Inter-State Regionalism: Inter-state regionalism creates divisions among two or more
states, often due to territorial and identity-related factors. It can undermine the interests of
certain groups within the states involved.E.g. Disputes between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
over the distribution of Kaveri water.
3. Intra-State Regionalism: Intra-state regionalism emerges when a specific region or state
seeks autonomy, self-identity, and self-reliance. It can be seen as a positive form of regionalism
as it promotes self-dependence for the region. E.g. Saurashtra in Gujarat, East U.P. in Uttar
Pradesh, Vidarbha in Maharashtra etc.

Regional aspirations in the NorthEast

1. Demands For Autonomy:
a. At independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the
State of Assam. Demands for political autonomy arose when non-Assamese felt
that the Assam government was imposing Assamese language on them.
b. Even post completion of reorganization of NE in 1972, demands for autonomy
didn’t end. In Assam, communities like Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas demanded
separate States. Karbis and Dimasas have been granted autonomy under
District Councils while Bodos were granted Autonomous Council within
constitutional provisions.
2. Secessionist movements
a. Assam: The United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) is a separatist outfit
operating in Assam. It seeks to establish a sovereign Assam with an armed
struggle.
b. Nagaland: Led by Phizo, a section of Nagas declared independence from India
in 1951. The problem in Nagaland still continues.
c. Mizoram: After independence a movement for secession in Mizo hills gained
popular support. Two decades of insurgency led by Mizo National Front (MNF)
ended after a peace agreement in 1986.
3. Movements against outsiders
a. Large scale migration into the north-east gave rise to a special kind of problem
that pitted ‘local’ communities against people who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or
migrants. These latecomers are seen as encroachers on scarce resources.
b. The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 led by All Assam Students’
Union (AASU) is the best example of such movements against ‘outsiders’.
Assamese suspected that there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim
settlers from Bangladesh.
c. Hostility of local population to Chakma refugees in Mizoram and Arunachal
Pradesh.
d. Demands for the inner line permit system (ILPS) and the associated violence in
Manipur is another example of movement against outsiders.
Impact of Regionalism
Positive Impacts of Regionalism
1. Decentralised Governance due to creation of Smaller States. Eg: The creation of smaller
states like Telangana and Uttarakhand required the establishment of new administrative
structures to govern these regions effectively.
2. Emergence of New Regional Political Parties: The rise of new regional political parties,
such as the Telugu Desam Party (TDP), driven by regionalism, advocating for separate regions
or states.
3. Focus on Specific Regional Problems: The formation of regional parties provides an
opportunity to address and prioritise region-specific issues and challenges. Eg: The Shiv Sena
in Maharashtra emerged to address the concerns of Marathi-speaking people, particularly
related to job opportunities and cultural preservation.
4. Healthy Competition among the states: Regionalism often encourages a sense of
competition for growth among different states.
5. Cultural Expression: celebration and preservation of distinct cultural traditions, languages,
and practices, enriching the national tapestry. Eg: Festivals like Durga Puja in West
Bengal, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, and Baisakhi in Punjab.
6. Linguistic Diversity: India's linguistic variety is a testament to its regional diversity, with
each state often having its own official language and literary heritage. Eg: States like
Karnataka, Maharashtra, and West Bengal promote Kannada, Marathi, and Bengali languages,
respectively.
7. Economic Development as states prioritize industries and policies that align with their
unique resources and needs. Eg: Gujarat's focus on industrialization and
Maharashtra's emphasis on financial services reflect regional economic strategies.

Negative Impacts of Regionalism

1. Undermining National Unity: Regionalism can undermine national integration, as loyalty
and allegiance to a specific region may overshadow loyalty to the nation. E.g.Secessionist
Movements (Demand for greater Nagaland).
2. Weakening of National Institutions: It can weaken national institutions and governance
structures potentially leading to challenges in effective governance and decision-making.
3. Secessionist Movements: Extreme forms of regionalism can lead to demands for autonomy
or secession, threatening the integrity of the nation. Eg: The Khalistan movement in Punjab
and separatist demands in Jammu and Kashmir.
4. Inter-State Conflicts: Regionalism can lead to disputes between states over resources,
boundaries, and political dominance. Eg: The Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu.
5. Political Fragmentation: The coalition government led by the United Progressive Alliance
(UPA) often had to balance regional party interests. Eg- TMC’s stand on Teesta Water
Dispute with Bangladesh
6. Economic Disparities: Regionalism can exacerbate economic inequalities between states,
with more developed regions advancing faster than less developed ones. Eg: The economic gap
between states like Maharashtra and BIMARU states.
7. Political Fragmentation: Rise of regional parties hasa led to political instability and
hinderd national policy-making. Eg: UPA government often faced challenges in balancing
regional demands with national interests.
 8. Bargaining Federalism: Regional parties sometimes leverage their position to extract
concessions from the central government, leading to fragmented policy decisions.
9. Funding Imbalances: Disparities in resource allocation and dependency on central
transfers lead to financial instability in states. Eg- Kerala’s case in SC against centre on
Net Ceiling Limit
10. Resource Allocation Conflicts: Conflicts over resources like water and boundaries persist,
challenging regional harmony. Eg: Ongoing Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu.
11. Cultural and Linguistic Tensions: Recognition of regional identities sometimes leads to
exclusionary practices and tensions. Eg: Language-based movements marginalize
non-native speakers in states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu etc.
12. Effect on International Relations, evident in issues like Tamil Nadu's concerns with
Sri Lanka and West Bengal's dispute with Bangladesh over the sharing of Teesta River water.

Is Regionalism a Threat to National Integration?

1. Coexistence and Development: Regionalism and national integration can coexist,
emphasising development.
2. Federal and Democratic System: A federal and democratic political system reconciles
regionalism and national integration.
3. Preserving National Solidarity: Regionalism, when managed well, does not disrupt
national solidarity.
4. Strengthening Federalism: Regionalism enhances federalism through equal regional
partnership.
5. Decentralisation of Power: Regionalism reduces centralization, empowering states.
6. Inevitability in a Diverse Nation: Regionalism is natural and inevitable in diverse
countries like India.
7. Fundamental to Federalism: Regionalism is foundational to federalism, respecting
regional identities

Government Efforts to promote National integrity

1. North-Eastern Council (NEC): It was set up in 1971 to provide a forum for inter-state
coordination, regional planning and integrated development of the region to avoid
intra-regional disparities.
2. Schemes to promote Nationalism: Schemes like "Ek Bharat-Shreshtha Bharat" have been
launched to promote the country's cultural diversity and increase inhabitants' feelings of
national togetherness.
3. State Reorganisation act of 1956: Zonal councils to promote interest of different
geographic zones.
4. Federal Institution:
a. New institutional structures like NITI Aayog have been established to ensure federal
equilibrium.
b. Interstate Council: It was established to make the Inter-State Council Secretariat a
thriving institution that supports coordination and cooperation between the Centre and
States in India.
c. GST Council: Promote Financial federalism and take on board all stakeholders.
Way Forward:
1. Targeted Investments: Prioritize equitable development through targeted policies and
investments in underdeveloped regions. Eg: Implementing region-specific development
programs and ensuring effective utilization of allocated funds.
2. Strengthening Federalism: Foster cooperative federalism by enhancing collaboration
between central and state governments on regional issues. Eg: Regular and effective use of
platforms like the Inter-State Council and NITI Aayog.
3. Resolving Resource Conflicts: Establish impartial mechanisms to mediate and resolve
inter-state resource disputes. Eg: Strengthening the role of tribunals and promoting
water-sharing agreements.
4. Promoting Inclusive Identity: Encourage an inclusive national identity that respects and
integrates regional diversities. Eg: Educational and cultural programs that highlight the
unity in diversity of India’s heritage.
5. Sustainable Development: Focus on sustainable and environmentally-friendly
development to ensure long-term regional prosperity. Eg: Promoting green energy projects
and sustainable agricultural practices in regional policies.
SECULARISM
Secularism is a principle or ideology that advocates for the separation of religious institutions and
beliefs from the affairs of the state, government, or public institutions.

According to Akeel Bilgrami, Secularism consists of three commitments

a. Freedom of religious belief and practice,
b. Principles enshrined in the constitution such as equality, freedom of speech, gender equality
c. Meta-commitment, which says if there is a clash between the first and second commitments,
the second commitment must get priority

Quotes
a. Indira Gandhi: Secularism is not an import or a mere matter of Western education. It is
indigenous to India and has been part of our heritage for centuries."
b. Shashi Tharoor: "Indian secularism has always been the idea of India. This idea of India is
that it is not just a country; it's an idea, a pluralistic idea."
c. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: Secularism is not confined merely to political democracy but
goes much beyond that. It is a political, social and cultural process."
d. Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam: "For a successful revolution, we need more than just democracy.
We need a spirit of inclusiveness and secularism."

Secularism under the Indian constitution

a. Article 15: Prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
It ensures that the state shall not discriminate against any citizen on these grounds.
b. Article 16: Guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and prevents
discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, or residence.
c. Article 25-28: Ensures the freedom of religion, allowing individuals to profess, practice, and
propagate their religion, subject to public order, morality, and health.
d. Article 28 - It guarantees the right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions.
e. Article 29 and 30 provide cultural and educational rights to minorities.
f. Article 44: Encourages the state to secure for its citizens a Uniform Civil Code throughout
the territory of India. The idea behind this is to promote a common set of laws for all citizens,
irrespective of their religious beliefs.
g. Article 51A: Fundamental duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood
and to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.

Significance of secularism
a. Religious Pluralism: Secularism in India is crucial for maintaining social harmony and
fostering peaceful coexistence among diverse religious groups.
b. Protection of Individual Rights: Secularism promotes the idea that individuals should be
free to practice their religion or hold secular beliefs without fear of discrimination or
persecution. It protects the rights of individuals to express their diverse religious or
non-religious identities without interference from the state.
c. Constitutional Framework: Secularism is a fundamental feature of the Indian
Constitution. It is explicitly mentioned in the Preamble, and various articles uphold the
 principles of religious equality, freedom of religion, and non-discrimination based on religious
grounds.
d. Equality and Inclusion: It helps prevent favoritism towards any particular religious group,
ensuring that all citizens are treated equally regardless of their religious affiliations. This
contributes to a more inclusive and harmonious society.
e. Protection of Minority Rights: The Constitution guarantees the right to establish and
administer educational institutions for religious and linguistic minorities, ensuring that
minority communities have the freedom to preserve and promote their distinct cultural and
religious identity.
f. Prevention of Religious Discrimination: By separating religious institutions from
political power, it discourages the imposition of religious beliefs on the entire population and
promotes tolerance and acceptance of diverse viewpoints.
g. Promotion of Rational Governance: A secular approach encourages governments to base
their policies on rational, evidence-based considerations rather than religious dogma. Further,
by prioritizing reason and evidence over dogma, secular societies tend to be more open to
advancements in education, science, and technology.
h. Political Inclusivity by discouraging the use of religion as a basis for political mobilization.
It aims to create a political environment where leaders and parties appeal to a broad
cross-section of society rather than focusing on narrow religious constituencies.

Western vs Indian secularism

Western secularism Indian secularism

Implies a clear and distinct division Represents the positive notion of secularism,
between religious institutions and wherein equal reverence is accorded to all religious
governmental affairs. Eg- the French beliefs.
laïcité model bans religious symbols in
public institutions.

Evolved during the European Renaissance It originated in the ancient Vedic era and is
as a response to widespread corruption in grounded on religious pluralism (Sarva Dharma
the Church and undue interference in Samabhav and Dharma Nirapekshata.)
state matters.

Equal distance model - religion is Principled distance model - recognizes the

generally seen as a private matter, and the importance of religion in society and aims to
state aims to maintain equal distance accommodate diverse religious beliefs and practices.
from all religious institutions. It involves state support for religious communities
and the promotion of religious pluralism.

Individual rights take precedence in Extends beyond individual rights to also address the
Western secularism. concerns and rights of religious and cultural
minority communities.

It does not accommodate the notion of It is in harmony with the concept of state-sponsored
state-sponsored religious reform. religious reform.
Eg- Article 17, Triple Talaq Ban
Criticism of and Threats to Indian Secularism
a. Selective Secularism: There are instances where the state has been accused of favoring
certain religious communities, leading to a lack of true equality among religious groups. The
surge of religious nationalism in recent times has given rise to incidents such as mob lynching.
b. Minority Appeasement particularly during elections. This has led to concerns about
vote-bank politics, where political parties allegedly cater to specific religious groups for
electoral gains. The politicization of a particular religious group sparks competitive
politicization among other groups, leading to interreligious conflicts.
c. Religious Intervention in State Matters: Critics argue that the Indian state has, at times,
involved itself too much in religious matters, such as managing and funding religious
institutions. Eg- The government's control over Hindu temples in some states.
d. Lack of a Uniform Civil Code: Critics argue that personal laws based on religious
affiliations contribute to inequalities and perpetuate a fragmented legal system.
e. Rise of Communal Tensions: Some critics argue that the state has not been effective
enough in preventing and addressing such conflicts, leading to questions about the success of
Indian secularism in fostering true religious harmony.
f. Inadequate Protection of Freedom of Speech: In certain instances, there have been
criticisms that Indian secularism has been used to curb freedom of speech and expression,
particularly when it comes to criticism or satire of religious beliefs.
g. Ineffectiveness in Addressing Social Issues: Critics argue that despite its commitment to
social justice, Indian secularism has not been entirely effective in addressing deep-rooted
social issues, such as caste discrimination.
h. Need for k Reinterpretation: Some scholars and thinkers suggest that the concept of
secularism in India needs reinterpretation to align with contemporary challenges and to ensure
a more inclusive and fair application across diverse religious communities.

Scholar views
a. Rajeev Bhargava has critiqued the concept of "principled distance" in Indian
secularism, arguing that it may not be sufficient in addressing the complex issues arising from
religious diversity. He emphasizes the need for a more nuanced and context-specific approach.
b. Ashis Nandy has expressed concerns about the potential for secularism to become a form of
cultural imperialism, imposing Western values on diverse cultural and religious traditions
in India. He argues for a more culturally sensitive approach.
c. T. N. Madan has highlighted issues such as the persistence of caste-based discrimination and
the tensions between individual rights and community rights. He suggests a need for
reevaluation and adaptation.
d. Martha Nussbaum has highlighted concerns about the inadequacy of secularism in
addressing issues related to gender justice in India. She argues that a more comprehensive
approach is needed to ensure the protection of women's rights within diverse religious
communities.
e. Asghar Ali Engineer, while advocating for interfaith dialogue, has criticized the lack of
concrete measures in Indian secularism to address the socio-economic disparities faced by
religious minorities. He emphasizes the need for more inclusive policies.

SC judgments related to secularism

a. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala - the Supreme Court of India held that
secularism is a part of the basic structure of the Constitution.
b. S.R Bommai v. Union of India - The principle laid down in the Kesavananda Bharati case
was reiterated. The Supreme Court cleared the doubt over the word ‘secularism’ in the
 Constitution. The Court held that the secular nature of a society does not make it an atheist
society. Secularism makes society more heterogeneous.
c. Ahmedabad St. Xavier’s College v. State of Gujarat - the Supreme Court held that
secularism neither means anti-God nor pro-God. Secularism, therefore, eliminates the concept
of God in matters of the state.
d. Stanislaus Rev v. State of MP- The High Court of Madhya Pradesh, explained that freedom
of ‘profession’ means one’s right to state in public the creed he belongs to. Moreover, the Court
said that freedom of ‘practice’ means one’s right to worship in private or public. It was further
explained that the right to propagate one’s religion gives one the right to convey his/her
religious beliefs to another individual but not to convert a person to one’s religion.
e. Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala- preventing the women in their
“menstruating years” from entering the Sabarimala temple as per the religious custom, violates
women’s constitutionally protected fundamental rights to equality. The dissent of Justice Indu
Malhotra has raised doubts regarding the extent to which established religious practices can be
challenged based on equality.

Way forward
a. Promote Inclusive Policies ensuring that the rights of all religious communities, as well as
non-religious individuals, are protected without favoritism.
b. Empower Marginalized Groups including women and religious minorities, through
affirmative action and targeted policies to address historical injustices and socio-economic
disparities.
c. Strengthen Legal Frameworks that ensure gender justice, protect individual rights, and
promote uniform civil laws to minimize disparities arising from different personal laws. Eg-
Uniform Civil Code
d. Integrate curriculum modules on religious tolerance and cultural diversity into
educational institutions to foster a culture of respect for diverse religious and cultural
backgrounds.
e. Encourage Interfaith Dialogue to promote understanding, tolerance, and cooperation
among different religious communities, fostering social harmony.
f. Address Communal Tensions by promoting a culture of dialogue, tolerance, and
understanding. This can be done through community policing initiatives and rapid response
teams
g. Ensure Political Neutrality in religious matters by discouraging the use of religious
identity for electoral gains. Encourage political leaders to focus on inclusive governance rather
than divisive religious appeals.
h. Safeguard freedom of speech and expression while also promoting responsible
discourse, ensuring that it does not incite religious hatred or violence. Balancing individual
rights with societal harmony is crucial.
i. Extend the principles of secularism to address broader issues of social justice, including
caste-based discrimination, economic disparities, and other forms of marginalization.
IMPACT OF
GLOBALIZATION ON
INDIAN SOCIETY
PYQs
[2022] Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce
resources, with special reference to India.

[2021] What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global security? Has it been affecting Indian
society also?

[2020] Is diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalization? Justify your answer.

[2019] Are we losing our local identity for the global identity? Discuss.

[2018] ‘Globalization is generally said to promote cultural homogenization but due to this cultural
specificities appear to be strengthened in the Indian Society. Elucidate.

[2016] To what extent globalization has influenced the core of cultural diversity in India? Explain

[2015] Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India.

[2013] Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India.

IMF defines globalization as the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly
through the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders.

Globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people,companies, and governments
worldwide.
Quotes
KofiAnnan–“It has been said that arguing against globalization is like arguing against the laws of
gravity.”

Tony Blair-“Globalization Is A Fact,not a choice,and itʼs here to stay.”

RabindranathTagore–Book“Nationalism”–Promote A Global Village,cosmopolitan society. “At

every land there are my kith and kin, to reckon whom, keen I have been”.

Evolution of Globalization

Theories of Globalization
1. Hyperglobalist Perspective - this perspective states that globalization is leading to a
borderless society. It is making a world in which the power of individual governments is
weakening and transnational governance organizations are becoming increasingly important.
Eg- The fall of USSR and India adopting a New Economic Policy in 1991 supports the belief.
2. Skeptical Perspective- this perspective does not agree with hyperglobalist and says that the
Globalization process is more separated and regionalized than as a truly global world. They are
of the view that the world is globalizing but different regions are not globalizing together.
Instead, what we call globalization is in reality regionalisation. Eg-Trans Pacific Partnership,
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership.
3. Transformationalists Perspective - They argue that local cultures are not simply
swallowed up by western cultures- rather people in developing countries select aspects of
western culture and adapt them to their particular needs, a process which they call
‘glocalisation’. Eg- Bollywood film industry in India, or the various ‘glocal’ experiments of
McDonald’s burgers.
 They see globalization with both negative and positive impact, both homogenisation and
heterogenization impact with emergence of identity based differences.

Factors Leading to the Emergence of

Globalization
1. Technology:
a. Communication: Advances in technology, particularly the internet and
mobile communication, have revolutionized the way people and businesses
connect globally.
b. Eg: The rise of social media platforms like Facebook, instagram and Twitter
facilitates instant communication across the globe. As of 2023, there are over 5
billion internet users worldwide (Internet World Stats).
2. Economy:
a. Trade and Investment: Economic globalization involves the increase in
international trade and foreign direct investment.
b. Eg: The establishment of free trade agreements like NAFTA and the European
Union's single market.
c. Global trade reached $32 trillion in 2022, driven by cross-border trade
agreements (World Trade Organization).
3. Immigration:
a. Labor Mobility: Increased immigration facilitates the movement of people
across borders, contributing to multicultural societies and global labor markets.
b. Eg: The significant influx of migrants to Europe from the Middle East and
Africa.
c. The International Organization for Migration reported 281 million
international migrants worldwide in 2022.
4. Global Supply Chains:
a. Interconnected Production: Global supply chains involve the worldwide
network of production, distribution, and logistics that companies use to
manufacture and deliver products.
b. Eg: Apple's supply chain includes component manufacturing in Asia, assembly
in China, and distribution worldwide.
c. The World Bank reports that global value chains account for about 50% of world
trade.
Key Features of Globalization

Impact
Positive

1. Technology - Improved communication speeds up information exchange, fostering

global collaboration and cultural exchange.
2. Economy - Enhanced trade and investment lead to economic growth, job creation, and
the spread of technology and innovation.
3. Immigration - Immigration enriches host countries culturally and economically but
also presents challenges in integration and social cohesion.
4. Global supply chain - Efficient global supply chains reduce costs, increase efficiency,
and enable companies to meet global demand, though they also create vulnerabilities
to disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic.
5. Protection of traditional knowledge: India's efforts have influenced other developing
countries and received recognition from the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
6. A new generation emerges with more rationality, humanity, and respect for other cultures.

Negative
1. Indigenous knowledge: Knowledge that was once communal is now privatized, affecting
entire communities.
2. Language: The extinction of indigenous languages leads to the loss of traditional knowledge
and cultures.
 3. Food: Western fast foods have impacted lifestyle and health, particularly among the youth.
4. Dressing: The traditional handloom industry struggles due to declining demand.
5. Folk and tribal music are marginalized by global pop music.
6. Binary views on nationalism can curtail freedom of speech.

Impact on :
Culture
Homogenization

1. Cultural Homogenization: Increased interaction beyond national boundaries has

created an interdependent global village. This phenomenon is driven by globalization's
emphasis on modernization, democracy, the promotion of English, and consumerism, leading
to a uniformity often dominated by American culture.

According to a 2022 report by the McKinsey Global Institute, 70% of Indian companies have
adopted Western management practices & corporate culture

2. Language: The rapid increase in English speakers worldwide. As of 2023, English has 1.5
billion speakers, with a significant number of non-native speakers, according to Ethnologue.
3. Food: Globalization has transformed food systems, increasing variety and availability but
challenging small producers and traditional markets. Eg: The global popularity of Western
foods like pizzas and burgers. A 2022 report by the National Restaurant Association of India
showed a 25% increase in fast food consumption among urban youth.
4. Dressing: Fashion globalization has influenced traditional clothing styles, leading to a
preference for Western attire over traditional outfits. Eg: The shift from traditional Indian
attire to Western clothing like jeans and t-shirts.
5. Popular Culture: Globalization has spread Indian classical music and dance globally
while introducing Western music and dance forms to India. Eg: Foreigners learning Indian
classical dance forms and the rise of Bhangra pop. A 2022 survey by the Indian Council for
Cultural Relations found a 30% increase in foreign students enrolling in Indian classical dance
courses.
6. Cultural Revival and Homogeneity: Globalization promotes understanding
and preserving local cultures while creating homogeneity to meet tourist demands. Eg: The
global popularity of Yoga, Ayurveda, and Indian spirituality. The Yoga Market Report 2023
estimated that 300 million people practice yoga worldwide, a significant number influenced by
Indian traditions.

Retreat of Cultural Nationalism

1. Multicultural Societies: Globalization strengthens freedom of choice, rationality,

and tolerance, leading to a retreat of cultural nationalism.Eg: Bangalore's Karaga Festival
 - Bangalore, a city known for its IT industry, celebrates the Karaga Festival, which has become
a symbol of communal harmony. People from various communities participate in the festival,
showcasing unity in diversity.
2. Ethnic Chauvinism:Marathi Manoos Campaign in Maharashtra- In response
to the perceived threat of cultural dilution due to globalization and internal migration, there
have been movements like the "Marathi Manoos" campaign by the Shiv Sena, which
emphasizes the protection and promotion of Marathi culture and identity.

Commercialization of Indigenous Knowledge

1. Indigenous Knowledge: Indigenous practices in medicine and agriculture,

preserved and passed down through generations, face privatization due to globalization. Eg:
Misappropriation of traditional knowledge through patents, such as the turmeric and neem
patents in the US and Europe.
2. Protection of Traditional Knowledge: India has taken steps to protect its
traditional knowledge through the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).Eg: TKDL
has prevented erroneous patents in 220 cases. The Ministry of AYUSH and CSIR collaborated
to create TKDL, providing access to international patent offices.

Hybridisation

1. Navratri: Traditionally, Navratri is a Hindu festival but in urban areas influenced by

globalization, Navratri celebrations have evolved into a blend of traditional and contemporary
elements. This includes the fusion of traditional Garba and Dandiya Raas dances with modern
music genres like Bollywood songs or electronic remixes.
2. Jeans and Kurta: The combination of jeans with a traditional kurta exemplifies the blending
of Western and Indian fashion.
3. Hinglish: Hinglish, a fusion of Hindi and English languages, is commonly spoken in urban
areas influenced by globalization. Hinglish reflects the cultural assimilation and
cross-pollination that occurs as a result of increased interaction with global media, technology,
and communication platforms.
4. Hollywood Movies into Regional Dubbing: The localization of Hollywood movies
through regional dubbing illustrates how global entertainment content is adapted to suit local
audiences. This hybridization of global media with local languages and cultures fosters a sense
of inclusivity and cultural exchange.
5. Foreign TV Channels - Indi Pop Fusion: Globalization has facilitated the dissemination
of foreign television channels in India, introducing audiences to diverse content and cultural
influences. Eg: music channels may feature Indi-pop fusion music videos that combine
Western musical styles with Indian melodies, instruments, or lyrics, appealing to a broad
audience with diverse tastes.
6. Commercialization by Caste: Online matrimonial platforms like Shaadi.com are examples
of commercialization of traditional social practices influenced by globalization. These
platforms allow individuals to search for potential partners based on criteria such as caste,
 religion, or community preferences. This shows a blend of modern technology and traditional
social norms and hierarchies, reflecting a hybridization of traditional matchmaking practices
with commercialized, digital platforms.
7. Glocalisation: Glocalization refers to the adaptation of global products or services to local
contexts. Eg: fast-food chains like McDonald's offer localized menus like McAloo Tikki burgers
or Maharaja Macs. This hybridization of global brands with local sensibilities reflects a
strategic approach to market expansion and cultural integration in the era of globalization.

Religion
Positive Impact
1. Historical Partnership between Religion and Globalization: Religion has historically
promoted globalizing tendencies. Eg- Christianity's growth as a world religion was linked to the
expansion of political and economic regimes.
2. Direct Contact between Cultures, Identities, and Religions: Globalization facilitates
interaction.Eg- The Parliament of the World's Religions, held in various cities globally,
promotes interfaith dialogue and understanding.
3. Promotion of Pluralism: Globalization allows religions with overlapping ethics to interact.
Eg- The World Religious Conference brings together leaders from various faiths to discuss
common issues and promote peace.
4. Increased Religious Tolerance: Exposure to various religions through globalization
promotes a more tolerant society. Eg- Mahatma Gandhi’s secularism was influenced by Islam
and Christianity, alongside Hinduism. According to a 2022 Pew Research Center survey, 60%
of Indians believe that religious diversity benefits their country.
5. Opposition to Religious Parochialism: The principles of globalization, such as openness
and individualism, counter religious parochialism. Eg- Saudi Arabia is gradually allowing more
freedom to women, reflecting a shift towards modern values. Eg- The World Economic
Forum's Global Gender Gap Report 2023 noted improvements in gender equality in Saudi
Arabia.
6. Religious Reforms: Eg- The Church of England ordained its first female bishop in 2015.

Negative Impact
1. Conversions Driven by External Support: Globalization has led to conversions to
Christianity, often supported by Western financial and institutional backing. The 2011 Census
of India reported an increase in Christian populations in tribal areas showing work of Christian
missionaries.
2. Disruption of Traditional Communities: Globalization disrupts traditional communities,
leading to economic marginalization and mental stress, which can cause a backlash of religious
parochialism.Eg- The International Labour Organization's 2022 report indicates that
globalization has increased economic inequality in many developing countries.
3. Reinforcement of Religious Identities and Conflicts: Globalization brings religions
into conflict, reinforcing specific identities. A 2022 report by the Centre for the Study of
 Developing Societies (CSDS) found that 45% of Indians feel that religious tensions have
increased due to globalization.

Caste
Positive Impact
1. Improved Employment Opportunities: Initiatives like PMKVY have provided skill
training to over 10 million people, many from vulnerable castes. 40% of PMKVY
beneficiaries are from SC/ST communities (Ministry of Skill Development, 2022).
2. Relaxation of Caste Norms: Shaadi.com reported a 15% increase in inter-caste marriages
in 2023 compared to 2018 and 25% of marriages in urban India are now inter-caste (ICSSR,
2023).
3. Reduction in Superstitious Beliefs: Educational campaigns have reduced superstitions.
The National Science Foundation reported a 20% decrease in superstition among young adults
in 2022. According to CSDS 2023 70% of respondents aged 18-35 rely more on rational
decision-making.
4. Secularisation of Caste: Eg- BSP focuses more on economic and social issues than caste
identity. The Lokniti-CSDS, 2022 said 65% of Dalit respondents want leaders to prioritize
economic development.
5. Rise in Dalit Movements: Eg- Bhim Army, inspired by global movements like Black Lives
Matter, has gained prominence. Its membership increased by 30% from 2019 to 2023 (The
Indian Express).

Negative Impact
1. Persistence of Untouchability: The Human Rights Watch documented untouchability in
rural Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in 2022. According to NCRB over 40,000 cases of caste-based
discrimination were reported in 2022.
2. Vulnerable Castes in Informal Sector: Many Dalits are employed as manual scavengers,
The Safai Karmachari Andolan reported Over 50,000 people were engaged in manual
scavenging in 2022. And 95% of manual scavengers are Dalits (National Commission for Safai
Karamcharis, 2023).
1. Continued Caste-Based Inequality: The 2016 Una incident, where Dalit men were
publicly flogged for skinning a dead cow, highlights ongoing caste violence. Theres 10%
increase in caste-based violence cases from 2020 to 2022 (National Dalit Movement for
Justice).
2. Incomplete Upliftment of Marginalized Castes: Despite reservation policies, Dalits still
face significant barriers to upward mobility. The suicide of Rohith Vemula, a Dalit PhD
student, in 2016 showed the deep-seated issues in educational institutions. Only 12% of Dalit
households have a graduate degree, compared to 30% of upper-caste households (Oxfam India,
2022).
FAMILY
Positive impact
1. Diversification of Employment: Family members have adapted to different types of work
based on availability and economic benefits. Eg: In urban areas, one family might have
members working in IT, healthcare, and retail sectors, reflecting varied employment
opportunities.
2. Dual Income: Increased employment opportunities for both husbands and wives have
improved the standard of living. Eg: The Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation reported a rise in dual-income households in urban areas.
3. Gender Equality: Women's participation in employment has led to more collaborative
decision-making in families, enhancing gender equality.Eg: A 2023 report by the International
Labour Organization highlighted increased female labor force participation in India,
promoting gender equality.
4. Social Gatherings: Globalization has increased the frequency of social gatherings over
purely religious ones, fostering social cohesion.Eg: Urban festivals and community events,
such as cultural fests and neighborhood meet-ups, have become more common.
5. Inclusive Decision Making: The decision-making hierarchy has changed, with children's
opinions being increasingly considered. Eg: Surveys indicate that modern Indian parents are
more likely to involve their children in decisions about education and family matters.
6. Awareness of Rights: Children are more aware of their rights, leading to a decrease in
physical punishment at home and in schools. Eg: The 2022 National Crime Records Bureau
data showed a decline in cases of child abuse and corporal punishment reported in schools.The
National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) noted increased awareness and
reporting of child rights violations.

Negative Impact

1. Shift to Nuclear Families: Many families have moved from villages to urban areas, resulting in
the decline of joint families.Eg: The 2011 Census showed an increase in nuclear families, with
70% of Indian households being nuclear, up from 55% in 2001.

2. Impact on Children: Children spend less time with family, becoming more individualistic and
self-centered. Eg: Studies have shown that children in urban areas spend more time on
electronic gadgets than with family members, affecting social values.

3. Decreased Voice of Elders: The family's role as a unit of production has diminished, reducing
the influence of the elderly.Eg: Research indicates that urbanization has led to less
co-residence with elderly parents, impacting their role in family decisions.

4. Weakened Family Bonds: Younger generations moving for education and employment has
weakened family ties.Eg: The increasing trend of internal migration for work and education
has been linked to weaker family bonds.
 5. Structural and Functional Transformation: shifts in Educational Roles such as child education
are now largely handled by external institutions like schools. Eg: The growth of educational
institutions and daycare centers in urban areas reflects this shift in family functions.

Marriage system
Positive Impact
1. Acceptance of Love Marriages: According to a 2022 survey by the India Human
Development Survey, the proportion of love marriages in India has increased to nearly 35%
from around 5% in the 1970s. Eg- it is becoming increasingly common in metropolitan cities
like Bangalore and Pune.
2. Reduction of Caste and Faith Barriers:In 2023 Pew Research Center found that 20% of
Indian marriages are now inter-caste, up from less than 10% a few decades ago. Eg- The
marriage of Bollywood actors Alia Bhatt (a Punjabi) and Ranbir Kapoor (a Kashmiri Pandit) in
2022 reflects the growing acceptance of inter-caste marriages.
3. Changing Attitudes Towards Child and Widow Marriages: NFHS-5 2019-2021
reported a further decline in child marriages, with the percentage of women aged 20-24 who
were married before age 18 dropping to 21% from 47% in 2005-06. Eg- NGOs like
Breakthrough India have been instrumental in reducing child marriages through
educational programs, especially in states like West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
4. Promotion of Gender Equality: A 2023 report by UN Women indicated a 20% increase
in joint decision-making among married couples in urban India over the past decade. Eg- In
many urban households, couples now equally share responsibilities and financial decisions,
highlighting a move towards more egalitarian marriages.

Negative Impact

1. Diminished Sacredness of Marriage: The divorce rate in India, though still low, has risen,
with urban areas like Bangalore reporting a 4.5% divorce rate as per a 2022 study by the
Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. Eg- Increased divorce cases in cities such as
Hyderabad reflect changing societal norms and a focus on individual happiness over
traditional commitments.
2. Marriage as a Civil Contract: A 2022 survey by YouGov India found that 45% of young
adults in urban areas view marriage primarily as a partnership for mutual benefit rather than a
religious sacrament. Eg-The increasing prevalence of pre-nuptial agreements among young
urban couples illustrates this shift towards viewing marriage as a civil contract.
3. Increase in Live-In Relationships: A 2023 report by the India Today Group found that
18% of urban youth are open to live-in relationships, a significant increase from 5% in 2010.
Eg-Legal recognition and protection for live-in relationships by the Supreme Court of India
indicate a societal shift towards acceptance.
4. Challenges to Traditional Marriage Norms: A 2022 study by the International Journal
of Indian Psychology found that the concept of serial monogamy is becoming more prevalent,
with 15% of respondents indicating multiple monogamous relationships over their lifetime.
Eg-Media and entertainment increasingly depict characters with multiple significant
relationships, challenging traditional norms of lifelong monogamy.
Women
Positive Impact
1. Increased Workforce Participation: The rise of MNCs in India has significantly increased
formal sector employment for women. As of 2022, women constitute 23.3% of the total
workforce in India's formal sector, up from 19.2% in 2010 .
2. Strengthening Informal Sector: Enhanced trade and export flows have boosted women's
participation in the informal sector. Eg: Kutch Craft, involving 110 crafts women's groups,
has created 6000 jobs since the onset of globalization.
3. Enhanced Decision-Making Power: Higher employment and better pay have increased
women’s self-confidence, enhancing their role in family decisions. Eg: In 2022, a survey
indicated that 72% of working women reported having a significant say in household decisions
.
4. Promotion of Gender Equality: The increase in women's representation in politics, with
women holding 14% of parliamentary seats in 2020, up from 11% in 2010
5. Challenging Patriarchy: Post-2012 Nirbhaya incident, widespread protests led to stricter
laws on gender violence and increased societal support for women's rights .
6. Assertiveness in Nuclear Families: Women find it easier to assert their rights in nuclear
families which has seen a rise due to globalization.
7. Changing Attitudes: Global exchanges have improved attitudes towards women, especially
in urban areas. Eg:The MeToo movement in India has raised awareness and changed
workplace policies on harassment .

Negative Impact
1. Persistent Glass Ceiling: Women still face significant barriers in employment
opportunities. Eg: In 2022, women held only 15% of senior management positions in India .
2. Health Issues in Unorganized Sector: Long hours and poor working conditions lead to
health issues.Eg: Women in the bidi industry suffer from respiratory problems, with over
50% reporting health issues related to their work .
3. Violence and Harassment: Resistance to changing norms has led to Patriarchal Backlash.
Eg: Honor killings in Haryana against inter caste marriages still occur, with several reported
cases in 2023 .
4. Impact on Traditional Industries: Automation in traditional industries has displaced
many women workers. Eg: The introduction of power looms has reduced employment for
handloom weavers, with a 30% decline in female weavers from 2015 to 2020 .
5. Commodification and Violence: Media commodification of women has led to increased
gender violence. Eg: Reports of harassment and rape increased by 20% in 2021, partly
attributed to the influence of pornography and reality TV .
Youth
Positive Impact

1. Access to Knowledge: Globalization has provided youth with access to a wealth of

knowledge through the internet, social media, and other media sources, making them more
self-confident. Eg: Online platforms like YouTube offer tutorials and educational videos that
empower youth to learn new skills independently.

2. Independent Decision Making: Rational and Unbiased Choices: Greater knowledge and
confidence allow youth to make independent, rational, and unbiased decisions. Eg: The rise in
youth entrepreneurship and innovative startups showcases their ability to make informed
decisions.

3. Policy and Legal Protection: Globalization has led to the creation of national policies and
laws that promote youth development and protect against exploitation.Eg:Youth Development
Policies like UN youth strategy 2030

4. Education and Skill Development:The National Skill Development Mission aims to train
over 40 crore people in India by 2022. By 2021, over 1.2 crore individuals had been trained
under the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY).

5. Political Awareness and Participation: Awareness of socio-political rights through social

media has made youth more vocal about their rights.

Negative Impact
1. Changing Value Systems:Reduced social interaction has led youth to drift away from
traditional Indian values such as respecting elders and caring for aging parents. Eg: Studies
indicate a growing trend of elderly people living alone or in old age homes.

2. Sedentary Lifestyle and Health Issues: Health Disorders like depression, obesity, and
high blood pressure due to less physical activity. Eg: A 2023 report by the National Family
Health Survey (NFHS-5) found that obesity among Indian adolescents increased from 2.4% in
2015-16 to 3.4% in 2019-20.

3. Materialistic Attitudes: In the absence of strong emotional connections with family, youth
prioritize material wealth, leading to problems like depression and anxiety.Eg: A 2022 survey
by the Indian Journal of Psychiatry reported a rise in suicide rates among Indian youth,
particularly those who are educated but unemployed.

4. Mental Health:World Health Organization (WHO)said , about 15% of Indian adolescents

suffer from mental health issues, with a significant increase in anxiety and depression.
 5. Substance Abuse: The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reported a 20% increase in
drug abuse cases among youth in 2023 compared to the previous year.

Tribals
Positive Impact
1. Advocacy and Awareness: Exposure to media and mass communication has empowered
tribal communities to raise their voices against injustice.Eg: The creation of the Ministry of
Tribal Affairs in India and the withdrawal of the POSCO steel plant project from Odisha due to
tribal protests.
2. Employment and Education: Tribals have started challenging Caste Rigidities: and it
has improved the overall condition of the tribal population.
3. Health Benefits: Access to better medicines and life-saving drugs has increased the life
expectancy of tribal communities.

Negative Impact
1. Displacement and Livelihood: The arrival of MNCs has disrupted traditional employment
and ways of living. Eg: Potential displacement due to land acquisition for projects like the
bullet train.
2. Sociocultural Erosion: Involuntary displacements and lack of effective legal protection
have eroded tribal sociocultural heritage, including language and culture.
3. Health Maintenance Costs: Patenting of plants long used by tribals for medicinal purposes
has raised health maintenance costs.
4. Environmental Degradation: it has adversely affected tribal communities, leading to bans
on traditional practices like shifting cultivation.

Rural society
Positive Impact
1. Economic Growth and Employment: The spread of microfinance and self-help groups
(SHGs) has enhanced economic stability. As of 2022, more than 6.5 million SHGs were active,
aiding approximately 70 million rural households. Eg: Employment Schemes like
MGNREGA provide employment to 80 million rural households in 2020-21, ensuring income
security.
2. Agricultural Development: Access to global technology has introduced advanced farming
techniques, increasing productivity. Eg: the adoption of drip irrigation and genetically
modified crops has led to higher yields.
3. Market Access: Globalization has opened up international markets for Indian farmers,
increasing their income. Eg: India’s agricultural exports reached $41.25 billion in 2020-21.
4. Education and Skill Development: Global NGOs and international collaborations have
improved rural education. The Digital India initiative has brought online learning to rural
areas, benefiting millions of students.
 5. Healthcare Improvements: Global funding and technology have improved rural healthcare
facilities. For instance, telemedicine services have expanded, providing remote consultations to
millions. And International collaborations have helped in controlling diseases like tuberculosis
and malaria in rural areas.

Negative Impact
1. Economic Displacement: Globalization has led to the decline of traditional crafts and
occupations. For example, the handloom industry has suffered due to competition from
machine-made textiles.
2. Land Acquisition: Projects like the bullet train have led to the displacement of farmers,
affecting their livelihoods. In Maharashtra, over 1,000 families were displaced for the project.
3. Cultural Erosion: Exposure to global culture has led to the erosion of traditional customs
and practices. Younger generations are increasingly adopting urban lifestyles, distancing
themselves from rural traditions.
4. Language Decline: Indigenous languages are under threat as global languages dominate.
According to UNESCO, over 200 Indian languages are endangered.
5. Environmental Degradation: Global demand for resources has led to deforestation,
affecting rural livelihoods and ecosystems. India lost about 1.6 million hectares of forest cover
between 2001 and 2020.
6. Industrial projects in rural areas have led to environmental pollution. Eg: The Bhopal gas
tragedy remains a stark example of the risks posed by industrialisation.
7. Social Inequality: While some benefit from globalization, others, especially marginal
farmers, face increased income disparity. The richest 10% of rural households hold 55% of
rural wealth.
8. Healthcare Access: Despite improvements, there are disparities in healthcare access. Rural
areas still suffer from a shortage of medical professionals, with rural India having only 0.6
doctors per 1,000 people compared to the WHO recommendation of 1 doctor per 1,000
people.

Education System
Positive Impact on Education
1. Access to Information: The availability of study books and information on the internet has
greatly increased due to globalization, allowing students to explore any topic of interest. Eg: As
of 2022, Coursera had over 97 million registered learners globally, indicating the widespread
use of online education platforms.
2. Technological Advancements: this provides for Convenient Learning which has made
life more comfortable and enjoyable for students and working professionals. Eg: Online
platforms like Skillshare provide courses that professionals can attend to enhance their skills.
3. Quality Education: Increased access to quality education provides opportunities for
individuals to achieve higher social status and mobility. Eg: Collaborations between foreign
universities and Indian institutions, such as the partnership between IIT Delhi and the
University of Queensland.
 4. Economic and Innovative Potential: The National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Policy in India encourages innovation and protects intellectual property.

Negative Impact
1. High Costs: Exorbitant costs have made higher and specialized education beyond the reach of
poor and middle-class students. Eg: Collaboration between foreign and Indian universities has
increased fees for courses like medical, engineering, and management studies.
2. Quality vs. Quantity: Education is often measured by the number of degrees a person holds
rather than the amount of useful knowledge they possess. Eg: Employers focusing more on
educational qualifications rather than skills and practical knowledge.
3. Commodification of Education: The proliferation of private coaching institutes and
education consultancies.

Health
Positive Impact on Health
1. Increased Access to Hospitals: The opening of many private hospitals has increased
accessibility.Eg: The expansion of hospital chains like Fortis and Apollo in India.
2. Cross-Border Health Services: Health services can be provided across borders using
telemedicine tools. Eg: Tele-diagnostics and tele-radiology services available through platforms
like Practo.
3. Improved Research and Treatment: Foreign companies in India have improved the
quality of research and treatment.
4. Medical Tourism: Patients can travel abroad for healthcare, leading to a rise in medical
tourism. Eg: In 2023, India received over 500,000 medical tourists, reflecting the country's
growing status as a medical tourism hub.
5. , offering affordable treatments for international patients.
6. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): FDI in the health sector has introduced new
technologies and practices. Eg: The introduction of robotic surgery and advanced diagnostic
tools in Indian hospitals.

Negative Impact on Health

1. High Cost of Medicines: Entry of multinational pharmaceutical companies has led to high
costs of branded medicines compared to generic medicines in India.A study published in 2023
found that branded drugs in India cost 2-3 times more than their generic counterparts.
2. Obesity Epidemic: Global fast-food chains have contributed to the obesity epidemic by
replacing traditional diets with calorie-rich foods. Eg: The popularity of McDonald's and
KFC contributing to rising obesity rates among Indian youth. According to the National
Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), obesity among Indian adults increased from 20.7% in
2015-16 to 24% in 2019-20.
3. Disease Spread: Increased global travel can spread infectious diseases quickly. Eg: The rapid
spread of the Zika and Corona virus globally due to international travel.
Old Age
Positive impact
1. Communication: Improved Connectivity due to Technological advancements like
smartphones and video calling apps (e.g.WhatsApp, Skype, Zoom) help the elderly stay
connected with family and friends, reducing isolation.
2. Government Focus: UN Decade of Healthy Ageing 2021-2030 focuses on
improving the lives of older people through health, care, and social participation
strategies.
3. Advanced Medical Devices: Globalization has led to the development of advanced medical
devices like hearing aids and telehealth services, improving the quality of life for seniors.
Telemedicine allows elderly individuals to consult doctors from home, ensuring continuous
healthcare monitoring.
4. Increased Life Expectancy: this is due to Improved healthcare services and medical
advancements. India’s life expectancy at birth is rising to around 70 years.
5. Remittances and Economic Stability: Remittances from family members working abroad
provide economic stability, allowing seniors to afford better healthcare and living conditions.
Eg: States like Kerala benefit economically from remittances, enhancing the living standards of
the elderly.
6. Flexible Employment Opportunities: The rise of remote work allows seniors to remain
economically active through part-time or freelance work from home. Eg: online teaching,
consulting, and content creation.

Negative Impact:
1. Lack of Organization: Unlike many social categories that have transformed into
economic and political entities, the elderly have not organized themselves in such a
way. According to the 2023 report by HelpAge India, 71% of elderly individuals feel
neglected, and 65% feel lonely due to a lack of social interaction and support.
2. Caretaker Conflict: There is an increasing conflict between caretakers and the
elderly.
3. Economic Exploitation: Social exchanges are shifting towards economic exchanges,
leading to exploitation of the elderly by family and society. A 2022 survey by Agewell
Foundation found that 47% of elderly respondents reported experiencing some form of
abuse, often economic in nature.
4. Challenges Faced by Widows: Widows are considered marginal due to age and
status. The 2021 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) revealed that 76% of elderly
widows in rural areas live below the poverty line.
5. Triple Jeopardy for Aging Women:
a. Aging: Perceived as economic burdens.
b. Gender: Devalued in a patriarchal society.
c. Living Conditions: Many live in poverty or as dependents.
6. Empty Nest Syndrome: In the globalization era, empty nest syndrome is leading to
permanent loneliness for parents. A 2023 study by the Indian Journal of Gerontology
 found that 68% of elderly parents in urban areas experience loneliness due to children
living far away for education or employment

Emergence of New Middle Class

Reasons for the Emergence
1. Economic Liberalization: Economic reforms in the 1990s opened up the Indian economy,
fostering growth and creating numerous job opportunities, particularly in the service sector.
2. FDI and Multinational Companies: The influx of foreign direct investment (FDI) and the
establishment of multinational companies have created a plethora of high-paying jobs.
3. IT and Telecom Boom: The IT and telecom sectors have been pivotal in creating a large
number of white-collar jobs. For example, the IT sector alone employs over 4 million people in
India.
4. E-commerce: The rise of e-commerce platforms like Amazon and Flipkart has led to
significant job creation and entrepreneurial opportunities.
5. Educational Opportunities:Increased access to higher education has equipped individuals
with the skills needed for better-paying jobs. The number of higher education institutions has
grown significantly, contributing to a more educated workforce.
6. Professional Courses: The popularity of professional courses in management, engineering,
and medicine has prepared a skilled workforce ready for new-age industries.
7. Urbanization: Large-scale migration from rural to urban areas in search of better
employment opportunities has contributed to the growth of the middle class.
8. Infrastructure Development: Improved urban infrastructure has supported economic
activities, further bolstering middle-class growth.

