Revision summaries

Conformity
Conformity Types and explanations Conformity to social roles
Judging the lengths of lines. Conformity is yielding to group pressures. Behaviour related to social roles and norms.

Asch’s research Types Zimbardo’s research

Baseline procedure Internalisation The Stanford prison experiment (SPE)
123 men judged line lengths. Confederates deliberately gave Private and public acceptance of group norms. Mock prison with 21 student volunteers, randomly assigned as
wrong answers. guards or prisoners.
Identification
Conformity to social roles created through uniforms (e.g.
Findings Change behaviour to be part of a group we identify with, loose smocks, carrying wooden club) and instructions about
Naïve participants conformed on 36.8% of trials. may change privately too. behaviour (e.g. guards have power).
25% never conformed.
Compliance Findings related to social roles
Variations Go along with group publicly but no private change. Guards became increasingly brutal, prisoners’ rebellion put down
Group size and prisoners became depressed.
Asch varied group size from two to 16. Conformity increased Explanations Study stopped after 6 days.
up to three, then levelled off.
Unanimity Informational social influence (ISI) Conclusions related to social roles
Asch placed a dissenter (confederate) in the group. Conform to be right. Assume group knows better than us. Participants strongly conformed to their social roles.
Conformity rate reduced.
Normative social influence (NSI)
Task difficulty
Conform to be liked or accepted by group. Evaluation
Asch made line lengths more similar. Conformity increased
when task was harder (ISI). Control
Evaluation Random assignment to roles increased internal validity.
Evaluation Research support for NSI Lack of realism
When no normative group pressure (wrote answers), Participants play-acted their roles according to media-derived
Artificial situation and task conformity down to 12.5% (Asch). stereotypes (Banuazizi and Movahedi).
Participants knew this was a study so they just played along
with a trivial task (demand characteristics). Research support for ISI Counterpoint – evidence that prisoners thought the prison
Participants relied on other people’s answers to hard was real to them e.g. 90% of conversations about prison
Limited application maths problems (Lucas et al.). (McDermott).
Asch’s research only conducted on American men. Counterpoint – cannot usually separate ISI and NSI, a Exaggerates the power of roles
Research support dissenter may reduce power of NSI or ISI. Only one-third of guards were brutal so conclusions
Lucas et al. found more conformity when maths problems exaggerated (Fromm).
Individual differences in NSI
were harder. nAffiliators want to be liked more, so conform more Evaluation extra: Alternative explanation
Counterpoint – conformity more complex, confident (McGhee and Teevan). Social identity theory suggests taking on roles due to active
participants were less conforming (individual factor). identification, not automatic (Haslam and Reicher).
Evaluation extra: Is the NSI/ISI distinction useful?
Evaluation extra: Ethical issues NSI/ISI distinction may not be useful but Asch’s research
Research may help avoid mindless conformity, but supports both.
participants were deceived.

Minority influence Social influence and social change

Minority influence leads to conversion and internalisation. Psychological research can help us change society.

Research Evaluation Research Evaluation

Consistency Research support for consistency Lessons from minority influence research Research support for normative influences
If the minority is consistent (synchronic Moscovici’s blue-green slides and Wood Minority influence is a powerful force for NSI valid explanation of social change, e.g.
or diachronic) this attracts the attention et al.’s meta-analysis. innovation and social change. reducing energy consumption (Nolan et al.).
of the majority over time. E.g. civil rights marches (US): influence Counterpoint – normative influence does not
Research support for deeper processing
involves (1) drawing attention, (2) always produce change (Foxcroft et al.).
Commitment Participants exposed to minority view consistency, (3) deeper processing (thinking),
Personal sacrifices show commitment, resisted conflicting view (Martin et al.). (4) augmentation (risks), (5) snowball effect, Minority influence explains change
attract attention, reinforce message Counterpoint – real-world majorities (6) social cryptomnesia (forgetting). Minorities stimulate divergent thinking –
(augmentation). have more power/status than minorities, broad, creative, more options (Nemeth).
missing from research. Lessons from conformity research
Flexibility Role of deeper processing
Dissent breaks power of majority (Asch).
Minority more convincing if they accept Artificial tasks It is majority views that are processed more
some counterarguments. Normative social influence draws attention
Tasks often trivial so tell us little about to what majority is doing. deeply than minority views, challenging
real-world influence. central feature of minority influence (Mackie).
Explaining the process of change
Lessons from obedience research
The three factors make majority think Evaluation extra: Power of minority Evaluation extra: Barriers to social change
more deeply about an issue. Disobedient role models (Milgram).
influence People resist social change because minorities
Snowball effect – minority view gathers More people agree with minority in Gradual commitment leads to change seen negatively e.g. ‘tree-huggers’ (Bashir
force and becomes majority influence. private. (Zimbardo). et al.).

38 // Chapter 1 Social influence

 Obedience
Obedience Situational variables Situational explanations Dispositional explanation
Were Germans different? Pressures in the situation. The dynamics of social hierarchies. Personality factors in the individual.

Milgram’s research Research Agentic state The Authoritarian

Baseline procedure Proximity Agentic state Personality (AP)
American men gave fake electric Obedience 40% with T and L Acting as an agent of another person. AP and obedience
shocks to a ‘Learner’ in response in same room, 30% for touch
Autonomous state Adorno et al. described AP as extreme
to instructions (prods) from an proximity.
Free to act according to conscience. respect for authority and submissiveness
‘Experimenter’. Psychological distance affects to it, contempt for inferiors.
obedience. Switching between the two – agentic shift.
Baseline findings
Origins of AP
65% gave highest shock of 450 V. Location Binding factors
Harsh parenting creates hostility that
100% gave shocks up to 300 V. Obedience 47.5% in run-down office Allow individual to ignore the damaging effects of their obedient cannot be expressed against parents so
Many showed signs of anxiety e.g. building. behaviour, reducing moral strain. is displaced onto scapegoats.
sweating. University’s prestige gave authority.
Uniform
Evaluation Adorno et al.’s research: Procedure
Evaluation Obedience 20% when Experimenter Research support
Used F-scale to study unconscious
attitudes towards other ethnic groups.
Research support was ‘member of the public’. Milgram’s resistant participants continued giving shocks when
Experimenter took responsibility. Findings
French TV documentary/game Uniform is symbol of legitimate
authority. APs identify with ‘strong’ people,
show found 80% gave maximum A limited explanation have fixed cognitive style, and hold
shock, plus similar behaviour to stereotypes and prejudices.
Cannot explain why Rank and Jacobson’s nurses and some of
Milgram’s participants (Beauvois Evaluation Milgram’s participants disobeyed.
et al.).
Research support Evaluation extra: Obedience alibi revisited Evaluation
Low internal validity Bickman showed power of uniform Police Battalion 101 behaved autonomously but destructively Research support
Participants realised shocks were in field experiment. (Mandel). Obedient participants had high F-scores
fake, so ‘play-acting’ (Orne and
Holland). Supported by Perry – Cross-cultural replications (Elms and Milgram).
tapes of participants showed only Dutch participants ordered to say Legitimacy of authority Counterpoint – but obedient
50% believed shocks real. stressful things to interviewee, participants also unlike authoritarians in
decreased proximity led to decreased Legitimacy of authority many ways, complex.
Counterpoint – participants
did give real shocks to a puppy obedience (Meeus and Raaijmakers). Created by hierarchical nature of society.
Some people entitled to expect obedience. Limited explanation
(Sheridan and King). Counterpoint – but most studies
in countries similar to US, so not Learned in childhood. Can’t explain obedience across a whole
Alternative interpretation of generalisable (Smith and Bond). culture (social identity theory is better).
findings Destructive authority
Low internal validity Political bias
Haslam et al. found participants Problems arise when used destructively (e.g. Hitler).
didn’t obey Prod 4. Participants Some of Milgram’s procedures in the Authoritarianism equated with
right-wing ideology, ignores left-wing
identified with scientific aims
(social identity) – not blind
variations were especially contrived,
so not genuine obedience (Orne and
Evaluation authoritarianism (Christie and Jahoda).
obedience. Holland). Explains cultural differences Evaluation extra: Flawed evidence
Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Evaluation extra: The danger of the In Australia 16% obeyed (Kilham and Mann) but 85% in Germany F-scale is basis of AP explanation, but
Deception meant participants situational perspective (Mantell), related to structure of society. has flaws (e.g. response bias) and so not
could not properly consent useful (Greenstein).
Gives obedience alibi for destructive Cannot explain all (dis)obedience
(Baumrind). May be balanced by behaviour (Mandel). Rank and Jacobson’s nurses in hierarchical structure but did not
benefits of the research. obey legitimate authority.
Evaluation extra: Real-world crimes of obedience
Rank and Jacobson found disobedience to doctors but stronger
hierarchy and obedience at My Lai (Kelman and Hamilton).

Resistance to social influence

Explaining when people disobey and resist the pressure to conform.

Social support Evaluation Locus of control Evaluation

Resisting conformity Real-world research support Locus of control (LOC) Research support
Conformity reduced by presence of Having a ‘buddy’ helps resist peer pressure LOC is sense of what directs events in our Internals less likely to fully obey in
dissenters from the group – even wrong to smoke (Albrecht et al.). lives – internal or external source (Rotter). Milgram-type procedure (Holland).
answer breaks unanimity of majority (Asch).
Research support for dissenting peers The LOC continuum Contradictory research
Resisting obedience Obedience to an order from oil company fell High internal at one end and high external People now more independent but also
Obedience decreases in presence of when participants in a group (Gamson et al.). at the other. more external (Twenge et al.).
disobedient peer who acts as a model to
follow – challenges legitimacy of authority Evaluation extra: Social support explanation Resistance to social influence Evaluation extra: Limited role of LOC
figure. Obedience dropped from 65% to 10% Resistance lower (36% versus 64%) when Internals can resist social influence, more Role of LOC only applies to new situations
(Milgram). confederate had poor eyesight (Allen and confident, less need for approval. (Rotter).
Levine).

Revision summaries // 39
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Using an example, explain what is meant by ‘social roles’. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer A social role is something that people do when they are Morticia’s definition is weak but there is a discernible example.
with others. For example, being a mother or teacher. That is a social role.
In contrast Luke’s definition here is much better than Morticia’s and
Luke’s answer They are the parts that people play when they are in social there are relevant examples too, a great answer.
situations, i.e. with other people. They create expectations of what we have to
do. For example, being a doctor or a mother has expectations attached. Vladimir has missed the point. His definition lacks clarity and is a little
too much like common sense to be of any value. There is no example
Vladimir’s answer A role is something you do, social is being with other either, which was required in the question.
people. So a social role is what you do as affected by other people.

Question 2 Proximity is one situational variable affecting obedience. Outline one other situational variable affecting obedience. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer One other situational variable is location. This refers to Morticia has provided sufficient detail for a question of this kind. A
the place you are when being ordered to do something. In Milgram’s study situational variable is identified and explained. Detail of a Milgram
when people were in a run-down office they were less obedient. variation is further elaboration.

Luke’s answer Location is a situational variable. It’s where you are and it The boys didn’t do as well. Luke has identified a variable but the
affects how much people will obey an order. It relates to the situation, that’selaboration is not strong. There is also no account of the effect of this
why it is a situational variable. factor on obedience levels. Vladimir just says ‘proximity’ which is
ambiguous – it does make sense because there is further clarification.
Vladimir’s answer Proximity is a situational variable. It is how close you are However, the question asks for a situational variable other than proximity.
physically to the person giving the orders or the person you may be harming. So he won’t get any credit.
Closer proximity reduces willingness to obey.

Question 3 Asch conducted research on conformity. Describe what conclusions can be drawn from this research. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Asch studied group size by changing the number of confederates between Morticia’s answer correctly focuses on the variables
one and 15. Conformity was 32% when there were three confederates but it did not increase investigated by Asch. But most of the answer
much when the group got bigger. He also investigated unanimity. Conformity reduced when a focuses on findings, with just passing reference to a
dissenter was present. Asch argued this meant that the influence of a group depends a lot on it conclusion. So this answer is mostly irrelevant to the
being unanimous. question.

Luke’s answer Asch concluded that a group causes more conformity when it is unanimous. If
there are divisions in the group, then an individual feels free to disagree with the majority and Luke also writes about two of the variables studied
behave independently. He also concluded that informational social influence operates when the by Asch. But his answer is almost fully focused on
conclusions with very little irrelevant material on
task is hard. This is because the situation is more ambiguous (unclear), so the individual looks to
findings or procedure. A strong answer.
other people for guidance.
Vladimir’s answer Participants had to judge the length of a line. There were confederates
giving the wrong answers on some of the trials. The participant always went last and was Vladimir gives some accurate description of Asch’s
quite anxious when he saw that the others were giving the wrong answer. Nevertheless they baseline procedure but that is irrelevant to this
conformed most of the time to the wrong answer. All the participants were men and were question. He avoids writing about conclusions at all
American. and the evaluative comment gets no credit.

Question 4 Briefly outline and evaluate the Authoritarian Personality as an explanation for obedience. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer The Authoritarian Personality is an explanation for why some Morticia’s answer is inaccurate (‘born like that’ is wrong) and
people are more obedient than others. It may be because they are born like that or it the description focuses a little too much on method rather than
may be because they are brought up that way. Such people tend to be quite conformist theory. There is relevant content though (reference to upbringing
as well and right-wing in their politics. People were measured using an F-scale to see and right-wing views). The limitation is relevant though the first
how authoritarian they were and this matched up with how obedient they were. sentence is generic. Overall a reasonable but not good answer.

One limitation with this explanation is that there isn’t much other research evidence
to support the explanation. It might not really be an Authoritarian Personality but it
could be situational factors that make people obey.
Luke’s answer This is a dispositional explanation for why some people obey. Luke summarises the explanation very well in the first two
Essentially some people have high respect for authority figures and are more dismissive sentences and there is a clear link to obedience (which answers
of inferiors, which is why they obey. There was support for this from Milgram’s to this question often lack). The use of evidence as evaluation is
research where participants who had been most obedient were found to be high in good too but there is room for a little more of this.
Authoritarianism, thus demonstrating the link.
Vladimir is correct in mentioning ‘strict upbringing’ but that’s
Vladimir’s answer People with Authoritarian Personality have a strict upbringing
about all that is relevant in his answer. There is some relevance
and look to authority figures. They are afraid of being the odd one out so they think further on in the answer but also confusion with conformity.
they have to listen to being told. They are afraid of punishment and concerned with Although Authoritarian Personality has been used to explain
norms and values.
conformist attitudes the focus of the question is on obedience.