Features of the New Middle Class

1. Economic Characteristics: Increased disposable income has led to higher consumption
levels, driving demand for goods and services. According to a 2023 report by Brookings
Institution, the Indian middle class is projected to grow from 80 million in 2010 to 580 million
by 2025.
2. Investment in Assets: A significant portion of the middle class invests in real estate, stocks,
and mutual funds, contributing to economic stability.
3. Consumerism: There is a noticeable shift towards consumerism, with increased spending on
lifestyle products, vacations, and luxury items.
4. Technology Savvy: High adoption rates of technology, including smartphones, the internet,
and digital banking, are prevalent.
5. Educational Attainment: Education remains a priority, with families investing heavily in
the education of their children, leading to a highly skilled workforce.
6. Global Exposure: Increased exposure to global cultures and practices through media and
travel.
7. Social Characteristics: A shift to nuclear family structures is evident and changing gender
roles with more women entering the workforce, leading to dual-income households.
Issues Faced by the New Middle Class
1. Economic Pressures:
a. Cost of Living: Rising cost of living, especially in urban areas, poses a significant
challenge. For instance, housing and education costs are escalating.
b. Job Insecurity: The volatile job market, particularly in the IT sector, leads to job
insecurity and stress.
2. Social Pressures:
a. Work-Life Balance: High-pressure jobs and long working hours affect work-life
balance and lead to stress and health issues.
b. Cultural Shifts: Rapid cultural shifts create a generational divide, with traditional
values clashing with modern lifestyles.
3. Educational Challenges:
a. Quality of Education: While access to education has improved, the quality of
education remains a concern, with many institutions not meeting global standards.
b. Higher Education Costs: The rising cost of higher education creates financial strain
on middle-class families.
4. Health Concerns:
a. Lifestyle Diseases: Increased incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes,
hypertension, and obesity due to sedentary lifestyles and dietary changes.
b. According to the World Health Organization, non-communicable diseases account for
63% of all deaths in India, highlighting the impact of lifestyle changes.
c. Mental Health: Stress, anxiety, and depression are on the rise due to competitive
work environments and economic pressures.
5. Environmental Impact:
a. Urban Pollution: Rising pollution levels in urban areas where the middle class
predominantly resides lead to health issues.
b. Resource Strain: Increased consumption strains natural resources, contributing to
environmental degradation.

Impact of Globalization on Tier 2 Cities

Positive Impact of Globalization on Tier 2 Cities
1. Economic Growth: Tier 2 cities like Pune and Ahmedabad have experienced substantial
investment from multinational corporations (MNCs) due to globalization. For instance, the
establishment of IT parks and manufacturing hubs has spurred economic growth and job
creation.
2. Employment Opportunities: Globalization has led to the establishment of outsourcing
centers, BPOs, and IT companies in tier 2 cities, providing employment opportunities to local
residents. Cities like Jaipur and Chandigarh have witnessed a surge in employment in sectors
like IT, hospitality, and services.
3. Infrastructure Development: Globalization has prompted infrastructural development in
tier 2 cities, with investments in roads, transportation, and utilities. Eg: the construction of
metro lines in cities like Lucknow and Indore has enhanced connectivity and facilitated urban
mobility.
Negative Impact of Globalization on Tier 2 Cities
1. Urbanization Challenges: Globalization has led to rapid urbanization in tier 2 cities,
resulting in overcrowding and strain on existing infrastructure. This influx of population
often exceeds the capacity of cities to provide basic amenities and services.
2. Environmental Degradation: Industrialization and urbanization driven by globalization
have contributed to environmental degradation in tier 2 cities. Increased vehicular traffic,
industrial emissions, and construction activities have led to air and water pollution, impacting
public health.
3. Social Disparities:While globalization has created economic opportunities, it has also
widened social disparities in tier 2 cities. The benefits of economic growth are not equally
distributed, leading to disparities in income, education, and living standards among the
population.
4. Cultural Erosion: Globalization has brought about cultural homogenization in tier 2 cities,
leading to the erosion of traditional values and cultural practices. The influence of
Westernization and consumerism has resulted in the marginalization of local culture and
heritage.
5. Real Estate Speculation:Globalization has fueled real estate speculation in tier 2 cities,
leading to inflated property prices and housing unaffordability for the local population. This
has exacerbated the housing crisis, particularly for low-income residents.
POVERTY AND HUNGER
ISSUES
“Poverty is not an accident. Like slavery and apartheid, it is man-made and can be removed by the
actions of human beings.” - Nelson Mandela

“The war against hunger is truly mankind's war of liberation.” - John F. Kennedy

Definitions of Key Concepts–

1. Poverty: It is a “pronounced deprivation in well-being” which includes low incomes and the
inability to acquire basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. - World Bank
2. Hunger: Hunger is an uncomfortable or painful physical sensation caused by insufficient
consumption of dietary energy. - FAO
3. Hidden hunger or micronutrient deficiencies: When the quality of food that people eat
does not meet their nutrient requirements, so they are not getting the essential vitamins and
minerals they need for their growth and development - FAO
4. Food Insecurity: A person is food insecure when they lack regular access to enough safe and
nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life. - FAO
5. Nutritional security: Nutrition security means consistent access, availability, and
affordability of foods and beverages that promote well-being, prevent disease, and, if needed,
treat disease. - FAO

Committees on Poverty Estimation

Committee Year Contributions

Pre-Independence Committees

Proposed poverty line (₹15 to ₹20 per capita per month)

National
Planning 1938 Formed by Subhash Chandra Bose under Jawaharlal Nehru's
Committee chairmanship, ensuring minimum standard of living with nutritional
requirements.

Influential business leaders suggested a poverty line of ₹75 per capita

Bombay Plan 1944
per year.

Post-Independence Committees

Planning Established rural (₹20 per capita per year) and urban (₹25 per capita per
Commission 1962 year) poverty lines.
Expert Group
 Analyzed data from the National Sample Survey Organisation.

Proposed setting the poverty line based on spending values in rural

VM Dandekar
1971 and urban areas, providing 2250 calories per day.
and N Rath
Before 1971, India’s poverty line was defined based on minimal
necessities or subsistence living.

Established by the Planning Commission and led by YK Alagh.

Alagh
1979
Committee Developed a poverty line based on dietary needs and consumption
expenditure for both urban and rural areas.

Formed an expert group to estimate the proportion and number of

poor, headed by Prof DT Lakdawala.

Recommended:
Lakdawala 1. Using a fixed consumption basket approach based on calorie
1993
Committee consumption for poverty line determination
2. Construction of state-specific poverty lines updated using
CPI-AL for rural areas and CPI-IW for urban areas
3. Reliance on NSS data rather than National Accounts
Statistics
4. Government of India accepted these recommendations in
1997 with minor adjustments

Headed by Suresh Tendulkar.

Recommended:
1. Shifting from calorie consumption-based poverty estimation
Tendulkar to its multidimensional factors (health, education, electricity
2009
Committee and transport)
2. Updating price adjustment methods to address temporal and
spatial issues
3. Incorporating private expenditure in education and health
into poverty-level estimations

Established by the Planning Commission to propose an

alternative method for estimating poverty.

Rangarajan Adopted Mixed Reference Period and Included Non-Food

2014
Committee Expenditure.
The final report dismissed the Tendulkar Committee’s poverty
estimation in India, indicating a 29.5% increase in poverty levels in
2011-2012.

Methods of Poverty Estimation in India

1. Traditional Methods
a. Consumption Expenditure Survey: Poverty has been estimated based on
consumption expenditure rather than income levels due to the difficulty in assessing
rural incomes. Eg: Tendulkar Committee (2009), Rangarajan Committee (2014)
 b. Poverty Line Basket (PLB): Involves determining a basket of goods and services
necessary for a minimum standard of living and calculating the cost of this basket. Eg:
Lakdawala Committee (1993), Rangarajan Committee (2014).
2. Present Mechanism
a. Tendulkar Committee (2009): Recommended changing monthly household
consumption into per person per day consumption expenditure. The national poverty
line for 2011-12 was set at Rs. 816 per capita per month for rural areas and Rs. 1,000 for
urban areas.
b. Rangarajan Committee (2014): Revised the poverty line to Rs. 972 in rural and Rs.
1,407 in urban areas per month, estimating poverty at 29.5%, though the government
did not accept this.
c. World Bank's New Poverty Line (2022): Updated to $2.15 per day, estimating
10% of Indians were poor in 2019, down from 22.5% in 2011.
d. Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): Introduced by NITI Aayog
(2021). It measures deprivations across three dimensions - health, education,
and standard of living, using 12 indicators. It uses the Alkire-Foster
methodology and enables the estimation of multidimensional poverty at the
national, state, and district levels.
3. Issues with Current Estimation Methods
a. Limited Coverage: Only covers households below the poverty line, leaving out those
just above it who still face significant challenges.
b. Lack of Regional Variation: Based on national averages, which may not reflect
regional cost of living differences.
c. Lack of Consideration for Vulnerability: Does not account for vulnerable groups
like women, children, and the elderly.
d. Data Gaps: India has not released official poverty figures since 2011, leading to
reliance on private data sources like the Consumer Pyramids Household Survey (CPHS)
4. Way Forward
a. Adopt a Higher Poverty Line: Given the near elimination of extreme poverty, India
should transition to a higher poverty line to better identify and support the genuinely
poor.
b. Improve Data Collection: Conduct regular and transparent consumption
expenditure surveys to provide accurate and up-to-date poverty estimates.
c. Address Multidimensional Poverty: Focus on improving access to healthcare,
education, and other social services to address the broader aspects of poverty.
d. Targeted Policies: Implement policies targeting the most vulnerable groups and
regions with the highest poverty rates, such as Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh.
e. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Align poverty alleviation efforts with
SDG 1, aiming to eradicate poverty by 2030.
Government Schemes (Target Based
Classification)
Employment Generation

Program Name Key Features Data

Provides a legal guarantee of 100 days Generated 28.9 million

of wage employment per year to every person-days of employment in
rural household. 2023
Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Aims to enhance livelihood security 5.92 million people got 100
Employment in rural areas by creating durable assets days of work under the scheme in
Guarantee Act and promoting sustainable development. 2022-23
(MGNREGA)
Implemented mainly by gram
panchayats, ensuring participation and
transparency at the local level.

Aims to enable Indian youth to take As of 2024, 1.37 crores

up industry-relevant skill training. candidates trained, 24.5
Lakhs candidates placed
Targets diverse youth backgrounds
Pradhan Mantri
for skill enhancement and employment
Kaushal Vikas
opportunities.
Yojana (PMKVY)
Seeks to connect skilled workforce with
employment opportunities
post-training.

Aims to reduce poverty and As of 2023, trained over 15 lakh

vulnerability of urban poor by beneficiaries, with 8.20 lakh
enabling access to employment individuals finding
opportunities. employment opportunities.

Includes components like Employment More than 89.33 lakh women

National Urban through Skills Training and have been incorporated into
Livelihood Mission Placement (EST&P). approximately 8.74 lakh
(NULM) self-help groups in cities.
Provides shelters with essential
services for the urban homeless.

Promotes financial inclusion through

access to credit, savings accounts, and
insurance for the urban poor.

Housing
 ₹1,20,000 per unit for plain areas As of 2023, 2.00 crore houses
and ₹1,30,000 per unit for hilly areas, were constructed out of a total
difficult areas, and IAP districts. target of 2.72 crores.

Up to ₹70,000 loan at 3% lower interest

Pradhan Mantri
rate.
Awaas Yojana -
Gramin (PMAY-G)
25sq m, including dedicated area for
hygienic cooking.

Links with SBM-G, MGNREGA, and

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana.

Goal of providing housing for all in As of 2024, the construction of

urban areas by 2022. 82.36 lakh houses has been
completed.
Pradhan Mantri Female head of family must be owner or
Awas Yojana - co-owner of the house.
Urban (PMAY-U)
CLSS Awas Portal (CLAP) for real-time
monitoring and subsidy tracking.

Social Security
A significant step towards fulfilling the As of 2024, a total of 47.9 mn
Directive Principles in Article 41 and beneficiaries under both
42 of the Constitution, recognizing the central and state-funded
concurrent responsibility of the Centre and schemes.
the States.
The DBT transactions were 22.4
Aims to provide social assistance and 18.7 crores in
benefits to poor households in case of 2022-2023 and 2023-2024
National Social old age, death of the breadwinner, and respectively.
Assistance maternity, ensuring minimum national
Programme standards.
(NSAP)
Comprises five schemes: Indira Gandhi
National Old Age Pension Scheme
(IGNOAPS); Indira Gandhi National
Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS); Indira
Gandhi National Disability Pension
Scheme (IGNDPS); National Family
Benefit Scheme (NFBS), and Annapurna
Scheme
 Aims to ensure access to financial In 2023, over 47.5 crore
services, such as banking savings & PMJDY accounts have been
deposit accounts, remittance, credit, opened, with a total deposit
insurance, and pension, affordably. balance of over ₹2 lakh crore.

Focuses on opening basic savings

Pradhan Mantri bank accounts with an overdraft
Jan Dhan Yojana facility of ₹10,000 and a RuPay debit
(PMJDY) card for every household.

Provides accidental insurance cover

of ₹1 lakh and life insurance cover of
₹30,000 to eligible account holders.

It is a voluntary long-term In 2023, NPS had over 5.5

investment plan for retirement under crore subscribers, with assets
the purview of the Pension Fund under management (AUM) of
Regulatory and Development Authority over ₹8 lakh crore.
(PFRDA).

Open to all Indian citizens (resident

National Pension
and non-resident) between the ages of 18
Scheme (NPS)
and 65 years, with no upper limit on the
exit age.

Offers two types of accounts: Tier-I

(non-withdrawable) and Tier-II
(withdrawable), with flexible contribution
options.

Rural Development

Aimed to provide self-employment Covered around 55 million

opportunities to the rural poor, poor people for Rs. 13,700 to
particularly those below the poverty line. the government

Provided underprivileged people with

employment options and the
Integrated Rural opportunity to expand their skill sets to
Development improve their living conditions.
Program (IRDP)
Focused on sectors like agriculture,
animal husbandry, rural industries,
and service activities to boost the rural
economy.
 Seeks to alleviate rural poverty As of 2023, it covered 7,113
through promoting self-employment blocks, 2.7 lakh gram
and the organisation of the rural poor into panchayats, and 7.3 lakh
self-help groups. villages across India.

Provides revolving funds and Mobilized 9.90 crore

community investment support to households into SHGs,
Aajeevika -
the self-help groups, enabling them to promoting 90 lakh SHGs and
National Rural
access affordable credit. 4.28 crore village
Livelihood Mission
organizations.
(NRLM)
Focuses on building the skills of the
rural poor through dedicated training A total of ₹47,490.713 lakh has
and capacity-building programs. been disbursed as a revolving
fund to SHGs.
Implemented in a mission mode
across the country, aims to cover 7
crore rural poor households by 2024-25.

Key Data
1. Poverty
a. NITI Aayog's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report, the number of
multidimensionally poor people in India declined by 9.89 percentage
points, from 24.85% in 2015-16 to 14.96% in 2019-21.
b. Rural poverty rate was estimated at 7.2% while urban poverty stood at
around 4.6% in 2022-23.
c. The SOFI-2023 report pointed out that 74.1% of Indians cannot afford a healthy
diet.
d. Among the BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa), India has
the lowest per capita contribution to the economy as of 2022. It is expected to remain
low in the next five
years.
 1. Hunger
a. In 2023, India ranked 111th out of 125 countries on the Global Hunger Index,
indicating a “serious” hunger level.
b. In 2022, the Global Food Security Index ranked at 68th out of 113 major
countries in terms of food security.
c. 195 million undernourished people in India (UN), making up a quarter of the
world's undernourished population.

Types of Poverty
1. Absolute Poverty
a. Defined by severe deprivation of basic human needs.
b. Measured by comparing household income against a set poverty line (e.g., World
Bank's living threshold of less than $1.90 per day).
2. Relative Poverty
a. A person's income, about the average in their society, reflects social inequality.
3. Situational Poverty
a. Temporary state resulting from specific events like job loss, divorce, health crisis, or
natural disaster.
b. Reversible if affected individuals overcome challenges leading to financial downturn.
4. Generational Poverty
a. When two or more successive generations of a family live in poverty.
b. Characterized by a cycle of poverty difficult to break due to long-standing barriers.

Types of Hunger
1. Chronic Hunger:
a. A long-term state where individuals consistently lack access to sufficient and nutritious
food for a healthy life.
b. This leads to malnutrition, weakened immune systems, increased susceptibility to
 diseases, and limits educational and economic opportunities, reducing overall
productivity and economic growth.
2. Acute Hunger:
a. Arises suddenly, often due to emergencies like wars, natural disasters, or sudden
economic crises. Eg- the Bengal Famine of 1943.
b. Without rapid response, acute hunger can lead to high mortality rates, especially
among vulnerable populations like children and the elderly.
3. Hidden Hunger:
a. This occurs when the food consumed fails to meet nutritional requirements. It is
particularly severe in children and pregnant women, leading to conditions like night
blindness and anaemia.
b. Efforts to combat this include food fortification, such as the large-scale fortification of
milk with vitamins A and D.
4. Seasonal Hunger:
a. Linked to agricultural cycles, where food availability fluctuates seasonally due to
planting and harvesting times.
b. Predominantly affects rural populations dependent on agriculture for livelihood, where
income and food supply are unstable year-round.
5. Structural Hunger:
a. Results from fundamental societal and economic inequalities that restrict access to food
and resources. Eg- individuals with disabilities or those not recognized by biometric
systems may not receive their entitled food aid​.
b. Associated with poor distribution of income and assets within and across countries.

Theories of Poverty
1. Structural Theory (Herbert Gans; Charles Murray): Economic and social structures
perpetuate poverty by creating and maintaining inequality. Unequal distribution of resources (
education, healthcare, and employment opportunities) and discrimination based on factors
such as race, gender, and ethnicity can also lead to the feminization of poverty. Eg:
non-functional schools in rural areas.
2. Cultural Theory (Oscar Lewis): Attributed to cultural norms, values, and behaviors within
impoverished communities. Intergenerational transmission of cultural norms may contribute
to the persistence of poverty within families and communities. Eg: Patriarchy leads to the
feminization of poverty
3. Human Capital Theory (Gary Becker; Theodore Schultz): Education, skills, and health
are essential components of human capital that influence economic outcomes. Eg: relatively
less income for unskilled labour.
4. Marxist Economics (Karl Marx): Exploitation of labour leads to wealth accumulation by
the few and poverty for the many, necessitating systemic change to eradicate poverty.
5. Institutional Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of institutions—such as legal systems,
government policies, and cultural norms—in shaping economic performance and distribution
of wealth. Economists like Douglass North argue that poor institutional frameworks lead to
inefficient markets and barriers to economic opportunity, perpetuating poverty.
6. Cyclical Theory: Poverty is a temporary condition resulting from job loss, illness, or
economic downturns. Factors contributing to cyclical poverty include limited access to stable
employment, inadequate social safety nets, and lack of savings or assets. Eg: Seasonal floods in
Bihar and Assam.
7. Behavioral Economics, pioneered by economists like Daniel Kahneman and Amos
Tversky, examines psychological factors in economic decisions. Poverty is often linked to
"behavioural traps" where short-term decision-making leads to poor financial choices,
perpetuating cycles of poverty despite potentially available economic opportunities.
Theories of Hunger
1. Entitlement Theory (Amartya Sen): Emphasizes that hunger results in more from a lack
of access to food rather than the absence of food availability. Stresses the importance
of how resources are distributed within a society, affecting individuals' food entitlements.
2. Malthusian Theory (Thomas Malthus): Asserts that population growth tends to
outpace food production, leading to periodic shortages and hunger. Suggests that
famine is an inevitable outcome unless population growth is controlled.
3. Political Economy Theory: Examines how political and economic systems prioritize
profits and power, often at the expense of food security. Critiques large corporations'
control of food production, which can prioritize profits over nutritional needs. Eg: Farmers
protest against policies favoring large agribusinesses, exacerbating food insecurity.
4. Ecological Theory: Focuses on how environmental changes and degradation affect
food production and security. Notes the impact of soil erosion, water scarcity, and
biodiversity loss on food systems. Eg: climate change-induced droughts reduce crop yields,
worsening hunger in rural areas of Maharashtra.
5. Feminist Theory: Identifies gender inequalities in resource access and
decision-making as key drivers of food insecurity among women and
girls—advocates for empowering women as a critical step towards addressing hunger and
ensuring food security. Eg: Women's limited land ownership and decision-making power
hinder food access and security.

Reasons for Poverty and Hunger

1. Structural
a. Historical and Colonial Legacy: British rule significantly impacted socio-economic
structure, including the deindustrialization of the economy and exploitation of
agricultural resources. Eg- India's GDP share fell from 24.4% in 1700 to 4.2% in 1950.
b. Low Agricultural Productivity: Agriculture suffers from Fragmented landholdings,
Lack of modern technology access, Insufficient irrigation facilities, and dependency on
monsoon rains, leading to limited income for farmers.
 c. Unemployment and Underemployment: The Indian economy fails to generate
enough jobs due to skills-job mismatch and slow industrial and service sector growth.
Eg: Indian youth unemployment: 10.6% (PLFS, 2023).
d. Inadequate Infrastructure: India's infrastructure gap is estimated at $1.4 trillion,
hindering economic growth.
2. Political
a. Governance and Policy Failures: Ineffectiveness of poverty alleviation programs
due to high centralization, corruption, and overlapping. Eg- 30% of NREGA payments
are delayed beyond the 15-day limit in some regions.
b. Governance Instability and Populism: Changes in government resulting in the
discontinuation or reversal of poverty alleviation schemes initiated by previous
administrations. Eg: Free Power Scheme in Punjab.
c. Discriminatory Practices and Social Inequality: only 15% of Dalits in rural areas
have access to higher education compared to the national average of 23%.
d. Land Ownership and Agrarian Distress: Inadequate enforcement of land
redistribution policies, leading to continued concentration of land in the hands of a few.
Eg: 10% of landowners in India control over 55% of the land.
e. Political Will and Public Policy: Lack of strong political will leads to the allocation
of funds to flagship programs being influenced by electoral considerations rather than
actual needs. For example, budget allocations have favored politically significant
regions in upcoming elections.
3. Economic
a. Inflation: High inflation rates diminish the purchasing power of money. Eg: Between
2015 and 2022, essential food product costs in India surged by 50%, impacting
lower-income groups. As of March 2024, India's inflation rate stands at 4.85%, with
food inflation at 8.52%
b. Jobless Growth: Technological
progress increased productivity but
reduced demand for labour,
particularly unskilled labour,
prevalent in India.
4. Social Factors
a. Caste-based Discrimination:
The PLFS conducted in 2022
showed that a significant portion of
SCs and STs were employed as
casual workers compared to a low
share of general caste people
b. Gender Inequality: In rural
areas, 21.2% of women suffered
from poor nutrition compared to 17.8% of men. In urban settings, the figures were
13.2% for women and 13% for men (NFHS5)
c. Lack of Education: High dropout rates in regions like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh due
to economic pressures force children into early employment, depriving them of the
education needed to improve their living conditions.
5. Technological
a. Digital Divide: Internet penetration in rural India is only 42% affecting education,
healthcare, and access to government services and subsidies.
6. Legal and Policy
a. Labour Laws and Informal Employment: Stringent labour laws may discourage
formal employment, pushing more into unprotected informal work, and thus
perpetuating poverty. Eg- more than 90% of India’s workforce is in the unorganized
sector
b. Property Rights and Land Laws: Unclear land titles hinder farmers' access to
credit and investments, limiting agricultural productivity and income.
 c. Economic Liberalization and Its Discontents: Reduction in state-led support
and market-driven policies adversely affect the economically vulnerable. This is
reflected in rising income inequality.
d. Public Distribution System (PDS) and Subsidies: suffer from inefficiencies and
corruption, limiting their poverty alleviation impact.
7. Environmental
a. Water Scarcity: Eg- In the Bundelkhand region, consecutive droughts result in severe
water shortages, pushing millions into poverty and hunger as agricultural activities
halt.
b. Impact of Natural Disasters: Natural disasters like cyclones, floods, and landslides
exacerbate food insecurity and poverty. Eg: Floods and cyclones in Assam.

Impact of poverty and hunger

1. Malnutrition and Health Consequences: 16% of the Indian population is undernourished
and over 30.9% of children under 5 years old suffer from stunted growth due to malnutrition,
leads to increased susceptibility to common childhood diseases like malaria, pneumonia, and
diarrhea, which are leading causes of child mortality in India (FAO,2022).
2. Education and Child Development: 46.24 million children were out of school in 2023.
Malnutrition in early childhood can impair physical and cognitive development, hindering a
child's ability to learn and succeed in school (UNICEF).
3. Child labour and Exploitation: More than 10 million working children under the age of 14
in India (Census 2011), are deprived of their childhood and trapped in the cycle of poverty. It
drives families to send children to work in hazardous conditions, such as restaurants, shops,
factories, and illegal activities, to supplement household income.
4. Gender Inequality and Women's Empowerment: Poverty disproportionately affects
women and girls, who often bear the brunt of household responsibilities and are denied
educational and economic opportunities. Malnutrition among women of reproductive age
causes critical health issues, with 53% of women being anaemic (FAO,2022).
5. Rural-Urban Divide: Poverty and hunger are more prevalent in rural areas, where 65% of
the population resides and relies on agriculture and allied activities. Reduced land ownership,
reliance on monsoons, limited irrigation infrastructure, and minimal government initiatives
exacerbate poverty and food insecurity in rural regions.
6. Economic and Social Consequences: It hinders economic growth and productivity, as
malnourished individuals are less able to work and contribute to the economy. Poverty and
hunger are also closely linked to crime, exploitation, and lack of access to basic services,
perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage.

Regional Distribution of Poverty and Hunger

Category States/Regions Details

Highest State Hunger SHI score of 35: “Alarming”

Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh
Index (SHI) Scores (2022) hunger levels

Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, SHI scores above the national

Above National Average
Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, average of 29.7, similar to
SHI Scores (2022)
Tripura, Maharashtra hunger levels in Haiti and Niger
 Chandigarh, Sikkim,
Moderate Hunger Category
Puducherry, Kerala, Manipur, SHI scores below 16
(2022 SHI)
Mizoram, Punjab

Fastest Reduction in Reported by the 2023 National

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya
Multidimensional Poverty Multidimensional Poverty
Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan
(2015-16 to 2019-21) Index (MPI)

Highlights significant disparity

Rural-Urban Poverty Rural Population: 19.28%,
between rural and urban
Divide (2023 MPI) Urban Population: 5.27%
poverty levels

Lowest Percentages of Reported by the 2023 National

Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Multidimensionally Poor Multidimensional Poverty
Sikkim, Telangana
Populations (2023 MPI) Index (MPI)

The feminization of Poverty in India:

The “feminization of poverty” means that women have a higher incidence of poverty than men, that
their poverty is more severe than that of men, and that poverty among women is on the increase.

The poverty rate for women aged 25-34 is projected to increase from 12% in 2020 to 14% in 2021,
compared to 13.7% for men. It will take India another 37 years to close the gender poverty gap among
individuals aged 25 to 34 (UN Women Report,2022).
1. Causes
a. Gender Wage Gap: Men earn 82% of the labour income in India, while women earn
only 18% (World Inequality Report 2022)
b. Lack of Education: Literacy Rate is 84.7% for men and 70.3% for women
c. Limited Property Rights: 42.3% of women and 62.5% of men own a house, whereas
31.7% of women and 43.9% of men own land alone or jointly (NFHS-5)
d. Patriarchal Social Norms: These norms perpetuate gender inequality and limit
women's access to education, employment, resources, and decision-making
opportunities. Eg- Labour force participation rate: 37% (Women) and 78.5% (Men) in
2022-23
e. Inadequate Healthcare: Only 10.1% of women aged 15–49 can make independent
healthcare decisions, compared to 33.3% of men. Only 51.6% of women are allowed to
visit a health facility alone
f. Domestic Violence: Abuse limits women's ability to leave abusive situations and
seek opportunities. 29% of Indian women between the ages of 18 and 49 have
experienced domestic/sexual violence
g. Single Mother Households: Higher risk of poverty due to lack of income and
resources. The number of “lone mothers” is rising, with 4.5% of all Indian households
run by single mothers (UN Women)
2. Impact

a. Economic Dependency: Women have limited access to credit and financial

resources, further entrenching their economic dependency on male family members
b. Health and Education: Educated mothers are more likely to utilize health services
and ensure better nutrition and care for their children
c. Social Inequality: The intergenerational power dynamics with senior male family
members typically holding financial decision-making power, which limits the autonomy
and economic opportunities of women
3. Way Forward:

a. Strengthen Equal Pay Laws: This includes

measures like the No Salary History Bill in Illinois,
which aims to prevent employers from basing
salaries on previous earnings, thus perpetuating
wage gaps
b. Gender-Responsive Fiscal Policies:
Individual-based tax regimes and investments in
education and infrastructure. Eg: Female labour
force participation and economic growth in Canada ,
Czech Republic, and Sweden.
c. Skill Training Programs: tailored for women,
addressing barriers such as childcare,
transportation, and safety. Programs like Colombia's
Jovenes en Acción, which provided childcare
subsidies, increased female participation and
improved employment outcomes. Expand programs
like India’s National Skill Training Institutes
(NSTIs) for women, which offer courses in various
trades and provide placement support.
d. Inheritance and Property Rights: To ensure
women have equal rights to inherit and own
 property. Countries like Bolivia, Malaysia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe have made strides
in this area.
e. Land Ownership: Promote policies that facilitate women's access to land ownership.
f. Public Awareness: Launch awareness campaigns to challenge and change gender
stereotypes and biases. Includes promoting the value of women's work and encouraging
shared responsibilities in caregiving and household chores.
g. Role Models: Publicize female role models and success stories to inspire and
encourage more women to participate in various economic activities.
h. Anti-Discrimination Laws: Strengthen and enforce anti-discrimination laws to
protect women from gender-based violence and workplace harassment.
i. Comprehensive Healthcare: Improve access healthcare services for women,
including reproductive health, maternal care, and mental health services.
j. Micro-Credit and Financial Inclusion: Promote to empower women
economically. Eg: the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, which has provided small loans to
millions of women, helping them start businesses.

Urban Poverty in India

Urban areas contribute 50-60% of India's GDP, indicating the significant role of cities in the country's
economic growth. By 2030, 40.8% of India's population is expected to reside in urban areas,
increasing the pressure on urban infrastructure and services.

1. Causes
a. Rural-Urban Migration: It is driven by the lack of infrastructure and asymmetrical
development in rural areas. 177.9 million people migrated from rural to urban areas
between 2000 and 2018 (UN, WPP 2019)
b. Lack of Skills: Many urban poor need more skills to participate in emerging
employment opportunities.
c. Unemployment and Underemployment: The casual and intermittent nature of
work in urban areas leads to high levels of unemployment and underemployment. The
Urban Unemployment Rate was 6.6% in 2023.
d. Inflation: Rising prices of essential goods, including food grains, exacerbate the urban
poor's hardships. The urban inflation rate is 4.11% (April 2024).
e. Poor Water and Sanitation: One in six urban people live in slums, and over 70% of
slum households get their water from a tap, but only half get it inside their homes (UN,
2023).
f. Healthcare Access: Low-income levels make standard medical care unaffordable for
many urban poor, leading to poor health outcomes.
g. Impact of COVID: It led to income reductions for urban households. Eg: More than
50% of urban respondents reported their incomes were reduced by half or a quarter.
COVID also exacerbated food insecurity, with urban respondents experiencing a
15%-point worse condition than their rural counterparts (Hunger Watch Report).
h. Access to government Benefits: Urban poor had minimal access to the PDS
compared to rural residents. Social security schemes also had better coverage in rural
areas, leaving many urban poor without adequate support.

2. Way forward
a. Employment and Income Generation
● Skill development programs to enhance employability, as recommended by the
Tendulkar Committee
 ●The National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) aims to provide skills training
to the urban poor
● Encouraging entrepreneurship and self-employment through access to credit
and support services, as emphasized in the Hashim Committee report
● Implementing urban employment guarantee schemes, similar to MGNREGA, to
provide a safety net for the urban poor
b. Investment in Urban Infrastructure
● Implementing affordable housing programs like the Pradhan Mantri Awas
Yojana (PMAY) to provide decent housing to the urban poor
● Expanding access to clean water and sanitation facilities in slums and
low-income neighborhoods
● Strengthening primary healthcare services and expanding coverage of the
Ayushman Bharat PMJAY to ensure access to quality healthcare for the urban
poor
c. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)
● Developing affordable housing projects, as outlined in the PPP models for
affordable housing report by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
● Improving water supply and sanitation services in urban areas, learning from
successful PPP examples in other countries
● Upgrading slums and providing basic amenities through collaborative efforts
between government agencies and private sector partners

Major Causes of Hunger in India

1. Poverty: As of 2023, 27.5% of the population still lives below the poverty line, struggling to
afford nutritious food.
2. Gender Inequality: It exacerbates malnutrition, with women and girls often receiving less
food and lower-quality diets. Eg: the prevalence of stunting among SCs and STs is around 40%,
compared to 30% among children from upper-caste groups.
3. Poor Governance and Corruption: The allocation for schemes like ICDS and school
mid-day meals has declined by around 30% in the last ten years, affecting food security.
4. Hidden Hunger: Anaemia remains a severe public health issue among women and children,
with significant disparities across
different wealth quintiles.
5. Climate Change impacts agriculture,
reducing crop yields and increasing
food prices. Eg: food price inflation
reached 11.51% in July 2023, with a
700% surge in tomato prices and a 40%
export levy on onions due to increased
prices.
6. Resource Wastage: India wastes
about 78.2 million tonnes of food
annually, with a per capita food waste of
55 kg. This wastage exacerbates food
insecurity, especially in urban areas.
7. Natural Disasters: Events like
droughts and floods destroy crops,
leading to food shortages: monsoons in
June and July 2023 delayed kharif crop
sowing by 9%.
8. Socioeconomic Disparities:
Disparities limit access to essential nutritional and healthcare services. Eg: stunting rates are
significantly higher in rural areas (37%) compared to urban areas (30%).
 9. Inefficient Agricultural Practices: Suboptimal crop yields and post-harvest losses
contribute to insufficient food availability. Eg: Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns
have led to a 5.2% reduction in wheat yields in several states.
10. Lack of Awareness: Inadequate understanding of nutrition and parenting among mothers
leads to poor dietary practices. This is evident in the high rates of child stunting and wasting in
various regions.
11. Joblessness: Unemployment reduces household incomes, limiting the ability to purchase
sufficient and nutritious food. The agricultural sector, employing 40% of the labour force, is
particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts, leading to job losses and increased hunger.
12. Global Events: Global economic disruptions and wars affect food security by increasing
market volatility. Eg- Ukraine war
13. Government Initiatives: Despite several programs to improve food security,
implementation issues and lack of nutritional audits hinder their effectiveness. Eg: the
National Food Security Act and POSHAN Abhiyan face challenges in reaching the most
vulnerable populations.

Need to Shift from food security to nutritional

security
1. While India has made strides in food security, nutritional security remains challenging. 74%
of India's population could not afford a healthy diet in 2023
2. India ranked 111 out of 125 countries on the Global Hunger Index 2023, indicating high levels
of hunger and malnutrition
3. The triple burden of undernutrition, overweight/obesity, and micronutrient
deficiencies significantly affects the well-being of rural people in India
4. India has nearly 195 million undernourished people, accounting for almost a quarter of the
world's hunger burden. 43% of children in India are chronically undernourished
5. Dietary patterns have shifted from diverse options to processed, low-nutrient foods. The
Indian diet is often deficient in essential nutrients like iron, vitamin A, and zinc
6. Only 50.3% of children under 6 years received any service from an Anganwadi
center (NFHS-5), highlighting gaps in nutrition delivery
7. Nutrition-focused agriculture, like biofortification of staples, promotion of indigenous
crops, and nutrition-sensitive farming, needs greater emphasis over just enhancing
yields
8. PDS often focuses on staple grains like rice and wheat, which do not provide a balanced diet.
There is a need to include diverse and nutrient-rich foods in the PDS to improve
nutritional outcomes
9. Government programs like the National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013 and the National
Food Security Mission aim to improve food security. However, there is a need to integrate
nutritional goals into these programs to ensure comprehensive food and nutrition
security
10. Robust monitoring systems like the Poshan Tracker to track malnourished children
and localized, culturally relevant communication strategies are important for improving
nutrition
Inequality in India:
1. Data on Inequality
a. Income Inequality: The top
1% of India's population holds
22.6% of the national income
as of 2023, up from 20% in
2014.
b. Wealth Inequality: The top
1% controls over 40% of the
national wealth (2023), a
significant increase from less
than 15% in 1961.
c. Global Rankings: India is
ranked among the most
unequal countries in the world,
with the top 10% holding 77%
of the total national wealth.
d. Poverty and Diet: Around 74% of India’s population could not afford a healthy diet
in 2023.
2. Causes of Inequality
a. Economic Liberalization: Post-1991 economic reforms have increased income and
wealth concentration among the top 1%.
b. Underemployment: Many people work in jobs that do not match their skills, leading
to low productivity and income.
c. High Tax Burden on the Poor: 64% of the total GST comes from the bottom 50% of
the population, while only 4% comes from the top 10%.
d. Inflation: Rising prices, especially for essential goods like food, disproportionately
affect the poor.
e. Lack of Land Reforms: Inadequate land reforms have left many landless and
economically unstable.
3. Impact of Inequality
a. Healthcare Access: 63 million Indians are impoverished yearly due to healthcare
costs (OXFAM International).
b. Educational Disparities: 45.9% of the ST population were in the lowest wealth
bracket, compared to 9.7% of other castes (NFHS 4). This disparity affects educational
attainment and future economic opportunities.
c. Gender Inequality: India ranks 127th out of 146 countries in global gender equality
indices (2023), with significant gaps in literacy and employment rates between men
and women.
d. Social Unrest: Inequality can lead to social unrest and violence. Eg: caste-based
conflicts and demands for reservations by various groups are often fueled by perceived
economic and social inequalities.
e. Erosion of Trust: Inequality erodes trust in institutions and among individuals. This
can lower social and civic participation levels, reducing overall societal cohesion.
f. Political Instability: Rising inequality can lead to political instability. The
concentration of wealth among a few can undermine democratic processes and increase
political polarisation.
g. Long-term Effects on Children: Children from marginalized communities often
face significant barriers to accessing quality education and healthcare, perpetuating the
cycle of poverty.
h. Exacerbation by Pandemic: The economic impact of the pandemic has been
disproportionately borne by the poor and marginalized communities, further widening
the gap between the rich and the poor.
4. Way Forward
a. Implement Progressive Taxation and Expand Social Spending
● The Rangarajan Committee (2014) recommended expanding social protection
● Globally, progressive taxation of income and wealth, along with higher social
spending on health, education, and social security, has been effective at
reducing inequality (OECD)
b. Invest in Education and Skill
Development
● The Kothari Commission (1964)
emphasized investment in education
as crucial for equality of opportunity
● Early childhood education should be
prioritized. Scholarships and
education loans can improve higher
education access for disadvantaged
groups
● Strengthen Social Security and
Employment Programs
● India should launch an urban
employment guarantee program on
the lines of MGNREGA to provide
jobs and income security to urban poor and informal workers
● Minimum wages should be increased. Social security benefits like pensions,
maternity benefits, accident/life insurance need to be universalized
c. Promote Inclusive Growth and Regional Equity
● Tendulkar Committee (2009) revealed high inequalities between states and
regions
● Inclusive growth policies are needed to ensure the gains of economic growth are
equitably distributed
● Regional infrastructure gaps in power, roads, irrigation, etc. must be bridged
d. Eliminate Social Discrimination and Empower Marginalized Groups
● Anti-discriminatory laws need better enforcement. Affirmative action in
education and jobs should continue for SC/STs
● Women's labour force participation can be improved through transport
connectivity, hostels, creches, and safety measures
● Financial inclusion and entrepreneurship among marginalized groups should be
promoted
e. Reduce Inequality in Land and Asset Ownership
● Land inequality is a significant source of economic inequality in India
● Stricter implementation of land ceiling laws, distribution of surplus government
land to the landless, and protection of tribal land rights are needed
National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013
1. Provisions
a. Food and Nutritional Security: to provide food and nutritional security by
ensuring access to adequate quantities of quality food at affordable prices, enabling
people to live a life with dignity
b. Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS): The Act legally entitles up to 75%
of the rural population and 50% of the urban population to receive subsidized food
grains through the TPDS
c. Beneficiaries are categorized into Priority Households (PHH) and Antyodaya
Anna Yojana (AAY) households. PHH is entitled to 5 kg of food grains per person
per month, while AAY households receive 35 kg per household per month
d. Subsidized Prices: Under the TPDS, food grains are provided at subsidized prices:
rice at ₹3 per kg, wheat at ₹2 per kg, and coarse grains (millet) at ₹1 per kg
e. Midday Meal Scheme (MDMS): provides free lunches to school children on
working days. It is universal and aims to improve nutritional levels among children
f. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS): offers food, preschool
education, and primary healthcare to children under 6 years and their mothers. It is
also universal.
g. Maternity Entitlements: The Act recognizes maternity entitlements, ensuring that
pregnant women and lactating mothers receive adequate nutrition
h. State and Union Territory Implementation: The NFSA is implemented across all
states and Union Territories in India. The central and state governments share
responsibilities for procuring, allocating, and distributing food grains.
i. Legal Framework: It converts existing food security programs into legal
entitlements, ensuring that eligible beneficiaries have a right to receive food grains
j. Human Life Cycle Approach: It adopts a human life cycle approach, addressing the
nutritional needs of different age groups and vulnerable sections of society
k. Sustainable Development Goals: The NFSA aligns with Goal 2 of the United
Nations SDGs, which aims to end hunger, achieve food security, and improve nutrition
by 2030
l. Grievance Redressal Mechanism: The Act mandates the establishment of
grievance redressal mechanisms at the district and state levels to address complaints
related to the implementation of the NFSA
m. Transparency and Accountability: Provisions for transparency and accountability
include the requirement for social audits and the use of information technology to
ensure proper implementation and monitoring of the Act
2. Major Issues
a. Identification of Eligible Beneficiaries: In some states, the exclusion errors have
led to genuine beneficiaries being left out of the PDS. In Bihar, there were reports of 15
lakh inactive ration cards, and the state had to issue 23.39 lakh new ration cards to
correct the errors (PIB)
b. Disrupted Supply Chains: The COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine war
have led to delays and shortages in the distribution of essential food items under the
NFSA.
c. Poor Quality of Entitlements: The quality of food grains provided under the NFSA
is often substandard. Beneficiaries have reported receiving spoiled or low-quality rice
and wheat, which affects their nutritional intake.
d. Lack of Nutrient: The focus on staple grains like rice and wheat neglects the need for
a diverse diet. The PDS does not adequately provide pulses, vegetables, and fruits,
essential for a balanced diet.
e. Inadequate Infrastructure: Poor storage facilities and transportation infrastructure
lead to significant food wastage and spoilage. Large quantities of food grains rot due to
insufficient storage in states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
 f. Climate Change: Extreme weather conditions such as floods, droughts, and
heatwaves adversely affect agricultural productivity. The 2022 heatwave in northern
India significantly reduced wheat yields.
g. Corruption and Leakages: It leads to leakages where food grains meant for the poor
are diverted to the open market. Only 16% of the resources allocated towards India's
food-subsidized distribution scheme reach the poor.
h. Lack of Awareness: In rural areas, a lack of awareness campaigns means people do
not fully utilize the benefits.
3. Way Forward
a. Improving Identification and Coverage by using technology like Aadhaar and
mobile applications.
b. Developing robust supply chain mechanisms to withstand disruptions caused by
pandemics, wars, and other crises.
c. Implement strict quality control measures to ensure that the food grains are of
good quality and meet nutritional standards.
d. Include a variety of nutrient-rich foods such as pulses, millets, and vegetables
in the PDS to ensure a balanced diet.
e. Invest in modern storage facilities and improve the transportation
infrastructure to reduce food.
f. Promote sustainable farming practices and invest in climate-resilient crops
to mitigate the impact of climate change on agriculture.
g. Conduct awareness campaigns to educate beneficiaries about their rights and
the benefits available under the NFSA.

Way Forward
1. Policy Making
● Adopt an integrated policy-making approach that breaks silos between ministries and
aligns interventions
● Move from one-size-fits-all schemes to targeted interventions customized for
different segments
● Use behavioral economics to design policies accounting for psychological and social
factors influencing behavior
2. Agricultural Reforms - Promote crop diversification, organic farming, farmer-producer
organizations (FPOs) and agri-exports
3. Capability Approach
● Provide universal access to quality healthcare and education as foundational
capabilities
● Consider Universal Basic Income (UBI) to ensure a social minimum standard of
living
● Enhance skill development programs to improve employability, especially of youth
4. Employment Generation
● Launch an urban jobs guarantee on the lines of MGNREGA to provide an
employment safety net
● Promote labour-intensive manufacturing in textiles, toys, food-processing, leather, and
footwear
● Support MSME growth through better infrastructure, credit, market linkages and
technology
5. Economic Reforms
● Accelerate formalization of the economy through GST, digital payments, and labour
reforms
● Enhance Ease of Doing Business through regulatory streamlining and digitization
6. Political Decentralization
 ● Devolve more untied funds and functions to local governments for participatory
development
● Strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions through capacity building, audits and
oversight
7. Women and Vulnerable Groups
● Promote women in STEM fields through scholarships, mentoring, and placement
support
● Expand Stand Up India loans for SC/ST and women entrepreneurs
● Scale up the Van Dhan program for tribal livelihoods through minor forest produce
value-addition
● Leverage women's self-help groups for last-mile service delivery and enterprise
development
8. Transparency and Accountability
● Institute social audits of all schemes and programs to assess community-level
implementation
● Universalize DBT for all individual-oriented subsidies and benefits
● Use Aadhaar authentication to reduce leakages and improve targeting
9. Monitoring and Evaluation
● Set up an Evaluation Office to rigorously evaluate all government programs
● Use randomized control trials to assess the impact of anti-poverty interventions as
done by Nobel laureates Abhijit Banerjee and Esther Duflo
● Create a national dashboard to track and visualize real-time progress on key
socio-economic indicators.
SOCIAL
EMPOWERMENT
PYQs
[2023]-Explain why suicide among young women is increasing in Indian Society.
[2022]-The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, remains only a legal document without
intense sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment.(10M)
[2022]-Given the diversities among tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts should
they be considered as a single category?
[2021]-Examine the uniqueness of tribal knowledge system when compared with mainstream
knowledge and cultural systems.
[2019]-What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space?
[2018]-‘Women’s movement in India has not addressed the issues of women of lower social strata.
Substantiate your view.
[2017]-Does the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 ensure effective mechanism for
empowerment and inclusion of the intended beneficiaries in the society? Discuss. (10M)
[2017]-What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence, addressing
discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)?
[2016]-Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and throw light on the status of its
implementation.(12.5M)
[2016]-Why are the tribals in India referred to as the Scheduled Tribes? Indicate the major provisions
enshrined in the Constitution of India for their upliftment.
[2015]-How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more
favourable to women than the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes?
[2014]-Why do some of the most prosperous regions of India have an adverse sex ratio for women?
Give your arguments.
[2014]-Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing
feminization of agriculture in India.
[2014]-How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle class working woman in India?
[2013]-Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women’s organization free from
gender bias. Comment.

Women
Empowering women means enabling them to take control of their lives, make their own decisions, and
succeed in their chosen pursuits.

It involves addressing various social, economic, and political barriers that hinder women's progress
and ensuring they have equal access to education, healthcare, employment, and political participation.

“Being powerful is like being a lady. If you have to tell people you are, you aren’t”- Margaret
Thatcher
Data on Various Aspects of Women’s Empowerment in India
Indicator Value

Poverty

Female-headed households below poverty line 26% (NSO 2022)

Male-headed households below poverty line 20% (NSO 2022)

Health

Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) 97 deaths per 100,000 live births (2023)
(NHM 2023)

Antenatal care coverage 78% of pregnant women (2023) (NHM

2023)

Anemia in women of reproductive age 35% (2023), down from 53% (2015)
(CNNS 2023)

Education

Female literacy rate 70.3% (2023), up from 65.5% (2011)

(NSO 2023)

Enrollment rate for girls in primary education 93% (2023) (NSO 2023)

Retention rate in secondary education 81% (2023) (NSO 2023)

Women’s enrollment in higher education 49% (2023), up from 46% (2018) (NSO
2023)

Labor Force Participation

Female Labor Force Participation Rate 24% (2023), up from 20.3% (2020)
(FLFPR) (NSO 2023)

Unemployment rate for women 8.7% (2023), compared to 6.1% for men
(NSO 2023)

Women employed in agriculture 55% (NSO 2023)

Women employed in the informal sector 80% (NSO 2023)

Property Ownership

Operational land holdings owned by women 13.6% (2021) (Agricultural Census 2021)

Houses and land properties owned by women 20% (2023) (Housing and Land Rights
in urban areas Network 2023)

Crime Against Women

Crime cases against women reported 432,000 cases (2023), a 6% increase

from 2022 (NCRB 2023)
Increase in domestic violence complaints 20% rise (2020 compared to 2019)
during COVID-19 (NCRB 2023)

Incidents of workplace sexual harassment 25% increase (2023) (NCRB 2023)

reported to Internal Complaints Committees
(ICCs)

Major Issues in Women's Empowerment

Category Issue Description

Political Representation Only 14% of the seats in the Lok Sabha were held by
women in 2024.
Women hold only 22.1% of the seats in state legislatures.
Even with reserved seats in Panchayati Raj, there is
limited ‘Effective’ female representation due to
sarpanch pati

Social stigma and Women often face resistance from family and community
family pressures when pursuing political roles.

Lack of political Very few initiatives specifically aim to prepare and

empowerment support women for political careers.
programs

Economic Economic Women constitute less than 30% of the STEM workforce
Disparities in India.
According to Claudia Goldin’s Human Capital
Theory, along with differences in education, experience,
and job tenure, societal expectations regarding gender
roles contribute to economic disparities

Informal 93% of women work in informal employment with no job

Employment security or benefits

Care Work and As per NSSO Survey, Women in India spend 299 minutes
Unpaid Labor per day on unpaid domestic work, compared to 97
minutes by men

Lack of support Inadequate childcare and flexible working conditions

systems hinder women's full participation in the workforce.
 Property and Only 13.6% of operational land holdings were owned by
Legal Rights women as per the Agricultural Census 2021. In urban
areas, women own only 20% of houses and land
properties as of 2023.

Social Social and Patriarchal norms and practices such as early marriage.
Cultural Barriers According to UNICEF, 27% of girls in India are married
before the age of 18. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s
"Subaltern Theory" views child marriage as a form of
structural violence against women

Media Stereotypical representation of women in media

Representation reinforces gender biases.

Lack of Cultural norms exclude women from decision-making

representation: processes in families and communities.

Educational Despite improvements, gender gaps in literacy rates and

Barriers higher dropout rates among girls remain significant.

Access to higher Fewer women pursue higher education due to financial

education constraints and cultural norms like early marriages and
domestic responsibilities

Violence and 432,000 cases of crimes against women were reported in

Safety 2023, a 6% increase from 2022. There was a 20% rise in
domestic violence complaints during the COVID-19
lockdown in 2020.

Mental Health Women are more likely to experience mental health

issues, often exacerbated by gender-based violence and
societal pressures. According to WHO, depression rates in
Indian women are 50% higher than in men.

Legal Awanreness and The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
stigma 2005 is often underutilized due to a lack of awareness and
social stigma.

Gender bias in lengthy legal processes, lack of sensitization of law police

legal machinery ( and social stigma associated with filing a complaint
"Feminist Legal
Theory" )

Trafficking and India is a source, destination, and transit country for

Exploitation trafficking. (estimated 150,000 women and girls
trafficked into India from South Asia)

Environme Ecofeminism by connects the exploitation of women’s bodies (Limited

nt Vandana Shiva access to reproductive health services and education) to
the exploitation of the environment, arguing for
reproductive rights as part of broader environmental and
social justice.
Steps Taken to Empower Women in India
Constitutional Provisions
1. Directive Principles of State Policy: Articles 39(a) and 39(d) direct the state to ensure
that men and women have the right to an adequate livelihood and equal pay for equal work.
2. Equality Before Law: Article 14.
3. Article 15 prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or birth.
4. Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
5. Article 21 encompasses women's rights to bodily autonomy and integrity.
6. Article 23 - Protection against Exploitation
7. Article 39 - ensure that men and women equally have the right to an adequate means of
livelihood, equal pay for equal work, and protection against abuse and exploitation.
8. Article 42: The State shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work
and for maternity relief.
9. Article 44: The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code
throughout the territory of India, which is aimed at ensuring equal rights for women.

Legal Provisions

Schemes and Policies

1. Passed the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023 to reserve one-third of seats for women
in Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies .
2. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Aims to address the declining child sex ratio and
promote the education and empowerment of the girl child.
3. Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): Provides financial assistance to
pregnant women and lactating mothers to improve their health and nutrition.
4. Mahila Shakti Kendra (MSK): Provides one-stop convergent support services for
empowering rural women with opportunities for skill development, employment, digital
literacy, health, and nutrition.
 5. Ujjawala Scheme: Scheme to prevent trafficking and rescue, rehabilitation, and
reintegration of victims of trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation.
6. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana: A savings scheme for the girl child to ensure financial
security.
7. Increased paid maternity leave to 26 weeks and examined over 4.73 crore pregnant
women under Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan .
8. Government provided smoke-free kitchens to around 10 crore women through LPG gas
cylinders under Ujjwala Yojana .
9. 72% women ownership under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana Gramin for rural housing
10. Abolished triple talaq to empower Muslim women .
11. 69% of loans sanctioned to women entrepreneurs under PMMY and 84% beneficiaries under
Stand-Up India are women .
12. Launched Mission Shakti scheme to strengthen interventions for women's safety, security
and empowerment .
13. Government initiated One Stop Centre scheme for women affected by violence
14. Established Mahila Shakti Kendras to provide skills, employment, digital literacy to rural
women
15. Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)
16. Mahila E-Haat online marketing platform for women entrepreneurs

Institutional Efforts
1. National Commission for Women (NCW): Established to review the constitutional and
legal safeguards for women, recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate redressal of
grievances, and advise the government on all policy matters affecting women.
2. Women Helpline Scheme: Provides 24-hour emergency response to women affected by
violence through referral and information about women-related government schemes and
programs.

Global Efforts
1. CEDAW (Convention on the
Elimination of Discrimination Against
Women): India is a signatory to CEDAW,
which commits to end discrimination against
women in all forms.
2. Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs): India is committed to achieving the
SDGs Goal-5, which aims to achieve gender
equality and empower all women and girls.
3. Beijing Declaration and Platform for
Action: adopted unanimously by 189
countries at the UN's Fourth World
Conference on Women in 1995, identified 12
critical areas of concern. It emphasizes that
empowerment of women and gender equality are critical to addressing the central
development concerns of poverty and insecurity and to achieving sustainable, people-centered
development.
4. World Bank Gender Strategy 2024-2030 put forward an ambitious vision to accelerate
gender equality for a sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. Building on the previous
2016-2023 strategy, it emphasizes 6 priority outcomes across three objectives:
a. Foundational wellbeing: End Gender-based Violence & Elevate Human Capital
- Outcome 1: Accelerate progress in eliminating all forms of gender-based
violence
- Outcome 2: Build and protect human capital
 b. Economic participation: Expand and Enable Economic Opportunities
- Outcome 3: Improve equal access to more and better jobs, including jobs of the
future
- Outcome 4: Expand ownership and use of economic assets
- Outcome 5: Expand access to and use of services that enable economic
participation
c. Leadership: Engage Women as Leaders
- Outcome 6: Advance women’s participation, decision-making and leadership
5. ILO - Gender Equality and Decent Work: It defines decent work as “productive work for
women and men in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity”. ILO’s efforts
broadly include:
1. Promoting gender equality, non-discrimination and inclusion
2. Reducing the gender pay gap
3. Promoting decent work in the care economy
4. Ending violence and harassment at work

Supreme Court Judgments

Article 14: Equality Before Law
a. State of Maharashtra v. Madhukar Narayan Mardikar (1991) - The court held that a
woman's character is irrelevant to her right to privacy and dignity.
Article 15: Prohibition of Discrimination
1. C.B. Muthamma v. Union of India (1979) - The court struck down rules that required
female employees to obtain government permission before marriage and allowed termination
of service upon marriage.
2. Madhu Kishwar v. State of Bihar (1996) - The court held that discriminatory inheritance
laws violated Articles 14 and 16, emphasizing equality in property rights
3. Mary Roy v. State of Kerala (1986) - The Supreme Court struck down the discriminatory
provisions of the Travancore Christian Succession Act, which denied equal inheritance rights to
women.
Article 16: Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment
1. Air India v. Nergesh Meerza (1981) - The Supreme Court struck down discriminatory
service conditions that allowed different retirement ages and conditions of service for male and
female air hostesses.
2. Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2008) - The court invalidated a law that
prohibited women from working as bartenders, stating it was discriminatory and violated
Articles 14 and 16.
Article 21: Right to Life and Personal Liberty
1. Laxmi v. Union of India (2014) - The Supreme Court issued guidelines to regulate the sale
of acid to prevent acid attacks and directed the government to provide compensation to acid
attack victims.
2. Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017) - The court declared the practice of instant triple
talaq unconstitutional, as it violated Articles 14, 15, and 21.
3. Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997) - The Supreme Court laid down guidelines to
prevent sexual harassment at the workplace, known as the Vishaka Guidelines, until
appropriate legislation was enacted. This judgment underscored the equality clause and the
right to work with dignity.
Directive Principles of State Policy: Article 39(a) and 39(d)
1. Municipal Corporation of Delhi v. Female Workers (Muster Roll) (2000) - The
Supreme Court held that female workers on muster rolls are entitled to maternity benefits
under the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, invoking Article 39(a) for the right to livelihood.
2. M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu (1996) - The court directed the state to provide free
and compulsory education to all children working in hazardous industries, relating to Articles
39(e) and 21.
Impact of above efforts -
Domain Positive Impacts Negative Impacts/Challenges

Political Women’s political representation Sarpanch Patis: As per survey, 35%

Participation has doubled in the last 25 years, of women representatives still face
with women holding around 1 in 4 issues with male proxies (2023)​
parliamentary seats today.
Women’s Reservation in PRIs:
Women now hold 46% of the seats
in Panchayats as of 2023​​.
Legal Protection of Women from Implementation Gaps: Ineffective
Protections and Domestic Violence Act, 2005: utilization of funds (e.g., Nirbhaya
Rights Over 1.3 million cases were reported Fund underutilization).
under this act between 2021-2023​​.

Sexual Harassment of Women

at Workplace Act, 2013:
Establishment of Internal
Complaints Committees (ICCs).
40% increase in reporting cases to
ICCs in 2023 compared to 2020​​.
Economic Corporate Leadership: The Economic Disparities:
Empowerment Fortune 500 recorded the highest The gender pay gap has marginally
number of women CEOs, though improved to 79%, but disparities
they still represented just under 7% remain​​.
of the total (2022).
Low Female Labor Force
Pradhan Mantri Matru Participation: Increased slightly to
Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): 36% in 2023 (PLFS)​​, but still low
Financial assistance to 15 million compared to global averages​​of 53%
women as of 2023​​. Improved (World Bank).
maternal and child health
indicators; institutional deliveries
increased to 88% in 2023​​.
Health and Ayushman Bharat: Health Access to safe abortion remains a
Well-being coverage extended to over 20 challenge. Only 40% of rural health
million women by 2023, reducing centers provide safe abortion services
out-of-pocket expenses by 60%​​. as of 2023​​.
The Supreme Court's extension of
Maternity Benefit Act, 1961: abortion rights in 2022 has faced
Amendments leading to a 30% implementation challenges, with only
increase in maternity leave 50% of eligible facilities equipped to
applications in 2023​​. perform safe abortions​​.

Social activism #MeToo is seen as part of a "fourth wave" of digital feminist activism in
and movements India, building on previous online campaigns questioning restrictions on
women's mobility and safety.
Women Gagandeep Kang (first Indian woman elected to Royal Society), Gandikota
breaking Sarva Lakshmi (first female ICC match referee)
barriers and
becoming
“firsts”

Impact of COVID-19 on Women

Positive Impacts
a. Increased Digital Inclusion and Remote Work Opportunities: The shift to remote
work during the pandemic facilitated better work-life balance for Indian women. LinkedIn
found that 46% of Indian women felt more productive working from home​​.
b. Strengthened Family Bonds: This increased time together has provided opportunities for
deeper connections and more meaningful interactions within the family unit.
c. Rise in Digital Literacy and Online Education: 70% increase in the enrolment of women
in online courses and skill development programs during the pandemic (Internsala Survey).
Initiatives like Google’s “Internet Saathi” program, which trained rural women to use
smartphones and the internet, saw heightened engagement during lockdowns, providing them
with new opportunities for education and employment.
d. Growth in E-commerce and Home-based Businesses: The number of women
entrepreneurs on platforms like Etsy and Amazon India grew by 30% during the pandemic​​.
Platforms like Meesho saw a 2x increase in female sellers during the lockdown period​​.
e. Increased Focus on Women’s Health and Well-being: Government schemes like
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) and Ayushman Bharat saw increased
utilization, with over 15 million women benefiting from health insurance by 2023​​.

Negative Impacts
a. Economic and Employment Setbacks: A McKinsey report noted that women’s jobs were
1.8 times more vulnerable to the crisis than men’s​​. Women in sectors like hospitality, retail,
and informal jobs lost their livelihoods, with 12 million lost their jobs during the first wave of
the pandemic​​.
b. Increased Domestic Burdens and Caregiving Responsibilities: Women in India took
on three times more unpaid care work compared to men during the pandemic, leading to
significant stress and mental health issues​​.
c. Escalation in Gender-Based Violence: Domestic violence surged by 53% during the
lockdowns, with the National Commission for Women (NCW) receiving more than 5,000
complaints in April 2023 alone​​.
d. Impact on Girls’ Education: School closures impacted the education of 158 million
children in India, disproportionately affecting girls who faced increased risks of dropping out
and child marriage​​. 10% of girls aged 15-18 did not return to school post-lockdown,
exacerbating educational disparities​​.
e. Healthcare Access and Reproductive Rights: 68% of Indian women reporting
difficulties in accessing contraceptives and abortion services during the pandemic​​, a 25%
decline in access to reproductive healthcare, affecting women's ability to manage their
reproductive health.
Impact of Urbanization on Women
Positive Impacts
a. Economic Opportunities and Financial Independence - About 31% of urban women
are employed compared to 19% in rural areas​​(2023).
b. Improved Access to Education - As of 2023, female literacy rates in urban areas are 80%,
compared to 61% in rural areas​​.
c. Enhanced Access to Healthcare - 88% of urban women have access to skilled birth
attendants, compared to 69% in rural areas (NFHS-5)​​.
d. Greater Participation in Decision-Making - Urban women participate more in
household decision-making and community activities. 42% of urban women participate in
household financial decisions, compared to 29% in rural areas (2023)​​.
e. Access to Support Networks and, Legal Aid, and NGOs advocating women's rights.
f. Advocacy and Rights: Urban centers are often hubs for advocacy and activism, leading to
stronger movements for women's rights and more robust legal frameworks protecting women
from violence and discrimination​

Negative Impacts
a. Increased Cost of Living and Economic Inequality - In cities like Mumbai, the cost of
living pressures women to work in low-paying, informal jobs, often without job security or
benefits​​. 40% of urban women live in slums or informal settlements, facing financial instability
and poor living conditions​​(UN-Habitat Report, 2023).
b. Challenges of Urban Safety and Mobility - Incidents like the 2012 Delhi gang rape
highlighted the significant safety challenges women face in urban environments, leading to
increased demand for safer public transportation and better law enforcement​​.
c. Work-Life Balance and Mental Health Issues - 34% of urban working women report
high-stress levels due to balancing work and family responsibilities (IIFT)​​.
d. Housing and Living Conditions - In overcrowded living conditions, particularly in slums
and informal settlements, women are more vulnerable to poor living conditions.
e. Wage Gap: Despite increased job opportunities, women often face wage discrimination and
earn less than their male counterparts for the same work
Human Trafficking in India
As per UN, “Human trafficking involves recruitment,
transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons,
by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of
coercion, for the purpose of exploitation."
India reported 5,439 human trafficking cases in 2022, with
women constituting 78% of the victims​​(NCRB).

Child Trafficking: Children, particularly girls, represent

48% of the trafficking victims​​.

Types of Trafficking:
1. Sex Trafficking: Women and girls are coerced or
deceived into prostitution and sexual exploitation.
2. Labor Trafficking: Involves forced labor, often in
domestic work, agriculture, or factories, where
women are deprived of their rights and subjected to
abuse.
 3. Forced Marriage: Women are trafficked into forced marriages, losing autonomy and control
over their lives.

Causes of Human Trafficking

1. Poverty - Economic Hardship: Individuals in poverty-stricken areas are often lured by false
promises of employment and a better life. 36% of forced labor victims are in debt bondage,
often due to economic desperation (ILO).
2. Social/Cultural Practice of Devaluing Women & Girls - Societal norms that value men
over women contribute to higher rates of trafficking among women and girls. 71% of trafficking
victims worldwide are women and girls, largely due to gender inequality (UN).
3. Migration - Migrants, especially those without legal documentation, are at higher risk of
being trafficked. Migrants often lack access to legal protections and social services, making
them easy targets for traffickers.
4. Pandemic - A 2020 report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) noted
a spike in trafficking cases during the pandemic, as traffickers exploited the chaos.
5. Lack of Border Control: Porous borders often serve as transit points for traffickers moving
victims across countries and regions. Eg- In Africa, borders between Nigeria and neighboring
countries are hotspots for trafficking due to minimal surveillance.
6. Labor Exploitation: Industries such as agriculture, construction, and manufacturing often
employ trafficked labor due to the demand for cheap labor.

Impact on Women
a. Violation of Human Rights: Trafficking infringes on fundamental human rights, including
the right to freedom, safety, and dignity. Victims are often subject to forced labor, sexual
exploitation, and other forms of abuse.
b. Social Stigma and Marginalization - Survivors of trafficking often find it difficult to
reintegrate into society due to stigma and trauma, limiting their ability to reclaim their
autonomy.
c. Economic Exploitation and Poverty - Women trafficked for labor are often unpaid or
underpaid, contributing to cycles of poverty. 60% of trafficked women are coerced into
labor-intensive jobs with little to no compensation​​.
d. Physical and Psychological Trauma - 90% of trafficked women experience physical and
sexual violence​​. Survivors often suffer from long-term mental health issues such as PTSD and
depression, which hinder their ability to pursue education and employment.
e. Barriers to Education and Skills Development - Over 70% of trafficked women in India
have limited or no access to formal education​​.

Government Policies and Initiatives to Combat Human

Trafficking
a. Article 23(1) : explicitly prohibits human trafficking and forced labor. It mandates that any
form of human trafficking, including slavery and bonded labor, is illegal and punishable by
law.
b. Section 370A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was introduced as part of the Criminal Law
(Amendment) Act, 2013, to provide comprehensive measures against human trafficking. It
specifically addresses the exploitation of trafficked persons and prescribes stringent penalties
for offenders.
c. Trafficking in Persons (Prevention, Care and Rehabilitation) Bill 2021: aims to
address various aspects of trafficking, including prevention, protection, and rehabilitation of
victims. Key features:
i. Comprehensive Definition: The bill provides a broad definition of trafficking,
covering various forms of exploitation, including sexual exploitation, forced labor,
organ trafficking, and forced marriage.
 ii. National Anti-Trafficking Bureau: The bill proposes the establishment of a
National Anti-Trafficking Bureau to coordinate and monitor anti-trafficking activities
across the country.
iii. Special Courts for the speedy trial of trafficking cases.
iv. Victim Protection and Rehabilitation: It proposes the creation of rehabilitation
homes and provides for the physical, psychological, and social rehabilitation of victims.
The bill also includes provisions for compensation to victims.
v. Stringent Penalties including imprisonment and fines. It also includes provisions for
the confiscation of property and assets acquired through trafficking.
d. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA): aimed at preventing trafficking for
commercial sexual exploitation. It provides for the rescue and rehabilitation of victims and the
prosecution of traffickers.
e. Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012: This act specifically
addresses sexual exploitation and abuse of children, including trafficking for sexual purposes.
It provides stringent punishments for offenders and ensures child-friendly procedures during
the trial.
f. Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976: This act aims to eradicate bonded labor, a
form of human trafficking where individuals are forced to work to repay debts. It provides for
the release and rehabilitation of bonded laborers.
g. Anti-Human Trafficking Units (AHTUs): The Ministry of Home Affairs has established
AHTUs in various states to strengthen law enforcement responses to human trafficking. These
units are tasked with investigating trafficking cases, rescuing victims, and prosecuting
traffickers.
h. Ujjawala Scheme: Launched by the Ministry of Women and Child Development, aims to
prevent trafficking and provide rescue, rehabilitation, and reintegration services to victims of
trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation.
i. National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking: It includes measures for
prevention, protection, and prosecution. It emphasizes the need for coordination among
various stakeholders, including law enforcement agencies, NGOs, and international
organizations.
j. Community Awareness and Prevention Initiatives - Initiatives like “Swaraksha” focus
on community engagement and education to prevent trafficking in vulnerable regions​​.
Care Economy
It encompasses childcare, eldercare, healthcare, and domestic work. While the care economy is
fundamental to societal functioning, it also presents opportunities and challenges for women's
empowerment.

The Ministry of Women and Child Development reported a 30% increase in registered childcare
facilities in urban areas from 2020 to 2023​​.

Positive Impacts
1. Creation of Employment Opportunities
a. Care work employs around 40% of women in India (ILO)​​.
b. Initiatives like the Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) program have created over
1 million jobs for women in rural areas, enhancing their economic independence and
social status​​.
1. Promotion of Women's Participation
in the Workforce - Urban centers like
Mumbai and Delhi have seen a rise in
women working as nannies, caregivers,
and domestic workers, enabling them to
contribute to their household income and
gain financial independence​​. Nearly 4
million women are engaged in domestic
work (NSSO)​​.
2. Support for Work-Life Balance -
Women in corporate sectors benefit from
employer-provided daycare services, such
as those offered by Infosys and TCS, which
help retain women in the workforce by
easing their childcare burden​​.
3. Advocacy and Policy Development -
The Indian government has introduced
policies like the National Creche Scheme
and the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, which mandate maternity leave and childcare
support, promoting women's participation in labor​​.
4. Improved Health Outcomes: Care services, including healthcare and eldercare, contribute
to better health outcomes for communities. These services ensure that individuals receive
necessary medical attention and support, enhancing overall public health
5. Child Development: Quality childcare services promote early childhood development,
providing children with a strong foundation for future learning and growth.
6. Support for Aging Population: As the global population ages, the care economy becomes
increasingly important for ensuring appropriate care and decent quality of life

Challenges associated with Care Economy

a. Reinforcement of traditional Gender Roles - women in India spend 299 minutes daily
on unpaid care work compared to 97 minutes for men (ILO)​​.
b. Economic Inequality and Low Wages - Domestic workers in India earn between 1,500
and 5,000 per month, significantly lower than the minimum wage in other sectors​​.
c. Limited Career Progression: Women in the care economy often face barriers to career
advancement, which perpetuates income inequality and reduces their economic potential​
 d. Lack of Formal Recognition and Social Security - The informal nature of much of the
care economy means that many workers lack formal recognition and access to social security
benefits. 80% of domestic workers lack formal contracts (NSSO)​​.
e. Health Risks and Lack of Support - 60% of domestic workers had no access to personal
protective equipment (PPE) during the COVID-19 pandemic​​.

Way Forward to Empower Women

Strategy Example Case Study
Enhanced The “Skill India” mission can be tailored to SEWA Bharat’s
Education include more women-specific training Vocational Training
and Skill programs, encouraging skill development in Program
Development both traditional and non-traditional sectors.
Promotion of Expand the scope of initiatives like Project Navjeevan in
Women’s Ayushman Bharat to include more Rajasthan
Health and women-specific health services and ensure
Reproductive greater coverage in remote areas.
Rights
Economic Replicate the model of the Mudra Yojana Udyogini’s Women
Inclusion and scheme to include more women Entrepreneurs Program
Financial beneficiaries and support their
Independence entrepreneurial ventures.
Legal Enhance collaboration between OSCs and One Stop Centres (OSC)
Reforms and local NGOs to provide comprehensive for Women
Policy support and improve outreach efforts.
Implementati
on
Empowermen Expand the BharatNet initiative to ensure Digital Sakhi by L&T
t through internet connectivity in rural areas, enabling Financial Services
Technology more women to participate in the digital
and Digital economy.
Inclusion
Support for Implement community-based childcare
Work-Life programs in collaboration with local
Balance and governments to support working mothers.
Care
Economy
Children
Introduction
Child empowerment involves strategies and actions to give children the tools, opportunities, and
rights to participate actively and meaningfully in their communities and lives.
It encompasses ensuring their rights, protecting them from harm, and providing the education and
resources necessary for their development.
“Children are not things to be molded but are people to be unfolded.” — Jess Lair
“Children are the world’s most valuable resource and its best hope for the future.”— John F. Kennedy

Data
Child Health
1. The U5MR declined from 114 per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 39 in 2016.
2. The IMR decreased from 81 to 34 per 1,000 live births between 1990 and 2016.
3. Malnutrition remains a critical issue, with over 40% of children underweight and more than
one in four babies born with low birth weight.
4. Anaemia is prevalent, affecting nearly 70% of children under five years old.
5. The coverage of fully immunized children has increased from 62% to 77% among children aged
12-23 months between NFHS-4
and NFHS-5.

Child Education
1. The attendance rate for children
of primary school age is 95%,
while for adolescents of lower
secondary school age, it is 80%.
2. 49% of children aged 36-59
months attend an early
childhood education program.

Child Labor
1. 23% of children aged 5-17 are engaged in child labor, including economic activities and
household chores.

Major Challenges in Child Empowerment in India

Education
a. Access and Quality
1. Inadequate Infrastructure: nearly one in every four schools in rural India does not
have basic facilities such as drinking water or toilets (ASER 2022). The CAG of India
also highlighted that 82% of rural schools require renovation due to poor conditions.
2. Distance to Schools: 92.7% of households in rural areas reported the availability of a
primary school within 1 km of their house, but only 38% reported a secondary school
within such a distance (NSO). In rural India, 66.5% of girls travel to school on foot,
which is higher than the average for boys, highlighting the gender disparity in access to
education.
3. Teacher-Student Ratio: India has nearly 1.2 lakh schools with just one teacher each,
indicating a severe shortage of teaching staff.
4. Learning Outcomes: 69.6% of children enrolled in Std VIII in government or private
schools could read at least basic text, down from 73% in 2018. (ASER 2022).
b. Socio-Economic Barriers
1. Gender Disparities: The literacy rate for females is 54.16%, significantly lower than
the male literacy rate of 75.85%. 48% of girls with no education were married below 18
years of age, compared to only 4% among those who attained higher education
c. Child Labor
1. India had 7.8 million child laborers in 2023, comprising a male-female ratio of 57%and
43%, respectively.
2. Definitional Confusion: Different definitions of child labor complicate enforcement.
For instance, the Child and
Adolescent Labour
(Prohibition and Regulation)
Act, 1986, defines a “child” as
anyone below 14 years and
prohibits employment in any
occupation. Juvenile Justice
(Care and Protection of
Children) Act, 2000: Defines a
child as a person who has not
completed their 18th year of age
3. Lack of Identification: Many
child laborers lack identification
documents, making enforcing
laws and protecting their rights
difficult.
4. Weak
Enforcement:
Corruption and
inadequate
enforcement of child
labor laws allow the
practice to continue.
d. Child Marriage
1. In rural Haryana,
16.9% of women are
married before the age
of 18 years. This high
prevalence is
attributed to social
norms that influence
intergenerational
decision-making and
lead to uninformed
choices regarding
marriage
e. Health and Well-being
1. India has one-sixth of the world's under-five deaths and around a quarter of neonatal
deaths.
2. 48% of children under five years are stunted, 43% are underweight, and 20%
experience wasting
f. Violence and Exploitation
1. Approximately 28.9% of the entire child population experienced some form of sexual
crime, yet only 65.6% of these crimes were reported (NCRB 2022)
2. From 2016 to 2022, there was a 96% surge in reported cases of child rape and
penetrative assaults, reaching 38,911 cases in 2022.
Steps Taken to Mitigate Challenges in Child Empowerment in
India
a. Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 15(3): Allows the state to make special provisions for children.
2. Article 21A: Right to free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14.
3. Article 23: Prohibits trafficking and forced labor.
4. Article 24: Prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 in hazardous
occupations.
5. Article 39(e): Protects children from being abused and forced into unsuitable
occupations.
6. Article 39(f): Ensures children are given opportunities to develop healthily and
protected against exploitation.
7. Article 45: Directs the state to provide early childhood care and education for all
children until they complete the age of six years.
8. Article 51A(k): Mandates parents or guardians to provide opportunities for education
to their children between the ages of six and fourteen years.
b. Legal Provisions
1. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: Prohibits child marriages and provides
for the appointment of Child Marriage Prohibition Officers.
2. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986: Prohibits the
employment of children in hazardous occupations and regulates the working conditions
of children in non-hazardous occupations.
3. Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012: Provides for
the protection of children from sexual assault, sexual harassment, and pornography.
4. Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009:
Ensures free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14.
c. Government Schemes and Policies
1. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS): Provides six services to children
below six years of age and pregnant and lactating mothers, including supplementary
nutrition and early childhood education.
2. The National Child Labour Project (NCLP) Scheme focuses on identifying,
withdrawing, and rehabilitating child laborers and their integration into formal
education.
3. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Aims to address the declining child sex ratio and
promote the education and empowerment of girls.
4. Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (SABLA):
Focuses on the all-round development of adolescent girls through nutrition, health, and
vocational training.
5. POSHAN Abhiyaan: Aims to address malnutrition through community mobilization,
behavioral change, and capacity building.
6. PENCIL Portal: The government launched the PENCIL (Platform for Effective
Enforcement for No Child Labour) portal to ensure effective enforcement of child labor
laws and to facilitate the rescue and rehabilitation of child laborers.
d. Institutional Efforts
1. National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR): Established to
protect and promote children's rights in India.
2. Ministry of Women and Child Development: Formulates and implements
policies and programs for developing and protecting women and children.
e. Global Efforts
1. UNICEF: Works with the Indian government to address issues like child marriage,
child labor, and education.
2. International Labour Organization (ILO): Collaborates on projects like the
MAP16 project to eliminate child labor and promote skill development and economic
empowerment.
 f. Supreme Court Judgments
1. M.C. Mehta vs. State of Tamil Nadu (1997): Prohibited child labor in hazardous
conditions and linked child labor with poverty.
2. Unnikrishnan J.P. & Ors vs. State of Andhra Pradesh: Expanded the right to
education as part of the right to life, leading to the inclusion of Article 21A in the
Constitution.
3. Gaurav Jain vs. Union of India: Ensured the right to equality, dignity, and
protection for children of prostitutes.

Impact of Efforts to Mitigate Challenges in Child

Empowerment in India

Positive Impacts
1. Right to Education (Article 21A): Implementing the Right to Education Act has
significantly increased school enrollment rates. The Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for
elementary education (Grades 1-8) was 96.1% (UDISE).
2. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: The percentage of women aged 20-24 who
were married before 18 decreased from 47.4% in 2005-06 to 23.3% in 2019-21 (NFHS 5).
3. Child Labour (Prohibition and
Regulation) Act, 1986: The
number of working children aged
5-14 years decreased from 57.79
lakh in 2001 to 43.53 lakh in 2011,
according to Census data.
4. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
(BBBP): The sex ratio at birth
improved from 918 in 2014-15 to
934 in 2019-20, according to the
Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare.
5. National Child Labour Project
(NCLP) Scheme: Over 1.5
million children have been rescued
and rehabilitated under the NCLP
scheme since its inception.
6. National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR): The NCPCR has
handled over 1.5 lakh complaints related to child rights violations since its establishment in
2007.
7. Collaboration with UNICEF and ILO: UNICEF's partnership with the Indian government
has led to implementing programs that have reached over 10 million children, improving their
access to education and protection services.
8. M.C. Mehta vs. State of Tamil Nadu (1997): This judgment led to special schools for child
laborers, benefiting thousands of children by providing them with education and vocational
training.
9. Awareness Campaigns: Campaigns like “Kanya Shiksha Pravesh Utsav” have successfully
enrolled over 1 million out-of-school girls into the education system.
Challenges
1. Inconsistent Enforcement: Despite strong legal frameworks, enforcement remains
inconsistent. Eg- NCRB reported only 1,050 cases registered under the Prohibition of Child
Marriage Act in 2020, indicating underreporting and weak enforcement.
2. Persistent Poverty: 22% of India's population lives below the poverty line, which continues
to drive child labor and limit access to education (World Bank).
3. Cultural Resistance: 27% of girls aged 15-19 years are not in education, employment, or
training (NEET), compared to 13% of boys, highlighting persistent gender disparities (NFHS
5).
4. Infrastructure Deficiencies: ASER 2020 found that only 66.4% of schools had usable girls’
toilets, impacting school attendance and retention rates for girls.
5. Health Risks: 23.8% of women aged 20-24 years who were married before 18 had
experienced physical violence, indicating the health risks associated with child marriage
(NFHS 5).
6. Economic Incentives: Conditional cash transfer programs sometimes lead to unintended
consequences. Eg- the “Apni Beti Apna Dhan” program in Haryana saw families using
financial incentives to cover marriage costs once girls turned 18 rather than investing in their
education.
7. Digital Inequality: only 11% of children in rural areas had access to online learning during
the COVID-19 pandemic, exacerbating educational inequalities (ASER 2020).

Children's Major Issues in

the 21st Century
a. Emotional Well-being and
Mental Health: the OECD report
notes that “children in the 21st
century are increasingly pushed to
do more by overprotective
‘helicopter parents’ who hover
over their children to protect them
from potential harm. On an
emotional level, children are
reporting more stress and anxiety.”
b. Impact of Digital Technologies:
Potential risks include cyberbullying,
exposure to inappropriate content,
internet addiction, and negative
effects on sleep and physical activity.
c. Physical Health Challenges: Childhood obesity rates are increasing, linked to poor eating
habits, lack of physical activity, and sedentary lifestyles.
d. Changing Family Structures: children grow up in non-traditional family structures like
single-parent households. Children are likelier to be only children with fewer siblings to
interact with.
e. Inequality and Disadvantages: Socioeconomic inequalities persist, with disadvantaged
children more likely to face poverty, have reduced access to services, and experience poorer
educational outcomes.
Impact of COVID-19

Health and Nutrition

a. Immunization and Health Services
1. Routine Immunization: The pandemic disrupted routine childhood immunization,
leading to a 2%–10% lower probability of immunization and a 3%–5% lower probability
of timely vaccination for children born after the onset of COVID-19 (Lancet Study).
2. Healthcare Access: COVID-19 caused delays in seeking medical care for non-COVID
emergencies, such as typhoid fever, dengue, and surgical emergencies.
b. Malnutrition - The pandemic exacerbated food insecurity, particularly affecting children
reliant on government programs like the ICDS and mid-day meal programs.

Education
a. School Closures and Learning Loss
1. School Closures: The closure of schools and childcare centers disrupted early
childhood education, affecting young children's social and emotional development
2. Learning Loss: Primary school children in Assam lost the equivalent of nine months
of learning in mathematics and eleven months in language during the pandemic.
3. Digital Divide: 43.9% of school children had access to smartphones, while 12% had
no access to any phones (Smile Foundation).
Mental Health and Well-being - Children were exposed to information overload and often
horrifying news, leading to heightened levels of stress and anxiety.
Social and Economic Impact
1. Child Abuse and Exploitation: A rise in child marriages, trafficking, and other
forms of exploitation during the pandemic.
2. Orphanhood: An estimated 3.5 million children in India lost caregivers due to
COVID-19-associated deaths (JAMA Pediatrics).

Way Forward for Children Empowerment

Enhancing Education
a. Expand Access to Quality Education: Implement policies that ensure all children,
especially girls and marginalized groups, have access to quality education. Eg: Bihar's free
bicycle program and financial incentives for girls' education.
b. Leverage Technology: Use technology to enhance learning experiences through digital
classrooms, online resources, and educational apps. Eg: Creative Galileo’s use of gamification
and narrative videos to support reading development.

Improving Health and Well-being

a. Provide Comprehensive Healthcare: Ensure access to healthcare services, including
nutrition, sanitation, and mental health support, for all children. Eg: Salaam Baalak Trust's
holistic approach to healthcare for street children.
b. Address Malnutrition and Preventive Care: Implement programs that provide
nutritious food, clean water, and preventive healthcare services to needy children. Eg:
Initiatives like the ICDS program.

Socio-Economic Support
a. Vocational Training and Skill Development: Provide vocational training and skill
development programs to older children and adolescents to prepare them for the workforce.
Eg: Lok Samiti's vocational training programs for girls in Varanasi.
 b. Economic Empowerment of Families: Support families with income-generating
opportunities and financial assistance to reduce economic pressures that lead to child labor
and early marriage.

Legal and Policy Reforms

a. Strengthen Enforcement of Child Protection Laws: Ensure strict enforcement of
existing child protection laws and introduce new policies to safeguard children's rights.
b. Promote Gender Equality: Implement policies and programs that promote gender equality
and empower girls through education and economic opportunities.

Community and Societal Engagement

a. Raise Awareness and Change Attitudes: Conduct awareness campaigns to change
societal attitudes towards child labor, child marriage, and the importance of education—Eg:
Awareness campaigns by NGOs like Save the Children and Bal Shakti.
b. Engage Local Communities: Involve community leaders, parents, and local organizations
in promoting child empowerment and protecting children's rights. Eg- Community
engagement initiatives by organizations like KSCF and Salaam Baalak Trust.

Scheduled Caste
“Caste is not a physical object like a wall of bricks or a line of barbed wire which prevents the Hindus
from co-mingling and which has, therefore, to be pulled down. Caste is a notion; it is a state of the
mind.” - B. R. Ambedkar

“Social justice is achieved when the most marginalized are heard and uplifted.” - Savitribai Phule

Data
Recent Incidents of Atrocities against Dalits
Ajmer, Rajasthan (January 26, 2024): A minor Dalit boy was brutally assaulted and humiliated
by a group of young men while making reels in a public place. The attackers forced him to drink urine
and liquor, and the incident was caught on camera and widely circulated online.
Madhya Pradesh (February 2024): Anjana Ahirwar, a Dalit woman, died under suspicious
circumstances after her brother was allegedly murdered by local leaders. The family faced relentless
harassment and pressure to compromise in a harassment case, leading to multiple deaths within the
family.
Karnataka (February 2024): The Chief Minister of Karnataka acknowledged the state's poor
performance in the conviction rate for atrocities against Dalits.

Major Issues Faced by Dalits in India

a. Violence and Atrocities
1. Dalits are frequently subjected to violence and atrocities, including physical assaults,
murders, and sexual violence. This violence is often a reaction to Dalits asserting
their rights or challenging the status quo. Eg- The Hathras case in 2020
2. Crimes against Dalits increased from 50,744 in 2021 to 57,428 in 2022 (NCRB).
 3. The conviction rate for cases of atrocities against SC/STs is less than 30%, compared to
the national average of 42% (NHRC).
b. Economic Exploitation
1. Dalits are forced to work as bonded laborers despite the practice being abolished by law
in 1976.
2. Around 80% of Dalits live in rural areas, mostly marginal farmers or landless laborers
(Minority Rights Group).
c. Social Exclusion and Discrimination - Dalit children are often made to sit separately in
schools and are served food last. The International Dalit Solidarity Network reports that less
than 2% of rape cases against Dalit women result in convictions.
d. Political Marginalization - Dalit leaders often remain ineffective in preventing violence
against their community due to systemic biases and lack of political will.
e. Educational Disparities
1. Dalit students often lack the social and cultural capital to succeed in higher education
and employment.
2. Only one out of three Dalit girls completes five years of schooling, compared to half in
other communities.

Steps Taken to Empower Scheduled Castes

a. Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 15(4): Allows the State to make special provisions for advancing any socially
and educationally backward classes, including SCs.
2. Article 16(4) and 16(4A): Provides for appointment reservations and public
employment promotions for SCs.
3. Article 17: Abolishes untouchability and forbids its practice in any form.
4. Article 46: Directs the State to promote the educational and economic interests of SCs
and protect them from social injustice and exploitation.
5. Article 330 and 332: Reserves seats for SCs in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative
Assemblies.
6. Article 338: establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes to investigate
and monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for SCs.
b. Legal Provisions
1. Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: Enacted to abolish untouchability and
prevent its practice in any form.
2. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989: Aims to prevent atrocities against SCs and STs and provides for special courts
for the trial of such offenses.
3. Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation
Act, 2013: Prohibits manual scavenging and provides for the rehabilitation of manual
scavengers.
c. Schemes and Policies
1. Educational Empowerment: Financial assistance to SC students to reduce dropout
rates and support higher education (Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarships ).
2. National Fellowship and National Overseas Scholarship: Supports SC students
pursuing research and higher education abroad.
3. Economic Empowerment: Provides credit facilities for income-generating
activities. Example: National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation
(NSFDC)
4. Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes: Promotes entrepreneurship among
SCs.
5. Credit Enhancement Guarantee Scheme: Provides credit guarantees to SC
entrepreneurs.
6. Social Empowerment: Integrated development of SC-majority villages in Pradhan
Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY)
 7. Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna: Construction of hostels for SC students.
d. Institutional Mechanisms
1. National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC): Investigates and monitors
all matters relating to the safeguards provided for SCs and advises on their
socio-economic development.
2. Scheduled Castes Development (SCD) Bureau: Promotes the welfare of SCs
through educational, economic, and social empowerment initiatives.
e. Judicial Pronouncements
1. Union of India v. State of Maharashtra (2019) - The Supreme Court recalled the
guidelines introduced in the 2018 judgment (Subhash Mahajan Case), restoring the
original provisions of the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act to ensure stringent
protection against atrocities.
2. Laxmi Narayan Modi v. Union of India - issued directives to enforce the
Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013,
ensuring the abolition of manual scavenging and rehabilitation of affected individuals.
3. S. Swaran Singh v. State - The Supreme Court ruled that caste-based verbal abuse
in public places is punishable under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

Impact of Efforts to Empower Scheduled Castes in India

Positive Impacts
a. Assertion of Rights - According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), there has
been an increase in the registration of cases under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
which indicates improved reporting and legal action against atrocities.
b. Increased Educational Opportunities: The literacy rate among SCs has improved from
54.7% in 2001 to 66.1% in 2011, indicating progress in educational attainment.
c. Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for SCs in higher education has risen to 23.4% in 2019-20
from 19.8% in 2010-11, indicating improved access to higher education
d. The establishment of Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) has provided quality
education to about 73,391 students from tribal communities, including many SC students, with
modern facilities and holistic development programs​
e. Social Inclusion: According to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, there has
been a rise in inter-caste marriages, which is a sign of increasing social acceptance. In 2021-22,
there were about 5.8% inter-caste marriages among SCs.
f. Public Sector Jobs: As per the Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT), about 16.6%
of Group C and 7% of Group A positions in the central government are reserved for SCs. The
representation of SCs in public sector employment has steadily increased.
g. Reduction in Manual Scavenging: Strict enforcement of laws has led to a significant
reduction in manual scavenging, with over 20,000 individuals rehabilitated and provided with
alternative employment
h. Community Development: Over 15 lakh Dalit women have been organized into self-help
groups (SHGs) under the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), enhancing their
economic and social empowerment
i. Improved Social Status: Efforts to eliminate untouchability and promote social inclusion
have led to a gradual improvement in the social status of SCs, reducing instances of social
ostracism and discrimination.
j. Political Representation: Constitutional provisions for reserved seats in the Lok Sabha and
State Legislative Assemblies have ensured political representation for SCs, allowing them to
participate in the decision-making process and advocate for their rights.

Negative Impacts
a. Persistent Discrimination and Violence: Despite legal protections, caste-based violence
and atrocities against SCs continue to persist. According to the National Crime Records Bureau
(NCRB), there were 50,900 cases of crimes against SCs reported in 2021, and 1,38,825 cases
over the last three years​
 b. Social Exclusion: The India Exclusion Report 2020 highlighted that 27% of Indians practice
some form of untouchability, with many SCs being denied entry into temples and access to
public resources​
c. Economic Disparities: SCs have higher unemployment rates compared to other social
groups. The unemployment rate among SCs was 1.7 percentage points higher than the all-India
average (NSO).
d. Job Insecurity: SCs are employed as casual wage laborers, which signifies higher job
insecurity and poor earnings. The share of casual wage labor among SCs is 47%, compared to
one-third for other social groups (India Wage Report- ILO).
e. Educational Challenges: The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2020 reported
that the dropout rate among SC students in secondary education was 33%, compared to the
national average of 17%​
f. Ineffective Implementation: Issues such as corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and
lack of awareness among beneficiaries hinder the effectiveness of these initiatives.
g. Dilution of Benefits: The ongoing inclusion of more groups into the reserved categories has
diluted the positive impact of reservation policies, making it harder for the most disadvantaged
SCs to benefit from these measures.

Manual Scavenging in India

Causes of Manual Scavenging
a. Caste-Based Division of Labor: predominantly carried out by Dalits, who are relegated to
this work due to historical caste-based discrimination.
b. Lack of Alternative Livelihood Opportunities: Manual scavengers have limited access to
education and job opportunities, forcing them to continue this hazardous occupation.
c. Inadequate Sanitation Infrastructure: In rural and economically disadvantaged areas,
there is a lack of proper sanitation infrastructure, necessitating the manual cleaning of dry
toilets, open drains, and septic tanks.
d. Indifferent Attitude and Outsourcing: Local bodies often outsource sewer cleaning tasks
to private contractors who do not maintain proper records or provide safety equipment,
leading to hazardous working conditions.
e. Family Occupation: Manual scavenging becomes a family occupation, with children
following in their parent's footsteps due to social stigma and lack of other opportunities.
f. Availability of Cheap Labor: it is easy for contractors to hire manual scavengers at low
wages, perpetuating the cycle of exploitation.
g. Inadequate Rehabilitation Programs: The government's rehabilitation schemes, such as
the Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS), have not been
effectively implemented.

Impact of Manual Scavenging

a. Health Hazards: Manual scavengers are exposed to toxic gases and pathogens, leading to
respiratory problems, skin diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, and even death. Between 2016
and 2019, 482 manual scavengers died while cleaning sewers and septic tanks (NCSK).
b. Economic Deprivation: The low wages and lack of job security associated with manual
scavenging keep individuals and their families in a cycle of poverty.
c. Violation of Human Rights: Manual scavenging is a gross violation of human rights,
depriving individuals of their dignity and subjecting them to inhumane working conditions.
d. Social Marginalization: The practice reinforces the social marginalization of Dalits,
perpetuating the cycle of poverty and exclusion.
e. Intergenerational Poverty: Social mobility is severely restricted, with children of manual
scavengers often forced into the same profession due to lack of opportunities. According to a
report by the NCSK, only 4% of the children of manual scavengers complete higher education
f. Psychological Stress: The stigma and discrimination associated with manual scavenging
cause severe mental stress, depression, and a sense of social exclusion.
Efforts to Eradicate Manual Scavenging
a. Legislative Measures:
1. The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines
(Prohibition) Act, 1993: Banned the employment of manual scavengers and the
construction of dry latrines.
2. The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their
Rehabilitation Act, 2013: Reinforced the ban and provided for the rehabilitation of
manual scavengers.
b. Government Schemes:
1. NAMASTE Scheme: Aims to mechanize sanitation work and eliminate manual
scavenging.
2. Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers
(SRMS): Provides training, loans, and subsidies for alternative occupations.
c. Technological Interventions: Development and deployment of automated sewer cleaning
machines and robots to reduce human involvement in hazardous sanitation work.
d. Judicial Interventions

1. Safai Karamchari Andolan & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. (2014) - SC
ordered:

a. The identification of all manual scavengers.

b. The provision of alternative employment and rehabilitation measures for them.

c. Compensation of ₹10 lakh to the families of those who died while cleaning
sewers and septic tanks.

2. Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India (1984) -The Supreme Court

recognized bonded labor as a violation of human rights and directed the government to
take proactive measures to rehabilitate bonded laborers, including manual scavengers.

Way Forward
1. Ensure strict enforcement of existing laws prohibiting manual scavenging, with stringent
punitive measures for violations.
2. Develop and implement comprehensive rehabilitation programs, including
education, skill development, financial aid, and dignified employment opportunities for
manual scavengers.
3. Invest in modern sanitation technologies to eliminate the need for manual scavenging.
This includes using automated machines and robots to clean sewers and septic tanks.
4. Conduct awareness campaigns to change public attitudes towards manual scavenging and
reduce its stigma.
5. Invest in building and maintaining proper sanitation infrastructure, including
sewage systems and flush toilets, to reduce the reliance on manual scavengers.
6. Involve local communities in the planning and implementation of sanitation projects to
ensure that the needs and rights of manual scavengers are addressed

Way Forward to Empower Scheduled Castes in India

a. Legal and Institutional Reforms - Ensure strict implementation of the SC/ST (Prevention
of Atrocities) Act, 1989, with robust monitoring mechanisms to track and address violations
promptly​​. (SC directives in Safai Karamchari Andolan case)
b. Legal Awareness: Increase legal literacy among SC communities about their rights and the
protections available under the law.

c. Fast-Track Courts: Establish more fast-track courts to handle cases related to atrocities
against SCs to ensure swift justice​. Eg- Fast Track Court in Hathras case

d. Skill Development Programs: Expand skill development programs tailored to SC youth to

enhance their employability in various sectors. Programs like the National Skill Development
Mission should specifically target SC communities​​.

e. Entrepreneurship Support: Provide financial assistance and mentorship to SC

entrepreneurs through schemes like the Stand-Up India initiative, ensuring easy access to
credit and business development services​​.

f. Scholarship Programs: Strengthen scholarship programs for SC students, ensuring timely

disbursement of funds and expanding coverage to include more beneficiaries.

g. Vocational and Technical Education: Integrate vocational training with formal education
to provide SC students with practical skills that enhance their employability. Initiatives like the
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) can be tailored to meet the specific needs of
SC youth​​.

h. Anti-Discrimination Campaigns: Launch nationwide awareness campaigns to combat

caste-based discrimination and promote social inclusion. These campaigns should involve
schools, workplaces, and media to change societal attitudes​.

i. Cultural Programs: Promote cultural programs that celebrate the heritage and
contributions of SC communities, fostering a sense of pride and unity.

j. Self-Help Groups (SHGs): Strengthen and expand SHGs among SCs to foster economic
self-reliance and community solidarity. Programs like the National Rural Livelihoods Mission
(NRLM) should focus on empowering SC women through SHGs​​.

k. Leadership Development: Provide training and capacity-building programs for SC leaders

in PRIs to enhance their effectiveness in governance and policy-making.
Tribals
A tribe is a social group usually with a social area, dialect, cultural homogeneity, and unifying social
organization. It may include several sub-groups such as Sibs or villages. The tribe ordinarily has a
leader and may have a common ancestor, as well as a patron deity. The families or small communities
making up the tribe are linked through economic, social, religious, family, or blood ties.

Scheduled Tribes are defined in Article 366(25) of the Indian Constitution as “such tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under
Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for this constitution”.