40 // Chapter 1 Social influence

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Betty and Sue are two newly qualified teachers who are discussing their decision to support a recent one-day strike.
‘I wasn’t sure at first,’ said Betty, ‘but having spoken to the other teachers, they really convinced me it was a good idea. And I would do it again in
similar circumstances.’
‘Oh dear,’ replied Sue. ‘I’m a bit embarrassed really. I’m afraid I only did it because everyone else did.’
 Discuss normative social influence and informational social influence as explanations of conformity.
Refer to Betty and Sue in your answer. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer Normative social influence is when people go along with the group to avoid rejection
Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas
and not stand out and to fit in with others. Although the person may do one thing in public, in private
Luke’s is an A level response.
their opinion doesn’t change, e.g. smoking in front of friends. This kind of influence is most likely in
unfamiliar situations.
Informational social influence is when we look to others for information on how to behave in a new Morticia presents a concise and well-
situation when we are unsure. We take the group’s views into account and change both private and public focused answer. The description of the two
opinion, e.g. we follow our friend’s answer in class when we don’t know the answer. This kind of influence explanations is clear and accurate.
is most likely in situations where there is uncertainty such as something that is new or something that is
contradictory. In terms of evaluation and analysis, Morticia
has used the Asch variation effectively and
So in the example of Betty and Sue, Betty is an example of informational social influence (ISI) and Sue is an linked these to the two explanations in each
example of normative social influence (NSI). case. This is something that students rarely do
well in this type of question. There is relevant
This understanding was demonstrated by Asch’s study. When Asch arranged for the number of confederates evaluative comment at the end of the answer
to be reduced, conformity also fell because there was reduced NSI on the participant. When the conformity also.
task was made harder, conformity went up because participants were unsure of the answer and therefore
they looked to others which was a result of ISI. When participants wrote their answer down there was no The weakest part of the answer is the
conformity because there was then no normative pressure because no one knew about it. application to the question stem. Although
Morticia has successfully matched the two
In Asch’s original study there was NSI because participants went along with the majority view so they didn’t characters with the two explanations, there is
stand out and to avoid rejection. They didn’t really believe they were right but went along with the group little engagement with the stem beyond that.
answer. The lack of engagement with the stem would
cost proportionately more in an A level answer
Some people conform more than others. These are nAffiliators because they want to be accepted by the than an AS one.
group. Also there might be other reasons for conformity such as identification where someone actually
identifies with the people in the group and changes their views both publicly but not privately. (324 words) This is an excellent answer because there is a
lot of knowledge and understanding shown.

Luke’s answer Normative social influence is the desire to be liked and accepted into a group and could Luke’s answer is also excellent, in fact
also be from fear of ridicule. Normative influence leads to compliance which is where a person changes marginally better than Morticia’s. The
their public behaviour whilst maintaining their private views. In the example, Sue is behaving in this way description of both explanations is clear and
because she changed her behaviour to fit in with the others because she wanted to be liked – she did it accurate. There is also description of relevant
because everyone else did (the majority). But she didn’t necessarily believe in what she was doing. evidence (Asch, Lucas) in support of the
explanations.
In contrast Betty clearly changed her private views. So in this case it would be an example of informational
social influence where someone changes what they think and they do this both publicly and privately. This is Notice how engagement with the stem is
often done out of a desire to be right. A person may feel uncertain about the right thing to do and turns to much more effective here than in the answer
the majority as a way of establishing what is right. This leads to internalisation where a person changes their above. Luke ‘embeds’ his application points
private opinion along with public behaviour. within the description of the explanations. The
answer would be improved if the application
Evidence for normative social influence was demonstrated by Asch in a variation of his classic study. The continued as part of the evaluation.
participant wrote their answers down rather than give them out loud, so the pressure to conform was
removed. In this condition the conformity rate fell from the baseline of about 35% to 12.5%. This shows There is effective analysis and evaluation too.
that conformity decreases when there is no fear of rejection, which demonstrates the influence of normative Normative social influence is analysed in the
social influence. context of the Asch study and informational
social influence in relation to Lucas. There is
One strength of normative social influence is that it is the only explanation for conformity in unambiguous
also good use of examples.
situations. How else can you explain the levels of conformity in Asch’s study where the answers were clearly
wrong? The participants showed they were confused and yet they conformed. This is a situation where they
didn’t know the other people so it might not have mattered but they still clearly didn’t want to look foolish.
Support for informational social influence comes from Lucas et al. who asked students to give answers to
easy and difficult maths problems. They found that conformity increased when the problems were more
difficult. This is because people feel less sure and therefore look to the majority to find the answer. The
increased conformity was especially high in those students who were not confident about their maths skills,
supporting the idea of informational social influence when there is uncertainty or ambiguity. (392 words)


Practice questions, answers and feedback // 41

Multiple-choice questions
Conformity 4. Which of the following statements best describes 4. Gina Perry claimed of Milgram’s
normative social influence? participants knew the shocks were fake.
1. The task in Asch’s procedure was to: (a) Going along with a group of people because we (a) A quarter.
(a) Express political opinions. want to be liked by them. (b) Half.
(b) Decide which club to go to. (b) Going along with a group of people because we (c) All.
(c) Answer questions on musical tastes. don’t know what we’re doing. (d) Two-thirds.
(d) Judge line lengths. (c) Going along with other people even though we
don’t agree. Obedience: Situational variables
2. What did Asch find about group size?
(d) Going along with other people because we
(a) Conformity kept increasing with group size. accept their views. 1. What did Milgram find out about proximity in his
(b) Conformity decreased as group size increased. variations?
(c) Conformity increased with group size but only Conformity to social roles (a) Obedience increased when the Experimenter
to a point. issued his instructions over the phone.
1. The Stanford prison experiment investigated: (b) Obedience decreased when the Teacher and
(d) Increasing group size had no effect on
conformity. (a) Rebellion. Learner were physically closer.
(b) Conformity to social roles. (c) Most participants obeyed even when they had
3. What did Asch find about unanimity? (c) Obedience to authority. to put the Learner’s hand on a shock plate.
(a) Conformity stayed the same whether the (d) Compliance. (d) The physical proximity of Experimenter, Teacher
majority was unanimous or not. and Learner had the smallest effect.
(b) A unanimous majority had the greatest effect 2. The roles of guard and prisoner were decided:
on conformity. (a) On a first-come, first-served basis. 2. What did Milgram find out about location in his
(c) When a confederate disagreed with the (b) Randomly. variations?
majority, conformity increased. (c) By the researchers. (a) Obedience decreased when the study was
(d) A divided majority had the greatest effect on conducted in a run-down office block.
(d) By asking participants to volunteer.
conformity. (b) The high status and reputation of Yale
3. About of the guards behaved brutally. University made no difference to obedience.
4. What did Asch find about task difficulty? (c) Most participants still obeyed when the study
(a) One-quarter.
(a) Conformity decreased when the task became was moved to a run-down office building.
(b) Two-thirds.
more difficult. (d) Changing the location had the greatest effect
(c) One-half.
(b) Conformity increased when the task became on obedience.
more difficult. (d) One-third.
(c) Increasing task difficulty had no effect on 3. Which of Milgram’s variations produced the
4. Which statement best describes the behaviour of lowest obedience?
conformity. the prisoners?
(d) The task was too difficult for the naïve (a) Teacher forces Learner’s hand onto shock plate.
(a) They resisted the cruelty of the guards
participants. throughout the study. (b) Study is transferred to run-down office block.
(b) They became more submissive as the study (c) Experimenter issues instructions by telephone.
Conformity: Types and explanations progressed. (d) Member of public stands in for Experimenter.
1. Which of the following is a type of conformity? (c) They made it very difficult for the guards to 4. Bickman’s (1974) study supported Milgram
(a) Unanimity. enforce the rules of the prison. because he found that:
(b) Internalisation. (d) They supported each other. (a) Changing to a higher status location increased
(c) Normative social influence. obedience.
Obedience (b) People more often obeyed someone dressed in
(d) Obedience.
1. Milgram’s participants were who thought a security guard’s uniform.
2. Which of the following is an explanation for the study was about . (c) Increasing the distance between the
conformity? participants reduced obedience.
(a) Volunteers, memory.
(a) Compliance. (d) Reducing the distance between authority and
(b) Women, obedience.
(b) Informational social influence. participant increased obedience.
(c) Children, conformity.
(c) Identification.
(d) Germans, obedience. Obedience: Situational explanations
(d) Internalisation.
2. The fourth and final prod given to the participants 1. ‘Believing you are carrying out the wishes of
3. Which of the following statements best describes was:
compliance? someone else’ is a brief description of:
(a) ‘It is absolutely essential that you continue.’ (a) Informational social influence.
(a) Conforming to a majority because we want to
(b) ‘Please go on.’ (b) Situational theory of obedience.
be accepted or liked.
(c) ‘You have no other choice, you must go on.’ (c) Agentic state.
(b) Publicly and privately agreeing with the
majority view. (d) ‘The experiment requires that you continue.’ (d) Legitimacy of authority.
(c) Publicly agreeing with the majority but privately 3. In Milgram’s findings, 65% of the participants:
disagreeing. 2. The massacre of unarmed civilians at My Lai by
(a) Refused to continue at some point. American soldiers can be explained by:
(d) Conforming to a majority because we want to (b) Disobeyed at the start of the procedure.
be correct. (a) Agentic state.
(c) Went to the top of the shock scale. (b) Legitimacy of authority.
(d) Went to 300 V and then refused to continue. (c) Both agentic state and legitimacy of authority.
(d) Neither agentic state nor legitimacy of
authority.