Scheduled Tribes (ST) constitute approximately 8.6% of population of India numbering around 10.4
crores. There are over 730 Scheduled Tribes notified under Article 342 of the Constitution of India.
Data
Indicator Data

Sex Ratio 990 compared to India's average of 933

Population Below Poverty Line (BPL) 40.6% ST population vs. 20.5% non-tribal
population

Anemia in Women (15-49 years) 65% of tribal women

Institutional Delivery Rate 70.1% (lowest among all groups)

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 44.4 per 1,000 live births (2014)

Under-five Mortality Rate 57.2 per 1,000 live births

Malaria Mortality 50% of total malaria deaths

Prevalence of Underweight Children 1.5 times higher in tribal children than in

'other' castes

Adequate Intake of Protein and 25% of pregnant and lactating women,

Calories 29-32% of children

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal 75 identified groups

Groups (PVTGs)

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 2.5

Prevalence of Pulmonary 703 per 100,000 vs. 256 per 100,000 in the
Tuberculosis rest of the country

Leprosy Proportion 18.5% of all cases

Hypertension in Adults 1 in 4 adults

Prevalence of Sickle Cell Anemia 1 in 86 births, especially in central India

Tobacco and Alcohol Use (Men 15-54 72% tobacco use, 50% alcohol consumption
years)

Outpatient Visits to Public Hospitals Nearly 50%

Indoor Hospitalization in More than two-thirds

Government Health Services
Recent developments for the tribal population
1. Zonal Cultural Centres (ZCCs): GOI established seven ZCCs responsible for organizing
cultural activities and programs to conserve tribal languages and culture. These centers are
located in Patiala, Nagpur, Udaipur, Prayagraj, Kolkata, Dimapur, and Thanjavur.
2. Tribal Freedom Fighter Museums:
Ten museums have been sanctioned to
acknowledge the heroic deeds of tribal
freedom fighters.
3. Eklavya Model Residential Schools
(EMRS): These schools provide quality
education to Scheduled Tribe (ST)
students in remote areas. Currently, over
1.2 lakh students are enrolled in 401
EMRS, with plans to recruit 38,000
teachers and support staff to benefit 3.5
lakh tribal students.
4. Pradhan Mantri PVTG Development
Mission: Launched with a budget of
around Rs. 24,000 crore, this mission
aims to improve the socio-economic
conditions of Particularly Vulnerable
Tribal Groups (PVTGs) by providing basic
amenities such as safe housing, clean
drinking water, health, and education facilities.
5. Van Dhan Vikas Kendras: These centers focus on promoting tribal entrepreneurship and
livelihood through value addition to forest produce.
6. Recognition of Habitat Rights: In Chhattisgarh, the government has recognized the
habitat rights of Kamar PVTGs, securing their land and cultural identity.
7. Comprehensive Health Action Plan: Initiatives like the Tribal Health Convention aim to
bring healthcare to the doorstep of tribal communities, addressing unique health challenges
due to geographical isolation.
8. Digital Governance: The Performance Dashboard “Empowering Tribal - Transforming
India” by The Ministry of Tribal Affairs showcases real-time details of various schemes and
initiatives.

Common Characteristics of Tribal Communities

a. Geographical Isolation: Tribes typically live in specific, often remote, geographical areas
such as forests, hills, and mountains. The Bhil tribe, one of the largest tribes in India,
primarily resides in the forested regions of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and
Maharashtra
b. Sense of Unity: This unity is often reinforced by shared living spaces, common dialects, and
collective cultural practices. The Naga tribes of Northeast India exhibit a strong sense of
unity through their communal festivals like the Hornbill Festival
c. Endogamous Group: The Gond tribe, found in central India, practices endogamy, marrying
within their own community to maintain their cultural traditions
d. Common Dialect: the Santhals, one of the largest tribal communities in India, speak the
Santhali language, which is an essential part of their cultural identity.
e. Distinct Political Organization: Each tribe has its own political structure, typically led by a
chief. The Khasi tribe in Meghalaya has a matrilineal system with a political structure
led by a chief known as the Syiem, who plays a crucial role in governance and social order.
f. Protection Awareness: This is managed through a distinct political organization, often led
by a tribal chief and supported by a council or committee. The Sentinelese tribe of the
 Andaman Islands is known for their fierce protection of their territory, maintaining strict
isolation from outsiders to preserve their way of life
g. Importance of Kinship: The Bhutia tribe of Sikkim has a strong kinship system, with
clan-based social structures that influence marriage and social interactions
h. Egalitarian Values: The Munda tribe of Jharkhand practices egalitarian values, with
community decisions made collectively and equal participation of men and women in social
and economic activities
i. Rudimentary Religion: The Baiga tribe of Madhya Pradesh practices animism, worshipping
nature and ancestral spirits as part of their religious beliefs.
j. Economic base tightly dependent on their, specific environment: The Santhal tribe,
primarily found in Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha, practices settled agriculture and also
engages in hunting and gathering.
k. Low Literacy and Education: Tribes generally have low levels of literacy and education,
which can limit their integration into broader economic and social systems. The Bhil tribe, has
a literacy rate of around 44%.
l. Adaptation to Environment: The Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh has developed a
unique system of wet rice cultivation in the Ziro Valley, which is highly efficient and
sustainable. This system includes fish farming in the paddy fields.

Major Issues Faced in Tribal Population

a. Poverty and Exploitation: 40.6% of the Scheduled Tribe (ST) population lived below the
poverty line, compared to 20.5% of the non-tribal population (Tribal Health Report).
b. Economic and Technological
Backwardness: The
Kattunayakan tribe in Tamil Nadu
depends on honey collection and
minor forest produce, lacking
access to modern agricultural
techniques and markets.
c. Low Literacy and Education:
The literacy rate among Scheduled
Tribes was 59%, significantly
lower than the national average of
74%. The Bhil tribe has a literacy
rate of around 44%.
d. Health and Nutrition
Problems: The rate of
institutional delivery among tribal
women is the lowest at 70.1%, and 65% of tribal women in the 15-49 years age group suffer
from anemia.
e. Indebtedness: due to their reliance on informal credit sources with high-interest rates.
f. Land Alienation and Displacement: 90% of the 257 Scheduled Tribe districts are either
forested, hilly, or dry, pushing tribes into harsh ecological regions. The displacement of the
Dongria Kondh tribe in Odisha due to mining projects has led to loss of their traditional
lands and livelihoods.
g. Socio-Cultural Handicaps: cultural erosion and marginalization due to increased contact
with outsiders and tourism.
h. Problems of Assimilation with Non-Tribal Population: The Gonds in central India face
challenges in preserving their cultural practices and identity amidst increasing interaction with
non-tribal populations.
i. Lack of Political Representation: Despite constitutional provisions, tribal representation
in local governance and policy-making bodies remains limited. The number of ST MPs in the
2024 Lok Sabha is less than 10% (47).
Steps Taken to Empower Tribal Population in India
a. Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 15(4): Allows the state to make special provisions for the advancement of any
socially and educationally backward classes, including STs.
2. Article 46: Directs the state to promote the educational and economic interests of
Scheduled Castes (SCs), STs, and other weaker sections.
3. Article 244: Provides for the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas
through the Fifth and Sixth Schedules.
4. Article 275(1): Grants special funds from the Union Government to the states for
promoting the welfare of STs.
5. Article 330 and 332: Reserves seats for STs in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative
Assemblies.
6. Article 338A: Establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes to monitor
and report on the safeguards provided for STs.
b. Legal Provisions
1. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989: Prevents atrocities against SCs and STs and provides for special courts for the
trial of such offenses.
2. Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling STs and other
traditional forest dwellers over forest land and resources.
3. Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976: Abolishes bonded labor and
provides for the rehabilitation of freed bonded laborers, many of whom belong to ST
communities.
c. Schemes and Policies
1. Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS): Provides quality education to ST
students in remote areas through residential schooling facilities.
2. Van Dhan Vikas Karyakram: Promotes tribal entrepreneurship by training and
developing value chains for minor forest produce.
3. Pradhan Mantri Adi Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAAGY): Aims for the integrated
development of villages with significant tribal populations.
4. Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs): Focuses on
the socio-economic development of PVTGs through habitat development and other
interventions.
5. National Fellowship and Scholarship for Higher Education of ST students:
Provides financial assistance for higher education and studies abroad.
d. Institutional Support
1. Ministry of Tribal Affairs: Established in 1999 to provide a focused approach to the
integrated socio-economic development of STs.
2. Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs): Conduct research and provide data to inform
policy-making and implementation of tribal welfare programs.
3. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST): Monitors and reports on
the implementation of safeguards for STs.
e. Global Efforts
1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): Partners with the Ministry
of Tribal Affairs for capacity building and training programs for tribal representatives.
2. International Labour Organization (ILO): Works on projects related to the rights
and welfare of indigenous and tribal peoples.
f. Judicial Interventions
1. Samatha vs. State of Andhra Pradesh (1997): The Supreme Court ruled that
government land, tribal land, and forest land in Scheduled Areas cannot be leased to
non-tribals or private companies for mining or industrial operations.
 2. Niyamgiri Case (2013): The Supreme Court upheld the rights of the Dongria Kondh
tribe to decide on mining activities in their sacred hills, emphasizing the importance of
community consent.

Impact of Above Efforts

Positive Impacts
a. Education:
1. Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS): There are 401 functioning EMRS across
the country, approximately 113,000 students, with around 57,000 being female.
2. Literacy Rates: In Wayanad district of Kerala, tribal communities are close to achieving
a 100% literacy rate, showcasing the success of targeted educational interventions.
3. The Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for ST students in higher education has increased
from 11.3% in 2015-16 to 14.9% in 2019-20​
b. Livelihood Programs - According to a report by the Ministry of Rural Development, about
25% of MGNREGA beneficiaries are from Scheduled Tribes (STs)
c. Skill Development - The establishment of tribal training centers in states like Odisha and
Chhattisgarh has significantly increased skill acquisition among tribal communities. As of
2021, over 1.5 million tribal youths have been trained under these programs​
d. Mobile Health Clinics: In Rajasthan, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, mobile health clinics
have significantly improved access to healthcare for tribal populations.
e. Entrepreneurship and Livelihood: Van Dhan Vikas Karyakram promotes tribal
entrepreneurship by developing value chains for minor forest produce, enhancing income
opportunities for tribal communities.
f. Articles 330 and 332 of the Indian Constitution reserve seats for STs in the Lok Sabha and
State Legislative Assemblies, ensuring their political representation and participation in
governance.

Challenges and Limitations

a. Forced Displacement: the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam displaced over 100,000
people, many of whom were tribal communities. Tribals constitute 55% of the people displaced
since independence due to the construction of dams, mines, industrial development, and the
creation of wildlife parks and sanctuaries.
b. Land Alienation: Tribal communities have faced significant issues related to land alienation,
where their traditional rights to land and resources are often not recognized, leading to
displacement and socio-economic marginalization.
c. Underutilization of Development Funds limiting the impact of development schemes
intended for tribal advancement.
d. Implementation Gaps - A report by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) in 2018
highlighted delays and inefficiencies in the implementation of welfare schemes for STs​
e. Inadequate Compensation and Rehabilitation: When displaced, many tribals do not
receive adequate compensation or proper rehabilitation, which exacerbates their
socio-economic vulnerability.
f. Forest Rights: The implementation of the Forest Rights Act, 2006, which aims to recognize
the rights of forest-dwelling communities, has been inconsistent. Many tribals still struggle to
get legal recognition of their land rights.
g. Healthcare Disparities: Despite various health initiatives, tribal populations continue to
face significant health challenges due to geographical isolation and limited access to healthcare
services.
 h. Social Exclusion: Tribal communities have historically been excluded from mainstream
society, leading to persistent socio-economic disadvantages and marginalization.

Impact of Disasters on Tribal Communities

a. Vulnerability and Exposure: Tribal communities often reside in ecologically sensitive and
disaster-prone areas such as forests, hills, and coastal regions(susceptible to natural disasters
like floods, cyclones, landslides, and droughts). Tribals have limited access to early warning
systems and disaster preparedness measures, increasing their vulnerability.
b. Loss of Livelihoods: Natural disasters can devastate agriculture, forest produce, and
livestock for their livelihoods, leading to significant economic losses. Eg: 2018 Kerala floods
severely affected the tribal populations in the Western Ghats, destroying crops, homes, and
livestock.
c. Displacement and Migration: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami displaced many tribal
communities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, leading to long-term resettlement issues.
d. Health and Nutrition: Post-disaster conditions can lead to outbreaks of diseases due to
poor sanitation and lack of clean water. Tribals, with limited access to healthcare, are
particularly at risk.
e. Cultural and Social Impact: Disasters can lead to the loss of cultural heritage sites and
traditional knowledge systems. The displacement can also erode social cohesion and
traditional governance structures.

Way Forward to mitigate the impacts of disasters

a. Disaster management plans should be inclusive of tribal communities, taking into

account their specific vulnerabilities and needs. Community-based disaster risk
management (CBDRM) approaches can empower tribals to participate actively in disaster
preparedness and response.
b. Strengthening Early Warning Systems: Enhancing early warning systems in tribal areas
through the use of technology and traditional knowledge can help in timely evacuation and
preparation.
c. Mobile alerts, community radios, and local volunteers can play a crucial role in disseminating
warnings.
d. Building disaster-resilient infrastructure, such as flood-resistant housing and cyclone
shelters, can mitigate the impact of natural disasters on tribal communities.
e. The construction of check dams and rainwater harvesting systems can help in drought-prone
areas.
f. Promoting livelihood diversification can reduce the economic impact of disasters. This
includes training in alternative income-generating activities and sustainable agricultural
practices.
g. The introduction of agroforestry and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can provide
additional income sources.
h. Strengthening healthcare infrastructure in tribal areas and ensuring the availability of
medical supplies and personnel during disasters is crucial.
i. Nutrition programs, such as the distribution of fortified foods and supplements, can address
malnutrition issues post-disaster.
j. Documenting and integrating traditional knowledge systems into modern disaster
management practices can enhance resilience.
Key Strategies/Way forward for Empowering Indian Tribals
a. Land and Resource Rights: Securing land and resource rights is crucial for the well-being
of tribal communities. Displacement and land alienation have been significant issues, and
addressing these concerns is essential for their sustenance.

Eg: In Chhattisgarh, the recognition of habitat rights for the Kamar PVTG community under
the Forest Rights Act, 2006, has been a significant step forward. This legal recognition secures
their land, cultural identity, and livelihoods, setting a precedent for other state governments to
follow. In Sheopur district, Madhya Pradesh, sustained struggle and legal intervention enabled
the Sahariya tribal community to regain their land rights.

b. Education and Skill Development: Providing quality education and skill development
programs tailored to the needs and cultural context of tribal communities can enable them to
access better livelihood opportunities and participate more actively in the mainstream
economy.
c. Healthcare and Sanitation: Ensuring access to proper healthcare facilities and sanitation is
essential to improving the overall health and well-being of tribal communities, who often face
unique health challenges due to geographical isolation and limited access to services.
d. Empowerment of Women: Eg: A study in Mayurbhanj district, Odisha, highlighted the
positive impact of entrepreneurship on tribal women's empowerment. The Women's
Empowerment Index showed significant improvement, and the study suggested increasing
government and NGO interventions to further support tribal women entrepreneurs.
e. Promotion of Indigenous Culture: Preserving and promoting tribal languages, art,
traditions, and cultural practices are vital to maintaining the rich diversity of India's heritage.
f. Participation and Inclusion: Encouraging tribal representation and participation in local
governance and policy-making bodies will help ensure their voices are heard in matters that
directly affect their lives.

Eg: The Going Online as Leaders (GOAL) program, launched by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs
in partnership with Facebook, aims to digitally skill and empower tribal youth. The program
provides mentorship in digital literacy, life skills, leadership, and entrepreneurship, helping
tribal youth become village-level digital leaders and entrepreneurs.

g. Entrepreneurship and Economic Development: This includes providing access to

markets, financial services, and training.

Eg: TRIFED's TRIBES INDIA: initiative to market tribal arts and crafts through retail outlets
called 'TRIBES INDIA' has helped tribal artisans reach both domestic and international
markets. This initiative has provided a platform for tribal products, ensuring fair prices and
sustainable livelihoods for tribal communities.
Elderly
“Aging is not 'lost youth' but a new stage of opportunity and strength.” — Betty Friedan.

“We don’t stop playing because we grow old. We grow old because we stop playing.” — George Bernard
Shaw.

Population Statistics
a. Elderly Population Percentages in Different States: Kerala (most aged state) has 12.6% of its
population above 60 years, while Arunachal Pradesh (least
aged state) has only 4.6% elderly population.
b. Projected Elderly Population Growth by the United
Nations: the elderly population (60+ age group) to be
19.4% by 2050. The projections are 2015 (8.9%); 2030
(12.5%) and 2050 (19.4%) (UN-DESA)
c. Feminization of old age - By 2050, life expectancy for
males are projected to be 71.8 years and for females 75.7
years if the current demographic conditions persist. By
that year, the number of older women will exceed the
number of older men by 18.4 million.
d. Age Distribution Within the Elderly Population: 63% of
the total elderly population are in the age group of 60-69
years, 26% are in the age group of 70-79 years, and 11%
are in the age group of 80 years and above (Census 2011).
e. Rural vs. Urban Distribution of the Elderly: 71% of
the elderly reside in rural India, while 29% reside in urban
areas.
f. Literacy Rates Among the Elderly: Overall, 44% of
the elderly are literate. Female literacy
among the elderly is 28%, compared to 59%
literacy among elderly males.
g. Widowhood Statistics Among Elderly
Females: 22% of elderly people are
widowed. The incidence of widowhood is
much higher among females who are 60+
than among males in the same age group.
h. Old Age Dependency Ratio Trends:
The old age dependency ratio in India has
been consistently rising, reaching 14.2% in
2011 from 10.9% in 1961.

Recent news on Older adults

India Ageing Report 2023: The United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA) India, in collaboration with the International Institute for Population
Sciences (IIPS), released the “India Ageing Report 2023.” This report highlights the challenges and
opportunities in elderly care in India, emphasizing the need for enhanced geriatric care, financial
empowerment, and digital literacy among seniors.

Athulya Senior Care: Athulya Senior Care has been recognized for its holistic approach to elderly
well-being. The organization focuses on personalized care, integrating physical, emotional, and social
well-being for seniors. Athulya's facilities are designed to cater to the unique needs of the elderly,
providing nutritious meals, regular exercise routines, cognitive activities, and social events.
NITI Aayog's Call for Reforms: NITI Aayog has called for financial and legal reforms to improve
elderly care in India.The report emphasizes the need for comprehensive primary healthcare services
through initiatives like Ayushman Bharat – Ayushman Arogya Mandir (Health and Wellness Centres).
It also calls for strengthening geriatric healthcare, expanding tele-consultation services, and
enhancing the skilled workforce for elderly care.

Health Insurance Regulations: IRDAI Mandates AYUSH Coverage and has removed the entry age
limit for health insurance policies, which previously capped at 65 years. From April 1, 2024, mandates
that insurance companies provide health policies for people of all ages, including senior citizens.

Khyaal App: Khyaal, an Indian AgeTech start-up With over one million registered users, has raised
USD 4.2 million to expand its services for senior citizens. The app offers a comprehensive platform for
seniors, providing digital literacy training, community engagement, and various services to enhance
their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social well-being.

Major issues faced

a. Health Issues
1. Chronic Diseases: Studies found that 21% of the elderly in India suffer from at least
one chronic disease, with higher prevalence in urban areas (29%) compared to rural
areas (17%) (NSSO). Hypertension and diabetes are the most common, accounting for
about 68% of all chronic diseases among the elderly (LASI).
2. Multimorbidity: The prevalence of multimorbidity (having more than one chronic
condition) among older adults is significant, with 32.1% of the elderly population
affected. This is particularly high in states like Kerala, where 59.2% of the elderly suffer
from multiple chronic conditions (LASI).
3. Functional Disabilities: 44% of the elderly population in India suffer from
functional disabilities, with a higher prevalence among women (52%) compared to men
(35%) (LASI).
4. Physical Disabilities: 5.2% of senior citizens suffer from physical disabilities related
to old age, affecting their ability to perform daily activities independently (LASI).
5. Depression: One-third of the elderly population in India suffering from it. The
prevalence is higher among elderly women and those living alone (LASI).
b. Healthcare Access
 1. Healthcare Infrastructure: Individuals, especially in rural areas, face barriers to
accessing healthcare services due to inadequate facilities.
2. Financial security is a major reason for not availing healthcare services, followed by
the perception that ailments are not serious enough.
c. Financial Issues
1. Retirement and Dependence: 47%
of elderly people are economically
dependent on their families, while 34%
rely on pensions and cash transfers
(HelpAge India).
2. Inadequate Pension: The lack of a
robust pension system leaves many
elderly without a stable source of
income post-retirement.
3. Financial Dependence: Widowhood
significantly impacts the financial
security of elderly women, who often
lack independent sources of income
and are more likely to face financial
hardships.
d. Marginalization and Abuse
1. Elder Abuse: Elderly individuals are
vulnerable to neglect and abuse, often
within their own families. This includes physical, emotional, and financial abuse, which
significantly impacts their well-being and quality of life.
2. Lack of Shelter: Elderly individuals face homelessness due to family neglect or
financial instability. This issue is compounded by the lack of adequate social safety nets
and support systems for the elderly.
e. Changing Family Structures: The shift from joint to nuclear families has led to increased
social isolation for the elderly.
f. Infrastructural Issues - Absence of ramps, elevators, and other facilities that cater to the
mobility needs of the elderly.

Steps Taken to Empower older adults iof India

a. Article 41: directs the state to make effective provisions for securing the right to work,
education, and public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness, and disablement.
b. Legal Provisions
1. Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act (MWPSC),
2007: mandates that children and heirs provide maintenance to senior citizens and
parents by monthly allowance. It also provides for the establishment of old age homes
and ensures medical care for senior citizens.
2. Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956: obligates Hindu sons and
daughters to maintain their aged parents.
3. Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (Section 125): This section provides for the
maintenance of parents by their children if they are unable to maintain themselves.
c. Schemes and Policies
1. National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP), 1999: aims to ensure financial and
food security, health care, shelter, and other needs of older persons, and to provide
them with opportunities for development.
2. Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP): provides financial assistance
to NGOs for running and maintaining old age homes, day care centers, and mobile
medicare units.
3. Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana (RVY): provides physical aids and assisted-living
devices to senior citizens belonging to the BPL category.
 4. Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS): provides a
monthly pension to elderly individuals who are below the poverty line.
5. Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana (PMVVY): This is a pension scheme for
senior citizens which provides an assured return of 8% per annum for 10 years.
d. Institutional Measures
1. National Institute of Social Defence (NISD): It functions as an autonomous body
under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment and focuses on research and
training in the field of social defence, including issues related to the elderly.
2. National Council for Senior Citizens: This council advises the government on
policies and programs for the welfare of senior citizens.
e. Global Efforts
1. United Nations Principles for Older Persons, 1991: provide a framework for the
rights of older persons, including independence, participation, care, self-fulfillment,
and dignity.
2. Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing, 2002: aims to address the
opportunities and challenges of population aging in the 21st century and to promote the
development of a society for all ages.
3. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Targeting older adults were mentioned
under 12 different SDGs: SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good
Health and Wellbeing), SDG 4 (Quality Education), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 8
(Decent Work and Economic Growth), SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and
Infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and
Communities), SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong
Institutions), and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals).
f. Supreme Court Judgments
1. Dr. Ashwani Kumar vs. Union of India (2018): directed the Central and State
Governments to implement the provisions of the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents
and Senior Citizens Act, 2007, more effectively. The Court emphasized the need for
better infrastructure, healthcare, and protection against abuse and neglect of the
elderly.
2. Post Dr. Ashwani Kumar vs. Union of India (2018) judgement the number of
government-supported old age homes increased by 20% between 2018 and 2020.
3. Shri Bhagwan Dutt v. Kamla Devi - The Supreme Court held that children have a
moral and legal obligation to support their elderly parents. This case set a precedent for
the enforcement of maintenance rights under the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents
and Senior Citizens Act, 2007.

Impact of Efforts to Mitigate Issues of Elderlies

Positive Impacts
a. Enhanced Legal Protection: The MWPSC Act, 2007 has led to an increase in the number of
cases filed by elderly parents seeking maintenance. In 2019, over 10,000 cases were registered
under this Act across various states in India, indicating growing awareness and utilization of
legal provisions by the elderly.
b. Financial Security: Under IGNOAPS approximately 22 million elderly individuals were
beneficiaries of this scheme, receiving a monthly pension to support their basic needs( 2023).
c. Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana (PMVVY): over 4.5 lakh senior citizens had
enrolled in this scheme, benefiting from the assured return of 8% per annum (2023).
d. Healthcare Access: Since the inception of RVY, the scheme has distributed physical aids
and assisted-living devices to over 1.5 lakh senior citizens from the BPL category.
e. Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP) has supported the establishment of
over 500 old age homes and 200 mobile medicare units, providing essential healthcare services
to thousands of elderly individuals.
 f. Institutional Support: The NISD has conducted over 200 training programs and workshops
on elderly care, benefiting more than 10,000 caregivers and social workers.
g. National Council for Senior Citizens has been instrumental in advising the government
on policy matters, leading to the formulation of the National Policy for Senior Citizens, 2011,
which aims to address the evolving needs of the elderly population.

Negative Impacts
a. Implementation Gaps: Despite the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens
Act, 2007, a survey by HelpAge India in 2019 found that 52% of elderly respondents were
unaware of the Act, indicating significant gaps in awareness and implementation.
b. Inadequate Infrastructure: Only 1,000 old age homes were operational across India
(Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment).
c. Financial Constraints: Under IGNOAPS, the central government contribution was only
₹200 per month, which is inadequate to cover basic living expenses, leading to continued
financial distress among many elderly individuals (2022).
d. Social Isolation: 47% of elderly individuals in India experience social isolation and
loneliness (Agewell Foundation).
e. Bureaucratic Hurdles: 35% of elderly respondents faced difficulties in navigating
bureaucratic processes to avail themselves of benefits- National Institute of Public Cooperation
and Child Development (NIPCCD), 2023
f. Inconsistent Policy Implementation: the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)
found that states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu had better implementation of elderly care policies
compared to states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, leading to unequal access to benefits and
services.

Way Forward to Empower Elderlies in India

a. Strengthening Legal Frameworks: Enhance the implementation and awareness of
existing legal provisions, such as the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens
Act, 2007. Eg: Tamil Nadu has established tribunals in every district to hear cases related to
the maintenance of senior citizens.
b. Enhancing Financial Security: Increase the pension amounts under schemes like the
Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS) and expand coverage to include
more elderly individuals.
c. Improving Healthcare Access: Expand healthcare services tailored to the needs of the
elderly, including mobile healthcare units and geriatric care centers. Eg: Mobile Healthcare
Units in Rajasthan
d. Promoting Social Inclusion: Develop community-based programs and activities that
encourage social interaction and reduce isolation among the elderly. Eg: Dignity Foundation's
Elderly Clubs
e. Leveraging Technology: Utilize technology to provide support and services to the elderly,
such as telemedicine, online counseling, and digital literacy programs. Eg: HelpAge India’s
digital literacy program for the elderly
f. Encouraging Active Aging: Promote active aging by encouraging elderly individuals to
participate in volunteer work, part-time employment, and lifelong learning opportunities. Eg:
Night Schools for Elderly in Maharashtra
g. Strengthening Institutional Support: Enhance the capacity and reach of institutions like
the NISD and the National Council for Senior Citizens to better address the needs of the
elderly.
Persons with Disabilities (PwDs)
World Health Organization (WHO) defines disability as impairment, limitation, or restriction in
activity caused mainly by health issues and environmental
factors

The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, aligns its

definition of disability with that of the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN
CRPD). Additionally, it specifies "Person with Benchmark
Disability" as an individual having at least 40% of a particular
disability.

“Science may have found a cure for most evils; but it has
found no remedy for the worst of them all - the apathy of
human beings.” - Helen Keller

Data

1. According to an estimate by the WHO, globally, 15 percent of the population live with some
form of disability, while over 80 percent of that share live in Low- and Middle-Income
Countries.
2. Census 2011 and recently held 76th round of the National Sample Survey (NSS) estimates the
prevalence of disability was 2.2% in India (26.8 million)

Recent News on Persons with Disabilities in India

a. India’s Disability Law and Accessibility of Government Buildings: On the line of The
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, the Central Public Works Department (CPWD)
has instructed its regional offices to ensure that all public buildings are accessible, including
features like audio announcements and visual displays in lifts, and Braille signage for
emergency evacuation routes.
b. Manifesto for Persons with Disabilities Ahead of Lok Sabha Polls: The manifesto
calls for health insurance cover, 5% reservations in governance, and policies around
pension, health, and employment. It also emphasizes the need for representation of PwDs
 in the upper House of Parliament and highlights various issues such as budgetary allocation,
social security, and economic participation.
c. End Lifelong Warehousing of People with
Disabilities: Human Rights Watch has urged the Delhi
government to end the practice of institutionalizing people
with disabilities without their consent, which is considered
a form of arbitrary detention.
d. Election Commission of India’s Guidelines on
Language Use: The ECI has issued guidelines to political
parties, instructing them not to use derogatory language
towards PwDs in public speeches and campaigns.
Violations of these guidelines can lead to imprisonment
under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016.

Major issues faced

a. Barriers to Accessing Services: significant barriers in
accessing various services, including work, education,
housing, and healthcare. These barriers are often due to
physical design, digital design, and systemic processes that
do not accommodate their needs. Eg: restrictive building
layouts and inaccessible online services make.
b. Health Issues: PwDs lack affordable access to proper
healthcare, aids, and appliances. Poorly trained health
workers in rehabilitation centers further exacerbate the
issue.
c. Educational Challenges: The education system is not
inclusive, with children with disabilities facing significant
barriers to accessing education. Issues include the
availability of special schools, trained teachers,
and educational materials. Reservations for PwDs in
higher educational institutions are often not fulfilled.
Children with disabilities are at increased risk of school
violence and bullying, preventing them from
enjoying their right to education.
d. Employment Barriers: Discrimination and lack of
accommodation by employers are primary barriers. Eg:
PwDs in the public sector(0.54%); in the private
sector(0.28%) percent; and in the multinationals(0.05 )
(NCPEDP).
e. Accessibility Issues: public buildings do not include
wheelchair-accessible bathrooms or elevators, and public
transportation is often unavailable or inconvenient for
PwDs.
f. Social Exclusion and Discrimination: PwDs often
face prejudice and are excluded from community life.
People with mental illness or intellectual disabilities face
severe social exclusion and are often subject to violence
and abuse.
g. Poverty: PwDs are more likely to experience poverty due
to limited employment opportunities and high healthcare
costs.
h. Policy Implementation Issues: Despite various acts
and schemes, enforcement remains weak, limiting the
effectiveness of these initiatives. Eg: , Recently, the Supreme Court expressed disappointment
 at the inadequate implementation of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016 (RPwD)
across states.
i. Mental Health the WHO reports that PwDs have twice the risk of developing conditions like
depression and are often excluded from public health interventions.

Steps Taken to Empower Persons with Disabilities

a. Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 41: Directs the State to make effective provisions for securing the right to work,
education, and public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness, and
disablement.
2. Article 46: Obligates the State to promote the educational and economic interests of
the weaker sections of the people and protect them from social injustice and
exploitation.
3. Article 249: Empowers the Parliament to legislate on any subject in the State List to
fulfill international obligations, which includes disability issues.
b. Legal Provisions
1. The Mental Health Act, 1987: Consolidates and amends the law relating to the
treatment and care of mentally ill
persons.
2. The Rehabilitation Council of
India Act, 1992: Constitutes the
Rehabilitation Council of India for
regulating the training of
rehabilitation professionals and
maintaining a Central
Rehabilitation Register.
3. Persons with Disabilities Act,
2017: It increases the reservation
for persons with disabilities from
3% to 4% in government jobs and
from 3% to 5% in higher education
institutes. Additionally, it mandates
ensuring accessibility in public
buildings within a specified
timeframe.
4. The National Trust for Welfare
of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental
Retardation and Multiple
Disabilities Act, 1999: Provides
for the care and protection of
persons with these disabilities,
especially in the event of the death
of their parent or guardian.
c. Schemes and Policies
1. National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, 2006: Facilitates the
empowerment of persons with disabilities through various programs and policy
formulations.
2. Mission Parivar Vikas: Includes provisions for increasing access to contraceptives
and family planning services in high fertility districts, indirectly benefiting disabled
persons by promoting family planning and health services.
3. Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana: Provides physical aids and assisted-living devices for
senior citizens, including those with disabilities, belonging to the Below Poverty Line
(BPL) category.
 4. Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase/Fitting of Aids and Appliances
(ADIP Scheme): Aims to assist PwDs in procuring durable, scientifically
manufactured aids and appliances to promote their physical, social, and psychological
rehabilitation.
5. Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS): An umbrella scheme
addressing various aspects of rehabilitation, including early intervention and vocational
training.
6. Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan): A nationwide
campaign to achieve universal accessibility for PwDs.
d. Institutional Framework
1. Central and State Coordination Committees: Established under the PwD Act to
develop disability policy and oversee its implementation.
2. Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities: At the central level, and
Commissioners at the state level, to redress grievances, safeguard rights, and monitor
the implementation of disability-related laws.
3. National Council for Senior Citizens: Advises the government on issues related to
the welfare of senior citizens, including those with disabilities.
4. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment: The nodal ministry coordinating
all matters relating to the implementation of policies for PwDs.
5. National Institutes: There are seven national institutes under the Ministry of
Social Justice and Empowerment working in the field of disability, providing
rehabilitation services, and conducting research and development.
6. District Disability Rehabilitation Centres (DDRCs): Facilitate the creation of
infrastructure and capacity building at the district level for awareness generation,
rehabilitation, and training..
e. Global Efforts
1. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006): A legally
binding human rights convention adopted by the United Nations, emphasizing the
social model of disability and the need for removing societal barriers.
2. International
Classification of
Functioning,
Disability and
Health (ICF):
Developed by the
World Health
Organization (WHO)
to provide a
comprehensive
classification of
disability, focusing on
body functions,
activities,
participation, and
environmental factors.
3. United Nations
Convention on the
Rights of Persons
with Disabilities
(UNCRPD): India is a
signatory and ratified the convention in 2007, committing to protect and promote the
rights of PwDs.
4. Incheon Strategy: A global initiative to “Make the Right Real” for Persons with
Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific, which India is a part of.
f. Supreme Court Judgments
 1. Javed Abidi v. Union of India - The Supreme Court directed Indian Airlines to
provide 50% concession to persons with disabilities for domestic travel, recognizing
their right to equality and nondiscrimination in accessing public services.
2. Jeeja Ghosh & Another vs. Union of India & Others (2016): The Supreme
Court ruled in favor of Jeeja Ghosh, a disability rights activist, who was deboarded from
a flight due to her disability. The court emphasized the need for sensitivity and respect
for the dignity of PwDs.
3. Vikash Kumar vs. Union Public Service Commission (2021): The Supreme
Court held that the denial of a scribe to a candidate with a disability during the Civil
Services Examination was discriminatory and directed the UPSC to provide necessary
accommodations.
4. Syed Bashir-ud-Din Qadri v. Nazir Ahmed Shah: The Supreme Court ruled that
a person with cerebral palsy was entitled to be employed as a teacher, despite his
speech and writing difficulties. The court suggested that an electronic external aid could
be provided to overcome the impediment of writing on the blackboard.
5. Suchita Srivastava v. Chandigarh Administration: The Supreme Court ruled
that a mentally retarded woman's consent was required for the termination of her
pregnancy.

Impact of above efforts - Positive and negative

Positive Impacts
a. Increased Awareness and Sensitization: The implementation of the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities Act, 2016, and various awareness campaigns have significantly increased
public awareness about the rights and needs of PwDs.
b. Improved Accessibility: Initiatives like the Accessible India Campaign have led to
improvements in the physical infrastructure, making public buildings, transportation, and
information and communication technology more accessible to PwDs. Eg: the Delhi Metro Rail
Corporation (DMRC) has made significant strides in making metro stations and trains
accessible to persons with disabilities, including tactile paths, ramps, and dedicated spaces in
trains.
c. Enhanced Educational Opportunities: The RPWD Act’s provision for free and
compulsory education for children with disabilities and the reservation in higher educational
institutions have improved educational access for PwDs.
d. Employment Opportunities: The reservation of 4% in government jobs and 5% in higher
educational institutions has provided PwDs with better employment opportunities.
e. Legal Protections: Legal provisions and judgments have strengthened the legal framework
protecting the rights of PwDs. Eg: the Jeeja Ghosh case highlighted the need for sensitivity and
respect for the dignity of PwDs, setting a precedent for future cases.
f. Global Recognition and Compliance: India’s ratification of the UNCRPD and
participation in global initiatives like the Incheon Strategy have aligned national policies with
international standards, promoting the rights of PwDs on a global platform.

Limitations and Challenges

a. Implementation Gaps: Many public buildings and transportation systems still lack proper
accessibility features, and enforcement of accessibility standards is often weak.
b. Social Stigma and Discrimination: Negative attitudes and prejudices continue to hinder
the full social inclusion of PwDs, affecting their mental health and well-being.
c. Economic Barriers: Despite reservations in employment, many PwDs still face economic
barriers due to limited job opportunities in the private sector and lack of reasonable
accommodations by employers.
d. Healthcare Access: Access to healthcare remains a significant challenge, especially in rural
areas. PwDs often lack affordable access to proper healthcare, aids, and appliances, and
rehabilitation services are inadequate.
e. Inadequate funding: The budget allocation for the Department of Empowerment of Persons
with Disabilities (DEPwD) has consistently been less than 1% of the total union budget. Eg- in
2022-23, the budget allocation for DEPwD was only Rs 1,156.85 crore, which is a meager
0.04% of the total union budget.
f. Lack of awareness: A survey by the National Centre for Promotion of Employment for
Disabled People (NCPEDP) found that only 22% of people with disabilities were aware of the
Disability Pension Scheme.
g. Inaccessible application processes: A study by the Disability Rights India (DRI) found
that 70% of application forms for disability schemes were not accessible to people with visual
impairments.
h. Corruption and mismanagement: A report by the Comptroller and Auditor General
(CAG) in 2020 found that Rs 1,034.85 crore allocated for disability schemes had remained
unutilized due to mismanagement and corruption. (Source: CAG report, 2020)
i. Lack of monitoring and evaluation: A study by the NCPEDP found that 60% of disability
schemes had no monitoring mechanism in place.
j. Bureaucratic hurdles: the application process for the Disability Pension Scheme involves
multiple steps and requires extensive documentation, making it difficult for people with
disabilities to access.
k. Lack of involvement of people with disabilities: A report by the DRI found that 90% of
disability schemes were designed and implemented without the involvement of people with
disabilities.
l. Inconsistent Quality of Services: The quality of services provided under various schemes
and programs is often inconsistent, with many beneficiaries receiving substandard support and
assistance.
m. Lack of Comprehensive Data: There is a lack of comprehensive and reliable data on
persons with disabilities, which hampers effective policy-making and the monitoring of
progress.
n. Judicial Delays: While judicial pronouncements have been supportive, delays in the judicial
process can slow down the enforcement of rights and the resolution of grievances for persons
with disabilities.
Way Forward to Empower Persons with Disabilities in India
Strategy Description Examples

Inclusive Ensuring access to quality Implementing the Samagra

Education education at all levels, with Shiksha Abhiyan, providing
tailored support and resources. scholarships, and making
schools accessible.

Employment Creating job opportunities and Promoting employment under

Opportunities vocational training tailored for the Rights of Persons with
persons with disabilities (PwDs). Disabilities Act, 2016.

Accessible Developing infrastructure that is Implementing the Accessible

Infrastructure accessible to all, including India Campaign (Sugamya
transportation, buildings, and Bharat Abhiyan).
ICT.

Healthcare Providing comprehensive Setting up dedicated health

Services healthcare services, including facilities for PwDs and
early detection and intervention. incorporating disability-specific
healthcare plans.

Social Security Ensuring financial security Implementing schemes like the

and Financial through social security schemes National Social Assistance
Inclusion and financial inclusion Programme (NSAP) and
programs. providing microfinance.

Legal and Policy Strengthening the legal and Enforcing the Rights of Persons
Framework policy framework to protect the with Disabilities Act, 2016 and
rights of PwDs. harmonizing other laws with it.

Awareness and Increasing awareness and Conducting awareness

Sensitization sensitivity towards the issues campaigns and including
faced by PwDs. disability studies in educational
curricula.

Technology and Leveraging technology and Developing assistive

Innovation innovation to aid PwDs in their technologies and encouraging
daily lives. startups focused on disability
solutions.

Community Enhancing community support Encouraging self-help groups

Support and and ensuring active participation and involving PwDs in policy
Participation of PwDs in decision-making formulation.
processes.

Monitoring and Establishing mechanisms for Setting up disability

Evaluation regular monitoring and commissions and conducting
evaluation of policies and regular audits and surveys.
programs.
Minorities
Constitutional Definitions
a. Religious Minority: According to the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992,
religious minorities in India include Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Zoroastrians
(Parsis), and Jains. It is important to note that sects within a religion are not considered
separate religious minorities.
b. Linguistic Minority: These groups are defined mainly at the state level rather than the
national level. Linguistic minorities must have a separate spoken language, although it is not
necessary for them to have a distinct script.

Data

Recent news
a. Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA): Union government notified the implementation of
the CAA. It fast-tracks citizenship for Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Christians
from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, while excluding Muslims and other persecuted
groups like Rohingya Muslims and Sri Lankan Tamils.
b. Aligarh Muslim University Minority Status Case: The Supreme Court of India is
deliberating whether Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) can be recognized as a minority
educational institution. The case involves the 1981 amendment to the AMU Act, which was
struck down by the Allahabad High Court in 2005.

Major Issues Faced by Minorities in India

a. Communal Tensions and Riots: The frequency and magnitude of these events have
increased post-1960s, leading to a loss of confidence in the system and difficulty for the
government to restore trust. Eg: Manipur violence: due to animosity between the state’s
mainly Hindu Meitei majority and the predominantly Christian Kuki-Zo
b. Religious Discrimination - A 2019 report by the Pew Research Center highlighted that
India has a high level of government restrictions on religion and social hostilities involving
 religion. The report found that India scored 9.4 out of 10 in terms of social hostilities related to
religion.
c. Identity Crisis: The Muslim community in India often faces an identity crisis due to
socio-cultural differences and historical contexts, which can lead to social alienation.
d. Cultural and Linguistic Marginalization - Many linguistic minorities face challenges in
accessing education and government services in their mother tongues. According to the Census
of India 2011, there are 22 scheduled languages and hundreds of non-scheduled languages, yet
the dominance of Hindi and English often marginalizes other languages.
e. Security Concerns: Small numbers relative to the rest of society and differences in identity
create feelings of insecurity among minorities about their life, assets, and well-being. Eg:
exodus from Kairana (UP)
f. Lack of Representation: The 18th Lok Sabha has the lowest share of Muslim MPs in six
decades. 4.4%% of its members currently are Muslims despite people from the community
forming over 15% of the country’s population.
g. Education and Employment among Muslims: Muslim participation in higher education
is particularly poor due to household endowments and location. Muslims are primarily
engaged in self-employment, and their participation in the tertiary sector in urban areas, is
lower than that of other socio-religious communities.
h. Poverty and Unemployment: According to the Sachar Committee Report (2006),
Muslims, who constitute a significant minority, have higher poverty rates and lower literacy
rates compared to the national average. The report noted that 31% of Muslims live below the
poverty line compared to 22% of the overall population.

Steps Taken to empower minorities in India

a. Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 15(1) & (2): Prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex,
or place of birth.
2. Article 16(1) & (2): Ensures equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
3. Article 25(1): Guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess,
practice, and propagate religion.
4. Article 28: Provides freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious
worship in educational institutions wholly maintained by the State.
5. Article 30(1): Grants all religious and linguistic minorities the right to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.
6. Article 30(2): Ensures that minority-managed educational institutions are not
discriminated against in receiving aid from the State.
b. Legal Provisions
1. National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992: Establishes the National
Commission for Minorities to safeguard minority rights.
2. National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004:
Allows minority educational institutions to seek direct affiliation with central
universities and addresses grievances related to minority educational rights.
c. Schemes and Policies

Educational Empowerment:

1. Pre-matric, Post-matric, and Merit-cum-Means Scholarships: Financial

assistance to minority students.
2. Maulana Azad National Fellowship: Supports higher education for minority
students.
3. Padho Pardesh: Provides interest subsidies on educational loans for overseas studies.
 Livelihood and Skill Development:

1. Nai Roshni: Empowers minority women by providing knowledge, tools, and

techniques.
2. Seekho Aur Kamao (Learn and Earn): Imparts skills to minority youth with a 75%
placement guarantee.
3. USTAAD Scheme: Upgrades skills and training in traditional arts/crafts for
development.

Economic Empowerment:

1. National Minorities Development & Finance Corporation (NMDFC):

Provides microfinance to minority entrepreneurs.
2. Jiyo Parsi Scheme: Aims to stabilize the declining Parsi population through
counseling and medical assistance.

Cultural Preservation:

1. Hamari Dharohar: Preserves the rich heritage of minorities through documentation,

exhibitions, and fellowships.
2. USTAAD Scheme: focuses on preserving traditional arts and crafts.
d. Institutional Support
1. National Commission for Minorities (NCM): Monitors and addresses issues
related to minority rights.
2. National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI):
Ensures educational rights for minorities.
3. Central Waqf Council: Manages Waqf properties and implements schemes for their
development.
e. Global Efforts
1. United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National
or Ethnic, Religious, and Linguistic Minorities: India is a signatory and aligns
its policies with international standards.
2. Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing: Ensures that ageing remains a
healthy and blissful process, benefiting elderly minorities as well.
f. Supreme Court Judgments
1. St. Stephen's College vs. University of Delhi (1992): Affirmed the autonomy of
minority institutions.
2. TMA Pai Foundation vs. State of Karnataka (2002): Defined minorities based
on state demographics, not national population.
3. NALSA vs. Union of India (2014): Recognized the rights of transgender persons, a
significant minority group

Impact of above efforts

Positive Impacts
a. Increased Access to Education: Schemes like pre-matric and post-matric scholarships
have significantly increased the enrollment of minority students in schools and colleges. Eg:
the The MANF benefitted over 6,700 candidates between 2014-15 and 2021-22, with Rs 738.85
crore paid before it was cancelled in 2022 (PIB).
b. Economic Upliftment: Programs like NMDFC have provided financial support to minority
entrepreneurs, fostering economic independence and growth.
c. Cultural Preservation: Initiatives like Hamari Dharohar have helped in preserving the
cultural heritage of minority communities, ensuring that traditional arts and crafts are not lost.
 d. Legal Protection: National Commission for Minorities has provided a platform for
addressing grievances and ensuring the protection of minority rights.

Limitations and challenges

a. Limited Awareness and Utilization: A study in Karnataka has shown that there is a low
level of awareness and utilization of government welfare schemes among minority
communities, particularly in rural areas. This has adversely affected the overall development of
minority women in states like
Karnataka.
b. Implementation Gaps:
Reservation policies in higher
education and electoral
constituencies have had a
limited positive impact due to
poor implementation. Eg:
Minorities formed 9% of central
recruits in 2022-23 (DoPT)
c. Intersectional Challenges:
Class, gender, and location
intersect, creating inter- and
intra-group differentials in the
impact of these policies. STs, lag
behind Scheduled Castes in
realizing the positive impact of
reservation policies.
d. Inadequate Evaluation: Several government initiatives aimed at enhancing the access of
religious minorities to public services/institutions remain poorly evaluated, making it difficult
to assess their true impact.

Way forward to Empower Indian minority

a. Enhancing Educational and employment opportunities: targeted educational schemes
and reduction in discrimination can bridge the gap in access and quality. Eg: In the United
States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibits employment discrimination based on
religion.
b. Economic Empowerment: Expand the coverage of The Seekho Aur Kamao scheme,
launched by the Ministry of Minority Affairs, focuses on skill development for minority youth.
c. Legal and Constitutional Safeguards: Ensure the protection of minority rights through
robust legal frameworks and their effective implementation is essential. Eg: Canada’s
Multiculturalism Policy
d. Social Inclusion and Community Development to improve the living conditions of
minority communities. Eg: The Interfaith Network in the UK promotes interfaith
dialogue and cooperation
e. Addressing Intersectional Discrimination Recognizing and addressing the
intersectional discrimination faced by minority women and other vulnerable groups within
minority communities is crucial.
Transgenders
The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 in India defines a transgender
person as one whose gender does not match the gender assigned at birth. This includes trans-men and
trans-women, persons with intersex variations, gender-queers, and persons with socio-cultural
identities, such as kinnar and hijra.

“Life is about finding yourself, embracing your strengths and weaknesses, and being true to who you
are.” — Oprah Winfrey

Data
Recent news
1. “We worked for transgender community, gave them an identity”: PM Modi in Lok
Sabha (February , 2024): He emphasized the importance of the new criminal bills, including
the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, which includes 'transgender' under the term ‘gender’.
2. Talks on in Armed Forces on possible entry of transgender persons, study group
formed (November, 2023): A study group has been formed to examine the implications of the
Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, and to suggest ways to implement it
within the military.
3. Transgender Persons in heterosexual relationships have the right to marry under
existing law, Supreme Court holds (October, 2023): The court clarified that transgender
individuals can marry cisgender individuals or other transgender persons, provided they meet
the legal requirements for marriage .

Major issues faced by th transgenders in India

a. Societal Stigma and Discrimination
1. Social Exclusion: This exclusion manifests in various forms, including family
rejection, bullying in educational institutions, and ostracization in communities. 82% of
transgender persons in Uttar Pradesh and 75% in the National Capital Region (NCR)
reported facing harassment, with many not filing complaints due to fear of further
discrimination (NHRC) .
2. Stereotyping and Misrepresentation: This stereotyping often results in
transgender individuals being forced into low-paying, informal jobs or even begging
and sex work.
3. Family Rejection: This rejection often forces them into homelessness or into the care
of transgender communities, which may not have adequate resources to support them.
b. Legal and Institutional Barriers
1. Absence of Legal Recognition: While the Transgender Persons (Protection of
Rights) Act, 2019, was a significant step forward, it still has gaps. Eg: The Act requires
transgender individuals to apply for a certificate of identity, which can be a
cumbersome and invasive process. Moreover, the Act does not fully address issues
related to non-binary identities and often conflates sex with gender, leading to further
complications.
2. Lack of Comprehensive Policies: Most official data sources in India continue to
collect and provide data in a binary male-female format, excluding transgender and
intersex persons. This exclusion limits their access to social security benefits and
private services such as banking.
3. Implementation Gaps: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the government announced
financial aid for transgender individuals, but only a small fraction received the benefits
due to issues like lack of bank accounts and proper documentation.
c. Economic and Employment Challenges
1. Employment Discrimination: According to a study by the NHRC, a significant
number of transgender individuals face discrimination in the workplace, which limits
their economic opportunities.
2. Educational Barriers:Transgender children are forced to quit their education due to
harassment and bullying, impacting their chances of employment and societal
integration.
d. Health and Safety Concerns
1. Healthcare Disparities: Discrimination by healthcare providers often deters
transgender individuals from seeking necessary medical care, including
gender-affirming procedures. The NHRC report highlighted that more than half of the
 respondents had been harassed by the police, and nearly all had not raised a complaint
because of their gender identity.

Steps Taken to mitigate the challanges

a. Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 14: Ensures equality before the law and equal protection of the law to all
persons, including transgender individuals.
2. Article 15: Prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of
birth, which includes gender identity.
3. Article 16: Guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment,
extending to transgender persons.
4. Article 21: Protects the right to life and personal liberty, which includes the right to
live with dignity for transgender individuals.
b. Legal Provisions

Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019

1. Recognition of Identity: Allows transgender persons to self-identify their gender

and obtain a certificate of
identity from the District
Magistrate.
2. Prohibition Against
Discrimination: Prohibits
discrimination in education,
employment, healthcare, and
access to public services.
3. Right of Residence:
Ensures that transgender
persons are not separated
from their families on the
grounds of being
transgender.
4. Healthcare: Mandates the
provision of health facilities,
including separate HIV surveillance centers and sex reassignment surgeries.
5. Offences and Penalties: Criminalizes acts such as forced or bonded labor, denial of
access to public places, and various forms of abuse against transgender persons.

Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules, 2020

1. Equal Opportunity Policy: Requires establishments to formulate policies for

transgender persons and create inclusive infrastructure like separate wards in hospitals
and unisex toilets.
2. Complaint Officer: Mandates every establishment to designate a complaint officer to
handle grievances from transgender persons.
3. Transgender Protection Cell: Requires state governments to set up cells to monitor
offenses against transgender persons.
c. Schemes and Policies
1. Support for Marginalized Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise
(SMILE): Focuses on comprehensive rehabilitation, medical facilities, counseling,
education, skill development, and economic linkages for transgender persons.
2. Garima Greh: Provides safe and secure shelter, food, medical care, recreational
facilities, and skill development opportunities for transgender persons in need.
 3. Sweekruti Scheme (Odisha): Aims to create an enabling environment for equal
opportunities, social justice, and empowerment of transgender persons through various
support measures, including education and employment.
d. Institutional Support
1. National Council for Transgender Persons: Advises the government on policies,
programs, legislation, and projects concerning transgender persons. It also monitors
and evaluates the impact of these measures and redresses grievances.
2. District-Level Committees: established to recognize transgender individuals and
implement welfare schemes effectively.
e. Global Efforts
1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): collaborated with
organizations like The Humsafar Trust and Centre for Sexuality and Health Research
and Policy (C-SHaRP) to develop a framework for social welfare measures for
transgender communities in India.
2. Incorporation of International Standards: The Transgender Persons (Protection
of Rights) Act, 2019, aligns with international conventions such as the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, and the Yogyakarta Principles, 2006.
f. Supreme Court Judgments
1. NALSA v. Union of India (2014): Recognized transgender persons as a third
gender and affirmed their right to self-identify their gender without undergoing sex
reassignment surgery.
2. Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018): Decriminalized consensual
same-sex relations, which also benefited transgender individuals.

Impact of above efforts

Positive Impact
a. Recognition and Protection: The Supreme Court’s NALSA judgment in 2014 recognized
transgender persons as a third gender, affirming their right to self-identify their gender
b. National Education Policy 2020: Identifies transgender children as a socio-economically
disadvantaged group and provides for their inclusion in education through various support
measures
c. Employment Initiatives: Programs like the Trans Employment Mela have provided job
opportunities to transgender individuals, promoting economic independence and reducing
stigma.
d. Green Mobility Project: In Bhubaneswar, a green mobility initiative has trained
transgender individuals as e-rickshaw drivers, providing them with sustainable employment
and enhancing their self-esteem.
e. Pehchan Programme: This programme has significantly improved the demand for HIV,
health, legal, and social protection services among transgender communities across 18 Indian
states through a rights-based and empowerment approach
Way forward to empower transgenders
a. Strengthening Legal Protections
1. Implementation of Existing Laws: Effective implementation of the Transgender
Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, and the associated rules is crucial.
2. Amendments to Address Gaps: Addressing criticisms of the Act, such as the
requirement for medical examination to obtain identity certificates, can make the law
more inclusive and less discriminatory.
b. Inclusive Education Policies
1. Curriculum Reforms: Integrating gender studies and transgender issues into school
curricula can foster understanding and acceptance from an early age. Teacher training
programs should include modules on supporting transgender students.
2. Scholarships and Support Programs: Providing scholarships and support
programs for transgender students can help reduce dropout rates and improve
educational outcomes.
3. Tamil Nadu has been a pioneer in implementing trans-inclusive policies, including the
establishment of a transgender welfare board and providing scholarships for
transgender students.
c. Trans-Affirmative Healthcare
1. Training Healthcare Providers: Sensitizing healthcare providers to the needs of
transgender patients through training programs can reduce discrimination and
improve the quality of care.
2. Comprehensive Healthcare Services: Establishing dedicated clinics for
transgender individuals that offer comprehensive services, including gender-affirming
care, mental health support, and routine healthcare, can address the specific health
needs of the community.
d. Inclusive Employment Policies
1. Workplace Sensitization: Companies should implement policies that promote a
transgender-inclusive workplace, including anti-discrimination policies, gender-neutral
facilities, and support for employees undergoing gender transition.
2. Skill Development Programs: Government and private sector initiatives that offer
skill development and vocational training for transgender individuals can enhance their
employability and economic independence.
3. The recruitment of transgender individuals as constables in the Chhattisgarh police
force is a significant step towards their empowerment.
e. Community-Based Initiatives
1. Shelter Homes and Support Centers: Establishing shelter homes like Garima
Greh that provide safe housing, skill development, and legal support can help
transgender individuals integrate into society and lead dignified lives.
2. Community Engagement: Engaging transgender community members in the design
and implementation of policies and programs ensures that their needs and aspirations
are adequately addressed.
EDUCATION IN INDIA
Previous Years Questions
2022-The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in
promoting incentive-based systems for children's education without generating awareness about the
importance of schooling. Analyze. (15M)
2020- National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4
(2030). It intends to restructure and reorient the education system in India. Critically examine the
statement. (15M)
2016- Professor Amartya Sen has advocated important reforms in the realms of primary education
and primary health care. What are your suggestions to improve their status and performance?
2015-The quality of higher education in India requires major improvements to make it internationally
competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the
quality of higher and technical education in the country? Discuss.(12.5M)
2014-Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allow more
academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of students.
Discuss in light of the growing challenges.(12.5M)

Education is a permanent measure to achieve an egalitarian society. Education transforms lives and is
at the heart of building peace, eradicating poverty and driving sustainable development.
Education being a basic human right for all throughout life must be matched by access and quality.

● Education is the manifestation of perfection already in man – Swami Vivekananda

● To educate a person in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to the society –
Theodore Roosevelt
● We do not want book worms, we want man making, character building education – Swami
Vivekananda
● Economy is the material part of development. Education is the essential part of it.
● Education that does not mold the character is absolutely worthless. – Mahatma Gandhi
● Confucius – “If you think in terms of a year, plant a seed; if in terms of ten years, plant
trees; if in term of 100 years, teach the people”
● “Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world” – Nelson
Mandela.
● “The pen is mightier than the sword” – Edward Lytton
● Intelligence plus character – that is the goal of real education – Martin Luther King Jr.
● We want the education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the
intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one's own feet" SWAMI
VIVEKANAND
● “Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learnt in school”-
Mahatma Gandhi
● “Learning gives creativity. Creativity leads to thinking. Thinking Provides knowledge.
Knowledge makes you great.” - APJ Abdul Kalam
● “Children must be taught how to think, not what to think” - Margaret Mead
● “There are two educations. One should teach us how to make a living and the other how to
live.” - John T Adams
Case studies and best practices
1. Pota cabins → residential schools for the children in LWE affected areas of Chattisgarh.
2. Delhi Model Virtual School - provide education to students remotely through personalized
teaching-learning, effective assessments and use of cutting-edge technology.
3. E-Talim → Video recording of lectures by best teachers in Kishangarh district of Bihar.
4. The AaoGhar Mein Seekhein (let’s learn at home) programme in Rajasthan,
improved access to education amidst COVID-19 pandemic.
5. "Namath Basai" - Kerala Government unique programme of teaching tribal children in their
mother tongue.
6. Baste Ka Bojh Kam project (Rajasthan)- Integrated book for different subjects.
7. Pratibha Parv: M.P-regular assessment of teaching learning and evaluation of
8. education.
9. E- takin: Kishangarh district, Bihar - video recording of lectures by best teacher in district
10. Mera Mobile, Mera Vidyalaya: Banka, Bihar
11. Sonam Wangchuk started New hope revolutionizing education in Ladakh
12. Pune Zilla Parishad has appealed to citizens to donate old smartphones and used
laptops to help poor students continue with e- classes during the lockdown
13. IT club of school at Koothattukulam in Kerala will train students to blog and post videos on
Youtube, Going beyond mere basics of IT
14. Distribution of Smartphone by Punjab Government for Students to access Online
education
15. Kerala Government became 1st state which helped struggling students to repay
education loan debts after the completion of their course

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
Fundamental 1. Article 21A: Right to elementary education.
Rights 2. Article 28: Freedom from attending religious instruction or
worship in certain educational institutions.
3. Article 29: This article provides equality of opportunity in
educational institutions.
4. Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer
educational institutions of their own.

Directive 1. Article 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance

Principles in certain cases.
2. Article 45: Provision for free and compulsory education for
children and provision for early childhood care and education to
children below the age of six years.
3. Article 46: It provides for special care to the promotion of
education and economic interests of the scheduled caste,
scheduled tribes and the weaker sections of society.

Fundamental Article 51 A(k): A parent or guardian to provide opportunities for

Duties education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of
six and fourteen years.

Other Articles 1. Article 337: This provides for special provision with respect to
educational grants for the benefit of the Anglo-Indian
community.
2. Article 350A: This article relates to facilities for instruction in
mother tongue at primary stage.
 3. Article 350B: It provides for special officer for linguistic
minorities.

Amendments: 1. 42th Amendment Act 1976: Education was shifted from

State List to Concurrent List
2. 86 Amendment Act 2002: Right to Education (inserted 21A
and amended article 51(A)(K))
3. 93 Amendment Act 2006: Amended Article 15, which
provides reservation for SC, ST and OBC in private institutions.

Judgements 1993: The Supreme Court in the case of Mohini Jain and
Unnikrishnan vs State of Andhra Pradesh Ruled that the
right to education is a fundamental right that flows from the
Right to life in Article 21 under Indian Constitution.

Importance of Education

DATA
Literacy rate 1. The literacy rate ( as per the 2011 census) is at 74.04 %; 82.14%
for males and 65.46% for females. Kerala has the highest
literacy rate of 93.91% and Bihar (63.82 %) ranks last.
2. The literacy rate in rural India is 67.77% as compared to
84.11% in urban India.
3. The National Statistical Commission – literacy 77.7% in 2017–18,
84.7% for male and 70.3% for female.
Gross 1. Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education has increased steadily
Enrolment over the past decade, reaching a (GER) of 26.3% in 2019.
Ratio 2. As per UDISE- In 2020-21 total students enrolled in school
education from primary to higher secondary stood at 25.38 crore.
There is an increase of 28.32 lakh enrolments as compared to the
25.10 crore enrolment in 2019-20.

Teacher ratio 1. The pupil to teacher ratio within the public school system for
primary education is 35:1.
2. Teachers in School Education: 96 lakh teachers were engaged in
school education during 2020-21. This is higher by about 8800 in
comparison with the number of teachers involved in school
education during 2019-20.
3. Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR): In 2020-21 the Pupil-Teacher Ratio
(PTR) stood at 26 for primary, 19 for upper primary, 18 for
secondary and 26 for higher secondary showing an improvement
since 2018-19.
The PTR for primary, upper primary, secondary and higher
secondary was 28, 20, 21,and 30 respectively during 2018-19.

Expenditure India spends only 4% of the GDP on education, less than some
on education developing countries. For example, South Africa’s expenditure on education
is 6.1% of its GDP.

Non-teaching The number of non-teaching staff has also improved over the years.
staffs Total non teaching staff during 2020-21 stood at 15.8 lakh as compared to
12.37 lakhs in 2018-19.

Report on 1. Schools with functional electricity have made impressive

School progress during 2020-21 with a net addition of 57,799 schools
Infrastructure providing electricity.
2. Now 84% of the total schools have functional electricity facilities in
comparison with 73.85% in 2018-19 showing a remarkable
improvement of 10.15% during the period.
3. Percentage of the schools with functional drinking water has
increased to 95.2 % in 2020-21 from 93.7 % in 2019-20.
4. Percentage of the school with functional girls’ toilet facilities
has increased to 93.91 % in 2020-21 in comparison with 93.2 % in
2019-20 by adding the facility in additional 11,933 schools during
the year.
5. Percentage of schools with hand wash facilities has also
improved during 2020-21 and now stands at 91.9 % as compared to
90.2 % in 2019-20.
6. Number of schools having functional computers increased to 6
lakhs in 2020-21 from 5.5 lakh in 2019-20 showing an increase of 3
%. Now, 40% of the schools have functional computers.
7. Number of schools having internet facilities increased to 3.7 lakh
in 2020-21 from 3.36 lakh in 2019-20 with an increase of 2.6%.

School 1. Decline in the dropout rates across all school levels in FY22.
Dropout Rates 2. Primary level:1.5%
(Economic 3. Upper primary level: 3%
Survey 4. Secondary level: 12.6 %
2022-23)
ASER Report ASER Report 2022 Findings Enrollment :
2022 Findings 1. Almost all (98.4%) students in the age bracket of 6-14 years are now
Enrollment : enrolled in schools.
2. Increase of 7.3 percentage points in government school enrollment
in the period 2018 to 2022.
3. Enrollment has gone from 97.2 per cent in 2018 to 98.4% in 2022.

Basic Reading and Arithmetic Skills :Decline in basic reading and

arithmetic skills of children in Class 3 and Class 5 in India.

Other Important Findings :

1. In both government and private schools, only 20.5% students of
Class 3 can read.
2. The proportion of Class 5 students who can read - 42.8% in 2022
3. Number of girls not going to school is above 10% in MP (17%), UP
(15%), and Chhattisgarh (11.2%).

All India Enrollment

Survey on 1. Only about 27.1% of all eligible candidates can make it to a higher
Higher education university. [Target:50% by 2035]
Education 2. 4.1 crore in 2020-21 (increased from previous years)
(AISHE) 3. Female enrollment reaches 2 crore
2020-2021 4. 28% rise in enrolment of SC students
5. 47% rise in enrolment of ST students
6. At the undergraduate level, enrolment was highest in humanities
(33.5%), followed by science (15.5%), commerce (13.9%) and
engineering & technology (11.9%).
7. At the postgraduate level, maximum students opted for social
science (20.56%) followed by science (14.83%).
Educational Institutions :
1. No. of medical colleges in the country increased from 387 in 2014 to
648 in 2022.
2. No. of IITs rose from 16 to 23 between 2014 and2022
3. IIMs increased from 13 to 20.
QS World Rankings 2023 :
4. Only 3 Indian Universities in QS top 200 list - IISC, Bangalore (155),
IIT-B (172nd), IIT Delhi(174th)
5. Accredited Universities : Only 32 %
6. Funding on Higher Education : 1.4% of GDP
Right to Education Act 2009:
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, is a landmark
legislation in India that aims to provide free and compulsory education for all children aged 6-14
years. It represents the consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, which means that
every child has a right to full time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a
formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.
Aspects of the RTE Act:
1. Increased Access to Education: By mandating that all children aged 6-14 years receive free
and compulsory education, the Act has helped increase enrolment rates and reduce dropout
rates. According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2020, the overall
enrolment rate for children aged 6-14 years increased from 93.4% in 2006 to 96.3% in 2020.
Thus, the Act has made significant strides in improving access to education.
2. Infrastructure and Quality Improvements: The RTE Act also mandates that schools
meet certain minimum standards in terms of infrastructure and teacher qualifications. Since
the Act's implementation, there has been a significant improvement in school infrastructure,
with the percentage of schools with functional toilets increasing from 62.6% in 2010 to 79.4%
in 2016, according to the District Information System for Education (DISE).

Limitations of the RTE Act:

1. Limited Focus on Learning Outcomes: This can limit the effectiveness of the Act in
incentivizing and promoting the importance of education, as parents and children may not
perceive the benefits of schooling if learning outcomes are not emphasized. The ASER 2018
report reveals that only 50.3% of grade 5 students in rural India can read a grade 2 level text,
indicating a gap in learning outcomes.
2. Inadequate Emphasis on Awareness Generation: Without widespread awareness of the
benefits of schooling, it is challenging to create an incentive-based system that encourages
children to attend school and complete their education. Initiatives like the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan's "Chalo School Chale" campaign have attempted to create awareness but
require further efforts to reach a larger audience.
3. Insufficient Incentives for Disadvantaged Groups: There is a lack of provisions for
scholarships, transportation, or mid-day meals to encourage and facilitate school attendance
among children from marginalized backgrounds. Although the Mid-Day Meal Scheme is in
place, its implementation has faced challenges, and further incentives are needed to ensure
greater inclusion.
4. Incomplete Implementation: The RTE Act has faced challenges in its implementation due
to inadequate funding, a shortage of trained teachers, and insufficient monitoring and
evaluation mechanisms. As per the DISE 2016 report, around 17.51% of schools still lack the
mandated pupil-teacher ratio.
5. Age Limitation: The Act covers only children aged 6-14, excluding those aged 0-6 and 14-18,
despite international commitments for education up to 18 years.
6. Gender Bias: Traditional norms force girls into household chores, leading to irregular
attendance and dropouts. Limited secondary and higher secondary schools in rural areas
further exacerbate this issue.
7. Children with Special Needs: The Act lacks provisions for children with disabilities,
leaving them without necessary educational support.
8. Private School Challenges: Private schools are required to admit children from weaker
backgrounds, but face attitude issues and lack provisions for additional expenses like uniforms
and books.
9. Quality of Education: The Act is seen as input-focused, emphasizing universal admission
over the quality of education provided.
10. Bridging Courses: The Act mandates age-based admission for out-of-school children but
lacks details on bridging courses to help them catch up academically.
11. School Management Committees (SMC): Forming SMCs with primarily parent members
can burden poor parents, who may struggle to volunteer time and effort.
Learning poverty
About
1. The World Bank’s Global Director for Education highlighted concerns over significant
learning losses for children due to the COVID-19 pandemic and emphasized the need for
concerted efforts to bridge these gaps.
2. According to the World Bank’s learning poverty calculation, India’s learning poverty
increased from 54% before the pandemic to 70% after the pandemic.
3. Learning Poverty, as defined by the World Bank, means being unable to read and understand a
simple text by the age of 10. This indicator combines schooling and learning indicators by
measuring the share of children who haven’t achieved minimum reading proficiency and
adjusting for the proportion of children who are out of school and assumed not to be able to
read proficiently.
4. All foundational skills (basic literacy, numeracy, and transferable skills) are important, but
reading is focused on because:
a. Reading proficiency is an easily understood measure of learning.
b. Reading is a student’s gateway to learning in every other area.
c. Reading proficiency can serve as a proxy for foundational learning in other subjects,
similar to how the absence of child stunting indicates healthy early childhood
development.

NEED TO ELIMINATE LEARNING POVERTY

1. Key to eliminating poverty in general and boosting shared prosperity.
2. To improve learning outcomes: Globally, between 2000 and 2017, there has been only a
10% improvement in learning outcomes for primary school-aged children. At this pace, 43% of
10-year-olds will not be able to read by 2030.
 3. To achieve SDG Goals: The target is
ambitious but achievable and should
galvanize action toward achieving
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG4)
ensuring quality education for all. It
will require nearly tripling the rate of
progress worldwide if every country
matches the performance of the
countries that made the most progress
between 2000 and 2015.
4. To increase global productivity:
The learning crisis not only wastes
children’s potential but also harms
entire economies. It negatively impacts
future workforces and economic
competitiveness. The World Bank’s
Human Capital Index shows that
globally, the productivity of the
average child born today is expected to be only 56% of what it would be if countries invested
sufficiently in health and education.

INCREASE IN LEARNING POVERTY

1. School closures during the COVID-19 pandemic: Many countries, including India, had
to close down schools and colleges, encouraging online classes. According to a World Bank
report in 2019, 55% of children in the country at late primary age could not read correctly. The
problem worsened during COVID-19, with observations suggesting a 20% increase.
2. Disorganized school systems: When a child cannot read, it usually indicates that school
systems are not well-organized to help children learn in other areas such as mathematics,
science, and humanities.
3. School dropouts: Many children globally cannot read proficiently. Over 260 million children
do not attend school, further deepening the crisis.
4. Decline in household income: Surveys have shown that many students have been forced to
withdraw from private schools and enroll in government schools due to a decline in household
incomes. The quality gap between private and public schools has increased learning poverty.
5. Quality of study material: Poorly designed study materials, such as textbooks and learning
materials, contribute to poor performance and increased learning potential.
6. Malnutrition among children: Severe deprivations in terms of nutrition, unhealthy
environments, or lack of nurture by caregivers.
7. Quality of teachers: Poor guidance and teaching methodologies, along with a lack of trained
teachers, are causing a decrease in learning outcomes, leading to an increase in learning
poverty.

IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING SKILLS

1. For sustainable growth and poverty reduction: Poor education outcomes have major
costs for future prosperity, given that human capital is the most important component of
wealth globally.
2. Improving overall schooling systems: When children cannot read, it usually indicates
that school systems aren’t well organized to help children learn in other areas such as
mathematics, science, and humanities.
3. Better quality workforce: Countries that have prioritized and invested in foundational
learning have produced a better quality workforce, enabling their economies to take off. Both
South Korea and China did this in the 1970s, with a tremendous impact on their economies.
 4. Improves individual freedom: For individuals and families, it can lead to higher
productivity and earnings, poverty reduction, higher rates of employment, better health
outcomes, and greater civic engagement.
5. Benefits society: For societies, it can contribute to faster innovation and growth,
better-functioning institutions, greater intergenerational social mobility, higher levels of social
trust, and a lower likelihood of conflict.

WAY FORWARD
1. Ensure timely access to more and better age- and skill-appropriate texts: In
Mongolia, better access to books led to a 0.21 standard deviation improvement in student
outcomes.
2. Focus on ramping up catch-up learning: Brushing up on the fundamentals helps
children revise the syllabus easily.
3. Extra effort from teachers in class: Teachers will require a lot of support to group
students within the classroom based on where they are rather than their grade or age.
4. Investment in education technology: Re-enrolment campaigns and reassessment of
learning levels as schools reopen after a gap of two years call for investment in education
technology to complement classroom teaching.
5. Digital literacy: The resurgence of education television and radio is a good development.
Resilient systems are necessary because the next natural disaster is unpredictable.
6. Budgetary allocations: Increased budgetary allocation will bring quality and better
infrastructure to education, helping to reduce learning poverty.
DIGITAL EDUCATION/E-LEARNING
It is a method of delivering educational information through the Internet and digital platforms. It is
the process of sharing knowledge through various channels such as e-books, CDs, webinars and more.
It is flexible and self-paced and suited for distance learning.e-Education has revolutionized the
conventional method of chalk and board style of learning imparted to the students.

Advantages of Online Education in India

1. Convenience and Flexibility
a. Flexible Scheduling and 24/7 Access: Online education allows both teachers and
students to engage at their preferred times and from any location. Courses and learning
materials are accessible anytime, providing a self-paced learning environment.
b. Ease of Access: Resources are available online, eliminating the need for physical
presence and making education more accessible.
2. Effective and Engaging Learning
a. Enhanced Grasping and Disciplined Learning: E-learning methods, including
audio-visual teaching, ensure better understanding and create a disciplined and
engaging learning environment.
b. Improved Engagement: Interactive multimedia content enhances student
engagement and makes learning more enjoyable.
3. Cost-Effectiveness
a. Reduced Costs: Savings on transportation and physical infrastructure lower the
overall cost of education.
b. More Affordable: Online programmes are generally cheaper than traditional
education, making them accessible to a wider audience.
4. Environmental Benefits
a. Paperless Learning and Energy Efficiency: Online education reduces the need
for paper and consumes less energy compared to traditional classroom settings,
promoting environmental sustainability.
5. Global Reach and Networking
a. Diverse Reach and Networking Opportunities: Tutors can teach in multiple
languages, reaching students across different time zones. Online platforms enable
students to network with peers globally, fostering a broader learning community.
6. Efficient Resource Management
a. Easy Documentation and Access to Expertise: Educational materials and
communications are stored securely in online databases, allowing students to learn
from experts worldwide, breaking geographical barriers.
7. Addressing Teacher Scarcity
a. Solving Shortages: Online education helps mitigate the shortage of teachers by
enabling a single educator to reach many students simultaneously.
8. Role of Technology in Overcoming Challenges in the Indian Education System
a. Access and Inclusion: Technology provides 24/7 access to education, enabling live
interaction with faculty and inclusivity for diverse groups, including remote areas, adult
dropouts, and marginalized communities.
b. Quality of Education: Interactive and adaptive learning tools make education
engaging and personalized, enhancing comprehension and addressing students' weak
areas.
c. Teacher Development and Management: ICT facilitates large-scale teacher
training, knowledge sharing, and collaboration, improving overall teaching quality.
d. Governance and Management: ICT supports transparent and efficient school
management systems, enhancing administrative processes.
e. Skill Development and Employability: MOOCs and certification courses from top
institutions boost employability.
 f. Research and Development: Promotes international collaboration, integrating
local knowledge with global advancements.

Challenges and Disadvantages of Online Education in India

1. Weak Student Feedback and Engagement
a. Weak Feedback: Online platforms often provide insufficient feedback mechanisms
for students.
b. Social Isolation: The lack of physical interaction can lead to social isolation and poor
communication skill development.
c. Reduced Engagement: Digital distractions can reduce focus and productivity, with
entertainment easily accessible.
2. Motivation and Integrity Issues
a. Requires Strong Self-Motivation: Students need strong self-discipline to stay on
track.
b. Cheating and Plagiarism: Preventing cheating during online assessments is
challenging, and students may plagiarize essays and assignments more easily.
3. Access issues
a. Internet Connectivity: Poor internet connectivity in villages and remote areas limits
access to online education.
b. Digital Divide: A significant gap exists between urban and rural areas, with less than
15% of rural households having internet access, and only 4.4% of rural households
having computers.
4. Digital Illiteracy
a. Lack of Digital Skills: Many parents, teachers, and students lack the necessary
digital literacy to effectively engage with online education platforms.
b. Resistance to Technology: Teachers often resist adopting new technologies due to
unfamiliarity and comfort with traditional methods.
5. Content and Language Barriers
a. Lack of Vernacular Content: There is a shortage of high-quality educational
content in local Indian languages, making it difficult for many students to learn.
b. Content Customization: Often, content from other regions is used without proper
customization to meet local needs.
6. Practical and Hands-On Subjects
a. Limitations in E-Learning: Subjects requiring practical, hands-on experience, such
as chemistry, face significant challenges in an online format.
7. Domestic and Social Challenges
a. Increased Screen Time: Parents are concerned about the increased screen time for
children and their own discomfort with technology.
b. Domestic Responsibilities: Increased domestic responsibilities, especially for girls,
impair their learning opportunities.
c. Social Divide: Economically and socially disadvantaged groups struggle to afford and
maintain access to ICT devices.
8. Training and Motivation
a. Inadequate Training: Teachers often lack adequate training in using technology
effectively for teaching.
b. Low Motivation: Overloaded and less motivated teachers find it challenging to adapt
to new teaching methods and technologies.
9. Infrastructure and Support
a. Lack of Infrastructure: Many schools lack basic infrastructure such as electricity,
proper classrooms, computers, and internet connectivity.
b. Technical Support: Insufficient technical support hinders the effective use of ICT in
education.
10. Policy and Governance
 a. Lack of National Policy: The absence of a comprehensive national policy on ICT in
education leads to inadequate attention and financial support for integrating
technology into education.
b. Weak Monitoring: There are weak standards for monitoring and evaluating the use
of ICT in education.
11. Financial Constraints: The high cost of acquiring, installing, maintaining, and replacing
ICT infrastructure, combined with current budgetary constraints, limits the adoption of
technology in education.
12. Rapid Technological Changes: The fast pace of technological innovation outstrips the
ability of most educational institutions to effectively integrate new technologies.
13. Awareness and Engagement
a. Lack of Awareness: There is a general lack of awareness about e-learning platforms
among students and educators.
b. Engagement Difficulties: Ensuring high levels of student engagement in online
learning environments remains a challenge.
14. Disparity and Equity Issues: Online education may deepen the gap between the haves and
have-nots, exacerbating educational inequalities.

Government Initiatives for Online Education in India

School Level Higher Education Level Other Digital
Education Initiatives
1. VidyaDaan 2.0: 1. SWAYAM MOOCs:
National program Provides online courses 1. 'Wise' App:
inviting contributions from school to postgraduate Mobile app
from individuals and levels, offering quality integrated with
organizations to resources, discussion Zoom for online
e-learning content for forums, tests, and academic teaching on low
school students. grades. bandwidth;
2. e-Pathshala: 2. SWAYAM PRABHA: 32 beneficial for
Portal/app developed DTH channels broadcasting low-income and
by NCERT hosting educational content 24/7 low connectivity
textbooks, audio, using GSAT-15 satellite, areas, especially
video, and other covering diverse disciplines used in Kashmir.
educational materials and educational levels. 2. 'Bolki Shaala'
for teachers, students, 3. National Digital Library by Diganta
parents, researchers, of India (NDLI): Swaraj
and educators. Developed by IIT Foundation:
3. PRAGYATA Kharagpur, offers free Loudspeaker-base
Guidelines: Ministry digital educational d learning in
of Education's resources to all citizens. Maharashtra's
guidelines addressing 4. Digital ISBN Portal: tribal belt;
issues related to Facilitates online recorded materials
students with limited registration for ISBNs for played out, with
or no access to digital publishers and authors. volunteer support.
technologies. 5. Vittiya Saksharta 3. BleeTech
4. Manodarpan: Abhiyan: Promotes digital Innovations:
Initiative for the economy and cashless Remote learning
psychosocial support transactions, involving kits for deaf
of teachers, students, students and faculty in children with
and families regarding awareness campaigns. visual content
mental health and 6. National Academic workbooks.
emotional well-being. Depository (NAD): 4. 'Support Our
Digital repository for Students' in
5. PM eVIDYA: academic awards, providing Bengaluru:
Multi-mode access to online retrieval and Collects and
digital/online verification of certificates refurbishes old
education, including and degrees. devices for
DIKSHA portal, TV 7. National Digital underprivileged
channels (one class, Education Architecture children; NGOs
one channel), radio, (N-DEAR): Connects involved in
community radio, various academic activities donating tablets to
podcasts, and special and modernizes education, girls in slums.
e-content for visually reducing inequality. 5. Government
and hearing impaired 8. e-Shodh Sindhu: School
students. Provides access to quality Teachers in
6. DIKSHA: Digital e-resources, including Karnataka:
platform offering full-text, bibliographic, and Teachers travel to
engaging learning factual databases to remote villages for
material aligned with academic institutions at a teaching; similar
the prescribed school lower subscription rate. initiatives in
curriculum for 9. Shodhganga: National Tripura
teachers, students, repository of all (neighborhood
and parents. M.Phil/Ph.D. theses and classes) and
7. Operation Digital dissertations by universities Chhattisgarh
Board (ODB): in India. (mohalla classes).
Converts classrooms 10. Campus Connect 6. Pen-drive
into digital Programme: Connects all Schools in
classrooms. Central Universities Nagaland:
8. ShaGun Portal: through WIFI, providing Distribution of
Monitors the progress 24/7 access to educational pen-drives with
of Sarva Shiksha resources in classrooms, study materials;
Abhiyan libraries, laboratories, and similar workbook
implementation. hostels. delivery in Dadra
9. Shala Siddhi: 11. Free and Open Source & Nagar Haveli.
Online portal for Software for Education 7. Home-schoolin
schools to conduct (FOSSEE): Promotes the g in Sikkim:
self-evaluation based use of open-source software Teachers visit
on set standards. in education. students' homes in
10. National Digital 12. PM eVIDYA: Includes remote villages;
Education initiatives for higher Jharkhand uses
Architecture education, such as allowing house walls as
(NDEAR): Supports top 100 universities to start blackboards for
teaching, learning, online courses open-air teaching.
educational planning, automatically. 8. Radio Pathsala
and administrative 13. Vidyadaan: Program in Odisha:
activities. encouraging academicians Lessons broadcast
11. National and organizations to via radio alongside
Education develop engaging e-learning online versions.
Technology Forum content aligned to the
(NETF): Platform for curriculum.
exchanging ideas on
using technology to
enhance learning,
assessment, planning,
and administration.
Way Forward for Addressing Challenges of Online Education
in India
1. National Policy and Strategic Planning
a. Formulate a National ICT Policy: Develop a comprehensive national policy on ICT
to enhance the role of technology in education and achieve SDG 4, ensuring inclusive
and quality education for all.
b. Prioritize Access to Remote Areas: Improve connectivity infrastructure and
bandwidth through initiatives like the BharatNet project and mobile connectivity
expansion.
2. Infrastructure and Access
a. Deploy Ed-Tech for Low Bandwidth: Use educational technology applications that
function efficiently with low internet bandwidth and patchy connections.
b. Offline Learning Tools: Develop tools to allow curriculum, notes, and other study
materials to be downloaded and accessed without internet connectivity.
c. Community Learning Centers: Promote ICT in non-formal education through
community learning centres and tele-centres to improve adult literacy and basic
education for out-of-school youth.
3. Incentives and Partnerships
a. Incentivize Educational Institutes: Government should incentivize educational
institutes to adopt the latest technology for teaching and course delivery.
b. Strengthen Partnerships: Collaborate with private sector, NGOs, and organizations
like UNESCO to develop and implement ICT projects in education.
4. Content and Customization
a. Improve Regional Language Content: Enhance educational content in regional
languages to make learning more accessible.
b. Customization of Courses: Tailor course content and technology to meet local
needs and cultural contexts.
5. Capacity Building and Awareness
a. Capacity Building: Train all stakeholders, including teachers, students, and parents,
to effectively use technology for education.
b. Awareness Campaigns: Conduct campaigns to raise awareness about the benefits
and methods of online education.
6. Quality Assurance and Monitoring
a. Establish Quality Benchmarks: Set quality assurance mechanisms and
benchmarks for online learning to ensure high standards.
b. Effective Monitoring Systems: Implement robust monitoring systems to track the
effectiveness of ICT in education.
7. Inclusivity and Equity
a. Inclusive Learning Solutions: Develop solutions that ensure all students, including
those from marginalized groups, have access to online education, such as leveraging
mobile internet.
b. Leverage Community-Owned Devices: Promote the use of community-owned
tablets and smart devices to bridge the digital divide.
8. Funding and Resources: Ensure sufficient financial resources are allocated for the
acquisition, installation, maintenance, and replacement of ICT infrastructure in education.
9. Government and Private Sector Collaboration: Ensure that the government and private
sector work together to make education available, accessible, and affordable for all, in line with
SDG 4.

The challenges in online education in India are multifaceted, involving issues of digital literacy,
affordability, infrastructure, content, and social barriers. Addressing these challenges requires
comprehensive policy support, increased funding, improved training for teachers, and greater efforts
to bridge the digital divide.
School Education in India
Present Status
1. Enrolment Ratios: Elementary level enrolment ratios are close to 100%. Gross enrolment
ratios (GER) for secondary education have increased, although net enrolment ratio (NER)
remains low.
○ GER for Grades 6-8: 90.9%
○ GER for Grades 9-10: 79.3%
○ GER for Grades 11-12: 56.5%
2. Enrolment Trends: From 2007-08 to 2015-16, enrolment in government primary schools
declined by 2.31 crores, while enrolment in private primary schools increased by 1.45 crores.
3. Out-of-School Children: As per the 75th round NSSO survey (2017-18), 3.22 crore children
in the age group of 6 to 17 years are out of school.
4. Human Development Report (2019): Between 1990 and 2018, mean years of schooling
increased by 3.5 years and expected years of schooling increased by 4.7 years in India.
5. Attendance Rates: ASER surveys estimate national attendance in primary and upper
primary schools at 71.4% and 73.2%, respectively, with considerable state-wise differences.
6. Enrolment Drop-offs: Enrolment drop-offs are severe for Scheduled Castes (19.6% to
17.3%), Scheduled Tribes (10.6% to 6.8%), differently-abled children (1.1% to 0.25%), and
female students within these categories.
7. Learning Outcomes: Over 5 crore elementary school students have not attained
foundational literacy and numeracy.
8. Pupil-Teacher Ratio: The national pupil-teacher ratio is 24:1 for elementary schools and
27:1 for secondary schools.
9. Mental Health: Student suicides due to examination and career stress increased from about
6,600 in 2012 to about 9,000 in 2015.

Challenges
1. Inadequate Public Funding: Government spending on education remains around 3% of
GDP, compared to the world average of 4.7% (World Bank).
2. Focus on Infrastructure Over Learning Outcomes: Disproportionate emphasis on
infrastructure rather than actual learning outcomes.
3. Governance and Monitoring: Centralized governance leads to conflicts of interest and
ineffective management.
4. Teacher Training and Vacancies: Inadequate teacher training, numerous teaching
vacancies, and high absenteeism affect education quality.
5. Limited Vocational Education: The school system offers limited options for vocational
training.
6. Language Barriers: Underdeveloped Indian languages and lack of standard publications
hinder learning, especially in rural areas.
7. Small Schools: Numerous small schools are economically and operationally inefficient, often
requiring teachers to cover multiple grades and subjects.
8. Mental Health Support: Inadequate mental health support for students leads to increased
stress and related issues.

Steps Taken
1. VidyaDaan 2.0: National program for contributing e-learning content.
2. e-Pathshala: NCERT portal/app hosting educational resources.
3. PRAGYATA Guidelines: Guidelines for digital education addressing limited or no access to
technologies.
4. Manodarpan: Psychosocial support initiative for mental health and emotional well-being.
 5. PM eVIDYA: Multi-mode access to digital education, including DIKSHA portal, TV channels,
radio, and special content for the visually and hearing impaired.
6. Operation Digital Board (ODB): Converts classrooms into digital classrooms.
7. ShaGun Portal: Monitors Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan implementation.
8. Shala Siddhi: Online portal for school self-evaluation.
9. National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR): Supports teaching, learning, and
administrative activities.
10. National Education Technology Forum (NETF): Platform for exchanging ideas on
technology use in education.
11. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Universalisation of primary education.
12. Mid-Day Meal: Enhances enrolment, retention, and nutritional levels among school children.
13. RTE Act, 2009: Enforces free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14 years.
14. NIPUN Bharat Mission: Aims for universal proficiency in foundational literacy and
numeracy by the end of Grade 3 by 2026-27.
15. Strengthening Teaching-Learning and Results for States (STARS) Project:
Improves monitoring and measurement activities in school education.
16. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: Integrates Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), and Teacher Education (TE) to provide quality
education and enhance learning outcomes.

Way Forward
1. Increase Funding: Raise government spending on education to at least 6% of GDP by 2022.
2. Improve Governance: Develop robust mechanisms to enforce regulations on teacher
qualifications, absenteeism, and learning outcomes, with regular assessments by independent
bodies.
3. Focus on Learning Outcomes: Integrate small schools to optimize resources, run
remediation processes concurrently with regular classes, and implement consequences for
failing to meet minimum learning outcomes.
4. Enhance Vocational Education: Award credits for subjects passed, provide options for
vocational courses from secondary level, and pilot innovative vocational education models.
5. Revamp Curriculum: Design pre-primary and primary syllabus on a skill-based continuum,
align vocational education syllabus with NSQF, and include practical learning activities.
6. Teacher Training: Improve teacher training and reduce vacancies to enhance teaching
quality.
7. Reduce Mental Stress: Include life skills and stress management in the curriculum, provide
mental health support, and ensure easy access to counseling, especially for at-risk children.
8. Broaden RTE Coverage: Extend RTE to cover ages 6-18, ensuring foundational knowledge
and workforce inclusion.
9. Address Drop-Outs: Implement creative policies to tackle drop-outs due to financial
constraints and loss of interest, such as free bicycles to improve mobility.
Higher Education in India

Present Status
1. Enrolment in Higher Education:
a. Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) has increased from 25.8% in 2017-18 to 26.3% in
2018-19. Gender parity is almost achieved with GER for men at 26.3% and women at
26.4%.
b. India lags behind the world average GER of 33%, with comparable economies like
Brazil at 46%, Russia at 78%, and China at 30%. South Korea exceeds 93%.
c. The number of universities increased from 903 in 2017-18 to 993 in 2018-19, with a
significant share managed by the private sector.
d. Narrowing gender gap with 51.36% male and 48.64% female enrolment.
e. SC and ST student enrolment stands at 14.89% and 5.53%, respectively.
f. Significant regional disparities with college density ranging from 7 in Bihar to 59 in
Telangana, and GER varying from 5.5% in Daman & Diu to 56.1% in Chandigarh.
g. Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) in universities and colleges is 29.
2. Quality Concerns:
a. Few Indian institutions feature in the top 200 of global rankings.
b. Limited employability of graduates.
c. Foreign student enrolment increased from 34,774 in 2012-13 to 47,575 in 2016-17, with
higher male enrolment.

Issues
1. Iniquitous Access:
a. Low GER, especially among SC (23%) and ST (18%) populations.
b. Significant regional disparities and limited access in rural areas.
 2. Poor Quality:
a. Only three Indian institutions in the top 200 global rankings.
b. Proliferation of substandard private institutions with inadequate infrastructure and
outdated curricula.
c. Outdated assessment systems and poor learning outcomes.
3. Governance and Management:
a. Overregulation and under-governance.
b. Non-transparent entry norms and high entry barriers.
c. Excessive government control and intervention in university autonomy.
d. Overburdened universities with massification of substandard education.
4. Lack of Funding:
a. Insufficient investment and government funding, with only 1% of GDP spent on higher
education.
b. Limited financial avenues leading to high capitation fees.
5. Skills and Employability:
a. Curriculum misaligned with industry needs, lacking employability and innovation
skills.
b. Lack of hands-on training resulting in unprepared graduates.
6. Commercialisation of Education: Private institutions focusing on profits over quality,
leading to degree mills.
7. Poor Research and Development:
a. Limited R&D, lack of international exposure, and collaborations.
b. Separation of research from teaching activities.
8. Curriculum Issues: Lack of interdisciplinary approach and restricted use of ICT in
education delivery.
9. Teaching Vacancies: High vacancies in teaching positions and inadequate training.
10. Quality Concerns: Rapid expansion without regard for quality, with many institutions rated
as middle or poor by NAAC.
11. Misalignment with Industry Needs: High unemployment among graduates due to
curriculum not aligned with industry requirements.

Steps Taken
1. Research and Development:
a. RISE Scheme: Funded by Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) for
infrastructure and research investments.
b. Prime Minister’s Research Fellows (PMRF): Enhances quality of technical
research.
c. IMPRINT India: Boosts scientific and technological research through IITs and IISc.
d. SPARC: Facilitates academic and research collaborations with international
institutions.
2. Enrollment and Access:
a. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to increase GER to 50% by 2035
with a flexible, interdisciplinary curriculum.
b. SWAYAM Portal: Provides quality education through online courses.
c. Unnat Bharat Abhiyan: Engages higher educational institutions with rural
development.
d. Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA): Strategic funding to state
institutions based on performance.
3. Funding and Regulation:
a. Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA): Finances infrastructure
improvements.
b. Institutions of Eminence (IoE): Program to develop world-class institutions.
c. National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF): Ranks institutions based
on various performance metrics.
4. Improving Quality:
 a. NAAC and NBA Accreditation: Mandatory assessments for funding eligibility.
b. GIAN Initiative: Engages international experts with Indian institutions.
c. TEQIP: Supports quality improvement in technical education.
5. Support for Marginalized Groups:
a. UDAAN, SAKSHAM, Ishan Uday: Scholarship programs for disadvantaged groups.
6. Digital and Distance Learning:
a. SWAYAM and NPTEL: Online courses and learning platforms.
b. YUKTI 2.0: Supports incubated startups and technologies in higher education.

Government Bodies
1. UGC (University Grants Commission): Regulates and provides funds to universities.
2. AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education): Regulates technical education.
3. ICHR (Indian Council of Historical Research): Supports historical research.
4. ICSSR (Indian Council of Social Science Research): Supports social science research.
5. Higher Education Commission of India (HECI): Proposed to replace UGC for improved
regulation and transparency.

Way Forward
1. Regulatory and Governance Reforms:
a. Establish a unified regulatory framework and amend the UGC Act.
b. Develop a framework for foreign universities and ensure transparent selection
processes for leadership positions.
2. Curriculum Design:
a. Standardize curriculum and continuously update with industry and expert feedback.
b. Integrate skills and vocational training with higher education.
c. Mandate internships for professional and technical courses.
3. Accreditation Framework:
a. Ensure regular accreditation of all higher education institutions.
b. Expand the number of credible accreditation agencies and focus on outcome-based
accreditation.
4. Creating World-Class Universities:
a. Develop ‘Institutions of Eminence’ with significant funding.
b. Implement a graded funding mechanism for top public universities.
5. Performance-Linked Funding and Incentives:
a. Link grants to institutional performance and quality.
b. Establish a public funding system for research and innovation.
c. Adopt a prize system for solving specific research problems.
6. Development of Teacher Resources:
a. Develop stringent norms for faculty recruitment and encourage quality teaching.
b. Introduce mandatory training and outcome-based evaluation for faculty.
c. Regularly assess the quality of journals used for faculty evaluations.
7. Distance and Online Education:
a. Broaden the scope of MOOCs and ODL.
b. Permit high-ranking universities to offer online education programmes.
c. Leverage technology to address faculty shortages.
8. Vocational and Profession-Led Education:
a. Establish norms for vocational education institutions and integrate vocational subjects
in universities.
b. Focus on high-demand skills such as public health and foundational teaching.
9. Additional Measures:
a. Strengthen public institutions and improve inclusion through scholarships and
freeships.
b. Provide greater autonomy in academic matters and incentivize good performers.
 c. Increase funding from various sources and transform top universities into institutes of
excellence.
d. Promote interdisciplinary education and incentivize research among faculty.
e. Forge international collaborations to enhance academic quality.

Teacher Education in India

Present Status
1. Regulatory Body: The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) regulates teacher
education in India.
○ Teacher-Training Institutes: 23,219 recognized institutes, with around 90%
privately run. The intake was 17.58 lakh in 2016.
2. Teacher Eligibility: Teachers in schools must pass the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET), and
higher education teachers must pass the National Eligibility Test (NET) or State Level
Eligibility Test (SLET).
○ Qualification Rates: Only 13.53% of candidates qualified for the Central Teacher
Eligibility Test (CTET) in 2015. The pass percentage for UGC-NET is also low, with only
6% qualifying.
3. In-Service Training: The current framework includes 592 District Institutes of Educational
Training (DIETs), 112 Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs), 35 Institutes of Advanced Studies
(IASEs), and 17 Block Institutes of Teacher Education (BITEs).
○ Training Statistics: Only 14.9% of teachers received in-service training for
elementary education in 2015-16, despite the provision of 20 days of training under
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA).
4. Teacher Vacancies: There are 9 lakh teacher vacancies out of 51.03 lakh sanctioned posts,
with 4.2 lakh vacancies in SSA schools.
5. Pupil-Teacher Ratio: 33% of schools do not meet the required pupil-teacher ratio. There are
also 2.91 lakh surplus teachers due to regional demand-supply imbalances.
6. Teacher Attendance: A national survey showed 25% of teachers absent from school, and
only half teaching during unannounced visits.

Issues
1. Regulatory Monitoring: Insufficient regulatory monitoring of teacher education
institutions.
2. Teacher Eligibility Tests: Some state-level TETs are not adequately robust.
3. In-Service Training: Inadequate training programs and lack of public funding support.
4. Demand-Supply Imbalance: No robust system to balance regional or state-level demand
and supply of teachers.
5. Accountability: Limited systems for teacher accountability.

Steps Taken
1. Regulatory Framework:
○ NCTE: Regulatory body for teacher education.
○ Accreditation: Efforts to improve accreditation and grading processes.
2. In-Service Training:
○ Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya National Mission for Teachers & Teaching: Aims
to build a strong professional cadre of teachers.
○ NISHTHA: National mission to improve learning outcomes through integrated
teacher training.
○ SSA Provision: 20 days of in-service training for all teachers.
3. Technological Interventions:
 ○ Madhya Pradesh's M-Shiksha Mitra: Mobile application to monitor teacher
attendance.
4. Performance Monitoring:
○ PINDICS (Performance Indicators): NCERT's quality monitoring tools to
evaluate teachers' competencies.
○ National Electronic Teacher Registry: Proposed platform to host teachers'
profiles and monitor performance.

Way Forward
1. Strengthening the Regulatory Framework:
a. Transparent Criteria: Develop and enforce rigorous criteria for recognizing
institutions.
b. Close Dysfunctional Institutes: Ensure the closure of fraudulent or dysfunctional
teacher education institutions.
c. Institutions of Eminence: Establish 5-6 teacher training institutions with an annual
intake of 2000 students each.
2. Robust In-Service Teacher Development:
a. Professional Development: Redesign in-service training with continuous
professional development through various modes like coaching, peer-learning, and
sabbaticals.
b. Mission Mode Implementation: Implement the Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya
National Mission for Teachers & Teaching in mission mode.
3. Accountability of Teachers:
a. Electronic Registry: Set up a national electronic teacher registry to host educational
profiles and monitor performance.
b. Performance-Based Salary: Link salary increments to performance assessments.
c. Tri-Annual Testing: Test teachers tri-annually on the same subjects they teach.
d. Strengthen TET: Standardize TET across states to match central TET standards.
e. NET/SLET for Higher Education: Continue and strengthen the use of NET/SLET
as minimum eligibility criteria for higher education faculty.
4. Balancing Teacher Demand-Supply:
a. Forecast Model: Develop state-level teacher-demand forecast models to address
regional surpluses and deficiencies.
b. Transparent Appointments: Ensure transparent and timely appointments to
address vacancies.