42 // Chapter 1 Social influence

3. A problem with the agentic state explanation is: 2. Social support helps people to resist social Social influence and social change
(a) It can’t explain why the proportion of people influence because:
who obeyed in Milgram’s study was so high. (a) It breaks the unanimity of the majority. 1. Once social change has occurred, its origins are
forgotten by the majority in a process called:
(b) It can’t explain why some people in Milgram’s (b) It provides a model of disobedience to be
study did not obey. followed. (a) Social cryptomnesia.
(c) There is no research support. (c) It frees people to act according to their (b) Flexibility.
(d) It is not as useful as legitimacy of authority. consciences. (c) Gradual commitment.
(d) All of the above. (d) Internalisation.
4. Legitimacy of authority is a good explanation of
cultural differences in obedience because: 3. Which of these statements about locus of control 2. Conformity (majority influence) can sometimes
(a) Some cultures are traditionally more respectful is the most accurate? create social change through the operation of:
of authority than others. (a) Everyone is either definitely internal or (a) Augmentation.
(b) Some cultures are traditionally less respectful of definitely external. (b) The snowball effect.
authority than others. (b) There is very little difference between moderate (c) Social proof.
(c) Cultures differ in the way parents raise children internals and moderate externals. (d) Normative social influence.
to view authority figures. (c) High internals and high externals are at
opposite ends of a continuum. 3. The augmentation principle in minority influence
(d) All of the above.
refers to:
(d) Internals and externals are very similar in their
Obedience: Dispositional explanation ability to resist social influence. (a) How the source of social change is eventually
forgotten.
1. According to Adorno, people with an Authoritarian 4. High internals are more likely to resist social (b) How personal risks create a strong message.
Personality: influence than high externals because:
(c) How the minority view gradually becomes the
(a) Are highly obedient to authority. (a) They believe that whatever they do makes no majority view.
(b) Look with contempt on people of inferior social real difference.
(d) The deeper processing of the minority view by
status. (b) They tend to be more self-confident and to take the majority.
(c) Favour traditional values. personal responsibility.
(c) They are less likely to have an Authoritarian 4. The way in which a minority view becomes the
(d) All of the above. new norm of the majority can be explained by:
Personality.
2. Authoritarian Personality is measured using the: (d) They have a greater need for social approval (a) Compliance.
(a) Assertiveness scale. from others. (b) Social proof.
(b) Potential-for-fascism scale. (c) Consistency.
(c) AP-scale. Minority influence (d) The snowball effect.
(d) Potential for obedience scale. 1. Minority influence is especially effective because:
3. An Authoritarian Personality develops because a (a) It involves supporting strange and unusual
child: causes.
(a) Receives unconditional love and affection from (b) People are forced to think more deeply about
parents. the issues.
(b) Is spoiled by his or her parents who do not use (c) No one likes to think they are part of a mindless
any discipline. herd.
(c) Experiences feelings of hostility towards his or (d) A small group of people appears unthreatening.
her parents that cannot be expressed directly. 2. Synchronic consistency refers to:
(d) Is accepted regardless of his or her (a) Consistency over time.
achievements.
(b) Consistency between people.
4. People with an Authoritarian Personality are very (c) Disagreement between people.
preoccupied with social status. Therefore they: (d) Changing the majority view.
(a) Treat all people with respect.
(b) Feel sympathetic to those of lower status. 3. Flexibility in the minority position is needed
because:
(c) Tend not to be impressed by the trappings of
high status. (a) Consistency alone can be a negative thing and
off-putting.
(d) Are servile and obedient towards those of
Obedience: Dispositional explanation 1D, 2B, 3C, 4D
(b) It shows that the minority isn’t really all that
Obedience: Situational explanations 1C, 2C, 3B, 4D
Conformity: Types and explanations 1B, 2B, 3C, 4A

higher status.
Social influence and social change 1A, 2D, 3B, 4D
bothered.
Obedience: Situational variables 1B, 2A, 3D, 4B

(c) It allows the majority to get its own way, so

Resistance to social influence 1D, 2D, 3C, 4B

Resistance to social influence

they are more likely to agree.
Conformity to social roles 1B, 2B, 3D, 4B

1. The effects of social support were shown in Asch’s (d) All of the above.
studies when:
Minority influence 1B, 2B, 3A, 4C

(a) The size of the majority was increased from 2 4. Minority influence can lead to which kind of
to 14. conformity?
(a) Compliance.
Conformity 1D, 2C, 3B, 4B

Obedience 1A, 2C, 3C, 4B

(b) The task was more difficult because the lines

were closer. (b) Identification.
(c) The participants wrote their answers down (c) Internalisation.
rather than stated them out loud. (d) Informational.
MCQ answers

(d) One of the confederates dissented from the

majority answer.

Multiple-choice questions // 43
Revision summaries
Coding, capacity and duration of memory
Features of short-term memory and long-term memory.

Research on coding Research on capacity Research on duration

Word recall of similar/dissimilar Digit span Duration of STM
words Jacobs: 9.3 digits, 7.3 letters. Peterson and Peterson: about 18 seconds without rehearsal.
Baddeley: acoustic in STM,
semantic in LTM. Span of memory and chunking Duration of LTM
Miller: 7 ± 2 span, putting items together extends STM capacity. Bahrick et al. (yearbooks): face recognition 90%, free recall 60%
Evaluation
(15 years). Face recognition 70%, free recall 30% (48 years).
Evaluation
Separate memory stores Evaluation
Identified STM and LTM, A valid study
supporting multi-store model. Later studies replicated findings (e.g. Bopp and Verhaeghen), Meaningless stimuli in STM study
so valid test of digit span. Petersons used consonant syllables, lacks external validity.
Artificial stimuli
Word lists had no personal Not so many chunks High external validity
meaning. Miller overestimated STM, only four chunks (Cowan). Bahrick et al. used meaningful materials, better recall than
studies with meaningless stimuli (Shepard).

The multi-store model of memory (MSM) Types of long-term memory

A representation of memory with three stores. Three different long-term memory stores.

The theory Evaluation The theory Evaluation

Sensory register Research support Episodic memory Clinical evidence
Modality-specific coding. Very brief Research shows STM and LTM use different Memory for events in our lives Clive Wearing and HM had damaged episodic
duration (Sperling’s study, less than coding and have different capacity. (‘diary’). Time-stamped. memories but semantic and procedural
50 ms). High capacity. Counterpoint – studies do not use everyday memories were relatively fine.
Semantic memory
Transfer to STM by attention. materials (e.g. consonant syllables), low Counterpoint – clinical studies lack control of
Memory for knowledge of the
validity. variables (e.g. memory before injury).
Short-term memory (STM) world, like an encyclopaedia and
Mainly acoustic coding. Limited More than one STM store dictionary (knowledge of words). Conflicting neuroimaging evidence
duration and capacity. Studies of amnesia (e.g. KF) show different Research links semantic to left prefrontal cortex
Procedural memory
Transfer to LTM by rehearsal. STMs for visual and auditory material. and episodic to right (Buckner and Petersen),
Memory for automatic and often
different in other studies (Tulving et al.).
Long-term memory (LTM) Elaborative rehearsal skilled behaviours. Unconscious
Transfer to LTM more about elaboration recall. Real-world application
Mainly semantic coding. Unlimited
duration and capacity. (meaningful processing) than maintenance Old-age memory loss improved by intervention
Created through maintenance rehearsal. rehearsal (Craik and Watkins). to target episodic memory (Belleville et al.).
Retrieval from LTM via STM. Evaluation extra: Bygone model Evaluation extra: Same or different?
Supporting evidence but also e.g. evidence of Tulving now suggests episodic may be
more than one type of STM and LTM. specialised subcategory of semantic but
Alzheimer’s patients could form episodic not
semantic memories (Hodges and Patterson).