These structured steps and measures are essential to revamp the ecosystem of teacher education,
ensuring quality education through well-trained, accountable, and adequately supported teachers.

NEW EDUCATION POLICY, 2020

1. The National Education Policy (NEP), 2020 is the first education policy of the 21st century and
replaces the thirtyfour-year-old National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986.
2. Built on the foundational pillars of access, equity, quality, affordability, and accountability, this
policy is aligned to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and aims to transform India
into a vibrant knowledge society and global knowledge superpower by making both school and
college education more holistic, flexible, multidisciplinary, suited to 21st century needs and
aimed at bringing out the unique capabilities of each student.
3. The launch of the National Education Policy 2020 marked remarkable progress in the area of
education and learning. India has completed one year into the National Education Policy. The
pandemic has slowed the progress of NEP.
 4. The NEP is essentially about learning through observation, listening, exploring, experimenting,
and asking questions.

Early Childhood 1. Universal Access to ECCE for children of 3-6 years

Care and 2. ECCE will be delivered through Anganwadis and pre-schools that
Education will have teachers and Anganwadi workers trained in the ECCE
(ECCE) pedagogy and curriculum.
3. Pre-school sections covering at least one year of early childhood
care and education will be added to Kendriya Vidyalayas and
other primary schools, particularly in disadvantaged areas.
4. NCERT will develop a National Curricular and Pedagogical
Framework for ECCE for children up to the age of 8
5. Implementation to be jointly carried out by Ministries of HRD,
Women and Child Development (WCD), Health and Family
Welfare (HFW), and Tribal Affairs.

Attainment of 1. National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy by

Foundational MHRD: Under it, States/UTs will prepare an implementation
Literacy and plan for attaining universal foundational literacy and numeracy
Numeracy in all primary schools for all learners by grade 3 by 2025.
2. National Book Promotion Policy is to be formulated to ensure the
availability, accessibility, quality, and readership of books across
geographies, languages, levels, and genres.
3. National Repository of high-quality resources on foundational
literacy and numeracy will be made available on the Digital
Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing (DIKSHA).

Curtailing 1. Providing effective and sufficient infrastructure so that all

Dropout Rates students have access to safe and engaging school education.
and Ensuring 2. Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Programmes offered by the
Universal National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and State Open
Access to Schools will be expanded and strengthened with special emphasis
Education at All on Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs).
Level 3. Tracking students as well as their learning levels through
counselors or well trained social workers.

Curriculum and 1. Restructuring school curriculum and pedagogy in a new 5+3+3+4

Pedagogy design
a. 5 years of the Foundational Stage (covering ages 3-8): 3
years of Anganwadi/pre-school + 2 years in primary
school in Grades 1-2
b. 3 years of the Preparatory Stage (covering ages 8-11):
Grades 3, 4, 5.
c. 3 years of the Middle Stage (covering ages 11-14): Grades
6, 7, 8.
d. 4 years of the High Stage (covering ages 14-18): Grades 9,
10, 11, 12.
2. Reduced curriculum content to its core essentials to enhance
essential learning and critical thinking.
3. Experiential learning will be adopted in all stages, including
hands-on learning, arts-integrated and sports-integrated
education.
4. Freedom of choosing a variety of subject-combination: no rigid
separation among ‘curricular’, ‘extracurricular’, or ‘co-curricular’,
 among ‘arts’, ‘humanities’, and ‘sciences’, or between ‘vocational’
or ‘academic’ streams.
5. Introduction of contemporary subjects such as Artificial
Intelligence, Design Thinking, Holistic Health, Organic Living,
Environmental Education, Global Citizenship Education (GCED),
etc.
6. Vocational education through a 10-day bagless period sometime du
Grades 6-8 where students will intern with local vocational experts
as carpenters, gardeners, potters, artists, etc.
7. National Curricular Framework for School Education will be
developed by the NCERT.

Student 1. School examinations in Grades 3, 5, and 8 which will be

Assessment conducted by the appropriate authority.
2. Board exams for Grades 10 and 12 will be continued but
redesigned.
3. National Assessment Centre, PARAKH (Performance
Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic
Development), will be set up as a standard setting body under
MHRD.
4. Holistic Progress Card with 360-degree, multidimensional report
that reflects the progress as well as the uniqueness of each learner
in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
5. National Testing Agency (NTA) to serve as an autonomous
testing organization to conduct entrance examinations for
undergraduate and graduate admissions and fellowships in
higher education institutions.

Multilingualism 1. Medium of instruction up till grade 5, and preferably till Grade 8

and the power and beyond, will be home language/ mother-tongue/ local
of language language.
2. ‘The Languages of India’ is a fun project/ activity to be taken by
every student under the ‘Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat’ initiative.
3. Three languages formula with greater flexibility.
4. All classical languages (Sanskrit,Tamil, Telugu, Kannada,
Malayalam, Odia) will be widely available in schools as options.
In addition, Pali, Persian, and Prakrit will also be widely available
as options.
5. Indian Sign Language (ISL) will be standardized across the
country.

Equitable and 1. Setting up of Gender Inclusion Fund for female and transgender
Inclusive students
Education 2. Areas having large populations from SEDGs to be declared as
Provisions for Special Education Zones (SEZs).
Socio-Economic 3. Children with disabilities will be enabled to fully participate in
ally the regular schooling process from the foundational stage to
Disadvantaged higher education.
groups -SEDGs 4. Every state/district will be encouraged to establish “Bal Bhavans”
as a special daytime boarding school, to participate in art-related,
career-related, and play-related activities.
5. Special mechanisms for children belonging to tribal groups to
receive quality education
6. Fee waivers and scholarships will be offered to meritorious
students from all SEDGs
 7. Setting-up of additional JNVs and KVs in aspirational
districts/SEZs.

Robust Teacher 1. New and comprehensive National Curriculum Framework for

Education and Teacher Education (by 2021)
Recruitment 2. By 2030, the minimum degree qualification for teaching will be a
4-year integrated B.Ed. degree.
3. Setting-up of National Mission for Mentoring with a large pool of
outstanding senior/retired faculty
4. Teacher Eligibility Tests (TETs) for all teachers across
Foundational, Preparatory, Middle and Secondary stage in both
public and private schools.
5. More autonomy to teachers in choosing aspects of pedagogy in
classroom teaching
6. National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST) will be
developed by the National Council for Teacher Education by
2022.
7. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) to be
restructured as a Professional Standard Setting Body (PSSB)
under General Education Council (GEC).

School 1. Schools can be organized into complexes or clusters which will be

governance the basic unit of governance and ensure availability of all
resources including a strong professional teacher community.
Schools will develop School Development Plans (SDPs). These
plans will then become the basis for the creation of School
Complex/Cluster Development Plans (SCDPs).
2. The twinning/pairing of one public school with one private
school will be adopted across the country, so that such paired
schools may learn from each other, and also share resources, if
possible.

Standard-settin 1. Clear, separate systems for policy making, regulation, operations

g and and academic matters.
Accreditation 2. Independent State School Standards Authority (SSSA) to be set
for School up by States/UTs.
Education 3. School Quality Assessment and Accreditation Framework
(SQAAF) to be developed by SCERT.
4. Public and private schools (except the schools that are
managed/aided/controlled by the Central government) will be
assessed and accredited on the same criteria.
5. For a periodic ‘health check-up’ of the overall system, a
sample-based National Achievement Survey (NAS) of student
learning levels will be carried out by the proposed new National
Assessment Centre, PARAKH.

Key provisions for Higher education

Provisions 1. All higher education institutions to be consolidated into three

Institutional types of institutions:
Restructuring & a. Research Universities - equal focus on research and
Consolidation teaching
b. Teaching Universities - primary focus on teaching with
significant focus on research
 c. Autonomous degree-granting colleges - almost exclusive
focus on teaching
2. Affiliation of colleges is to be phased out in 15 years and a
stage-wise mechanism is to be established for granting graded
autonomy to colleges.
3. Over a period of time, it is envisaged that every college would
develop into either an Autonomous degree-granting College, or a
constituent college of a university.
4. By 2040, all higher education institutions (HEIs) shall aim to
become multidisciplinary institutions.
5. There shall, by 2030, be at least one large multidisciplinary HEI
in or near every district.
6. The aim will be to increase the Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher
education including vocational education from 26.3% (2018) to
50% by 2035.

Holistic 1. The policy envisages undergraduate education with flexible

Multidisciplinar curricula, creative combinations of subjects, integration of
y Education vocational education and multiple entry and exit points with
appropriate certification.
2. An Academic Bank of Credit is to be established for digitally
storing academic credits earned from different HEIs so that these
can be transferred and counted towards final degree earned.
3. Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (MERUs),
at par with IITs, IIMs, to be set up as models of best
multidisciplinary education of global standards.
4. The National Research Foundation will be created as an apex
body for fostering a strong research culture and building research
capacity across higher education.

Regulation 1. Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) will be set up as a

single overarching umbrella body for entire higher education,
excluding medical and legal education.
2. Public and private higher education institutions will be governed
by the same set of norms. Internationalization of HEIs
3. Internationally relevant curricula, meaningful opportunities for
social engagement, quality residential facilities and on-campus
support, etc.
4. An International Students Office at each HEI hosting foreign
students to support students arriving from abroad.
5. High performing Indian universities will be encouraged to set up
campuses in other countries, and similarly, selected universities
e.g., those from among the top 100 universities in the world will
be facilitated to operate in India.
6. Research collaboration and student exchanges between Indian
institutions and global institutions will be promoted.
7. Credits acquired in foreign universities will be permitted, where
appropriate as per the requirements of each HEI, to be counted
for the award of a degree.
Significance and Challenges associated:
1. Comprehensive Framework: It provides an overarching vision and comprehensive
framework for both school and higher education across the country.
2. It encourages critical thinking. In the Prime Minister's words, the policy focuses on 'how
to think' rather than 'what to think'.
3. Stress on Formative Years: In adopting a 5+3+3+4 model for school education starting at
age 3, it recognises the primacy of the formative years from ages 3 to 8 in shaping the child’s
future.
4. Mother Tongue: It also recognises the importance of learning in the child’s mother tongue
till at least Class 5.
5. Vocational Courses: The new policy is the breaking of the straitjackets of arts, commerce
and science streams in high school, and the laudable goal of introducing vocational courses
with internships.
6. Not Mandatory: Though the NEP only provides a broad direction but it is not mandatory to
follow.
7. Transferable Job: The NEP doesn’t say anything specifically on children of parents with jobs
which are frequently transferable.
8. Education is a concurrent subject, the reforms proposed can only be implemented
collaboratively by the Centre and the States.
9. Challenge of 6% GDP: The government has set a target of 6% spending on education and
this is difficult due to the current tax-to-GDP ratio, economic slowdown and pandemic impact.
10. No Definition for Top Ranking Universities: The document states universities from
among the top 100 in the world will be able to set up campuses in India. While it doesn’t
elaborate the parameters to define the top 100.

Way forward
The NEP seeks to address the entire gamut of education from preschool to doctoral studies, and from
professional degrees in vocational training. It acknowledges the 21st century need for mobility,
flexibility, alternate pathways to learning, and self-actualisation. Thus, political consensus shall be
built up and centre and states must work in a collaborative manner to implement NEP in letter and
spirit.
Education as public good and privatization of
education
Why Education Should Be a Public Good
1. It is a service that every welfare democracy is obligated to provide in the most accessible form.
2. Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted at the UN General Assembly
in 1948, declared that “everyone has the right to education.”
3. By 2030-2032, India is projected to become the third-largest economy, exceeding ten trillion
dollars. This growth will be driven by knowledge resources, not natural resources, making
quality education crucial for this transition.
4. Nearly one-fifth of India’s population lives below the poverty line. Making education a public
good offers them a dignified way to learn and earn a living.
5. Education should be viewed as a tool for development against deprivation, not as a commodity
influenced by market forces, such as the demand for certain types of education (e.g., Artificial
Intelligence).

Why Education Should Not Be a Public Good

1. Many top institutes in the US, such as Stanford and Harvard Universities, are privately owned
and provide scholarships to students.
2. Public education may not always lead to quality education due to bureaucratization, limited
competition, limited resources, and a reduced need to attract the best talent.
3. Financial institutions offer education loans that students can repay after they start earning
(e.g., the "study now, pay later" model in Australia). This ensures quality is not compromised
as institutions have more funds to disburse.
4. Higher education is not a pure public good. While there are positive externalities, meaning
society benefits when more people go to college, students also enjoy significant benefits.
Therefore, it is reasonable for students to bear a substantial portion of the cost of higher
education.

Benefits of Privatization
1. Supplement Public schools: The demand for education has grown far more rapidly than
what public institutions can accommodate. They lack capacity and resources to scale up.
2. Greater Coverage: Private institutions can play a positive role in increasing geographical
spread and expanding access.
3. Induce Competitive spirit: Increased participants will enhance competition and quality of
education.
4. More credibility: Private institutions are considered more efficient than their public
counterparts, which is evident from trends of higher enrolment in the private sector.
5. Innovation in learning methods: Private institutions perceived as offering value for
money and employing increased use of technology.

Demerits of privatization
1. Overstated Private school efficiency: Impact of private institutions on quality and equity
dimension is unclear, and debatable. No evidence to show that private school children
outperform public school.
2. Non-Inclusive Access: Mandatory 25% reservation for SEBC children under RTE is openly
flouted with only 20% of available seats being filled so far.
3. Excessive commercialization of school education in form of high fees, capitation charges,
business-like approach to education, which creates accessibility & affordability issues.
 4. Lagging standards: In absence of a strong monitoring and certification system, many
private schools lack infrastructure, teachers, basic amenities, etc.

Narayana Murthy Committee was appointed on Corporate Sector Participation in Higher

Education. Major recommendations of this committee are following:
A. Creating enabling conditions to make the higher education system robust and
useful to attract investment:
1. Autonomy – in financial, regulatory, academic and administrative aspects
2. Resources – ensuring availability of land, infrastructure and connectivity
3. Fiscal incentives – to encourage investments and attracting funding
4. Enabling environment – (such as visas) for free movement of faculty and students to
promote collaboration with world-class institutions abroad
5. Freedom to accredit – with global accreditation agencies to put Indian institutions on par
with the best
6. Access to funds – through scholarships to enable students to pursue their chosen fields of
study.
B. Corporate participation in improving quality by enhancing research focus and
faculty development:
1. Enhancing research focus – through dedicated funding for research, sponsored doctoral
programs, and part-time Masters and PhD programs
2. Faculty development – by increasing the talent pool of faculty from corporates (working
and retired), faculty development programs, and sponsorships of visits by expert faculty
C. Creation of new infrastructure through corporate investments in higher education:
1. Setting up of new facilities by the corporate sector in existing universities and higher
education institutions either as Centres of Excellence (CoEs) or in the form of technology
parks.
2. Setting up of new universities and higher education

Conclusion
1. Private schools may not guarantee equitable and universal access to education; thus, they
should supplement, rather than replace, government schools.
2. With 65% of students enrolled in public schools, it is essential to comprehensively reform and
revitalize this sector.
3. The progressive recommendations of the National Education Policy, 2020, should be
implemented in both letter and spirit.

Status of women education in india

Data
1. Literacy Rates:
a. Female Literacy Rate: As of 2021, the female literacy rate in India stands at 75.1%,
up from 64.6% in 2011​​.
b. Overall Literacy Rate: The overall literacy rate is 94.02%​​.
2. School Enrollment and Retention:
a. Enrollment: According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2022,
enrollment rates for girls in rural India have shown improvements. Nearly 95% of
girls aged 6 to 14 are enrolled in schools​​.
 b. Dropout Rates: Despite high enrollment rates, dropout rates remain a concern,
especially at the secondary level, due to socio-economic factors, early marriage, and
household responsibilities​​.
3. Higher Education:
a. Participation in STEM: Women's participation in STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics) has been increasing, with initiatives like
supernumerary seats in IITs and NITs contributing to this rise​​.
b. Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER): The GER for women in higher education was
reported at 27.3% in 2021, showing a positive trend but still lagging behind men​​.

Issues Related to Women's Education in India

1. In traditional Indian society, sons are considered assets, while daughters are seen as liabilities,
making expenditure on their education a low priority.
2. Women are traditionally viewed as caretakers of the home and children, roles perceived
as not requiring formal education.
3. There is a concern that educated women may become independent earners, potentially
challenging the male ego. The patriarchal structure of Indian society often limits
women's roles and opportunities.
4. In impoverished families, girls are often required to care for their siblings and handle
household chores, leaving them with neither the time nor the financial resources for education.
5. Poor sanitation facilities in schools, especially for girls, deter many from enrolling.
6. Infrastructure issues, such as lack of roads and the distance of schools from villages,
further constrain women's education.
7. Gap in upper primary and secondary schooling:While female enrolment has increased
rapidly since the 1990s, there is still a substantial gap in upper primary and secondary
schooling.
8. High drop-out rates:Increased female enrolment is, compromised by persistently high rates
of drop-out and poor attendance of girls relative to boys. Girls also constitute a large
proportion of out-of-school children.
9. Inter-state variations:There are also considerable inter-state variations in gender parity.
While the greatest surges in female enrolment have been achieved in the most educationally
disadvantaged states such as Bihar and Rajasthan, these states still have a long way to go to
catch up with the better performing states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh.

Importance of Educating Women

1. Health Benefits: Female literacy significantly improves a society’s health and economic
well-being. Educating girls leads to delayed marriages, healthier children, and a reduction in
poverty.
2. Poverty Alleviation: Education enables women to gain employment, lifting families out of
poverty. In 2018, women's labour force participation in India was only 26%. Educating women
can increase this participation. Women also tend to have fewer vices like drinking and often
have a propensity for saving.
3. Social Development: Women's education addresses various societal issues. The Kothari
Commission of 1968 recommended education as a tool for social development. Advancing
women's education can help India achieve its social development goals.
4. Gender Equality: Education helps close the gender gap in society. Co-education institutions
can foster respect for women among children.
5. Economic Productivity: Educated women contribute to economic gains and can help raise
the nation's GDP.
6. Reduction in Infant Mortality: Educated women are more likely to make better health
decisions for their families, reducing infant mortality rates.
 7. Inclusive Growth: As a developing nation, India strives for growth in all sectors and for all
sections of society. Education is key to achieving this goal.
8. Women's Empowerment: Education is a powerful tool for women's emancipation and
empowerment, enabling them to secure their rights and gain a respected place in society.
9. Strengthening Democracy: Educated women are more likely to participate in politics,
strengthening democracy through increased awareness and mobilisation for their rights.

Government steps taken

1. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Scheme: This scheme aims to raise awareness and enhance the
efficiency of welfare services for the girl child. Initially focused on addressing the declining
child sex ratio, it also promotes the education, survival, and protection of the girl child.
2. Digital Gender Atlas: The Ministry of Human Resource Development has developed a
digital gender atlas to advance girls' education in India.
3. National Scheme of Incentive to Girls for Secondary Education (NSIGSE): The
scheme aims to create an environment that reduces dropouts and encourages the enrolment of
girls in secondary schools.
4. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: To ensure greater participation of girls in elementary education,
this initiative includes targeted interventions such as opening new schools, appointing
additional female teachers, providing separate toilets for girls, and conducting teachers’
sensitisation programmes. Additionally, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas have been
established in Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBs).
5. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA): This programme aims to enhance the
quality of education by ensuring a secondary school is within reasonable distance of every
habitation, improving the quality of secondary education, and removing gender,
socio-economic, and disability barriers.
6. Udaan: Launched by CBSE, 'Udaan' provides free online resources to girl students in Classes
XI and XII, specifically targeting the low enrolment ratio of girls in prestigious institutions.
7. STEM Education: To increase women's participation in STEM education, supernumerary
seats have been created in IITs and NITs.
8. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana – is a Government of India backed savings scheme designed
for parents of girl children – to set up a trust for their child’s eventual schooling and marriage
expenses.

Way forward
1. Mandatory Education for Girls and Retention in Higher Education: Ensure
compulsory education for girls and support their retention in higher education by providing
adequate infrastructure, such as separate toilets for females.
2. Skill Development: Equip girls with job-relevant skills demanded by employers or necessary
for starting their own businesses.
3. Security and Safety: Enforce laws strictly and increase policing to enhance the safety and
security of women.
4. Health: Strengthen Anganwadi centres, Balwadis, and ensure frequent visits by health
personnel to encourage and motivate girls.
5. Empowerment through Mahila Mandals: Utilize Mahila Mandals to empower women
across the country.
6. Raising Aspirations: Inspire girls and their parents by providing role models and images
that broaden their horizons and dreams.
7. Women's Representation: Increase women's participation in local, regional, and national
legislation to enhance their influence in policy making.
SKILL DEVELOPMENT
IN INDIA
Skill development is a critical topic in UPSC CSE Mains due to its role in enhancing economic
productivity, fostering inclusive growth, and addressing social inequalities. Effective policies in these
areas are essential for equipping the workforce with relevant skills, promoting entrepreneurship, and
empowering marginalised communities, thereby contributing to India's overall development agenda.

Questions in UPSC CSE (Mains) from this theme

● “Demographic Dividend in India will remain only theoretical unless our manpower becomes
more educated, aware, skilled, and creative.” What measures have been taken by the
government to enhance the capacity of our population to be more productive and employable?
(2016)
● “Earn while you learn’ scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill
training meaningful.” Comment. (2021)

Sub-themes

In line with the trends of the exam, we have prepared this study material with the following
subthemes:

● AI and skill development

● Vocational Training
● Industry-Specific Training
● Entrepreneurship
● Technology and Skill Development
● Skill Development & Marginalised Sections

What is Skill Development and its Importance?

Skill Development refers to the process of acquiring new or enhancing existing skills, knowledge, and
attitudes to improve the performance and productivity of an individual or a workforce. It involves
various training programs, courses, and on-the-job learning that aim to develop technical, vocational,
and soft skills in individuals.

Importance of Skill Development for India:

● Demographic Dividend: India is one of the youngest nations in the world, with over 62% of
its population in the working-age group (15-59 years) and more than 54% of its total
population below 25 years of age.
● Economic Growth: Equipping the workforce with employable skills and knowledge is crucial
for contributing substantially to the economic growth of the country.
 ● Global Knowledge Economy: As India progresses towards becoming a global knowledge
economy, it must meet the rising aspirations of its youth through relevant skill development.

Status of Skill Development in India

Key Highlights of the India Skills Report 2024

Employability Trends

● Overall Employability: The overall young employability in India has improved to 51.25%.
States like Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, and Telangana
demonstrate a high concentration of highly employable youth.
● Top State: Haryana has the highest employable youth concentration with 76.47% of test
takers in this region scoring 60% and above on the WNET.

AI Leadership and Talent Concentration:

● AI Skill Penetration: India holds a prominent global position in AI skill penetration and
talent concentration, showcasing a strong base of AI professionals.
● AI Professionals: As of August 2023, there were 4.16 lakh AI professionals, poised to meet
the increasing demand expected to reach 1 million by 2026.
● Demand-Supply Gap: India has a 60%-73% demand-supply gap in key roles such as ML
engineer, data scientist, DevOps engineer, and data architect.

Industry-Skill Development Linkage

Vocational Training

Vocational training refers to instructional programs or courses that focus on the skills required for a
particular job function or trade. It is designed to impart practical skills and knowledge for specific
occupations.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative Description Impact/Example

Pradhan Mantri Flagship scheme of the Ministry of Skill Trained over 10 million
Kaushal Vikas Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE), youth since inception.
Yojana implemented by NSDC. Aims to enable Indian
(PMKVY) youth to take up industry-relevant skill
training that will help them secure a better
livelihood.

National Skill Provides funding and support for skill Supported the
Development development initiatives across various establishment of more
Corporation sectors, collaborating with the private sector than 200 training
(NSDC) to set up training centers. centers.
Pradhan Mantri Establishes Model Training Centres (MTCs) Over 700 PMKKs
Kaushal in every district, focusing on quality, operating nationwide.
Kendras sustainability, and stakeholder engagement.
(PMKK)

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Mismatch between skills taught and Align training curricula with industry needs
industry requirements: According to a through regular consultations with industry
report by the National Skill Development experts. For example, the Automotive Skill
Corporation (NSDC), 48% of employers Development Council (ASDC) collaborates with
find that vocational training graduates automotive companies to ensure training
lack the necessary skills for their jobs. programs meet industry standards.

High dropout rates due to financial Provide financial assistance through

constraints: A survey by the Institute of scholarships, subsidized courses, and stipends.
Applied Manpower Research found that The National Skill Development Fund offers
financial difficulties contribute to high scholarships and financial support to deserving
dropout rates among vocational training students.
students.

Lack of awareness about vocational Launch awareness campaigns and

training programs: According to a informational programs in schools and
FICCI-EY report, 40% of students are communities. The Skill India campaign
unaware of the available vocational conducts regular outreach programs to promote
training opportunities. vocational training across the country.

Inadequate infrastructure and Upgrade infrastructure and invest in modern

outdated equipment: A report by the equipment to ensure high-quality training.
Indian Labour Organization (ILO) Initiatives like the Skill Strengthening for
highlighted that many training centers Industrial Value Enhancement (STRIVE)
lack modern facilities and equipment. program aim to improve the quality and market
relevance of vocational training provided by
industrial training institutes (ITIs).

Shortage of qualified trainers: The Develop certification programs and

NSDC reports a shortage of 1.2 million train-the-trainer initiatives to increase the
trainers in India. number of qualified trainers. NSDC’s Training
 of Trainers (ToT) program has certified over
10,000 trainers across various sectors.

Difficulty in tracking the progress Implement robust monitoring and evaluation

and impact of training programs: frameworks to track the progress and impact of
Lack of effective monitoring and training programs. The Skills Acquisition and
evaluation mechanisms hinders the Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood
assessment of training outcomes. Promotion (SANKALP) program focuses on
improving the monitoring and evaluation of
skill development initiatives.

Gender disparity in vocational Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide

training enrollment: Women constitute incentives for women’s participation. Initiatives
only 28% of those enrolled in vocational like the Mahila Shakti Kendra scheme aim to
training programs, according to the increase women's enrollment in vocational
Ministry of Skill Development and training by providing safe transport and
Entrepreneurship. childcare facilities.

Soft Skills

Soft skills refer to personal attributes, personality traits, inherent social cues, and communication
abilities needed for success on the job. They characterize how a person interacts in their relationships
with others.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative Description Impact/Example

Skill India Emphasizes the importance of soft Conducted over 5,000

skills alongside technical skills workshops
through workshops on nationwide.
communication, teamwork, and
leadership.

National Institute for Provides training in soft skills Trained over 1.5
Entrepreneurship and essential for entrepreneurship, million entrepreneurs
Small Business including courses on business in soft skills.
Development (NIESBUD) communication and negotiation
skills.
Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Underemphasis on Integrate soft skills training into academic curricula from an early
soft skills in stage. CBSE schools in India have started including soft skills like
traditional education communication and teamwork in their curriculum, influenced by
the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 which emphasizes
holistic education.

Lack of qualified Develop certification programs for soft skills trainers and provide
trainers for soft skills training-of-trainer programs. NSDC has partnered with educational
institutions to certify over 10,000 soft skills trainers, ensuring
quality training delivery across various sectors.

Difficulty in Use a combination of self-assessment tools, peer reviews, and

measuring and practical exercises to evaluate soft skills. The Indian Institutes of
assessing soft skills Management (IIMs) have introduced comprehensive assessment
methods, including peer reviews and practical exercises, to evaluate
students' critical thinking, communication, and teamwork skills.

Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is the process of designing, launching, and running a new business, which is often
initially a small business. The people who create these businesses are called entrepreneurs.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative Description

Startup India Launched to promote startups by providing tax

benefits, funding support, and simplifying
regulations.

Standup India Focuses on financing SC/ST and women

entrepreneurs through bank loans for setting up
businesses.
Atal Innovation Mission Promotes innovation and entrepreneurship
(AIM) among students by setting up Atal Tinkering Labs
(ATLs).

MUDRA Yojana Provides loans to micro and small enterprises

without collateral, categorized as Shishu, Kishor,
and Tarun.

Make in India Aims to transform India into a global

manufacturing hub by promoting local
manufacturing and entrepreneurship.

Digital India Focused on digital infrastructure and services to

support digital entrepreneurship and startups.

National Recognizes and rewards outstanding

Entrepreneurship Awards entrepreneurs and organizations that foster
(NEA) entrepreneurship.

Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Offers skill development training to encourage

Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) entrepreneurship by enhancing employability.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Limited access to funding and Create more venture capital funds, offer subsidised
resources: Entrepreneurs often loans and grants, and provide co-working spaces.
struggle to secure the necessary For instance, government-backed venture capital
capital to start and grow their funds and schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Mudra
businesses. Yojana (PMMY) provide financial assistance to
startups and small businesses.
Lack of entrepreneurial Establish entrepreneurship cells in educational
education and mentorship: Many institutions and connect entrepreneurs with
potential entrepreneurs lack the mentors and industry experts. University-led
necessary education and mentorship incubation centers with mentorship programs,
to successfully launch and run such as those at IITs and IIMs, offer guidance and
businesses. support to budding entrepreneurs.

Regulatory hurdles and Simplify business registration processes, reduce

bureaucratic processes: Complex compliance burdens, and offer single-window
regulations and bureaucratic clearance systems. The Startup India initiative
processes can hinder the ease of doing provides single-window clearance and simplifies
business. regulatory requirements for startups.

Limited market access and Develop platforms for networking and market
networking opportunities: access, and organize trade fairs and expos. The
Entrepreneurs may struggle to access e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) platform
markets and build networks necessary connects farmers and agricultural entrepreneurs
for business growth. with buyers across the country.

Societal norms and resistance to Conduct awareness and sensitization campaigns to

entrepreneurship: Cultural and promote entrepreneurship and challenge societal
societal norms can sometimes norms. The Stand-Up India initiative supports
discourage entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship among women and SC/ST
especially among women and communities by offering financial assistance and
marginalized communities. training programs.

Inadequate infrastructure: Lack Invest in developing infrastructure such as

of adequate infrastructure can be a incubators, industrial parks, and co-working
significant barrier for entrepreneurs, spaces. The Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) has set
especially in rural areas. up Atal Tinkering Labs and incubation centers to
foster innovation and entrepreneurship.

High risk of business failure: Provide business training, risk management

Many new businesses fail due to education, and access to support services.
various risks and challenges Programs like the National Institute for
associated with entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship and Small Business
Development (NIESBUD) offer training in business
management and risk assessment.
 Gender disparity in Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide
entrepreneurial opportunities: incentives for women entrepreneurs. Initiatives
Women often face additional barriers like Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) by
in accessing entrepreneurial NITI Aayog support women entrepreneurs through
opportunities and resources. mentorship, funding, and market access.

Lack of continuous support and Offer continuous support through accelerator

scaling opportunities: programs and scale-up initiatives. The Scale-Up
Entrepreneurs may find it challenging India program provides ongoing support and
to scale their businesses without resources to help startups grow and scale their
ongoing support and resources. operations.

Difficulty in balancing work and Provide training in time management and work-life
personal life: Entrepreneurs often balance, and offer support services like childcare.
struggle to balance their business Flexible working options and support services
responsibilities with personal life, offered by various incubators help entrepreneurs
leading to burnout. maintain a healthy work-life balance.

Technology and Skill Development

Digital Literacy

Digital literacy is the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate,
create, and communicate information, requiring both cognitive and technical skills.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative Description Impact/Example

Digital India Aims to transform India into a digitally Reached over 250
empowered society and knowledge million people.
economy through training programs
for rural youth.

Pradhan Mantri Gramin Aims to make six crore rural Trained over 30
Digital Saksharta households digitally literate by million individuals.
Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) providing basic digital literacy training
for rural adults.
Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Limited access to digital Expand digital infrastructure in rural and remote

devices and internet areas and provide subsidized devices and internet
connectivity: Many areas, services. Government initiatives like BharatNet aim to
especially rural regions, lack the provide high-speed internet to rural areas, and
necessary infrastructure for digital schemes such as PMGDISHA offer low-cost tablets
literacy. and laptops to students.

Resistance to adopting digital Conduct awareness campaigns highlighting the

tools and technologies: benefits of digital literacy and offer user-friendly
Individuals may resist using new training modules. Community outreach programs and
technologies due to lack of demonstration sessions can showcase the advantages
familiarity or perceived of digital tools.
complexity.

Digital divide and inequality: Implement targeted programs to bridge the digital
Significant gaps in digital literacy divide. The Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta
and access exist between urban Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) aims to make six crore rural
and rural areas, and among households digitally literate by providing basic digital
different socio-economic groups. literacy training.

Inadequate training resources Regularly update training materials and curricula to

and outdated content: Training reflect technological advancements. Collaborations
materials may not be up-to-date with tech companies can help ensure that training
with current digital trends and content is current and relevant, as seen in initiatives
technologies. by the National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM).

Language barriers: Digital Offer training programs in multiple regional

literacy programs may not be languages to ensure broader accessibility. The
accessible to non-English speakers, National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) provides
limiting their effectiveness. materials and conducts training sessions in various
regional languages.

Data security and privacy Implement robust data protection measures and
concerns: Increased use of digital provide training on data privacy. Organizations can
tools raises concerns about data adopt best practices in cybersecurity and ensure
security and privacy.
 compliance with data protection regulations to
safeguard user information.

Motivation and engagement Use interactive and gamified learning methods to

issues: Maintaining motivation enhance engagement. Platforms like E-Skill India
and engagement can be incorporate gamification and interactive modules to
challenging in digital literacy make digital literacy training more engaging and
programs. enjoyable.

Limited support for Provide lifelong learning opportunities and

continuous learning: Digital continuous support through online platforms and
literacy is an ongoing process, and community centers. The SWAYAM platform offers a
there may be a lack of support for wide range of courses for continuous digital literacy
continuous learning and and skill development.
upskilling.

Lifelong Learning

Lifelong learning is the ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge for either
personal or professional reasons. It enhances social inclusion, active citizenship, and personal
development.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative Description Impact/Example

National Provides opportunities for continuing Enrolled over 4 million

Institute of education at various levels, offering courses students.
Open Schooling for adults to complete their education and
(NIOS) acquire new skills.

SWAYAM An online platform offering courses from Offers over 2,000

school to post-graduate level, providing courses and has over 10
access to free online courses on various million users.
subjects, including professional
development.

Earn While You Integrates vocational education and skill Implemented in over 500
Learn Scheme training with practical work experience, institutions.
allowing students to earn while they learn.
Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

High cost of continuing Offer scholarships, subsidized courses, and flexible

education: The cost of courses and payment options. Government scholarships for
training programs can be prohibitive adult learners and initiatives like the National
for many individuals. Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provide
affordable learning opportunities.

Difficulty in balancing work, Provide flexible learning schedules, online courses,

family, and education: Adults and support services such as childcare. Flexible
often find it challenging to manage online courses through SWAYAM and programs
their time between work, family like Earn While You Learn integrate vocational
responsibilities, and education. training with practical work experience.

Limited access to technology and Expand digital infrastructure and provide

internet: Access to digital learning affordable internet access. The Pradhan Mantri
resources can be limited, especially in Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA)
rural areas. aims to make rural households digitally literate,
and Digital India initiatives provide affordable
internet services.

Inadequate support for adult Develop adult education programs that include
learners: Adult learners often mentorship and peer support. The National
require different support mechanisms Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) offers tailored
compared to traditional students. programs for adult learners with support services.

Outdated curricula that do not Regularly update curricula to reflect current

align with current job market industry trends and technological advancements.
needs: Many lifelong learning Collaborations with industry experts help keep the
programs may not keep pace with the content relevant, as seen in programs offered by
rapidly changing job market. platforms like SWAYAM.

Lack of recognition and Implement Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

certification of prior learning: programs to certify skills gained through
Skills acquired through work experience. The RPL program under the Skill India
experience or informal learning are initiative provides certifications that recognize and
often not formally recognized. validate prior learning.
Motivation and engagement Use interactive and gamified learning methods to
issues among adult learners: enhance engagement. E-learning platforms like
Maintaining motivation can be a E-Skill India incorporate gamification to make
challenge for adult learners juggling learning more engaging and enjoyable.
multiple responsibilities.

Technological Integration

Technological integration involves incorporating digital technologies into various aspects of skill
development programs to enhance learning experiences and ensure that the workforce is equipped
with modern skills. Emphasis should be on integrating AI and digital tools to enhance skill
development.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative Description Impact/Example

National Digital Aims to provide digital literacy training Reached over 50 million
Literacy Mission using modern technologies, including individuals.
(NDLM) e-learning platforms and digital tools for
training.

E-Skill India Offers online skill development courses Over 1 million

accessible from anywhere, covering various enrollments in various
fields, including IT, healthcare, and finance. courses.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Limited access to modern Invest in digital infrastructure and provide

technologies: Many training centers, affordable access to technology. Government
especially in rural areas, lack access to initiatives like BharatNet aim to provide
the latest technological tools and high-speed internet to rural areas, and schemes
infrastructure. like PMGDISHA offer low-cost tablets and
laptops to students.

Resistance to adopting new Conduct awareness campaigns and training

technologies: Trainers and learners programs to demonstrate the benefits of
may be resistant to using new technological integration. Workshops and
demonstration sessions can help showcase the
technologies due to lack of familiarity or advantages of e-learning tools and digital
perceived complexity. platforms.

Digital divide and inequality: There Implement targeted programs to bridge the
is a significant gap in digital literacy and digital divide. The Pradhan Mantri Gramin
access between urban and rural areas, Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) aims to
and among different socio-economic make six crore rural households digitally literate
groups. by providing basic digital literacy training.

Lack of skilled trainers in digital Develop certification programs and

technologies: There is a shortage of train-the-trainer initiatives to increase the
trainers who are proficient in the latest number of qualified trainers. The Training of
digital tools and technologies. Trainers (ToT) program by NSDC has certified
over 10,000 trainers in various digital skills.

Data security and privacy Implement robust data protection measures and
concerns: The increased use of digital provide training on data privacy. Organizations
tools raises concerns about data security can adopt best practices in cybersecurity and
and privacy. ensure compliance with data protection
regulations to safeguard learner information.

Integration of AI and emerging Collaborate with tech companies and industry

technologies: Incorporating advanced experts to develop specialized training
technologies like AI, IoT, and blockchain programs. For example, NSDC's collaboration
into training programs can be with IBM and Microsoft has led to the
challenging. introduction of AI and cloud computing courses.

High costs of implementing Seek government funding and public-private

technological solutions: The initial partnerships to share costs. Initiatives like the
investment required for setting up digital Skill Strengthening for Industrial Value
infrastructure and procuring modern Enhancement (STRIVE) program provide
equipment can be high. financial assistance for upgrading training
infrastructure.

Keeping trainers and curricula Establish continuous professional development

up-to-date: Rapid technological programs for trainers. Regular workshops and
advancements require continuous refresher courses can help trainers stay updated
updates to training content and with the latest trends and technologies.
methodologies.
 Engagement and motivation of learners Use interactive and gamified learning tools to
in digital environments: Online and enhance engagement. Platforms like E-Skill
digital training environments can India offer gamified courses and interactive
sometimes lead to lower engagement and modules to keep learners motivated and
motivation among learners. engaged.

Skill Development & Marginalised Sections

Marginalized Communities

Marginalized communities refer to groups of people who are excluded from mainstream social,
economic, educational, or cultural life due to various factors such as caste, religion, gender, or
disability.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative Description Impact/Example

Ministry of Skill Focuses on promoting skill Enrolled over 8.8 lakh

Development and development across the country, candidates belonging to SC,
Entrepreneurship with a specific focus on ST, OBC, and minority
(MSDE) marginalized groups. communities in 2020-21.

Skill Development Implemented by the Ministry of Trained over 4.5 lakh SC and
Initiatives for SCs & Social Justice and Empowerment ST candidates in 2021-22.
STs (MoSJ&E), providing training in
traditional skills and promoting
entrepreneurship.

Recognition of Prior Acknowledges existing skills Benefited over 2 million

Learning (RPL) gained through work experience, individuals.
allowing individuals to bypass
formal training and obtain
certifications.
Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Limited access to education and Establish more training centers in underserved areas
skill development: Marginalized and provide mobile training units. The Pradhan
communities often have fewer Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) has set up
educational institutions and training Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKKs) to
centers. increase accessibility for marginalized groups.

Financial constraints: Members of Provide scholarships, subsidized courses, and

marginalized communities may lack financial aid. For instance, the National Skill
the financial resources to afford Development Fund offers scholarships and financial
training programs. support to individuals from marginalized
communities.

Social stigma and discrimination: Conduct awareness and sensitization campaigns to

Prejudices and discrimination can promote social inclusion and reduce biases.
limit the opportunities for Community workshops and media campaigns under
marginalized communities to the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) help
participate in skill development address social biases and promote inclusivity.
programs.

Lack of awareness about Increase outreach through local NGOs and

available programs: Many community leaders to spread awareness about skill
individuals from marginalized development initiatives. Collaboration with local
communities are unaware of the skill NGOs can help inform marginalized groups about
development opportunities available to available programs.
them.

Geographical barriers: Remote and Establish training centers in remote and rural areas
rural areas where marginalized and deploy mobile training units. The Ministry of Skill
communities often reside may lack Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) has
easy access to training centers. focused on setting up centers in such areas to ensure
better accessibility.
 Inadequate infrastructure: Upgrade infrastructure and invest in modern
Training centers in areas with equipment to ensure quality training. Initiatives like
marginalized communities may lack the Skill Strengthening for Industrial Value
proper facilities and equipment. Enhancement (STRIVE) program aim to improve the
quality and market relevance of vocational training
provided in such areas.

Cultural barriers: Certain cultural Develop culturally sensitive training programs and
practices and norms may hinder engage with community leaders to encourage
participation in skill development participation. Programs tailored to respect and
programs. incorporate local cultural practices can enhance
participation rates.

Difficulty in securing Foster partnerships with industries and promote

employment post-training: inclusive hiring practices. The Recognition of Prior
Discrimination and lack of networks Learning (RPL) program acknowledges existing skills
can hinder job placements for trained and provides certifications, improving employability
individuals from marginalized for marginalized individuals.
communities.

Language barriers: Training Offer training programs in multiple local languages to

programs may not always be available ensure better understanding and participation. The
in the native languages of marginalized National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC)
communities. provides materials and conducts training sessions in
various regional languages.

Limited access to digital tools Provide affordable digital devices and internet access,
and technologies: Marginalized along with digital literacy training. Government
communities may have less access to initiatives like Digital India aim to enhance digital
digital devices and the internet, which infrastructure and accessibility for marginalized
are increasingly important for modern groups.
skill development.

Gender and Inclusivity

Gender and inclusivity focus on ensuring that all individuals, regardless of gender or background, have
equal opportunities to participate in skill development programs and access resources.
Key Initiatives:

Focus Area Description Impact/Example

Women’s Skill development programs tailored to Empowered over 1

Livelihood Skills the specific needs and aspirations of million women through
women, including training in areas like tailored training
tailoring, handicrafts, beauty care, and programs.
entrepreneurship.

Bridging the Providing access to computers, internet Digital literacy training

Digital Divide connectivity, and digital skills training in for over 500,000 women.
local languages to enhance women's
participation in the modern workforce.

Safe Ensuring safe transportation to and from Safe transport services

Transportation training centers and providing childcare and childcare facilities at
and Supportive facilities to encourage greater female training centers.
Infrastructure participation.

Gender Training providers and workplaces need Conducted over 1,000

Sensitization to be sensitized to gender issues and gender sensitization
create a more inclusive environment. workshops.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Gender disparity in enrollment: Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide

Women often have less access to skill incentives for women’s participation. For example,
development programs due to social the Mahila Shakti Kendra scheme aims to increase
and cultural barriers. women's enrollment in vocational training by
providing safe transport and childcare facilities.

Safety and mobility concerns: Ensure safe transportation and supportive

Women may face safety issues and infrastructure. Some initiatives provide dedicated
lack of safe transportation options to transport services and set up childcare facilities at
attend training centers. training centers to encourage female participation.

Lack of gender-sensitive training Conduct gender sensitization workshops and create

environments: Training centers inclusive training environments. For instance, the
may not be equipped to handle the Skill India program includes gender sensitization as
part of the curriculum for trainers and staff.
 specific needs of women, leading to a
less inclusive environment.

Limited access to digital skills Provide access to digital devices and internet
and technology: Women, especially connectivity, and offer digital skills training in local
in rural areas, may have less access to languages. The Bridging the Digital Divide initiative
digital devices and the internet. has provided digital literacy training for over
500,000 women.

Societal norms and stereotypes: Conduct awareness and sensitization campaigns to

Traditional gender roles and societal challenge societal norms and promote gender
expectations can restrict women's equality. Community outreach programs and media
participation in skill development campaigns can help shift perceptions and
programs. encourage more women to join skill development
programs.

Financial constraints: Women Offer scholarships, subsidized courses, and

may lack the financial resources to stipends specifically for women. The National Skill
pay for training programs or may not Development Fund and other initiatives provide
have control over household finances. financial support to women learners.

Limited opportunities for Create partnerships with industries to ensure job

employment post-training: Even placements and promote women-friendly
after acquiring skills, women may face workplaces. Programs like the Women’s Livelihood
barriers in finding employment due to Skills initiative have empowered over 1 million
gender biases in the job market. women through tailored training programs and job
placement support.

Balancing training with Provide flexible training schedules and support

household responsibilities: services such as childcare. Flexible online courses
Women often have to manage through platforms like SWAYAM allow women to
household duties along with their balance their training with other responsibilities.
training, which can be challenging.

Community and Rural Development

Community and rural development refer to initiatives aimed at improving the living conditions,
economic opportunities, and overall well-being of rural populations and communities.
Key Initiatives:

Focus Area Description Impact/Example

Community Designing skill development programs Needs assessments

Needs based on the specific needs and resources of conducted in over 200 rural
Assessment the local community. communities.

Livelihood Developing skill development clusters in Established 50 livelihood

Clusters rural areas to create a supportive ecosystem clusters in rural areas.
for entrepreneurship and economic
development.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges Solutions

Limited access to skill Establish more skill development centers in rural areas
development centers: Many and deploy mobile training units. For example, the
rural areas lack training Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) has set
facilities, making it difficult for up Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKKs) to
residents to acquire new skills. increase accessibility.

Lack of awareness about Launch awareness campaigns and informational

available skill development programs in schools and communities. The Skill India
programs: Many rural campaign regularly conducts outreach programs to
residents are unaware of the promote vocational training.
opportunities for skill
development.

Financial constraints: High Provide financial assistance through scholarships,

costs of training programs can subsidized courses, and stipends. The National Skill
be a barrier for many in rural Development Fund offers scholarships and financial
areas. support to deserving students.

Inadequate infrastructure Upgrade infrastructure and invest in modern equipment

and outdated equipment: to ensure high-quality training. Initiatives like the Skill
Many training centers in rural Strengthening for Industrial Value Enhancement
areas lack modern facilities and (STRIVE) program aim to improve the quality and
equipment. market relevance of vocational training.
 Shortage of qualified Develop certification programs and train-the-trainer
trainers: There is a significant initiatives to increase the number of qualified trainers.
shortage of skilled trainers in NSDC’s Training of Trainers (ToT) program has certified
rural areas. over 10,000 trainers across various sectors.

Gender disparity in skill Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide incentives

development programs: for women’s participation. Initiatives like the Mahila
Women in rural areas often have Shakti Kendra scheme aim to increase women's
less access to training enrollment in vocational training by providing safe
opportunities. transport and childcare facilities.

Difficulty in tracking the Implement robust monitoring and evaluation

progress and impact of frameworks to track the progress and impact of training
training programs: Lack of programs. The Skills Acquisition and Knowledge
effective monitoring and Awareness for Livelihood Promotion (SANKALP)
evaluation mechanisms in rural program focuses on improving the monitoring and
areas. evaluation of skill development initiatives.

Limited industry linkages: Foster partnerships between training centers and local
Rural training centers often industries to ensure relevant and up-to-date training
have fewer connections with programs. An example is the partnership between ITIs
industry, reducing employment and local industries to provide apprenticeships and
opportunities for trainees. on-the-job training.

Conclusion
Skill development is vital for India's economic growth and social empowerment. By focusing on
vocational training, digital literacy, soft skills, entrepreneurship, lifelong learning, industry-specific
training, education and academia, technological integration, community and rural development, and
gender inclusivity, India can create a skilled workforce capable of meeting the demands of the global
market and fostering inclusive growth. These initiatives not only enhance employability but also
contribute to the overall development of individuals and communities, ensuring a brighter future for
the nation.
HEALTH
Pyqs
[2021]-. “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary
precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse.(10M)
[2020]-In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and adequate health care
policies are needed particularly in the fields of geriatric and maternal health care. Discuss (10M)
[2018]-Appropriate local community-level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve 'Health
for All ' in India. Explain.(10M)
[2017]-‘To ensure effective implementation of policies addressing water, sanitation and hygiene
needs, the identification of beneficiary segments is to be synchronized with the anticipated outcomes’
Examine the statement in the context of the WASH scheme.(10M)
[2016]-Professor Amartya Sen has advocated important reforms in the realms of primary education
and primary health care. What are your suggestions to improve their status and performance? (12.5M)
[2015]-Public health system has limitations in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that
the private sector could help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives would you
suggest?(12.5M)
[2013]-Identify the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that are related to health. Discuss the
success of the actions taken by the Government for achieving the same.(10M)
INTRODUCTION -
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity. Therefore, emotional and social capital is equally important for realising vision of
SDG 3 i.e. Good Health and well-being-WHO
National Health Account Estimates Expenditure on Health Care :
(2019-20) : ● 2.1% of GDP in FY23 [Eco. Survey
Total Health Expenditure as a percent of 2022-23]
GDP and Per Capita ● World Average: 6%
 ● Total Health Expenditure as declined ● National Health Policy, 2017: Increase
from 4% to 3.3% in 2019-20 (In public health expenditure to 2.5% of the
Comparison to 2013-14) GDP.
● Total Health Expenditure per capita ● Government spending on health per
increased to ₹4,863 from ₹3,638 in person was Rs 1,815 while out of pocket
2019-20 (In comparison to 2013-14) expenditure per capita was Rs 2,155.
● Government Health Expenditure (GHE) ● 51% spent on curative health care
as a percent of Total Health Expenditure ● 6% spent on preventive healthcare
Increased from 28.6% to 41.41% in
2019-20 (In comparison to 2013-14) Out-of-pocket Health Expenditure :
● Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) as a ● Share of Out-of-Pocket Expenditure
percent of Total Health Expenditure (OOPE) in Total Health Expenditure
declined from 64.2% to 47.1% in 2019-20 declined from 62.6% in 2014-15 to 47.1%
(In Comparison to 2013-14) in 2019-20 (National Health Accounts
(NHA) Estimates).
● Per capita out-of-pocket health
expenditure declined from ₹2,336 to
₹2,097. (National Health Accounts
estimates 2017-18; released in 2021)
● OOPHE pushes over 55 million people in
India into poverty.

Deaths : Medical Equipment : 70-80%Imported

● Non-communicable diseases led to 66%
of deaths[WHO]. Active Pharmaceuticals Ingredients :
● Over 60.46 lakh people died due to NCDs India imports 70%-80% of its API requirements
in 2019 from China.
● 22% probability of death between the age Target: 25% cut in API import reliance by 2024
of 30 and70 due to any type of
non-communicable disease, including Patient-Bed Ratio Per 1000 (India) :
cardiovascular diseases, cancer or ● 0.5 public hospital beds per 1,000
diabetes. population and mere 1.4 beds, including
Maternal Mortality Rate : public and private hospital beds per
● Declined: 97 deaths per lakh in 1,000 persons.
2018-2020 from103 deaths per lakh in ● Delhi has 2.71 hospital beds per 1,000.
2017-2019 ● District hospitals have avg 24 beds per 1
● India is all set to achieve Sustainable lakh people (NITI AAYOG report)
Development Goals (SDGs) target of ● According to WHO standards, a
MMR of 70 maternal deaths per lakh live minimum of3 beds per 1000 is required.
births by 2030.

Urban-rural divide : Rural Areas have only Status of Immunisation among children
70% population and around 20% Hospitals. aged 0-5 years:
● About 97% of children across the country
Birth attended by Skilled Professionals received at least one vaccination —
● 81% (2015-16) (World Bank mostly BCG and/or the first dose of Oral
Development Indicators) Polio Vaccine at birth, but two out of five
● NFHS 5: Institutional delivery is over children (40%) do not complete their
90% in 14 out of the total 22 States and immunisation programme.
UTs ● Among States, Manipur (75%), Andhra
Pradesh (73.6%) and Mizoram (73.4%)
recorded the highest rates of full
immunisation.
Insurance Penetration : Risen steadily from ● In Nagaland, only 12% of children
2.7% in 2000 to 4.2% in 2020 and was 3.2% in received all vaccinations, followed by
2021 [Eco. Survey 2022-23] Puducherry (34%) and Tripura (39.6%).

Maternal Health: Non-communicable diseases

● Institutional deliveries: In rural (NCD)
areas, about 90% childbirths were (WHO report)
institutional (in Government/private ● Global: NCD responsible for 70% of all
hospitals) and in urban areas it was deaths worldwide
about 96%. ● India: > 60% of all deaths in India can
● Pre and Postnatal Care: Among be attributed to NCDs.
women in the age-group 15-49 years, ● 1 in 4 Indians risks dying from an NCD
about 97% of women took prenatal care before they reach the age of 70.
and about 88% of women took postnatal ● Cancer, diabetes and heart diseases
care. alone account for 55% of the premature
● Maternal Mortality Rate (proportion mortality in India in the age group of
of maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live 30‐69 years.
births reported) of India has declined ● Main risk factors: Physical inactivity,
from 130 in 2014-2016 to 122 in 2015-17. tobacco use, excessive use of alcohol,
unhealthy diets and Psycho-Social Stress.
● National Programme for Prevention &
Control of Non-Communicable Diseases
(NP-NCD)
● WHO’s Global action plan for the
Prevention and Control of NCDs 2020 to
2030; Affordable Medicines and Reliable
Implants for Treatment (AMRIT)
● Deendayal outlet, Jan Aushadhi stores,
SDGs- reduce premature mortality from
NCDs by one-third by 2030 (SDG 3.4)

Healthcare in the Constitution of India

1. Our Constitution requires the State to ensure health and nutritional well-being of all people as
its duty under various articles of Directive Principles of State Policy such as
Article 39(e): Securing health of workers, men and women.
Article 41: Public assistance basically for those who are sick and disabled.
Article 42: To protect the health of infants and mothers by maternity benefit.
Article 47: Raising of the level of nutrition and standard of living of its people and
improvement of public health
2. The Supreme Court in various judgments (such as CESC Ltd. vs. Subash Chandra Bose;
Paschim Banga Khet mazdoor Samity; Murali S. Deora; N. D. Jayal etc.) has enlarged the scope
of Article 21 to also include Right to Health.
Issues with the Public Healthcare System
1. Insufficient Expenditure: India spends approximately 1.4% of its GDP on healthcare,
significantly lower than BRICS countries: Brazil (8.3%), China (6.4%), Russia (7.1%), and
South Africa (8.8%).
2. Inadequate Infrastructure:
a. According to India Spend, 63% of Primary Health Centres (PHCs) lack an operation
theatre, and 29% do not have a labour room.
b. India has 8.5 hospital beds per 10,000 citizens.
3. Human Resources:
a. Only one doctor for every 1,456 citizens (WHO norm is 1:1000).
b. 1.7 nurses per 1,000 people (WHO norm is 3:1000).
4. Large-Scale Regional Disparities:
Healthcare Inequality: Public healthcare facilities are unevenly distributed across
developed and backward areas, rural and urban areas (only about 25% of the total healthcare
infrastructure is in rural areas), and among various states e.g. Kerala has one government
hospital bed per 1,300 people, while Bihar has one per 28,000 people.
5. Lack of Synergy:Health being a state subject results in various Union and State government
initiatives working in silos, limiting resource optimisation.
6. High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE):
a. Out-of-Pocket Expenditure constitutes 67% of Current Health Expenditure.
b. According to recent NSSO data, private hospitals account for 55% of in-patient
hospitalisation cases, while public hospitals account for 45%.
c. Only 14% of the rural population and 19% of the urban population reported having
health expenditure coverage, leading to higher OOPE.
d. According to OECD, India's total out-of-pocket expenditure is around 2.3% of GDP.
7. Lack of Primary Healthcare Services: The existing public primary healthcare model is
limited, providing only pregnancy care, limited childcare, and services related to national
health programs, representing just 15% of all morbidities for which people seek care.
8. Supply-Side Deficiencies:
Poor Health Management: Inadequate training and supportive supervision for health workers
hinder the delivery of quality health services.
 9. Challenges in Prevention and Detection: Difficulty in addressing prevention and early
detection, diminishing preparedness and effective management for emerging threats like the
COVID-19 pandemic.
10. Low Health Literacy: Limited awareness about chronic diseases, symptoms, and the
inability of patients to understand health information and instructions lead to delays in timely
intervention.
11. Regional Disparities are evident in differences between rural-urban gaps and inter-state
gaps.
a. According to a KPMG report, 74% of India’s doctors cater to a third of urban
population.
b. As a consequence, India is 81% short of specialists at rural community health centres.
c. The 25,308 primary health centres (PHCs) spread across India’s rural areas are short of
more than 3,000 doctors, with shortage up by 200 % over the last 10 years.
d. According to the NHP, 2018, in Bihar, one doctor serves a total population of 28,391
whereas in Delhi, the figure stands at 1:2203.
12. Prevalent Malnutrition:
a. Global Hunger Index:India ranked 102 out of 117 countries in the 2019 Global Hunger
Index, indicating a serious level of hunger.
b. Child Malnutrition: India has the highest number of stunted (46.6 million) and wasted
(25.5 million) children in the world.
c. Overweight Children: More than a million children are overweight.
d. Anaemia in Women: Around 40% of women (aged 15-49 years) are anaemic.

Major Healthcare Issues Highlighted During COVID-19

Availability of Basic Infrastructure:

1. Hospital Beds: India has 8.5 hospital beds per 10,000 citizens.
2. Doctors and Nurses: There is one doctor for every 1,456 citizens (WHO norm is 1:1000)
and 1.7 nurses per 1,000 people (WHO norm is 3:1000).
3. Ventilators:Insufficient number of ventilators in hospitals for patients with severe
COVID-19 infections.
4. Diagnostic Labs: Limited accredited diagnostic labs delay testing and understanding of
disease progression.

Uneven Distribution of Healthcare Workforce:

Urban-Rural Divide: Most healthcare workers practise in metropolitan or tier I and II cities,
leading to personnel shortages in small towns and villages.

Denial of Healthcare:
Private Hospitals: Private hospitals have reportedly denied treatments to the poor and
overcharged patients, despite having 62% of total hospital beds, ICU beds, and 56% of ventilators.
eg. In Bihar, the private health sector, which has nearly twice the bed capacity of the public sector,
has almost completely withdrawn.

Negative Perception of Medical Career:

PPE Shortages: Stories of PPE shortages leading to health workers getting infected, and instances
of health workers being attacked by patients and relatives, may create a long-term negative
perception of a medical career in India.

Gaps in Urban Health Services and Planning:

Urban Areas: The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected urban areas, highlighting the
lack of public health services, especially in suburban regions.

Dysfunctional Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP):

Launch and Objectives: Launched in 2004 to strengthen a decentralised, laboratory-based,
IT-enabled disease surveillance system for epidemic-prone diseases.
Current State: Struggles with manpower and resources, failing to create a robust and
decentralised data collection system involving the district health system across states.

Gaps in Care of Non-COVID-19 Patients:

Neglect of Chronic Diseases: Extreme focus on COVID-19 containment has likely resulted in
missed opportunities for timely diagnosis and treatment of other chronic diseases.

Other Issues:
1. Pharmaceutical Imports: India’s dependence on imports for pharmaceutical products
like Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs).
2. Alternative Medicine: Disbelief in alternative/traditional medicines due to a lack of
research in AYUSH treatments and absence of precise standards for herbal formulations.
3. Preventive Healthcare: Lack of focus on preventive healthcare, with only 7% of
healthcare spending allocated to prevention, while over 80% was spent on treatment and
cure as of FY17.

Measures to Address Issues Facing the Public

Healthcare System
1. Enhance Public Funding: Increase public health funding to at least 2.5% of GDP, as
envisioned in the National Health Policy, 2017.
2. Strengthening Physical Infrastructure:
a. Increase Healthcare Facilities: Construct sufficient primary health centres in rural
areas, such as the creation of Health and Wellness Centres under Ayushman Bharat.
b. Strengthen District Hospitals: Incentivise states to increase the ratio of hospital
beds to the population and establish general ICUs and High-Dependency Units for
every 1 million population.
c. Public-Private Partnership (PPP): Implement a comprehensive PPP model for
providing healthcare services in public hospitals and opening medical institutions, as
proposed by NITI Aayog.
3. Upgrading and Expanding Primary Healthcare:
a. Quality Workforce: Focus on enhancing the quality of health workers through
various means, such as instituting a public health and management cadre. Establish
more medical colleges and increase the number of seats in existing ones.
b. Training and Provisions: Prioritise training and provision of medical and support
staff. Introduce a certification programme for ASHAs for their preferential selection
into ANM, nursing, and paramedical courses.
4. Rural Service:
a. Incentivise Rural Service: Address the urban-rural gap by incentivising and
mandating rural service for medical students at various health centres.
b. Adequate Amenities: Provide incentives and adequate amenities to doctors working
in rural areas.
5. Use of Technology:
Telemedicine: Utilise technology to provide basic healthcare services to rural areas, such as
telemedicine. Align the public health system with the National Health Policy 2017 and NITI
Aayog proposals to achieve SDG 3, i.e., Good Health and Well-Being for All.
6. Enabling Preventive Care:
a. Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs): Promote preventive care by converting
primary healthcare centres into HWCs, which will act as pillars of preventive care and
gateways for access to secondary and tertiary health services.
b. Funding through CSR: Accelerate the establishment of a network of HWCs with
extra funding mobilised through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
7. Promote AYUSH: Also promote AYUSH systems of medicine.
8. Bringing Behavioural Change: Encourage people to eat right, sleep well, maintain good
hygiene, exercise, and adopt a healthy lifestyle. Launch a Swasth Bharat Jan Andolan to
catalyse public participation for a healthy India.
9. Cooperative Federalism: Given the significant role of states in creating robust health
systems, allocations by the Finance Commission can be critical for transforming the nation’s
health. Incentivise state governments to invest in creating a dedicated cadre for public health
at state, district, and block levels.
10. Decentralisation:
Integrate WASH: Integrate nutrition, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) into the core
functions of Panchayati Raj institutions and municipalities.
11. Creating a Nodal Health Agency: Establish a designated and autonomous focal agency
with the necessary capacities and linkages to perform functions such as disease surveillance,
gathering information on the health impact of policies of key non-health departments,
maintaining national health statistics, enforcing public health regulations, and disseminating
information to the public.
12. National Health Stack: Operationalise NITI Aayog’s National Health Stack as soon as
possible.
13. Addressing the Root Causes of Health Inequities: The healthcare system should work
in coordination with other sectors, such as education, housing and sanitation to address the
social determinants of health and reduce overall health inequities.
14. Tax Reductions: Incentivising R&D (Research and Development) by additional tax
deductions to further support greater investments in new drug developments and reducing
GST (Goods and Services Tax) on life-saving and essential drugs is necessary.
15. Towards One Health Approach: There is a need to recognize that the health of people is
closely connected to the health of animals and our shared environment, and collective health
initiatives covering healthy atmosphere, healthy animals, and healthy humans are the need of
the hour.
AYUSH
India faces a dual burden of under-nutrition and communicable diseases, along with the rising
prevalence of non-communicable ailments.

AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy)

can play a crucial role:

1. Holistic Approach: Unlike modern medicine, AYUSH follows a more holistic approach,
promoting overall well-being rather than focusing solely on curing illness.
2. Chronic Conditions: This holistic approach is particularly significant for non-communicable
diseases, which are difficult to treat once they become chronic.
3. Scientific Evidence: Internationally, there is growing scientific evidence supporting the
health benefits of alternative medicine systems, especially Yoga.
4. Rich Heritage: India has a rich heritage in traditional medicine and nearly eight lakh
registered AYUSH practitioners whose services can be better utilised for healthcare delivery.
5. Health Benefits:
a. Immunity Booster: Ayurvedic treatments boost immunity.
b. Mental Well-being: Yogic breathing exercises improve mental health.
c. Healthy Lifestyle: Unani system promotes health through a suitable diet and
lifestyle.
d. Non-Toxic: Homoeopathic medicines are safe and enhance dynamic properties.
e. Holistic Approach: Takes into account body, mind, soul, and senses.
f. No Side Effects: Generally safe with a long history of use.
6. Better Health Services:
a. Availability: Common in rural areas.
b. Reliance: 70% of India’s population depends on traditional medicine.
c. Affordability: Low-cost services compared to allopathic medicines.
d. Complementary Role: Important in treating chronic illnesses and improving life
quality.
e. Universal Healthcare: The doctor-patient ratio is expected to improve with AYUSH
practitioners.
f. Research and Development: Provides guidance in selecting and obtaining plant
material of therapeutic interest.
Challenges Faced by AYUSH

1. Scepticism from Health Professionals: Health professionals often question the efficacy
of Ayurveda, Unani, and Homoeopathic medicine in dealing with serious illnesses.
2. Non-integration into Mainstream Medicine: Efforts to mainstream AYUSH medicine
have primarily focused on increasing the number of AYUSH facilities without adequately
addressing their effectiveness in the healthcare system.
3. Status Gap:
a. The subservient status of AYUSH presents a major hurdle, compounded by dishonest
practices and claims by some practitioners, which lead to ridicule and scepticism.
b. The commercialization and export promotion of AYUSH products have led to a negative
perception of the field.
4. Isolationist Approach: This approach conflicts with the modern medical ideal of embracing
evidence-based concepts, hindering scientific scrutiny and potential value addition in
traditional medicine.
 5. Quality Standards of Medicines: Scientific validation of AYUSH has not progressed
despite dedicated expenditure, leading to concerns about the quality of AYUSH medicines.
6. Lack of Human Resources: Many practitioners are moving away from traditional systems
for better opportunities, leading to an under-utilisation of existing infrastructure.
7. Under-utilised Infrastructure: The 2013 Shailaja Chandra report highlighted instances
where AYUSH physicians recruited under the National Rural Health Mission were the sole care
providers in PHCs, calling for appropriate skilling to meet the demand for acute and
emergency care at the primary level.
8. Competition with Modern Medicine:
a. Dishonest practices by some AYUSH practitioners make allopathic medicine appear
more trustworthy.
b. Scepticism towards AYUSH treatments is prevalent, especially among allopathic
practitioners.
c. The cosmeticisation of AYUSH products as natural or organic, compared to artificial
allopathic products, has led to a distorted focus on export promotion.
9. Lack of Dedicated Efforts: There is a significant status gap between modern medicine and
AYUSH, and little has been done to harmonise the two sectors. Simply expanding AYUSH’s
framework will only exacerbate existing problems.
10. Conflict of Interests: The AYUSH lobby fears a loss of identity following integration, while
the allopathic lobby alleges that integrating the systems would dilute medical care standards.

Government Steps to Promote AYUSH:

1. Dedicated Ministry: A dedicated ministry for AYUSH was established at the Central level in
2014.
2. National Health Policy, 2017: Mainstreaming AYUSH is a clearly stated policy objective.
3. Centre for Integrative Medicine & Research: Established by AIIMS, Delhi.
4. AYUSH Units in Hospitals: Several union ministries plan to set up AYUSH units in their
hospitals.
5. Champion Services Sector: AYUSH is one of the 12 champion services sectors promoted by
the government through soft loans, interest subsidies, and 100% FDI.
6. Schemes:
a. Ayush Grid: A project for the digitization of the AYUSH sector.
b. National AYUSH Mission: Mainstreaming AYUSH under the National Health
Mission and National Health Policy-2017.
c. Ayushman Bharat: Upgrading 10% of sub-centres to Health and Wellness Centres
(HWCs).
d. Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL): A repository of traditional
knowledge containing information on medicinal plants and formulations.
 e. Protection from Patent Registration: Preventing the patenting of traditional
medicinal knowledge through TKDL.
7. Conferences:
a. International Conference on Standardisation of Diagnosis and
Terminologies in Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha Systems of Medicine
(ICoSDiTAUS) 2020: organised by the Ministry of AYUSH and WHO.
b. New Delhi Declaration on Collection and Classification of Traditional
Medicine Data: Emphasised the commitment to traditional medicine as a significant
area of healthcare.

Way Forward:
1. Co-Location:
a. Integration with Allopathic Medicine: There is a need to co-locate AYUSH with
facilities providing allopathic medicine.
b. Targets by NITI Aayog: The 'Strategy for New India @ 75' aims to co-locate AYUSH
services in at least 50% of primary health centres, 70% of community health centres,
and 100% of district hospitals by 2022-23.
c. Health and Wellness Centres: Co-location should also be achieved in the 1.5 lakh
health and wellness centres announced in the Union Budget 2018-19.
2. Education & Research:
a. Increased Investment: Investments in AYUSH education and research need to be
stepped up.
b. Integration with Modern Medicine: Mechanisms should be identified for
integrating modern medicine and AYUSH curricula at undergraduate and postgraduate
levels.
c. Research Base: Developing a credible research base is critical to embed AYUSH
within the overall healthcare framework and address concerns about its effectiveness.
3. Awareness:
a. Communication Channels: Various communication channels should be used to
popularise Ayurveda and Yoga and inform citizens about their preventive and curative
properties.
b. Yoga Benefits: While Yoga has gained popularity as a form of exercise, the full range
of its physical and mental health benefits should be propagated.
4. Medicines:
a. Inclusion in Health Programmes: Essential AYUSH medicines must be included
in various national health programmes.
b. Quality Guidelines: Guidelines should be developed to ensure the quality of AYUSH
medicines.
Reform in Regulation of Medical Education and
National Medical Commission

Need for Regulation and Restructuring:

Acknowledged by SC and Parliamentary Standing Committee: Both entities suggested
reforms in the Medical Commission of India (MCI).

Objectives:
1. Ensure doctors are appropriately trained and skilled to address the prevailing disease burden.
2. Maintain a uniform standard of competence and skills among medical graduates.
3. Ensure that only individuals with basic knowledge of science and aptitude for the profession
are admitted.The Mudaliar Committee (1959) highlighted that doctors lacked the skills and
knowledge to handle primary care and infectious diseases, a concern still relevant today.
4. Address the issue that around 57% of allopathic doctors practising medicine do not have
medical qualifications.
5. Promote ethical practice in the interest of patients.
6. Create an environment that fosters innovation and research.

Issues with the MCI:

1. Independent Functioning: Marred by corruption scandals, capitation fees, and lack of
alignment between the demand for specialities and the supply.
2. Licence Raj: MCI required a college to be inspected nearly 25 times to get final recognition,
each visit being a rent-seeking exercise.
3. Commercialisation of Medical Education: The 1990s saw the commercialisation of
medical education, further aggravated by the 1993 amendment of the MCI Act, which reduced
MCI's autonomy.
4. Rural-Urban Divide: With 69% of the population in rural areas, only 21% of doctors serve
them.

National Medical Commission Act: Important Features:

1. Composition: NMC will consist of 25 members, appointed by the central government. A
SearchCommittee will recommend names to the central government for the post of
Chairperson, and the part time members.
2. Members of NMC: Chairperson (must be a medical practitioner), Presidents of the
UnderGraduate and Postgraduate Medical Education Boards, Director General of Health
Services,Directorate General of Health Services, Director General, Indian Council of Medical
Research,and five members (part-time) to be elected by the registered medical practitioners
from amongst themselves from states and union territories for a period of two years.
3. Medical Commission Setup: Establishes a medical commission at both national (NMC, a
25-member body) and state levels within three years of the legislation's passage.
4. Medical Advisory Council: The Centre will set up this council to convey the views and
concerns of the states/Union Territories to the NMC.
5. Uniform NEET: A National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test (NEET) for admission to
undergraduate medical education in all institutions regulated under the Bill.
6. National Exit Test (NEXT): For medical graduates to obtain a licence to practise and for
admission into postgraduate courses.
 7. Licensing of Community Health Providers: NMC to licence 3.5 lakh non-medical
persons to practise modern medicine.

Potential Benefits of the NMC Act:

1. Professionalisation: NMC can be a game changer by professionalising medical education
with experts at all levels.
2. Curricula and Flexibility: Rational and flexible in setting curricula, adding new courses,
and providing multispectral perspectives.
3. Alignment with Disease Burden: Potential to link disease burden with the production of
specialists, similar to the UK's approach.
4. Innovation and Research: Given the right people, NMC can incentivise innovation and
promote research by making it a prerequisite in medical colleges.
5. Accountability and Transparency:
a. Transparency: Members must declare their assets and submit a conflict-of-interest
declaration.
b. Cool-off Period: A two-year cooling-off period after tenure.
6. Access to Health Care Services:
a. Human Resource: Allows community health providers to practise medicine.
b. Quality and Affordable Healthcare: Aims to provide quality medical education and
access to affordable healthcare.
c. Universal Healthcare: Promotes equitable access to healthcare services.
7. Uniformity: NEET and NEXT exams to ensure standard competence.
8. Grievance Redressal Body: State Medical Councils to handle complaints against medical
practitioners.

Concerns and Criticisms:

1. Section 32: Licensing of 3.5 lakh non-medical persons to practise modern medicine might
weaken modern medicine in India.
2. Community Health Provider Definition: Vaguely defined, potentially legalising quackery.
3. National Exit Test (NEXT): Criticised by IMA, arguing that merit alone should determine
PG seat allocation.
4. Regulation of Fees: NMC would regulate fees for 50% of seats in private medical colleges
and deemed universities, which may not cap fees charged by unaided institutions, potentially
promoting capitation fees.
5. Government Control: Of the 25 members proposed for the NMC, only five would be elected,
with the rest being government officials or nominees, leading to concerns about government
control.
6. Undemocratic: Only 20% of NMC members are elected representatives.
7. Governance Related:
a. Security of Tenure: Central government can remove NMC members.
b. Absence of Independent Appellate Body: Central government is the appellate
authority.
c. Absence of Diverse Stakeholders: The regulator should include more diverse
stakeholders.
8. Against Federal Features: NMC’s decisions not binding on state medical councils.
9. Fee Regulation: NMC to frame guidelines for fee caps in private colleges.
10. Community Health Provider: Vaguely defined role.
11. National Exit Examination: Variation in education standards across states.
12. Lack of Judicial Expertise: Disputes related to ethics and misconduct require judicial
expertise.
National Health Policy-2017
Aims to strengthen India's health system, covering various dimensions such as disease prevention,
health promotion, health investment, human resources, technological advancements, and more.
The National Health Policy, 2017, which replaced the previous policy adopted in 2002, outlines
comprehensive strategies to enhance the healthcare system in India.
Objectives:
1. Basic Structure:
a. Commitment to Integrity: Upholds the highest professional standards and ethics in
healthcare delivery services.
b. Transparency and Sustainability: Integrates these values into the healthcare
system to ensure long-term efficacy and trust.
2. Eliminating Disparities:
a. Inclusive Health Services: Ensures superior health services for every age group and
gender.
b. Equity in Healthcare: Strives to eliminate disparities in healthcare access across
different regions and social groups.
3. Universal Healthcare Services:
a. Accessibility: Provides universal access to high-quality healthcare services at an
affordable price.
b. Regional Balance: Prevents regional disparities in health care availability and
quality.
4. Reducing Mortality Rate:
a. Targeted Reduction: Aims to reduce premature mortality from cancer,
cardiovascular diseases, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes by 25% by 2025.
b. Sustainable Development: Emphasises sustainable development and sets
time-bound quantitative goals to track progress.
5. Developing Overall Health Structure:
a. Comprehensive Care: Improves the overall health structure through promotive,
palliative, and rehabilitative services.
b. Quality of Care: Focuses on enhancing the quality of care through systematic
reforms.

Aims:
1. Professionalism, Integrity, and Ethics: Centers on maintaining high standards of
professionalism, integrity, and ethics in healthcare practices.
2. Universal Access: Aims to achieve universal access to good quality healthcare services
without causing financial hardship.
3. Increased Public Health Expenditure: Intends to gradually increase public health
expenditure to 2.5% of GDP.
4. Free Essential Services and Healthcare Accessibility: Proposes free drugs, diagnostics,
and emergency and essential healthcare services in public hospitals.
5. Focus on Primary Care: Advocates for allocating two-thirds of resources to primary care to
strengthen the foundational level of healthcare.
6. Emergency Care: Proposes having two beds per 1,000 population to ensure access within
the first 60 minutes after a traumatic injury.
7. Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) Prevention and Control: Aims to reduce
morbidity and preventable mortality of NCDs by advocating pre-screening and early detection.
8. Integration of AYUSH: Highlights AYUSH as a cost-effective tool for prevention and
therapy also Proposes introducing Yoga in more schools and offices to promote good health.
9. Medical Education Reform: Aims to reform medical education to produce well-trained
healthcare professionals.
10. Quantitative Targets for life expectancy, mortality, and disease prevalence reduction.
11. Changing Health Priorities: Tackles the increasing burden of non-communicable and
infectious diseases in India.
12. Growth of the Healthcare Industry: Strengthens the healthcare industry through
technological advancements.
13. Lowering Expenditure: Aims to reduce medical expenses and provide superior services to
poor and backward communities.
 14. Economic Growth: Enhances fiscal capacity by boosting economic growth.

Drawbacks of the Policy:

1. Repetition of Ideas: The new policy repeats several old ideas and fails to fulfil the 2015
promise of a Right to Health. Fails to make health a justiciable right, unlike the Right to
Education Act of 2005.
2. Assurance-based Approach: Abandons the radical change proposed in the 2015 draft
policy where the National Health Rights Act aimed to make health a right.
3. Disagreement with States: The idea was dropped because state governments felt that
health infrastructure was not yet sufficient to make health an entitlement, and citizens could
theoretically take the government to court for its denial.
Diagnostics, drugs, and essential healthcare services are already free in many states.
4. Longevity in Implementation: The policy aims to meet the 2.5% GDP spending target for
health by 2025, but the HLEG report of 2011 had set the same target for the Plan ending in
March 2017.
5. Health Cess: The health cess, proposed in the Health Ministry’s draft policy, was rejected,
with officials maintaining there is no dearth of funds.

Way Forward:
1. Increase Public Investment in Healthcare: The government should increase budgetary
spending on healthcare and allocate more resources to build a strong healthcare infrastructure.
2. Enhance Health Expenditure: Health expenditure, currently lower than in most
developing nations, needs to be increased as a percentage of GDP.
3. Prioritise Primary Sector: Strengthening the primary healthcare sector should be a
priority.
4. Expand Health Insurance Coverage: Expanding health insurance coverage to all citizens
would help reduce out-of-pocket expenses and make healthcare more affordable.
5. Improve Healthcare Quality: The government should invest in developing quality
standards, ensuring adherence, and providing training to healthcare providers.
6. Invest in Health Information Systems: Develop robust health information systems that
provide timely and accurate data.
7. Promote Preventive Healthcare: Focusing on preventive healthcare can reduce the
disease burden and the cost of healthcare.
Mental Health
According to WHO (World Health Organization), mental health is defined as “a state of well-being in
which the individual realises his or her abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work
productively and fruitfully, and is able to contribute to his or her community”.

According to Sigmund Freud, mental health is the capacity of an individual “to work and to love”.
Issues and Challenges:
1. Mental Hospitals: Only 0.01 mental hospitals per 100,000 population, consistent with other
developing countries (WHO data).
2. Outpatient Facilities: India ranks 99th, with 0.18 units per 100,000 population.
3. Day Treatment Facilities: India ranks 64th in the distribution of mental health day
treatment facilities.
4. Community Residential Facilities: India ranks 58th, with 0.017 units per 100,000
population (2016 WHO data).
5. Types of Mental Illnesses: Include anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders,
substance use disorders, personality disorders, and eating disorders.
6. Suicide Rates: The global suicide rate was 10.6 per 100,000 population, while in India, it was
16.3 per 100,000 in 2016. The rate was higher among males compared to females.
7. Mental Health Facilities: Challenges include funding, delivery of mental health packages,
and a lack of trained staff.
8. According to the National Mental Health Survey conducted by NIMHANS in 12 States, the
prevalence of mental morbidity is high in urban metropolitan areas. Nearly 1 in 20 persons
suffer from depression. 0.9 % of the surveyed population were at high risk of suicide.
9. WHO Data: Patients with severe mental disorders experience a 10-25-year reduction in life
expectancy.
10. 2017 Data: Approximately 72% of WHO member states had a standalone policy or plan for
mental health.

Reasons for Poor Status of Mental Health in India

1. Lack of Awareness and Sensitivity:
a. Social Perception:Mental health issues are often not recognized as legitimate healthcare
concerns. Individuals with mental health problems are viewed as weak.
b. Stigma and Discrimination: These factors undermine social support structures.
Society frequently labels individuals with mental health issues as 'lunatics,' leading to a
cycle of shame, suffering, and isolation.
c. Survey Insights: A 2018 survey revealed that while 87% of respondents were
somewhat aware of mental illness, 71% still used terms associated with stigma.
2. Lack of Mental Healthcare Personnel: There is a critical shortage of mental healthcare
professionals in India. According to WHO data from 2011, there were 0.301 psychiatrists and
0.047 psychologists for every 100,000 patients. In contrast, the ratio in most developed
countries exceeds 10.
3. Inadequate Treatment: Only 20-30% of individuals with mental illnesses receive adequate
treatment. A significant reason for this wide treatment gap is the lack of resources.
4. Low Budget Allocation: Developed countries allocate 5-18% of their annual healthcare
budget to mental healthcare, while India allocates roughly 0.05%, the lowest among G20
countries. Despite rising mental health issues, the Union Ministry of Health allocated less than
1% of its budget to psychological illnesses in 2022.
5. Changed Lifestyle:
a. Impact of Social Media: Increased use of social media exacerbates stress and mental
illness, especially among young people. Social media detracts from healthier
face-to-face relationships and reduces investment in meaningful activities, eroding
self-esteem through unfavourable social comparisons.
b. Shift to Nuclear Families: The transition to nuclear families has reduced emotional
support, as family members are often unavailable during crucial times.
6. Income Inequalities: Mental health issues are closely linked with poverty. People living in
poverty are at greater risk of mental health conditions, and those with severe mental health
conditions are more likely to fall into poverty due to loss of employment and increased health
expenditure.
Steps taken
1. The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017: The Act makes several provisions to improve the state
of mental health in India. The Act rescinds the Mental Healthcare Act, 1987 which was
criticised for failing to recognise the rights and agency of those with mental illness. The Act
seeks to ensure the rights of the person with mental illness to receive care and to live a life
with dignity. It provides the Right to Access to Healthcare: Every person shall have a
right to access mental health care and treatment from mental health services run or funded by
the appropriate Government. It also empowers a person with mental illness to make an
advance directive that states how he/she wants to be treated for the illness.
2. The Act decriminalised suicide stating that whoever attempts suicide will be presumed
to be under severe stress, and shall not be punished for it.
3. Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2017: The Act acknowledges mental illness
as a disability and seeks to enhance the Rights and Entitlements of the Disabled and provide
an effective mechanism for ensuring their empowerment and inclusion in society.
4. National Mental Health Programme (NMHP):
a. Initiated in 1982 and restructured in 2003: Aims to modernise mental health facilities
and upgrade psychiatric wings in medical institutions.
b. District Mental Health Programme (DMHP): Launched in 1996, focuses on
community mental health services at the primary healthcare level, covering 716
districts. Provides outpatient services, counselling, psychosocial interventions, and
support for severe mental disorders at community health and primary health centres.
c. Comprehensive Strategy: Together, NMHP and DMHP form a comprehensive
strategy for mental health care in India.
5. National Tele Mental Health Programme (NTMHP):
a. Aims to improve access to quality mental health counselling and care services.
b. National Apex Centre: National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences
(NIMHANS), Bengaluru, coordinates Tele MANAS activities across India.
c. State Participation: 25 States/UTs have established 36 Tele Mental Health and
Normalcy Augmentation Systems (MANAS) Cells, handling a total of 63,806 calls on
the helpline.
6. NIMHANS and iGOT-Diksha Collaboration:
a. Psychosocial Support and Training: NIMHANS provides support and training
through the iGOT-Diksha platform.
 b. Online Training: Conducted by NIMHANS for health workers on the iGOT-Diksha
platform.
7. Ayushman Bharat – HWC Scheme:
a. Part of Ayushman Bharat Programme: The Ayushman Bharat - Health and
Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs) provide a wide range of services, including preventive,
promotive, curative, rehabilitative, and palliative care.
b. Operational Guidelines: Released for Mental, Neurological, and Substance Use
Disorders (MSN) at HWCs under Ayushman Bharat.
8. Kiran: A 24/7 toll-free helpline called Kiran was established by the Ministry of Social Justice
and Empowerment in 2020 to offer support to those dealing with anxiety, stress, depression,
suicide thoughts, and other mental issues.
9. Manodarpan: Students will receive psychosocial help as part of an effort under the
Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan, with the goal of improving the students’ mental health and
overall well-being. Its components include Advisory Guidelines for students, teachers and
faculty of School systems and Universities along with families; National level database and
directory of counsellors; Toll-free helpline; Handbook on Psychosocial Support etc.

Way Forward
1. There is a need to address the deep stigma surrounding such issues which prevents
patients from seeking timely treatment and makes them feel shameful, isolated and weak.
2. The problem of mental disorders is only the tip of the iceberg. To promote mental health, it is
essential to create a supportive living environment that fosters mental well-being and enables
people to adopt and maintain a healthy lifestyle.
3. Holistic National Mental Health Policies: National mental health policies should not
only focus on mental disorders but also address broader issues like education, justice,
environment, housing, and the health sector, which contribute to mental health.
4. Early Childhood Interventions: Recognising that many mental disorders start at an early
age, India should aim to improve child development through early childhood interventions
such as nutritional and psychosocial support, and preschool psychosocial activities to build a
healthy community foundation.
5. Empowering Women:
6. Given the increased risk of developmental problems among women, there is a need to
empower them socially and economically by improving access to education and employment
opportunities.
7. Eliminating Discrimination and Violence: Society should be free from discrimination
and violence. Eliminating discrimination based on gender, caste, disability, and socioeconomic
status is crucial to reducing mental disorders. Stress prevention programmes at workplaces
and initiatives addressing the concerns of indigenous people, migrants, and disaster-affected
individuals should be established.
8. Supporting the Elderly: Social support for elderly people needs to be strengthened.
Developing more day centres and community centres for the aged is necessary.
9. Strengthening Primary Health Care: Strengthening the treatment of mental disorders at
the primary health care level is key to reducing mental morbidity. Interventions are needed to
prevent the progression of mental disorders from early signs and symptoms to more serious
and chronic cases. There is an urgent need for simple, easily available diagnostic tests and
affordable treatments to provide better primary health care.
10. Improvement of Mental Health Infrastructure:
a. Enhanced Infrastructure: There is a need to improve infrastructure for mental
health care and treatment.
b. Innovative Models: Implement innovative models to increase the reach of services
and availability of staff.
c. Training ASHAs: Train Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) to educate and
sensitise women and children about mental health issues.
d. Guidance and Support: Community health workers (ASHAs) can guide individuals
to the appropriate mental health experts in their locality.
Ayushman Bharat-PMJAY
World’s largest health insurance scheme fully financed by the government. Launched in 2018, offering
a sum insured of Rs. 5 lakh per family for secondary and tertiary care. Health Benefit Packages cover
surgery, medical and day care treatments, cost of medicines, and diagnostics.

1. Beneficiaries:
a. Entitlement-based scheme targeting beneficiaries identified by the latest
Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) data.
b. The National Health Authority (NHA) allows States/UTs to use non-SECC beneficiary
family databases with similar socio-economic profiles for tagging against the leftover
(unauthenticated) SECC families.
2. Funding: 60:40 for all states and UTs with their own legislature, 90:10 in Northeast states
and Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal and Uttarakhand, and 100% Central funding for UTs
without legislature.
3. Nodal Agency:
a. National Health Authority (NHA): An autonomous entity under the Society
Registration Act, 1860, for effective implementation of PM-JAY in collaboration with
state governments.
b. State Health Agency (SHA): The apex body of the State Government responsible for
implementing AB PM-JAY in the State.
4. Ayushman Cards:
a. Women: Account for approximately 49% of the total Ayushman cards created and
about 48% of total authorised hospital admissions.
b. As of December 2023: Approximately 28.45 Crore Ayushman Cards have been created
since the scheme's inception, with around 9.38 crore Ayushman Cards created during
the year 2023.
5. Health Coverage:
a. 55 crore individuals corresponding to 12 crore families are covered under the scheme.
 b. Many states and union territories implementing AB PM-JAY have further expanded the
beneficiary base at their own cost.

Status of Ayushman Bharat Scheme

1. About 15.5 crore families are covered. It amounts to potential coverage of 50% of
India’s population.
2. 11 states/UTs have pushed for 100% coverage of their respective population.
3. 48% of treatments under the scheme have been availed by women.
4. More than 24 crore Ayushman Cards have been created.
5. It has resulted in savings of more than Rs 1 lakh crore for the beneficiaries which is
often cited as Out of Pocket Expenditure (OOPE).
6. According to the World Bank, the proportion of out-of-pocket expenditure on
healthcare in India, at 50.59 %, is the highest among emerging economies.
7. Hospital Admissions:
a. Total of 6.11 crore hospital admissions, amounting to Rs 78,188 crores were
authorised.
b. In 2023 (Jan-Dec): 1.7 crore hospital admissions worth over Rs 25,000 crores
were authorised.

Attributes to the success of AB-PMJDY scheme

1. Private sector participation – To elicit the participation of private service providers, health
benefit packages (HBPs) are given.
2. Quicker settlement of claims – Efforts are being made to settle the claims within a defined
standard of 15 days. states like Uttarakhand have brought down the claims settlement time to
less than 7 days.
3. Rewarding service providers – Reward to hospitals with a trustworthy record with an
upfront payment of 50% of the claim without adjudication. In 2023, Uttar Pradesh received 2
awards for excellent work in PM-JAY and on the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM)
from the Centre.
4. Guidance mechanism – Every hospital is mandated to have dedicated Pradhan Mantri
Arogya Mitras (PMAMs) who guide the beneficiaries.
5. Interstate portability – A patient registered in one state is entitled to receive care in any
other state that has an AB-PMJDY programme.
6. This has proved helpful to migrants, especially in emergencies.
7. Digitalised service delivery – NHA has deployed a public dashboard that tracks
implementation on a day-to-day basis.
8. Ensures privacy – Beneficiary details are published without compromising their privacy and
has faceless claim processing.
9. Real-time monitoring – The National Anti-Fraud Unit (NAFU) and state level Anti-Fraud
Units oversee anti-fraud incidences.
10. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies are used to detect
suspicious transactions/potential frauds. Aadhaar-based authentication for card creation and
registration for treatment has been mandated.
11. Feedback mechanism – The NHA’s call centre makes calls to every beneficiary within 48
hrs of discharge to verify the quantity and quality of the treatment.
12. Inclusive treatment –Around 50 packages were designed specifically for the transgender
community, including packages on Sex Reassignment Surgery (SRS).
13. Holistic treatment – It provides cashless secondary and tertiary inpatient care for almost all
health conditions to its beneficiaries.
What issues were noted by the CAG report for 2018 to 2021?
1. Registration of beneficiaries - The identification of beneficiaries based on the SECC could
be irrelevant by now.
2. The CAG audit shows that matching of beneficiaries with the SECC in the online portal was not
done and registrations and rejections of applications were done in an arbitrary manner.
3. The audit brought to light that there were large numbers of beneficiaries registered against the
same mobile number or Aadhar.
4. Malpractices - The auditors found large scale corruption in insurance claims settlement.
5. Hospital empanelment done without checks - An Empanelled Healthcare Provider
(EHCP) has to fulfil criteria like the presence of round-the-clock support systems like
pharmacy, blood bank, laboratory, dialysis unit, ICU care etc. Many hospitals after being
empanelled for a certain set of fixed services, failed in providing them.
6. Missing hospitals - The existence of hospitals in the empanelled list did not necessarily
translate into even their existence in the scheme
7. Shortage of infrastructure & personnel - Shortage of healthcare infrastructure, doctors
and equipment in many States and UTs.
8. PM-JAY focuses on secondary and tertiary care, taking away the attention from primary care
and public health-related investments.
Other Challenges in Implementing Ayushman Bharat
1. Financial:
a. Economic Sustainability: Ensuring the economic sustainability of such a
large-scale scheme is a significant challenge.
b. Loss-Making Rates: Proposed package rates under NHPS for various
treatments are considered loss-making by hospitals.
c. State Participation: Not all states and Union Territories can raise their own
share, with some not even joining the scheme.
d. Funding Challenges: Without adequate budgetary commitments, pooling
financial risk for such a large population through insurers or state-run
trusts/societies remains uncertain.
2. Human Resource:
a. Limited and Uneven Distribution: Up to 40% of health worker posts are
vacant in some states, creating a significant challenge.
b. Shortage of Doctors: Most primary health care centres face a perennial
shortage of doctors, and even district hospitals lack specialists.
3. Neglect of Primary Health Care:
a. Overemphasis on Secondary and Tertiary Care: The scheme may neglect
primary healthcare, which is essential for sustainable quality healthcare.
b. Lack of Outpatient Care: Ayushman Bharat does not provide out-patient
department care support, a major component of health expenditures.
 c. Impact on Government and Small Hospitals: Fiscal incentives for private
sector hospitals in deficit areas could harm government-owned and small
hospitals, leading to cost escalations due to the consolidation of tertiary
hospitals by foreign financial conglomerates and private equity funding
agencies.
4. Technical and Administrative:
a. IT Network for Cashless Treatment: A large-scale Information Technology
network for cashless treatment needs to be established and validated.
b. Administrative Upgrades: State governments need to upgrade
administrative systems to address efficiency and accountability issues in
secondary and tertiary public hospital infrastructure.
c. Cooperative Federalism: The refusal of West Bengal, Telangana, Delhi, and
Odisha to join Ayushman Bharat raises concerns about cooperative federalism.
States are responsible for hospital services and have their own schemes for
financial risk protection.

Way Forward for Ayushman Bharat

1. Strengthening Public Hospitals:
a. Universal Healthcare: Urgently strengthen publicly funded hospitals to provide
universal healthcare.
b. Preventive and Primary Care: Reduce the pressure on secondary and tertiary
hospitals by investing in preventive and primary care facilities. The 150,000 health and
wellness centres of the National Health Protection Mission can play a crucial role in this
regard.
2. Universal Health Coverage Roadmap: Public Sector Infrastructure: Prioritise drawing up
a roadmap for universal health coverage through continuous upgrading of public sector
infrastructure.
3. Increased Public Funding: Increase public funding and provide flexibility in financial
transfers from the centre to states to improve the performance of state-operated public
systems.
4. Quality Assurance: Increased public spending can enhance quality assurance in both public
and private sectors through effective regulation and oversight.
5. Cost Containment and Efficiency: Introduce specific methods to contain costs, improve
spending efficiency, increase accountability, and monitor the impact of expenditures on health.
6. Broad Coverage of Ayushman Card Distribution: The National Health Authority
(NHA), along with state counterparts, should aim to provide every possible beneficiary with an
Ayushman Card.
7. Private Hospital Participation:Encourage more private hospitals to join as empanelled
hospitals under the Ayushman Bharat Scheme.
8. Integrated Approach through Public and Private Collaboration: Foster collaboration
between public and private sectors to ensure comprehensive healthcare delivery and access.
National Digital Health Mission (NDHM)
The Government of India aims to develop an integrated digital health infrastructure through NDHM.
This mission seeks to create a digitally networked ecosystem of stakeholders supporting Universal
Health Coverage.

Components of NDHM:
1. Health ID: Unique identification for patients to manage health data.
2. Digi Doctor: A single repository of enrolled doctors nationwide.
3. Personal Health Records: Electronic records of individuals' health-related information.
4. Health Facility Registry: A single repository of all health facilities.
 5. E-pharmacy: Facilitates easy availability and delivery of medicines based on prescriptions.
6. Tele-medicine: Remote access to diagnosis and treatment through technology.

Benefits of NDHM:
1. Empowerment of Patients: Provides constant access to health records and increases access
to doctors through tele-medicine.
2. Efficiency and Effectiveness: Improves health service delivery by providing doctors with
quick access to patients' medical histories.
3. Patient Choice and Transparency: Offers patients choices in availing services and ensures
transparency.
4. Policy Making: Assists policymakers with access to data for understanding trends.
5. Research: Benefits medical researchers through a variety and vastness of data.
6. Benefits for Patients:
a. Storage: Securely store and access medical records.
b. Sharing Information with healthcare providers.
c. Accuracy: Access accurate health information.
d. Access: Remote access to health services.
e. Informed Decision-Making: Empower individuals with accurate information.
f. Choice: Access to both public and private health services.
g. Transparency and Accountability: Ensures compliance with guidelines and
transparency in service pricing.
7. Benefits for Healthcare Professionals:
a. Effective Interventions: Better access to patient history for informed consent and
appropriate interventions.
b. Continuum of Care: Integrated ecosystem for better continuity.
c. Faster Processing: Digitizes claims process for faster reimbursement.
d. Ease of Providing Services: Enhances service provision efficiency.
8. Benefits for Policymakers:
a. Informed Decision-Making: Better access to data for informed policy decisions.
b. Preventive Healthcare: Better data quality for preventive measures.
c. Monitoring and Implementation: Enables demographic-based decision-making.
9. Benefits for Researchers:
a. Evaluation: Access to aggregated information for program evaluation.
b. Comprehensive Feedback: Facilitates feedback between researchers, policymakers,
and providers.
Concerns with NDHM:
1. Cost and Compliance Challenges: Both public and private sectors may need to invest in
new software to comply with NDHM guidelines, leading to dilemmas in transitioning from
existing systems like IDSP-HMIS to new ones.
2. Burden on Practitioners: Independent allopathic practitioners and those in the Indian
System of Medicine, who currently do not store patient data, may face significant burdens and
costs.
3. Data Security Risks: Highly decentralised health systems with data storage at multiple
levels could make information vulnerable. Informed consent might be insufficient given that
over 80% of India lacks basic digital literacy (Digital Empowerment Foundation report).
4. Private Sector Misuse: Potential misuse by private diagnostics, hospitals, and insurance
sectors to avoid obligations.
5. Lack of Statutory Value:It is a policy document issued without any statutory framework,
reducing its enforceability and binding nature.
6. Federal Structure:
 a. Impact: Health is a state subject in India, and the policy impacts India's federal
structure.
b. Non-Binding: The policy cannot bind states and isn't binding on the National Health
Authority (NHA) enforcing it. The policy can be changed, impacting its stability.
7. Unclear Guidelines on Data Usage: It is unclear when users will be notified each time
their data is used and who will enforce this notification.
8. Erasure of Data:The policy provides only certain circumstances where personal data can be
erased, limiting user control over their data.
9. No Right to Be Forgotten:Patients can request data erasure if withdrawing consent, but
requests can be denied, limiting control over their own data.
10. Ambiguity:The role of a consent manager is not clearly defined, causing confusion about their
function and enforcement.
11. Privacy Issues: Certain clauses allow for the collection and processing of personal and
sensitive data, but it is unclear who has access to this data.
12. Mass Surveillance: The "womb to tomb" health identity aims to improve patient care but
raises concerns about mass surveillance.