The working memory model (WMM)

Dynamic processing in short-term memory.

The theory Evaluation

Central executive (CE) Clinical evidence
Supervisory, allocates subsystems to tasks, very limited capacity. KF had poor auditory memory but good visual memory. Damaged PL but
VSS fine.
Phonological loop (PL)
Counterpoint – KF may have had other impairments that affected his WM.
Auditory information – phonological store and articulatory process
(maintenance rehearsal). Coding = acoustic, capacity = 2 seconds Dual-task performance
of speech. Difficult to do two visual tasks (or two verbal) at same time, but one visual
Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) and one verbal is OK (Baddeley et al.).
Visual information – visual cache (store) and inner scribe (spatial Nature of the central executive
arrangement). Coding = visual, capacity = 3 or 4 objects. Not well specified, needs to be more than ‘attention’.
Episodic buffer (EB) Evaluation extra: Validity of the model
Integrates data from subsystems and records the order of events. Dual-task studies support WMM but are highly controlled, using artificial
Linked to LTM. Coding = flexible, capacity = 4 chunks. tasks (e.g. letter sequences).

66 // Chapter 2 Memory
 Explanations for forgetting
One memory disrupts another. Forgetting because of a lack of cues.

Interference Evaluation Retrieval failure Evaluation

Types of interference Real-world interference Encoding specificity principle Real-world application
Proactive – old memories Rugby players remembered less if played more games over a Tulving: cues most effective if Cues are weak but worth paying attention to as
disrupt new ones. season (Baddeley and Hitch). present at coding and at retrieval. strategy for improving recall.
Retroactive – new memories Counterpoint – interference unusual in everyday situations Link between cues and material
Research support
disrupt old ones. (e.g. similarity unusual). may be meaningful (e.g. ‘STM’) or
meaningless (context and state). Wide range of support suggests this is main reason
Effects of similarity Interference and cues for forgetting (Eysenck and Keane).
McGeoch and McDonald – six Interference effects are overcome using cues (Tulving and Context-dependent forgetting Counterpoint – no forgetting unless contexts are very
groups learned lists, similar Psotka). Godden and Baddeley (deep-sea different, e.g. on land versus underwater (Baddeley).
words (synonyms) created divers) – recall better when
more interference. Support from drug studies external contexts matched. Recall versus recognition
Taking diazepam after learning reduces interference No context effects when memory assessed using
Explanation of the effects of and forgetting = retrograde facilitation (Coenen and van State-dependent forgetting recognition test (Godden and Baddeley).
similarity Luijtelaar). Carter and Cassaday
PI (makes new information (antihistamine) – recall better Evaluation extra: Problems with the ESP
difficult to store) or RI (old Evaluation extra: Validity issues when internal states matched. Research support for the principle but no
information overwritten). Lab studies have high control but use artificial materials and independent measure of cue encoding.
unrealistic procedures.

Factors affecting eyewitness testimony

Post-event information and high arousal affect EWT.

Misleading information Evaluation The effects of anxiety Evaluation

Leading questions Real-world application Anxiety has a negative effect on Unusualness not anxiety
Speed estimates affected by leading Insights applied to police interviewing and recall Poor recall due to unusualness (chicken and
question e.g. smashed, contacted expert witnesses. Johnson and Scott (weapon focus) – handgun), not anxiety (Pickel).
(Loftus and Palmer). Counterpoint – film clips in lab are less high-anxiety knife condition led to
poorer recall. Support for negative effects
Why do leading questions affect EWT? stressful than everyday life, no consequences.
London Dungeon – anxiety reduced accurate recall
EWT more reliable. Tunnel theory of memory.
Response bias – no change to memory. of an individual (Valentine and Mesout).
Substitution explanation – supported Evidence against substitution Anxiety has a positive effect on recall
Support for positive effects
by report of seeing broken glass. Central details not much affected by misleading Yuille and Cutshall (shooting in gun
The most anxious eyewitness at bank robbery
information (Sutherland and Hayne). shop) – high anxiety associated with
Post-event discussion (PED) had the most accurate recall (Christianson and
better recall when witnessing real
Co-witness discussion affects memories Evidence challenging memory conformity Hübinette).
crime.
of event (Gabbert et al.). Post-event information on hair colour Counterpoint – interviews were long after event,
blended, supporting contamination Explaining the contradictory findings lacks control of confounding variables.
Why does PED affect EWT? (Skagerberg and Wright). Deffenbacher reviewed 21 studies,
Memory contamination – mix Yerkes-Dodson inverted-U theory Evaluation extra: Problems with inverted-U theory
(mis)information from others. Evaluation extra: Demand characteristics suggests both low and high anxiety Explains contradictory findings but focuses just
Memory conformity – responses given Lab environment enables control but answers lead to poor recall. on physical arousal, ignores cognitive aspects of
for social approval. in lab studies influenced by desire to be anxiety.
helpful (demand characteristics).

Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Fisher and Geiselman’s method is based on psychological evidence.

The cognitive interview (CI) Evaluation

1. Report everything Support for the effectiveness of the CI
Include even unimportant details. CI produce 41% more accurate recall than standard
interview (Köhnken et al.).
2. Reinstate the context
Counterpoint – CI also increases inaccurate information
Picture the scene and recall how you felt.
(Köhnken et al.), even more true for ECI.
Avoids context-dependent forgetting.
Some elements may be more useful
3. Reverse the order Report everything and reinstate the context used
Recall from the end and work backwards. together produced best recall (Milne and Bull).
Disrupts expectations.
The CI is time-consuming
4. Change perspective It takes longer and needs special training (Kebbell and
Put yourself in the shoes of someone else present. Wagstaff ), full CI not realistic for police.
Disrupts schema.
Evaluation extra: Variations of the CI
5. The enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) ‘Pick and mix’ approach makes it hard to compare
Adds social dynamics, e.g. establishing eye contact. effectiveness but gives more flexibility.

Revision summaries // 67
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Outline the procedure and findings of one study that has investigated the working memory model. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Baddeley et al. looked at dual-task performance. Participants Morticia has produced a detailed and accurate description of a
had to do a verbal task and a visual task together. Their performance was the same relevant study. The procedure and findings are all well-explained as
as when they did the tasks separately. But when they did two visual tasks together, required by the question.
performance on both was poor. This shows there are separate subsystems processing
verbal and visual information. Luke describes a study that is not identifiable without more detail/
explanation of the tasks involved. There might have been some
Luke’s answer The working memory model was investigated where participants were value in the answer if the subcomponents that would be needed to
given two tasks, one task was a visual task and one was a verbal task. The results perform these tasks were mentioned. The last sentence does not
showed that these could be done because there are different parts to short-term add anything.
memory. However, the study lacked ecological validity.
Vladimir includes some relevant information – the idea that parts
Vladimir’s answer There was a case study of KF who had brain damage. KF had of STM can remain intact whilst others are damaged. However,
some problems with his short-term memory but not his long-term memory. In fact there again are no named components of working memory here
it was only some aspects of STM that were damaged. KF could deal with visual input and the reference to KF not being able to ‘deal with numbers’ is
and remember this in the short term but could not deal with numbers. This supports vague. A weak answer.
the working memory model.

Question 2 Briefly explain one strength of the working memory model. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer One strength is that it is unlike the multi-store Morticia gives an accurate and sufficiently detailed answer for a 2-mark question.
model which suggests short-term memory is a unitary store whereas She uses a reasoned comparison with the multi-store model.
the WMM shows how STM is divided into different subsystems such
as the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad.
Luke’s answer One strength is it goes into more complex detail on Luke also makes a comparison with the multi-store model but his point needs
how short-term memory works than the multi-store model. further elaboration for the second mark (how is working memory ‘more complex’?).