Way forward
1. Increase Healthcare Expenditure: India's public healthcare spending is less than 1%
(National Health Profile, 2018). The National Health Policy aims for 2.5% by 2025.
2. Improve Doctor-Patient Ratio: WHO recommends a 1:1000 ratio, but it is 1:11082 in India
for each government allopathic doctor (Directorate of State Health Services & National Health
Profile, 2018).
3. Upgrade Rural Doctor Availability: Primary Health Care centres need 3000 more
doctors, with 1974 centres lacking a doctor (Rural Health Statistics, 2017). Secondary and
tertiary healthcare is nearly absent in rural areas.
4. Enhance Infrastructure: There is one government hospital bed for every 2,046 people
(National Health Profile, 2018), necessitating urgent upgrades.
5. Reduce High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: More than 70% in India. Generic medicines,
affordable primary healthcare, and Ayushman Yojna can help address this.

Satyanarayana committee 2018 its report named National Digital Health Blueprint
(NDHB)
1. The Satyanarayana committee recommended drafting a National Digital Health Blueprint to
lay down the building blocks and action plan for a digital health mission.
2. National Digital Mission Blueprint recommended the establishment of an entity called
National Digital Health Mission to provide for a digital healthcare ecosystem for healthcare
services across the country.
3. Establishment of Digital Health Systems. Core digital health data managed by these systems
4. Creation of Registries: It will have all credible data of clinical establishments, healthcare
professionals, health workers, drugs and pharmacies.
5. Enforcement of adoption of open standards by all national digital health stakeholders
6. Enterprise-class health application systems: The aim will be to achieve health-related
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
7. Adoption of cooperative federalism while coordinating with states and union territories.
8. Promotion of private players’ participation along with the public health authorities
9. Making healthcare services portable nationally.
10. Promotion of Clinical Decision Support (CDS) Systems by healthcare professionals.

NDHM is one of many steps needed to address India’s healthcare gap. Concerns related to data safety
and private sector misuse must be prioritised. A multi-dimensional approach, including increased
expenditure as per the National Health Policy and investment in quality medical education, is
essential.
ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activist)
Workers

About:
1. Community Volunteers: ASHA workers are volunteers from within the community, trained
to provide information and help people access various government healthcare schemes.
2. Demographic: Primarily married, widowed, or divorced women between 25 and 45 years old
from the community.
3. Global Recognition: The WHO has recognized India's 10.4 lakh ASHA workers as 'Global
Health Leaders' for their role in connecting communities to government health programs.
Role of ASHA Workers:
1. Bridge to Healthcare: They connect marginalised communities with facilities such as
primary health centres, sub-centres, and district hospitals.
2. Establishment: Their role was established in 2005 under the National Rural Health Mission
(NRHM).
3. Coverage Goal: The aim is to have one ASHA for every 1,000 persons, or per habitation in
hilly, tribal, or sparsely populated areas.
4. Immunisation: ASHA workers ensure and motivate children to get immunised.

Challenges Faced by ASHA Workers:

1. Frontline Inequality: ASHA workers were not treated on par with doctors despite being
frontline workers during the pandemic.
2. Lack of PPE: They were not provided with adequate PPE while performing tasks like contact
tracing and interacting with newly infected cases, posing a risk to themselves and their
families.
3. Community Stigma: This risk resulted in stigma and discrimination from the community,
labelling them as high-risk COVID-19 contacts.
4. Violence: There have been multiple instances of violence against ASHAs and their families.
 5. Testing and Treatment: ASHAs did not have access to priority or free testing, and if they
tested positive for COVID-19, they did not receive support for treatment.

Suggestions:
1. Recognition: The government and communities should recognize ASHAs' work through
financial and non-financial incentives.
2. Institutional Mechanisms: Develop mechanisms to incorporate ASHAs’ experiences,
needs, and realities related to class, caste, and gender into policymaking.
3. Guidelines: Develop and disseminate clear, concise guidelines for ASHAs in a timely manner.
4. Capacity Building: Establish a strategy for capacity building, particularly in technology use,
and initiate supervision initiatives for ASHAs.
5. Support Systems: Develop support systems to ensure the physical and mental well-being of
ASHAs.
6. Health System Reforms: Initiate broader health system reforms for ASHAs, including
policies for fair recruitment, retention, financial protection, leave management, protection
against sexual harassment, physical and mental health protection, and stigma prevention, with
clear accountability at all levels.
7. Program Convergence: Ensure convergence with vertical programs such as livelihoods and
nutrition to complement the work of ASHAs.
Preventative And Primary healthcare healthcare
The preventative healthcare sector, including fitness, wellness, foods and supplements, early
diagnostics, and health tracking, is expected to reach $197 billion by 2025 in India.

Importance of Primary Health Care

Primary health care is essential for a welfare state and plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable
development. It ensures that all citizens have access to essential health services and serves as the
foundation for a healthy and productive society.

Significance of Primary Health Care for Sustainable

Development:
1. Health as a Human Right:
● Moral Imperative: Primary health care ensures every individual has access to basic
health services, aligning with the concept of health as a human right, which emphasises
that everyone should have the opportunity to achieve the highest possible level of
health. Eg. Kerala's primary health care system operationalizes health as a human right.
Its strong network of health centres and community health workers ensures access to
basic health services for all, contributing to impressive health indicators.
2. Equitable Access to Health Services:
● Socio-Economic Equity: A robust primary health care system ensures equitable
access to health services for all citizens, regardless of their socio-economic status. Eg.
Tamil Nadu provides equitable health service access through an extensive network of
primary health centres and sub-centers, even in remote areas. The "Amma Clinic"
initiative offers free essential health services, emphasising equity in access.
3. Preventive Care and Cost-Effectiveness:
● Efficient Resource Allocation: By focusing on cost-effective preventive measures,
primary health care fosters sustainable development and efficient resource allocation.
Eg. Delhi's Mohalla Clinics focus on preventive care and cost-effectiveness. They
provide free services, including preventive health care, diagnostics, and basic drugs,
helping prevent disease escalation, reducing the burden on tertiary care, and enhancing
cost-effectiveness.
4. Improved Health Outcomes:
5. Better Health Indicators: Access to primary health care services is directly linked to better
health outcomes, such as reduced infant mortality, increased life expectancy, and lower disease
prevalence.
6. Economic Productivity:
● Healthy Workforce: Primary health care ensures access to essential health services,
creating a healthy and productive workforce critical for sustainable development.
7. Social Cohesion and Stability:
● Inclusive Health Services: Primary health care promotes social cohesion and
stability by addressing the health needs of all citizens, including vulnerable and
marginalised populations.

Importance of Preventive Healthcare

 1. Preventive healthcare plays a crucial role in identifying health issues early when they are
more manageable and less expensive to treat. Diseases like cancer, diabetes, and heart disease
have significantly better treatment outcomes if detected in their initial stages before symptoms
appear.
2. Regular screenings and checkups are essential to prevent the development of
diseases and health issues. Initiatives such as cancer screenings, vaccination programs,
health risk assessments, and lifestyle counselling help identify and address risk factors
proactively.
3. Investing in preventive care leads to long-term savings in healthcare costs. By
addressing minor health issues early, we can prevent them from escalating into major illnesses
or disabilities that require extensive and costly treatments. Routine physicals, immunizations,
and the management of chronic conditions help avoid substantial future expenses.
4. Early intervention improves overall health and quality of life. Addressing health
problems promptly means greater productivity, fewer absences from work or school, and a
higher quality of life.
5. Preventive care encourages healthy behaviours and lifestyle changes that provide
lifelong benefits. Programs for nutrition counselling, smoking cessation, and exercise
guidelines help establish habits that promote ongoing wellness and disease prevention.
6. Widespread preventive healthcare programs enhance population health. Public health
initiatives aimed at reducing smoking and obesity rates benefit entire communities and help
control rising healthcare costs.
7. By ensuring equitable access to health services, promoting preventive care, improving health
outcomes, and fostering economic productivity and social cohesion, primary health care lays
the foundation for a healthy, inclusive, and prosperous society capable of sustainable
development and growth.

Preventing Disease: Classification of Preventive Measures

Preventing disease relies on anticipatory behaviours that can be classified into primal, primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary preventive measures.

1. Primal Prevention: Recognizing that epigenetic modifications begin at conception, primal

prevention is proposed as a distinct category of health promotion. Primordial prevention
involves strategies aimed at stopping risk factors from emerging early in life.
2. Primary Prevention: These techniques aim to prevent the occurrence of illness by either
removing disease agents or boosting resistance to disease. Examples include vaccinations,
maintaining a healthy diet and exercise routine, and quitting smoking.
3. Secondary Prevention: These techniques involve identifying and treating diseases before
symptoms appear. Examples include cancer screenings and treating hypertension, a risk factor
for various cardiovascular diseases.
4. Tertiary Prevention: These techniques use treatment and rehabilitation to reduce the
impact of symptomatic diseases, such as disability or mortality. Examples include medical
interventions that prevent the progression or spread of illness.
5. Quaternary Prevention: These techniques aim to reduce or prevent the effects of
unnecessary or excessive interventions within the health system, including breaches of human
rights.
Issues with Preventive Healthcare in India
1. Lack of Awareness and Education: Many people in India are unaware of the benefits of
preventive healthcare. Eg. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), only
50% of women aged 15-49 years are aware of the necessity of regular health check-ups.
2. Inadequate Infrastructure: Preventive healthcare services, such as regular screenings and
vaccinations, are often unavailable in rural and remote areas. As per the Rural Health Statistics
2021, India faces a shortfall of 83% in specialist doctors at Community Health Centres (CHCs).
3. Financial Constraints: High out-of-pocket expenditure limits access to preventive services
for many individuals. According to the National Health Accounts (NHA) Estimates for India
(2017-18), out-of-pocket expenditure constitutes 58.7% of the total health expenditure.
4. Low Public Health Expenditure: India’s expenditure on public health is low compared to
global standards. The Economic Survey 2021-22 highlighted that India spends about 1.26% of
its GDP on healthcare, which is significantly lower than the global average of 6%.
5. Cultural and Social Barriers: Cultural beliefs and social norms often prevent people from
seeking preventive care. Eg. In some communities, there is a stigma associated with certain
health screenings, such as those for sexually transmitted infections.
6. Inefficient Health Information Systems: Lack of robust health information systems
hampers the tracking and monitoring of preventive health initiatives. Eg. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has highlighted the need for improved health information systems in
India to better manage health data.
7. Urban-Rural Disparities: There is a significant gap in the availability and quality of
preventive healthcare services between urban and rural areas. The NFHS-5 data indicates that
immunisation coverage is significantly higher in urban areas (64%) compared to rural areas
(52%).
8. Limited Access to Quality Healthcare Professionals: Shortage of trained healthcare
professionals affects the delivery of preventive services. According to the World Bank, India
has only 0.8 physicians per 1,000 people, which is below the WHO recommended standard of 1
physician per 1,000 people.
9. Inconsistent Policy Implementation: Preventive healthcare policies are often
inconsistently implemented across states. Eg. The effectiveness of the National Health Mission
(NHM) varies widely across different states, with some states lagging in key health indicators.
10. Limited Preventive Healthcare Programs: The scope and reach of existing preventive
healthcare programs are often limited.Eg. The coverage of cancer screening programs is still
low, with the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) reporting that only 12.5% of eligible
women undergo regular cervical cancer screenings.

Steps to strengthen preventive healthcare

1. The government should implement a healthcare system geared towards prevention, screening,
early intervention, and new treatment modalities to reduce the burden of chronic disease.
2. An integrated preventive healthcare system that will raise awareness and enable the detection
and diagnosis of diseases.
3. Having access to inexpensive, fair healthcare services. optimum use of government funds and
increased government investment in health care.
4. Corporates should be encouraged to take preventative steps for their employees.
5. The government should implement mandatory routine health checks through healthcare
programs starting at age 25.
6. Health education that focuses on illness prevention via awareness and knowledge about
treatment options must also be regarded as necessary health care.
7. Having a sufficient quantity, diversity, and infrastructure of health workers.
8. Need to establish personal health records and promote population disease screening.
9. Enhancing local hospitals’ ability to detect and treat Non-Communicable Diseases.
 10. The need to refocus on enhancing preventative healthcare services is seen in programs like
“Health for All” and “The National Health Assurance Mission” along with other healthcare
schemes by the government.

Universal Health Coverage (UHC)

Universal Health Coverage (UHC) ensures that all individuals and communities receive the health
services they need without suffering financial hardship. This includes a full spectrum of essential,
quality health services from health promotion to prevention, treatment, rehabilitation, and palliative
care across the life course.

Importance of UHC:
1. Social Benefits:
a. Access to Services: Enables everyone to access services that address the most
significant causes of disease and death.
 b. Quality of Services: Ensures the quality of these services is high enough to improve
the health of the recipients.
c. Human Capital Formation: Provides affordable, quality health services, particularly
benefiting women, children, adolescents, and those with mental health issues,
representing a long-term investment in human capital.
2. Economic Benefits:
a. Financial Protection: Shields people from the financial consequences of paying for
health services out of their own pockets.
b. Poverty Reduction: Reduces the risk of people being pushed into poverty due to
unexpected illness, requiring them to use life savings or sell assets.
c. Long-term Economic Development: Good health enables children to learn and
adults to earn, aiding in long-term economic development.
d. Sustainable Development Goals (SDG): Especially aligned with SDG 3.8, which
aims to achieve universal health coverage.

Barriers to Achieving UHC:

1. Economic:
a. Resource Allocation: Less than 2% of GDP is allocated to the health sector.
b. Infrastructure: Rural-urban divide in terms of manpower and physical
infrastructure.
c. Skilled Professionals: India’s doctor-patient ratio is 1:1456, below the WHO
standard of 1:1000.
d. Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: 65% of health expenditure in India is out-of-pocket
(Economic Survey 2020-21).
2. Social:
a. Gender Inequality: Women are less likely to be in paid employment, reducing their
chance of availing health benefits.
b. Ageing Population: Increases the burden of diseases and dependency.
c. Social Determinants of Health: Poverty, illiteracy, alcoholism hinder UHC.
3. Governance:
a. Policy Paralysis: Lack of inter-sectoral coordination and political push-and-pull.
b. Management Issues: Fragmented, unregulated healthcare delivery systems.
c. State Subject: Health is a state subject, leading to coordination challenges.
4. Technological:
a. Digital Deficiency: Lack of processed healthcare data and digital storage.
b. Equipment: Low availability of basic medical equipment.
c. Research: Inadequate multi-sectoral research for healthcare.

Status in India:
1. Constitutional:
a. Fundamental Rights: Article 21 obligates the state to safeguard the right to life.
b. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP): Articles 41, 42, 47 state the duty of
the state to ensure health and nutrition for citizens, especially women, children, and
weaker sections.
2. Policy Measures:
Jan Arogya Yojana: Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY is the largest health assurance scheme,
providing a health cover of Rs. 5 lakhs per family per year for secondary and tertiary care
hospitalisation to over 10.74 crore poor and vulnerable families, forming the bottom 40% of
the Indian population.
Government Steps for implementing UHC in Healthcare
sector
1. National Health Policy (NHP) 2017: Allocating resources of up to two-thirds or more to
primary care for achieving “the highest possible level of good health and well-being, through a
preventive and promotive healthcare orientation”.
2. A 167% increase in allocation for the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) —
the insurance programme which aims to cover 10 crore poor families for hospitalisation
expenses of up to ₹5 lakh per family per annum.
3. The government’s steps to incentivise the private sector to open hospitals in Tier II and
Tier III cities.
4. Individual states are adopting technology to support health-insurance schemes. Example:
Remedinet Technology (India’s first completely electronic cashless health insurance claims
processing network) has been signed on as the technology partner for the Karnataka
Government’s recently announced cashless health insurance schemes.

Way Forward:
1. Economic:
a. Per Capita Expenditure: Improve spending on health to 5-6% of GDP.
b. Non-Medical Preventive Health: Remove constraints like unemployment,
incomes, food security, water, and sanitation.
2. Social:
a. Women Empowerment: Correlates directly with family health.
b. Ending Social Evils: Campaigns to reduce issues like alcoholism, abuse, and elderly
neglect.
c. Addressing Regional Disparities: Incentivize rural areas for healthcare
infrastructure.
3. Governance:
a. Health-Cadre Management: Improved management through public health
management cadre.
b. Performance Incentives: Financial rewards for states showing improved health
outcomes.
c. Education Curricula: Reorient medical education towards public health.
d. Policy Focus: Target neglected areas like rural, tribal, and inaccessible regions.
4. Technological:
a. Digital Health: Use of telemedicine to bridge geographical gaps.
b. Innovation: Machine learning and AI to transform healthcare delivery.
5. Best Practices:
a. Chile: UHC is financed through a mandatory tax.
b. Ghana: Revenues from a 2.5% increment in consumption taxes.
c. Japan: Government subsidies payments on plans that incur higher costs.
Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)
Global:
● NCDs accounted for 74% of deaths globally in 2019.
● NCDs now form 7 of the world’s top 10 causes of death, up from 4 in 2000.

India:
● NCDs cause 65% of deaths in India, with ischemic heart diseases, COPD, and stroke being
leading causes.
● The contribution of NCDs to total deaths increased from 37% to 61% between 1990 and
2016.
● NCDs are expected to cost India $4.5 trillion by 2030 due to productivity losses.

Risk Factors:
1. Behavioural Factors:
a. Tobacco Use: Leading global risk factor for illness and death from major NCDs.
b. Harmful Use of Alcohol: Causes heart diseases, liver diseases, and a range of mental
and behavioural disorders.
c. Physical Inactivity: Increases the risk of stroke, hypertension, and depression.
d. Unhealthy Diet: Contributes to raised blood pressure and increased risk of heart
disease and stroke.
2. Environmental Factors:
a. Air Pollution: Causes millions of deaths due to ischemic health disease, chronic lung
diseases, and cancers.
b. UV Radiation: Causes skin cancer due to ozone layer depletion.
3. Non-Modifiable Factors: Include age, sex, and genetic make-up, affecting the effectiveness
of many prevention and treatment approaches.
4. Metabolic Factors: Raised blood pressure, overweight/obesity, raised blood glucose, and
cholesterol levels.
5. Other Factors:
a. Urbanisation: Changes people’s way of living and increases exposure to shared risk
factors.
b. Globalisation: Increases risk factors through marketing and sedentary lifestyles.
c. Educational Levels: Lower education levels correlate with higher prevalence of
NCDs.
d. Poverty: Under-nutrition and low birth weight increase the risk of cardiovascular
disease and diabetes.
6. Aggravated Impact of COVID-19:
a. Mental Health Impact: Stress from avoiding infection and physical distancing
recommendations.
b. Disruption in Care: Routine chronic care and medication disrupted due to
COVID-19 response.
Impact of NCDs:
1. Economic Impacts:
a. Poverty: High out-of-pocket expenditure and low productivity create a vicious cycle.
b. National Income: Productivity losses decrease national income.
c. Household Income: High cost of NCD-related healthcare reduces household income.
2. Social Impacts:
a. Social Inequity: Out-of-pocket payments for health care increase the risk of
impoverishment.
b. Hunger and Education: NCDs force cuts in spending on food and education,
impacting family assets.
c. Healthcare System: High hospital admission rates and healthcare resource
consumption strain the system.
3. Health Impacts: NCD-related deaths from cancer, diabetes, and other diseases are
significant.

Steps Taken:
1. National Steps:
a. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes,
Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke (NPCDCS) 2010: Infrastructure and screening
initiatives.
b. National Health Policy 2017: Aims to reduce premature mortality from NCDs.
c. National Action Plan: Adopted WHO’s Global Action Plan for NCDs.
d. WHO Framework for Tobacco Control: Aimed at reducing tobacco demand.
e. Ayushman Bharat: Establishing health and wellness centres.
f. Indian Hypertension Management Initiative (IHMI): Collaborative project to
strengthen the CVD component of NPCDCS.
2. International Steps:
a. Global Action Plan for NCDs 2013-2020: Developed by WHO with nine global
targets.
b. Global NCD Network (NCDnet): Formed by WHO in 2009.
c. NCD Alliance: Partnership founded in 2009 to represent cardiovascular diseases,
diabetes, cancer, and chronic respiratory disease.
d. United Nations Interagency Task Force on the Prevention and Control of
NCDs (UNIATF): Established in 2013 to support governments in tackling NCDs.

Way Forward
Risk Factors and Interventions:
1. Reduce Tobacco Use:
a. Tax: Increase excise taxes on tobacco products.
b. Packaging: Large graphic health warnings.
c. Advertising: Enact comprehensive advertising bans.
d. Smoke-Free Public Places: Eliminate exposure to second-hand smoke.
e. Education: Effective mass media campaigns.
2. Reduce Harmful Use of Alcohol:
a. Tax: Increase excise taxes on alcohol.
b. Advertising: Enforce advertising bans.
c. Availability: Restrict alcohol availability.
d. Education: Mass media campaigns.
3. Reduce Unhealthy Diet:
a. Reformulate Food: Reduce salt intake through food reformulation.
b. Supportive Environments: Establish environments reducing salt intake.
 c. Education: Public campaigns on healthy eating.
d. Packaging: Front-of-pack labelling to reduce salt intake.
4. Reduce Physical Inactivity: Community-wide campaigns promoting physical activity.
5. Manage Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes:
a. Therapy and Counseling: For individuals with high risks.
b. Vaccination: Against human papillomavirus.
c. Screening: For cervical cancer in women aged 30-49.

Other Steps:
1. Living and Working Conditions: Ensure conducive conditions for all, including clean
water, air, and social protection.
2. ‘Health-in-all Policies’ Approach: Focus on gender-responsive and human rights-focused
policies aligned with SDGs.
3. Community Outreach and Empowerment: Engage local organisations to identify
inequities and solutions.
4. Reliable Health Data: Collect disaggregated data by key parameters like sex, geography, and
education.
5. WHO-Supported Health Information Platform: Provide integrated data on country
progress across health indicators.
6. Best Practices:
a. Zambia:Integrated national HIV services and cervical cancer prevention.
b. Tuvalu: Red Cross Society implemented a pilot project for health, disaster, and climate
change needs.

These measures highlight the comprehensive steps required to address the challenges and improve
health service delivery through NDHM and other health initiatives.
Tribal Health
Tribal people account for 8.6% of the country’s population and their problems like health, poverty are
still an issue. The health status of India’s tribal communities is in need of special attention. Being
among the poorest and most marginalised groups in India, tribals experience extreme levels of health
deprivation. The tribal community lags behind the national average on several vital public health
indicators, with women and children being the most vulnerable.

Main Tribal Health Issues

1. Malnutrition: Tribal people often lack sufficient food or the right kind of food, leading to
hunger, stunting, wasting, anaemia, and deficiencies in vitamins and minerals.
Malnutrition- The percentage of underweight ST children is around 40% in 2015-16. Tribal
constitutes 8% of India’s total population but they have 30% of all cases of Malaria. Prevalence
of TB in the rest of India is 256 per 100,000 cases but in tribals, it is 703 cases per 100,000
almost three times.
2. Mortality: There are improvements in parameters but there is certainly a gap between tribals
and the rest of India.Under-five mortality rate declined from 135 in 1988 to 57 in
2014.Under-five child mortality for the rest of India was around 39 in 2014.
3. Communicable Diseases: Higher susceptibility to infectious diseases such as malaria,
tuberculosis, leprosy, HIV/AIDS, diarrhoea, respiratory infections, and vector-borne diseases
due to poor sanitation, hygiene, and limited healthcare access.
4. Non-Communicable Diseases:
a. Increased risk of chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases,
cancer, and mental disorders.
b. A study shows about 13% of tribal adults have diabetes, and 25% have high blood
pressure.
5. Addictions:
a. High rates of tobacco use, alcohol consumption, and substance abuse contribute to
health issues.
b. Over 72% of tribal men aged 15–54 use tobacco, and more than 50% consume alcohol,
compared to 56% and 30% of non-tribal men, respectively.
Challenges in Tribal Health
1. Lack of Infrastructure:
a. Inadequate healthcare facilities and infrastructure in tribal areas.
b. Limited access to clean water and sanitation facilities.
2. Shortage of Medical Professionals:
a. Few doctors, nurses, and healthcare professionals in tribal regions.
b. Difficulty attracting and retaining skilled healthcare personnel in remote areas.
c. Imbalance in the distribution of healthcare professionals, with a concentration in urban
areas.
3. Connectivity and Geographic Barriers:
a. Remote locations and difficult terrain hinder access to healthcare services.
b. Poor roads, transportation facilities, and communication networks.
c. Challenges in reaching tribal communities during emergencies and providing timely
medical assistance.
4. Affordability and Financial Constraints:
a. Limited financial resources and low-income levels among tribal communities.
b. Inability to afford healthcare expenses, including treatments, medicines, and
diagnostics.
c. Lack of awareness about available healthcare schemes and insurance options.
5. Cultural Sensitivities and Language Barriers:
a. Unique cultural practices and beliefs affect healthcare-seeking behaviour.
b. Language barriers between healthcare providers and tribal communities lead to
miscommunication and inadequate care.
c. Lack of culturally sensitive healthcare services that respect tribal customs and
traditions.
6. Limited Access to Essential Services:
a. Insufficient availability of essential healthcare services, such as maternal and child
health, immunisation, and preventive care.
b. Inadequate access to specialised care, diagnostic facilities, and emergency medical
services.
 c. Limited awareness about health issues, preventive measures, and healthcare rights
among tribal communities.
7. Inadequate Funding and Resource Allocation:
a. Limited allocation of funds for healthcare in tribal areas.
b. Insufficient investment in healthcare infrastructure, equipment, and technology.
c. Lack of dedicated funding for addressing tribal health challenges and implementing
targeted interventions.

GoI’s Report on Tribal Health in India

■ In 2018, an expert committee, constituted jointly by the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare and Ministry of Tribal Affairs released the first comprehensive report on
Tribal Health in India.
■ Recommendations of the Report:
○ Implement Universal Health Assurance under the National Health Policy
(2017) in tribal areas.
○ Utilise Aarogya Mitra, trained local tribal youth, and ASHA workers for
primary care in tribal communities with support from the gram sabha.
○ Provide financial protection through government medical insurance schemes
for secondary and tertiary care.
○ Introduce ST Health Cards for tribal people living outside scheduled areas to
facilitate access to benefits at any healthcare institution.
○ Implement a Tribal Malaria Action Plan in tribal-dominated districts
under the National Health Mission.
○ Strengthen Home-Based Newborn and Child Care (HBNCC) programs to
reduce infant and child mortality.
○ Enhance food security and strengthen Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) to address malnutrition.
○ Publish a state of tribal health report every three years and establish a Tribal Health
Index (THI) to monitor tribal health.
○ Establish a National Tribal Health Council as an apex body, along with
Tribal Health Directorate and Tribal Health Research Cell, at both central and state
levels.

Way Forward
1. Addressing Disparities:Focus on reducing the disparity in health-seeking behaviour and
healthcare delivery among tribal populations.
2. Recognizing Traditional Healers:Acknowledge and integrate the services provided by
traditional healers within tribal communities.
3. Empowering Tribal Communities:Implement health literacy programs to empower tribal
communities to make informed health decisions.
4. Recruitment and Retention of Healthcare Professionals:Develop targeted strategies
to attract and retain healthcare professionals in tribal regions.
5. Improving Infrastructure:Invest in the development of road networks, transportation
facilities, and communication networks to enhance connectivity and access to healthcare.
6. Financial protection through government medical insurance schemes should be provided to
tribals for secondary and tertiary care.
7. A state of tribal health report should be published every 3 years and placed before the
nation.
Antimicrobial resistance
Antimicrobial resistance occurs when microorganisms (including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
parasites) develop the ability to withstand the effects of antimicrobial drugs, such as antibiotics,
antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics, which are designed to treat infections.
Reasons for the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
1. High Prevalence of Communicable Diseases:The high burden of diseases like
tuberculosis, diarrhoea, and respiratory infections necessitates frequent antimicrobial
treatment.
2. Overburdened Public Health System:Limited laboratory capacity for aetiology-based
diagnosis and targeted treatment due to an overburdened public health system.
3. Poor Infection Control Practices:Hygiene lapses in hospitals and clinics facilitate the
spread of resistant bacteria.
4. Injudicious Use of Antimicrobials: Overprescribing by doctors under patient pressure,
self-medication, incomplete antibiotic courses, and unnecessary use of broad-spectrum
antibiotics create selective pressure for resistant bacteria.
5. Easy Access to Antibiotics: Unregulated over-the-counter availability and affordability of
antibiotics lead to self-medication and inappropriate use.
6. Lack of Awareness: Low public understanding of AMR and proper antibiotic use promotes
misuse.
 7. Limited Surveillance: Inadequate monitoring systems hinder the tracking and
understanding of AMR's scope.

Implications of the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

1. Healthcare Impact: AMR can make previously effective antibiotics ineffective against
bacterial infections. This complicates the treatment of common illnesses like pneumonia,
urinary tract infections, and skin infections, resulting in prolonged illnesses, more severe
symptoms, and increased mortality rates.
2. Increased Healthcare Costs: Treating resistant infections often requires more expensive
and prolonged therapies, extended hospital stays, and sometimes more invasive procedures.
This leads to higher healthcare costs for individuals, healthcare systems, and governments.
3. Challenges in Medical Procedures: AMR makes certain medical procedures riskier.
Surgeries, cancer chemotherapy, and organ transplants become more hazardous due to the
increased risk of infections resistant to standard antibiotics.
4. Limitations in Treatment Options: As resistance grows, the available arsenal of effective
antibiotics diminishes. This limitation in treatment options may lead to a scenario where
previously manageable infections become untreatable, reverting medicine to a pre-antibiotic
era where common infections could be fatal.

Measures Taken to Address AMR

India:
1. National Programme on AMR Containment: Launched in 2012, this programme has
strengthened the AMR Surveillance Network by establishing laboratories in state medical
colleges.
2. National Action Plan on AMR: Launched in April 2017, it focuses on a One Health
approach, involving various stakeholder ministries and departments.
3. AMR Surveillance and Research Network (AMRSN): Established in 2013 to generate
evidence and capture trends and patterns of drug-resistant infections in the country.
4. AMR Research & International Collaboration:
a. The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has initiated collaborations to develop
new drugs and medicines.
b. In 2017, ICMR and the Research Council of Norway (RCN) initiated a joint call for
research in antimicrobial resistance.
c. ICMR also collaborates with the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)
in Germany for AMR research.
5. Antibiotic Stewardship Program: ICMR has launched the Antibiotic Stewardship
Program (AMSP) as a pilot project across India to control the misuse and overuse of antibiotics
in hospital wards and ICUs.
6. Regulation of Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs): The Drug Controller General of India
(DCGI) has banned 40 FDCs that were found to be inappropriate.

Global Measures:
1. World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW): Held annually since 2015, WAAW is a
global campaign aimed at raising awareness of AMR and encouraging best practices among the
public, health workers, and policymakers to slow the spread of drug-resistant infections.
2. The Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS):
Launched by WHO in 2015, GLASS aims to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all
 levels. It incorporates data from the surveillance of AMR in humans, the use of antimicrobial
medicines, and AMR in the food chain and environment.
3. Global Point Prevalence Survey Methodology: Introduced by WHO to understand
antibiotic prescribing patterns in hospitals and track changes in antibiotic use over time.
Several studies in India have utilised this methodology.

Way Forward
1. Public Education Campaigns: Inform the public about AMR, its dangers, and how to
prevent it. This can be done through mass media, community outreach programs, and
educational materials in local languages.
2. Antibiotic Stewardship Programs: Implement programs in hospitals and clinics to
track and optimise antibiotic use, ensuring they are prescribed only when necessary and
for the shortest effective duration.
3. Regulation of Antibiotic Sales: Implement stricter regulations on the sale of
antibiotics over the counter, requiring prescriptions for all antibiotics.
4. Expand AMR Surveillance: Establish a nationwide AMR surveillance system to
track the prevalence and spread of resistant bacteria in humans, animals, and the
environment.
5. Develop New Technologies: Explore the potential of new technologies, such as
phage therapy, to address AMR challenges.
URBANISATION AND
ASSOCIATED ISSUES
Urbanisation is important in UPSC CSE Mains due to its impact on economic growth, social dynamics,
and governance challenges. It underscores the need for sustainable urban planning, infrastructure
development, and equitable resource distribution to manage its complex implications effectively.

Questions in UPSC CSE (Mains) from this theme

● Does urbanisation lead to more segregation and/or marginalisation of the poor in Indian
metropolises? (2023)
● How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on
the culture of consumption? (2022)
● Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the
backdrop of rural urban integration. (2015)
● Discuss the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanisation
in India. (2013)
● How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development
of India? (2019)
● With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy
of the 'Smart City Programme'. (2016)
● Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (2013)

Sub-themes
In line with the trends of the exam, we have prepared this study material with the following
subthemes:
● Urban poverty
● Urbanisation and middle class
● Smart Cities
● Urban- Rural linkages
● Rapid urbanisation in india
● Urban heat islands

Definition
Urbanisation is the process of transformation that occurs as a society evolves from predominantly
rural to predominantly urban areas. Urbanisation encompasses social, economic, and cultural
transformations. It is driven by the migration of individuals from rural to urban areas in pursuit of
employment opportunities, improved living standards, access to better education and healthcare
facilities.
Key terms related to Urbanisation
Term Description

Urban Areas characterised by high population density, advanced

infrastructure, and diverse, typically non-agricultural
economic activities.

Statutory Towns Areas with urban local bodies like municipal corporations
or municipalities.

Census Towns Areas satisfying three criteria: a population of at least

5000 persons, a minimum population density of 400
persons per sq. km., and 75% of the male workforce
employed in non-agricultural activities.

Urban Broader areas including a city and its surrounding suburbs

Agglomerations and neighbouring towns sharing economic, social, and
functional ties.

Megacities Cities with populations exceeding ten million, facing

unique challenges such as traffic congestion, inadequate
housing, and strained infrastructure.

Over-Urbanisation Expansion of urban activities and characteristics in rural

areas, gradually replacing rural traits.

Sub-Urbanisation Expansion of urban activities in the outskirts of cities.

Urbanisation and Urban Poverty

Urban poverty is a form of poverty that is particularly visible in megacities, characterised by poor
living circumstances and income, as well as a lack of essential utilities for a decent standard of life.
Urban poverty in India is unique, particularly in the way that it follows certain patterns of growth.
Though the proportion of urban poor has reportedly declined over the past decades, the numbers keep
adding up.

In 2001, according to the National Report (India Habitat III by the Ministry of Housing and Urban
Poverty Alleviation), about 23.5% of urban households were slum dwellers. This percentage had
decreased to 17% by 2011, even though the total number of households living in slums had increased
from 10.5 million in 2001 to 13.75 million in 2011. Greater Mumbai, Delhi NCR, and Kolkata
reportedly house no less than 42% to 55% of their urban population in slums.
Causes of Urban Poverty
Reasons Behind Urban Details
Poverty

Large Scale of Overflow of rural poor migrating to urban areas for better
Rural-Urban Migration opportunities.

Lack of Skills Inability to participate in emerging employment opportunities

due to lack of knowledge and skills.

Indebtedness Unemployment or underemployment and intermittent work

leading to debt.

Inflation Rising prices of essential goods further intensifying

deprivation.

Challenges Faced by Urban Poor

Overcrowding Overcrowded urban infrastructure due to massive migration.

Water and Poor sanitation standards, particularly in slum areas.

Sanitation

Health Care Low income making standard medical help unaffordable.

Education Children dropping out of school to support their families financially.

Risk of Forceful Lack of affordable housing leading to the risk of forceful eviction.
Eviction

Improving Conditions for the Urban Poor

Social Security Ensure relief funds and benefits reach slum dwellers. Mirror
scheme of MGNREGA in urban areas.

Basic Amenities Provide clean water, sanitation, and electricity. Rehabilitate and
Access upgrade slums, establish identity markers.

Community Ensure access to social welfare schemes. Campaigns covering LPG

Connect Campaigns connections, bank accounts, insurance.

Self-Help Groups Create basti-level SHGs for financial support. Loans for street
vendors under Svanidhi Scheme.

Migration Support Ease the arrival process of migrants to cities. Establish migration
Centres support centres and expand rental housing.
 Enforcing Ensure uniform minimum wages throughout the unorganised
Minimum Wages sector. Enforce laws like the Minimum Wages Act.

Case Study: Brazil’s Bolsa Família Program

Brazil’s Bolsa Família Program is a social welfare initiative that provides financial aid to poor Brazilian
families. The scheme has successfully reduced urban poverty by ensuring that families meet certain
conditions like ensuring their children attend school and are vaccinated.

Urbanisation and the Middle Class

The middle class is currently the fastest-growing segment of India’s income-earning population. In
2021, this segment, classified as households with family incomes between Rs 5 lakh and Rs 30 lakh,
numbered 91 million households, representing 30% of all Indian households. Growing at an annual
rate of 6.3%, this figure is set to rise to 165 million households by 2031, or approximately 46% of all
households.

This growth of the middle class is ushering in changes at multiple levels, significantly impacting the
socio-economic profiles of cities, states, and ultimately the nation's economic prowess.

Growth Trends
Perio Cities with Population >1 Share of Urban
d Million Population

2001 35 37%

2011 53 42.6%

Future Projections
By 2031, nearly 41% of people will reside in urban India, with significant prosperity in metros and
boom towns. States like Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, and West Bengal are witnessing faster middle-class
growth, driven by multiple urban centres.

Challenges faced by Urban Middle Class

Challenge Solution

Urban Congestion Develop infrastructure to accommodate growth. Example: Metro rail

projects in major cities

Rising Living Costs Implement affordable housing policies. Example: Affordable Rental
Housing Complexes (ARHCs)

Job Market Promote skill development and diversified job opportunities.

Saturation Example: Skill India Mission
 Healthcare and Enhance public healthcare and educational facilities. Example:
Education Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan

Environmental Invest in sustainable urban development practices. Example:

Impact AMRUT Mission

Smart Cities Mission

One hundred cities were selected for five years under the mission, aimed at driving economic growth
and improving the quality of life of people by enabling local development and harnessing technology.

SCM Strategy Details

Pan-City At least one smart solution applied city-wide.

Initiative

Area-Based Retrofitting (city improvement), Redevelopment (city renewal),

Development Greenfield projects (city extension).

Core Adequate water supply, Assured electricity supply, Sanitation, Efficient

Infrastructure urban mobility and public transport, Affordable housing, Robust IT
Elements connectivity and digitalisation, Good governance, Sustainable
environment, Safety and security, Health and education.

Funding and Implementation

The mission, initially planned for five years (FY 2015-16 to FY 2019-20), was extended until June
2024. It operates as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with Rs 48,000 crores of financial support
from the Central Government over five years. States and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) contribute
matching funds, bringing the total to nearly Rs 1 lakh crore for Smart Cities development.

A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) led by a bureaucrat or MNC representative, and other major
stakeholders was created, bypassing traditional city governance models.

Current Status Details

and Challenges

Projects sanctioned 8,033

Total outlay ₹1,67,875 crore

reduced

Projects completed 5,533

Ongoing projects 921

Convergence with Other Government Schemes
Comprehensive development is achieved by integrating the SCM with other sectoral schemes like
AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission, Digital India, Skill Development, and Housing for All.

Challenges and Solutions for Smart Cities Mission

Challenges Solutions

Funding Shortfalls: Securing adequate Increase private sector participation and develop
funding is a significant challenge due to the innovative financing models.
ambitious scope of the Smart Cities Mission. Example: Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in
Relying solely on government funds is infrastructure projects.
insufficient.

Exclusion of Areas: The mission often Ensure inclusive development across entire cities.
focuses on specific areas within a city, Example: Integrated development planning with
leading to the exclusion of other regions that AMRUT Mission.
also need development.

Governance Issues: Effective governance Strengthen governance frameworks and SPV

is crucial but can be hindered by bureaucratic structures.
inefficiencies, lack of coordination, and Example: Training and capacity building
insufficient capacity of Urban Local Bodies programs for ULBs.
(ULBs).

Displacement of Communities: Urban Implement policies to protect vulnerable

development projects can lead to the populations.
displacement of poorer communities, with Example: Rajiv Awas Yojana.
residents being forced out without adequate
compensation or relocation plans.

Infrastructure Disruptions: Large-scale Use sustainable urban planning to avoid

infrastructure projects can disrupt urban infrastructure issues like flooding.
environments, causing issues like urban Example: Nature-based solutions and green
flooding, traffic congestion, and infrastructure.
environmental degradation.
Urban-Rural Linkages
Urban-Rural Linkages touch on a broad variety of thematic areas ranging from urban and territorial
planning, strengthening small and intermediate towns, enabling spatial flows of people, products,
services and information to fostering food security systems.

They also involve addressing mobility and migration, reducing the environmental impact in
urban-rural convergences, developing legislation and governance structures, and promoting inclusive
financial investments.

Importance of Urban-Rural Linkages

Mutual Dependence: Urban and rural areas rely on each other for economic and social
stability. Balanced development ensures mutual growth.

Reducing Rural Poverty: Strengthening linkages helps reduce rural poverty by

enhancing access to markets, services, and opportunities.

Integrated Planning: Essential for achieving sustainable development goals by

promoting cohesive planning and resource management.

Economic Growth: Urban areas provide markets for rural products, while rural areas
supply food and raw materials.

Cultural Exchange: Facilitates the exchange of social and cultural practices, enriching
both communities.

Infrastructure and Services: Integrated planning improves the delivery of

transportation, healthcare, and education.

Environmental Sustainability: Balanced development helps manage natural resources

more sustainably, reducing environmental degradation.

Managing Migration: Better linkages can manage migration flows, reducing pressure
on urban areas and providing rural opportunities.

Food Security: Strengthening linkages improves agricultural supply chains and reduces
post-harvest losses.

Effective Governance: Integrated governance ensures coherent development strategies

for both urban and rural areas.

Challenges and Solutions for Urban-Rural Linkages

Challenges Solutions

Development Gaps: Significant Implement integrated urban and territorial

development gaps exist between urban and planning. Example: Integrated Rural Urban
 rural areas, leading to unequal access to Linkages (IRUL) framework by
resources and opportunities. UN-Habitat.

Infrastructure Deficit: Rural areas often Invest in infrastructure to support

suffer from a lack of essential infrastructure rural-urban connectivity. Example: Pradhan
such as roads, bridges, and communication Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY).
networks, hindering connectivity with urban
areas.

Economic Disparities: Economic Promote balanced economic development

disparities between urban and rural areas and inclusive investments. Example:
lead to uneven development and limited Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National
economic opportunities for rural Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM).
populations.

Governance Issues: Fragmented Strengthen multi-sectoral, multi-level

governance and lack of coordination governance frameworks. Example:
between different administrative levels and Convergence initiatives in Andhra Pradesh.
sectors hinder effective implementation of
development policies.

Environmental Impact: Urban Implement environmentally sensitive

expansion and rural development can lead policies. Example: National Mission for
to environmental degradation, affecting Clean Ganga (NMCG).
biodiversity and natural resources.

Rapid Urbanisation in India

One of the most complex challenges India faces today is the pace and pattern of urbanisation. By
2036, its towns and cities will be home to 600 million people, or 40% of the population, up from 31%
in 2011. Urban areas are expected to contribute almost 70% to GDP. Managing this urban
transformation effectively will be crucial for India's ambition of becoming a developed country by
2047.

Key Statistics
Perio Urban Population Urban Population
d (%) (millions)

2011 31% ~377

2036 40% ~600

2050 50% ~820

Investment Needs
India will need to invest $840 billion in infrastructure by 2036, averaging $55 billion or 1.2% of GDP
annually. However, between 2011 and 2018, India's total capital expenditure on urban infrastructure
averaged only 0.6% of GDP.

Funding Sources Percentage

Central and State 72%

Governments

Commercial Financing 5%

Private Financing High potential but

underutilised

Key Strategies for Urban Transformation

Strategy Example

Set up Smart New Cities Develop new urban areas with modern infrastructure and
facilities. Implement public-private partnership models.
Example: Dholera Smart City Project.

Develop Transport Leverage transport corridors for new city locations. Establish
Corridors corridor development agencies to tie up with city planning.
Example: Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC).

Revitalise Incentivise the location of manufacturing units in new cities. Use

Manufacturing Sector specially empowered governance structures to streamline
approvals. Example: Make in India initiative.

Build Capacity of Urban Execute bankable projects to attract private investment. Develop
Local Bodies (ULBs) municipal bond markets and innovative financing structures.
Example: Capacity building programs under AMRUT Mission.

Invest in Public Improve access to healthcare and education. Enhance public

Services transportation systems. Example: Ayushman Bharat Yojana,
Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.

Promote Water Security Develop infrastructure for efficient water use and recycling.
Example: Jal Jeevan Mission.

Examples of Urban Transformation

City/Tow Initiative
n

Chennai Holistic approach to transportation, establishing a nodal body.

 Surat Large-scale wastewater recycling.

Dharampur Integrated approach to water supply, recycling wastewater.

i

Challenges and Solutions for Rapid Urbanisation

Challenge Solution with Example

Infrastructure Increase investment in urban infrastructure development. Example:

Deficit AMRUT Mission.

Environmental Implement sustainable urban planning and green technologies.

Sustainability Example: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

Economic Promote inclusive economic growth and employment opportunities.

Disparities Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Urban
Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM).

Governance and Strengthen urban governance frameworks and planning processes.

Planning Example: Smart Cities Mission.

Housing Shortages Develop affordable housing policies and programs. Example:

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban).

Urban Heat Islands

Urban heat islands (UHIs) are local and temporary phenomena where certain pockets within a city
experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas due to trapped heat.

Causes of Urban Heat Islands

Cause Details

Construction Activities Increased use of asphalt and concrete trapping heat.

Dark Surfaces Buildings with dark surfaces absorb more heat.

Air Conditioning Increased energy use and local heating from air
conditioners.

Urban Architecture Tall buildings and narrow streets reduce air circulation.

Transportation Use of fossil fuels adds warmth.

Systems

Lack of Green Areas Reduces cooling effects from evapotranspiration and shade.
Mitigation Strategies for Urban Heat Islands
Strategy Example

Increase Area Under Green Plant trees and increase green spaces. Example: Green Delhi
Cover Campaign.

Passive Cooling Use naturally ventilated building designs. Example:

Technologies Traditional architecture in Jodhpur.

Appropriate Construction Use materials with higher reflectivity. Example: Cool roofs in
Materials Ahmedabad.

Roof and Terrace Paint roofs and terraces with white or light colours. Example:
Treatments White roofs initiative in Jaipur.

Promote Terrace Encourage rooftop gardens and kitchen gardens. Example:

Plantation Rooftop gardens in Bangalore.

Government Efforts towards Sustainable Urbanisation

Initiative Description Example

AMRUT A step towards harnessing the AMRUT

agglomeration economies of urban initiatives in
centres. Varanasi and
Bhopal

Pradhan Mantri Awas Programme for affordable housing Affordable

Yojana with credit-linked subsidy. housing
projects in
Mumbai

Smart Cities Mission Urban development programme to Smart city

develop 100 cities across the projects in
country, making them Pune and Surat
citizen-friendly and sustainable.

National Heritage Scheme for the holistic development HRIDAY

City Development of heritage cities. projects in
and Augmentation Varanasi and
Yojana (HRIDAY) Jaipur
 Swachh Bharat Initiative to promote cleanliness and
Mission sanitation across urban and rural
areas.

Deen Dayal Antodaya Aims at creating opportunities for Skill

Yojana – National skill development leading to development
Urban Livelihood market-based employment and programmes
Mission (DAY – helping the poor set up
NULM) self-employment ventures.

Urban Transport Interventions like Bus Rapid Transit BRTS in cities

System (BRTS) and financing of like
metro rail projects. Ahmedabad

Pooled Finance Facilitates development of bankable Municipal

Development Fund urban infrastructure projects and bonds for
Scheme helps Urban Local Bodies access urban
capital and financial markets. infrastructure

North Eastern Region Covers priority urban services like Urban

Urban Development water supply, sewerage and development
Programme sanitation, and solid waste in Agartala and
(NERUDP) management in the capital cities of Aizawl
five North Eastern states.

Measures Needed for Urban Development

Measure Description Example

Increase Connectivity Initiatives like AMRUT, Improved

and Infrastructure Smart Cities, Digital India, connectivity through
BharatMala, PMGSY to BharatMala in remote
spread the manufacturing areas
sector evenly.

Planning of Proper planning and RURBAN scheme to

Peri-Urban Areas increased connectivity to develop rural-urban
spread out the population clusters
evenly.
 Improve Access to Improve access in secondary Expansion of
Telecommunication cities to spread the service telecommunication
and Post-Secondary sector. networks in tier-2
Education cities

Incentivise Setting Up Encourage setting up National Industrial

Manufacturing industries in underdeveloped Manufacturing Zones
Industries areas.

Strengthen Allied Boost food processing Establishment of

Activities through Food Parks to Food Parks in states
reduce migration. like Punjab

Boost MSMEs in Encourage growth of MSMEs Support for MSMEs

Smaller Cities responsible for creating jobs. in cities like
Coimbatore and Surat

Urbanisation is a dynamic process that brings both opportunities and challenges. Effective urban
planning, inclusive policies, and sustainable development strategies are essential to harness the
positive impacts of urbanisation and address its associated problems. By promoting ‘good’
urbanisation, India can achieve higher living standards, economic growth, and social cohesion,
ultimately contributing to the nation’s overall development.