Vladimir’s answer It is a more detailed explanation than the multi- Vladimir says nothing of any value. The first half of the sentence is not strong
store model as it begins to show processes that may occur. enough to earn credit and the second half is vague.

Question 3 What is meant by ‘procedural memory’? Give an example. (2 marks)

Morticia’s answer Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory Morticia provides a clear definition and a relevant example – just a perfect
that stores actions and skills, such as riding a bike. student!

Luke’s answer Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory that Luke provides an inaccurate definition and there is no example.
holds unlimited information and has knowledge of sequences, events,
personal memories, lists and can be retrieved at a later date. Vladimir’s example is fine but the definition that comes before it is not strong
enough to be worth including. Vladimir should have referred to ‘memory for
Vladimir’s answer Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory actions/motor skills’ rather than ‘how to do something’ which is a little vague.
which remembers how to do something such as how to ride a bike.

Question 4 A woman is being questioned by a police officer about a heated argument she witnessed on an evening out with friends. The argument took
place in a bar and ended with a violent assault. The police officer later discovered a knife behind the bar.
‘Did you see the knife the attacker was holding?’ asked the police officer.
‘I’m not sure there was a knife – yes, there probably was,’ replied the woman. ‘I was so scared at the time it’s hard to remember, and my friends
and I have talked about what happened so many times since I’m almost not sure what I did see.’
Explain two factors that affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Refer to the information above in your answer. (4 marks)

Morticia’s answer One factor is leading questions, which suggest a particular event/ Morticia’s answer is excellent (again). Both factors are clearly
detail and change how a person remembers an experience. In the police officer’s identified and explained, and there is good application/
question, the use of the phrase ‘the knife’ is leading and suggests there was a knife. engagement with the stem.
The second factor was the post-event discussion, so the woman has been affected by
what her friends have been saying (they have talked about the incident ‘many times’)
and this may change her memory.
Luke’s answer It was a violent assault so the woman probably felt anxious. Studies Luke starts well, with reference to anxiety as something that
like Johnson and Scott show that such anxiety reduces the accuracy of a person’s would affect accuracy, and provides support from psychological
recall. Another factor that might affect accuracy would be the way the police officer research. The second factor mentioned is the leading question,
put the question (‘the knife’ suggests there was a knife) – it was a leading question. again supported with research. Both factors are clearly
Loftus and Palmer showed that such questions suggest an answer to a witness and also contextualised.
alter the person’s memory, thus reducing accuracy.
Vladimir’s answer The accuracy of EWT can be affected by misleading information Vladimir has identified two factors (misleading information and
and also by anxiety. Misleading information is information that may confuse a witness anxiety) and tried to explain them but there is very little of value
and anxiety can have a negative effect. The woman wasn’t sure what she had seen so here. The attempted application is too weak to be considered
the police officer’s question may have had a big effect. (Vladimir would have to make it clear how the question was
leading).

68 // Chapter 2 Memory
On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Discuss interference and retrieval failure as explanations for forgetting. Refer to research studies in your answer. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer Interference theory considers how forgetting in LTM occurs because one memory
blocks another memory. The result may be a distortion of what you recall or a complete inability to Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas
recall the information. Vladimir’s is an A level response.

There are two types of interference. With proactive interference an older memory interferes with a
newer one. For example, your teacher may find it difficult to recall the names of all the students in your Morticia starts very well with a clear definition
class because she has learned so many names in the past. of interference, including the two types, and
these are clarified through the use of examples.
The second kind of interference is retroactive interference, where a newer memory interferes with past There is a really good description of relevant
learning. Taking the same example it could be that your teacher has difficulty remembering the names evidence here, too. Three studies are clear,
of some of her past students because she has learned many more student names. accurate and concisely presented. There is a
very limited descriptive account of retrieval
In both cases the problem is that the memory is actually available (it is there in memory) it has just failure at the end of the essay.
become inaccessible. This was demonstrated in a study by Tulving and Psotka who showed that the more
word lists people had to remember the lower their recall rate fell. But at the end they were given cues There is effective use of evidence. The findings
to help them and they could remember many more words – this shows that the words were there but from all three studies are clearly linked/related
interference was preventing recall. to the relevant explanation in each case, which
is something that many students fail to do.
Research studies, especially lab experiments have demonstrated interference effects. For example,
McGeoch and McDonald’s study showing that the more similar two word lists were the more retroactive There are some methodological evaluations of
interference was created. Such support is good because lab studies are well controlled. However, such the McGeoch and McDonald study and some
studies tend to use stimuli (such as word lists), which are not like what people do with their memories in attempt to relate these evaluations to the
everyday life. This means that lab studies make it look like interference is a more important explanation explanation more generally. That said, Morticia
for forgetting than it really is in everyday life. might have been better advised to focus her
evaluation on the explanation itself rather than
Nevertheless there are studies of interference in everyday life which show that interference does criticising the supporting evidence.
happen. Baddeley and Hitch studied recall in rugby players. They compared what the players could
recall of their match scores over a season. Those players who played in more games had a lower The description in this answer is slightly better
percentage of scores, showing that interference was affecting what they could recall. than the evaluation which is OK for an AS
response. This is a reasonable answer but not a
The other explanation of forgetting is retrieval failure which is also about accessibility rather than
good one because of the poor coverage of cue
availability but is about cues – context or state-dependent.  (372 words)
retrieval.
Vladimir’s answer There are several explanations for forgetting such as trace decay, displacement, Vladimir’s answer does not start too
interference and retrieval failure. promisingly – the explanation of interference is
not very clear (note the use of ‘interfere’ in the
Interference theory suggests that the reason why people forget things is because two memories definition – don’t define a term using the same
interfere with each other. There is proactive interference and retroactive interference. In the case word) and neither is the explanation of the two
of proactive interference something you learned first interferes with something you learned later. In types clear, though it is just about accurate.
retroactive it is the opposite. A study to support the interference theory was done by McGeoch. He gave
participants word lists to be learned and showed that the new lists had an effect on being able to recall The description of retrieval failure is better
the older lists. This supports retroactive interference. with reference to absence of cues as well as
context-dependent and state-dependent forms
Another explanation for forgetting is retrieval failure. What happens is that a memory that is in your of forgetting. The point about the influence of
memory can’t be recalled because you don’t have the cues to help you recall it. There are two types mood is not properly developed though.
of retrieval failure of forgetting. These are context-dependent and state-dependent. In the case of There is some accurate descriptive detail
context-dependent forgetting this means that people recall things better if they learn and recall them of two studies (the divers study is better
in the same place. In mood-dependent forgetting this means mood rather than context is important, explained).
for example if you are sad or drunk. A study that supports this is the study of underwater divers who
learned word lists on land or underwater and then recalled them on land or underwater. The divers had Apart from a brief reference to retroactive
the best recall if they learned them underwater and later recalled them underwater or if they learned interference at the end of the first study, there
them on land and later recalled them on land. is very little ‘use of evidence’ which is an
evaluation skill. Similarly, the evaluation points
There are several issues surrounding studies into memory and forgetting. One issue is the lack of validity
as the studies often use artificial stimuli. This means the findings cannot be generalised because they at the end are focused on the studies rather
are not like everyday life. Also the studies often had small samples and this makes the studies difficult than the explanations and would receive very
to generalise to other people. In some studies only men were involved so that makes generalisation little evaluation credit.
difficult.  (315 words)
This is another reasonable answer but less
successful than Morticia’s. There is a much
better attempt to consider both explanations,
as required by the question but the evaluation
has really let Vladimir down. It is important to
practise writing detailed descriptions that are
the right length for the time allowed.

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 69

Multiple-choice questions
Coding, capacity and duration of memory 4. The case of KF contradicts the MSM because it 3. The phonological loop of working memory is
shows that: divided into two elements. These are:
1. ‘Coding is acoustic, capacity is limited and duration (a) STM and LTM are separate. (a) The central executive and long-term memory.
is about 18 seconds.’ Which memory store is being
described? (b) There is more than one STM. (b) The phonological store and the articulatory
(c) There is more than one LTM. process.
(a) Sensory register.
(d) There is more than one type of rehearsal. (c) The visuo-spatial sketchpad and the episodic
(b) Long-term memory. buffer.
(c) Short-term memory. (d) Short-term memory and long-term memory.
Types of long-term memory
(d) Procedural memory.
1. Which of the following are most likely to be stored
2. ‘Coding’ refers to what? in episodic long-term memory? 4. Which component of the WMM links working
(a) The form in which information is stored. (a) Memories for facts such as ‘Frozen is a film’. memory with LTM?
(b) The length of time information is stored for. (b) Memories of events that have happened to us (a) Central executive.
(c) The amount of information that can be stored involving other people and places. (b) Episodic buffer.
in memory at any one time. (c) Our knowledge of what words mean. (c) Phonological loop.
(d) The transfer of information from one memory (d) Memories of our skilled actions, such as being (d) Visuo-spatial sketchpad.
store to another. able to play the guitar.
3. Which of these statements best describes LTM? Explanations for forgetting: Interference
2. HM and Clive Wearing had problems with:
(a) Memory store with unlimited capacity and (a) Episodic memory. 1. Interference is an explanation for forgetting from
acoustic coding. which memory store?
(b) Semantic memory.
(b) Permanent memory store, unlimited capacity, (a) Sensory register.
semantic coding. (c) Procedural memory.
(d) Procedural and episodic memory. (b) Iconic memory.
(c) Temporary memory store, semantic coding. (c) Echoic memory.
(d) Memory store with semantic coding and limited 3. ‘Time-stamped and needs to be consciously (d) Long-term memory.
capacity. searched’ is a description of?
(a) Short-term memory. 2. Proactive interference occurs when:
4. Peterson and Peterson investigated:
(b) Procedural memory. (a) Newer memories cause forgetting of older ones.
(a) The capacity of STM.
(c) Episodic memory. (b) Memories fade over time.
(b) The duration of STM.
(d) Semantic memory. (c) Older memories cause forgetting of newer ones.
(c) The coding of STM.
(d) We don’t have the right information to trigger
(d) The duration of LTM. 4. Which specific area of the brain is important in our memory.
recalling both semantic and episodic memories?
The multi-store model of memory (a) The hippocampus. 3. Which of the following situations makes
(b) The cerebral cortex. interference less likely?
1. Which of the following are features of the sensory (a) When two instances of learning are similar.
register? (c) The prefrontal cortex.
(d) The amygdala. (b) When two instances of learning are meaningful.
(a) It has a capacity of seven items, plus or minus
two. (c) When two instances of learning are different.
(b) Memories in the register can last up to a The working memory model (d) When the time between two instances of
lifetime. learning is short.
1. ‘Brings together material from other subsystems
(c) The capacity is very large. into a single memory’ is a description of which 4. Which of the following is the best example of
(d) Coding is semantic. component of the working memory model? retroactive interference?
(a) Central executive. (a) A student revises for her Spanish exam, then
2. The multi-store model describes which of the her French exam and has trouble recalling her
following memory stores? (b) Episodic buffer.
Spanish.
(a) Short-term memory and long-term memory (c) Phonological loop.
(b) A student revises for her Spanish exam, then
only. (d) Visuo-spatial sketchpad. her French exam and has trouble recalling her
(b) Sensory register, long-term memory and short- French.
2. The case study of KF supports the WMM because
term memory. (c) You have a new mobile phone number but keep
he had:
(c) Episodic memory, semantic memory and telling people your old one.
(a) A poor STM but intact LTM.
procedural memory. (d) You accidentally call your new boyfriend or
(b) Poor STM for verbal material but near-normal
(d) Good memory and poor memory. girlfriend by your old one’s name.
STM for visual information.
3. ‘The process by which information is held in STM (c) A near-normal STM but he could not recall
by repeating it over and over again’. What is being events from long ago. Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure
described here? (d) No ability to learn new skills. 1. Retrieval failure occurs when:
(a) Retrieval. (a) Information disappears from memory and is no
(b) Consolidation. longer available.
(c) Elaborative rehearsal. (b) Information was never encoded in long-term
(d) Maintenance rehearsal. memory in the first place.
(c) We don’t have the right cues to recall a
memory.
(d) We have a lot of relevant cues and we pay
attention to them.

70 // Chapter 2 Memory
2. Being drunk when you learn something and when 3. Which of the following sequences of verbs did Improving the accuracy of eyewitness
you recall it is an example of which kind of cue? Loftus and Palmer (1974) use in their study? testimony: Cognitive interview
(a) State-dependent. (a) Contacted, pranged, hit, collided, smashed.
1. Two of the main techniques of the cognitive
(b) Context-dependent. (b) Touched, bumped, hit, collided, smashed.
interview are:
(c) Mood-dependent. (c) Contacted, bumped, hit, collided, smashed.
(a) Change perspective and reinstate the context.
(d) Memory-dependent. (d) Contacted, bumped, hit, walloped, smashed.
(b) Change perspective and change your opinion.
3. Godden and Baddeley found lower levels of recall 4. The study by Gabbert et al. provided evidence of: (c) Report everything and use retrieval cues.
when: (a) Memory conformity. (d) Reverse the order and answer the interviewer’s
(a) Learning and recall both took place underwater. (b) Memory contamination. questions.
(b) Learning and recall both took place on land. (c) Memory substitution. 2. The enhanced cognitive interview uses the four
(c) Recall took place only a short time after (d) The effect of leading questions. techniques of the CI. It also:
learning.
(a) Is a lot quicker.
(d) Learning took place on land and recall took Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness (b) Is more widely used.
place underwater. testimony: Anxiety (c) Gets the witness to speak slowly.
4. Tulving’s encoding specificity principle states that 1. What did Johnson and Scott investigate? (d) Is nearly as effective as the CI.
forgetting is likely when:
(a) EWT for natural disasters. 3. One of the main techniques of the CI is based on:
(a) A cue present when we learn information
is also present when we try to retrieve the (b) The inverted-U theory. (a) Research into context-dependent forgetting.
information. (c) The weapon focus effect. (b) Miller’s research into the capacity of STM.
(b) A cue present when we learn information is (d) The Labyrinth of Horror. (c) The multi-store model of memory.
absent when we try to retrieve the information. 2. The tunnel theory of the relationship between (d) Baddeley’s research into coding in memory.
(c) Retrieving information happens very soon after EWT and anxiety suggests that:
we learn it. 4. A significant limitation of the CI is:
(a) We are able to recall the details of many aspects
(d) Two sets of information are very different. of an event. (a) It is time-consuming for the police to use.
(b) People have enhanced memory for central (b) It is less effective than the standard police
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness events such as a weapon. interview.
testimony: Misleading information (c) A high level of anxiety is related to a high level (c) The findings from Köhnken et al.’s meta-
of recall. analysis.
1. Which of the following statements is the best
(d) Most people experience anxiety when (d) It is not supported by the bulk of psychological
definition of eyewitness testimony?
witnessing crimes and accidents. research into how human memory works.
(a) Our ability to remember such things as facts
and figures. 3. The study by Valentine and Mesout found that:
(b) How people remember the details of events (a) High levels of anxiety are associated with high
they have observed themselves, such as crimes levels of accurate recall.
and accidents.
(b) High levels of anxiety are associated with low
(c) Our memories for people’s names and faces. levels of accurate recall.
(d) Memories that last for weeks, months or even (c) Anxiety and accurate recall are not related.

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Misleading information 1B, 2C, 3C, 4A
years.
(d) Yuille and Cutshall’s findings were correct.
2. The study by Skagerberg and Wright supported:
4. A limitation of Christianson and Hübinette’s
(a) Substitution effect.

Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Cognitive interview 1A, 2C, 3A, 4A
study is:
(b) Response-bias. (a) It took place in a laboratory.

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Anxiety 1C, 2B, 3B, 4C
(c) Memory contamination. (b) They failed to measure anxiety.
(d) Memory conformity. (c) Interviews took place long after the event.
(d) Recall was only 25% accurate.

Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure 1C, 2A, 3D, 4B

Coding, capacity and duration of memory 1C, 2A, 3B, 4B

Explanations for forgetting: Interference 1D, 2C, 3C, 4A

The multi-store model of memory 1C, 2B, 3D, 4B

The working memory model 1B, 2B, 3B, 4B

Types of long-term memory 1B, 2A, 3C, 4C
MCQ answers

Multiple-choice questions // 71
Revision summaries
Caregiver-infant interactions Schaffer’s stages of attachment
Caregiver interactions facilitate attachment. A classic study of the development of attachment.

Research Evaluation The theory Evaluation

Interactions Filmed observations Asocial stage Good external validity
Babies have frequent and Capture fine detail, can establish inter- First few weeks, same response to humans and objects. Mothers did the observing so babies
important interactions with rater reliability and babies not aware of not stressed by being observed.
their caregiver. being observed. Indiscriminate attachment Counterpoint – mothers might not
2–7 months, preference for (familiar) people, no stranger/ have accurately noted behaviour.
Reciprocity Difficulty observing babies separation anxiety.
Turn-taking. Hard to know meaning of small Poor evidence for the asocial stage
movements. Specific attachments Babies have poor co-ordination, so just
Mothers respond when baby
Stranger and separation anxiety in regard to one particular may seem asocial.
is alert. Developmental importance adult = primary attachment figure (65% were mother).
From 3 months becomes Observation of behaviour does not tell Real-world application
more intense and reciprocal. us about its importance in development. Multiple attachments No harm in starting at day care
Soon after attachment behaviour directed towards more during asocial/indiscriminate stages
Interactional synchrony Counterpoint – evidence from e.g. than one adult (secondary attachments).
Isabella et al. suggests interactional (any skilled adult adequate), but
Same actions simultaneously.
synchrony is important for attachment. Schaffer and Emerson’s research problematic starting day care in specific
Interactions co-ordinated attachment stage.
from two weeks (Meltzoff Procedure
Evaluation extra: Practical value versus
and Moore). ethics Mothers of 60 working-class Glasgow babies reported Evaluation extra: Generalisability
Quality of attachment related Attachment research has practical value monthly on separation and stranger anxiety. Data gathered only in 1960s working-
to synchrony (Isabella et al.). but is controversial (implications for Findings class Glasgow, e.g. multiple attachment
working mothers). may be different in collectivist cultures
Babies’ attachment behaviour progressed as detailed in
(van IJzendoorn).
Schaffer and Emerson’s stage theory.

Role of the father Animal studies of attachment

Fathers’ contributions should not be overlooked. Important insights into human behaviour.

Research Evaluation Lorenz’s research Harlow’s research

Attachment to fathers Confusion over research questions Procedure Procedure
Most babies attach to their father, Competing research questions prevent a simple answer about the Goslings saw Lorenz when Baby monkeys given cloth-
(75% by 18 months) but rarely as the father’s role. they hatched. covered or plain-wire ‘mother’
first attachment (only 3% first sole with feeding bottle attached.
attachment) (Schaffer and Emerson). Conflicting evidence Findings
Studies have reached different conclusions about a distinctive role Newly-hatched chicks attach Findings
Distinctive role for fathers for fathers. to the first moving object Monkeys clung to cloth surrogate
Fathers may have a distinctive role Counterpoint – fathers may be predisposed to a role but single they see (imprinting). rather than wire one, regardless
involving play and stimulation mothers and lesbian parents simply take on these roles. of which dispensed milk.
(Grossmann et al.). Sexual imprinting
Real-world application Adult birds try to mate with Maternally deprived monkeys
Fathers as primary attachment figures Families can be advised about the father’s role in attachment. whatever species or object as adults
Those fathers who were primary they imprint on. Grew up socially dysfunctional.
caregivers more responsive than Evaluation extra: Bias in this research
The critical period for normal
secondary caregiver fathers (Field). Preconceptions lead to observer bias, may affect some studies. Evaluation development
Research support After 90 days attachments

Explanations of attachment: Learning theory

Regolin and Vallortigara wouldn’t form.
observed chicks imprint on
moving shapes. Evaluation
Cupboard love theory (Dollard and Miller). Generalisability to humans Real-world value

The theory Evaluation Attachment systems in birds Helps professionals (e.g. social
are less complex and not workers) to promote bonding
two-way. (Howe), also applied to zoos and
Classical conditioning Counter-evidence from animal studies
breeding programmes.
Caregiver (neutral stimulus) Lorenz and Harlow showed that feeding is not the key to attachment. Evaluation extra: Applications
associated with food to human behaviour Generalisability to humans
(unconditioned stimulus). Counter-evidence from studies on humans
Imprinting explains computer Monkeys more similar to
Primary attachment figure not always person who does feeding (Schaffer humans than birds but human
Caregiver becomes conditioned operating system choice
and Emerson), quality of attachment related to interactional synchrony mind and behaviour are more
stimulus. (Seebach).
not feeding (Isabella et al.). complex.
Operant conditioning
Some conditioning may be involved Evaluation extra: Ethical issues
Crying behaviour reinforced
Conditioning (association with comfort) may influence the choice of Procedure caused severe long-
positively for baby and
primary attachment figure. term distress to participants, may
negatively for caregiver.
Counterpoint – babies are more active in attachment than conditioning not be outweighed by theoretical
Attachment as a secondary drive explanations suggest (Feldman and Eidelman). and practical benefits.
Attachment becomes a
secondary drive through Evaluation extra: Social learning theory
association with hunger. Involves modelling attachment behaviours, includes role of active baby
(Hay and Vespo).

98 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory Types of attachment
The dominant theory of attachment behaviour. Measuring attachment quality.

The theory Evaluation The Strange Situation Evaluation

Monotropy Validity of monotropy challenged Procedure Good predictive validity
One particular attachment The primary attachment may be stronger but not 7-stage controlled observation. Attachment type predicts later social behaviour
is different in quality and different in nature. Assesses proximity-seeking, exploration e.g. school success, bullying (McCormick et al.,
importance than others. and secure base, stranger and Kokkinos).
Support for social releasers
Social releasers and the separation anxiety, response to reunion. Counterpoint – Kagan suggests behavioural differences
Babies became upset when attachment figure
critical period ignored social releasers (Brazelton et al.). Findings – types of attachment due to genetically-influenced anxiety levels.
Innate cute behaviours Babies show consistent patterns of Good reliability
Support for internal working model
elicit care. attachment behaviour. 94% agreement between trained observers (Bick et al.)
Quality of attachment is passed on through
Critical period up to generations (Bailey et al.). Types of attachment:
6 months, possibly The test may be culture-bound
Counterpoint – ignores other factors (e.g. genetic) • Secure – enthusiastic greeting,
extending to 2 years. Strange Situation developed in Britain and US, other
in social behaviour and parenting (Kornienko). generally content, moderate anxiety.
cultures have different experiences that affect behaviour
Internal working model • Avoidant – avoids reunion, generally in the Strange Situation (e.g. in Japan, Takahashi).
Mental representation of Evaluation extra: Feminist concerns reduced responses.
the primary attachment Bowlby’s views imply that mothers shouldn’t • Resistant – resists reunion, generally Evaluation extra: Other attachment types
relationship is a template work outside the home (Burman), but Bowlby more distressed. Also Type D (Main and Solomon), but related to
for future relationships. also gave the mother’s role greater credit and the abnormal experiences and outcomes.
theory had real-world applications.

Cultural variations in attachment Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Mother–baby relationships differ around the world. Concerns the negative effects of loss of emotional care.

Research Evaluation The theory Evaluation

van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research Indigenous researchers Separation versus deprivation Flawed evidence
Compared rates of attachment type in 8 countries. e.g. Grossmann et al. (German), reduces bias Physical separation only leads to Bowlby may have been a biased observer.
More variation within than between countries. and miscommunication with participants. deprivation when the child loses Goldfarb’s study had confounding variables.
Counterpoint – not true of all cross-cultural emotional care.
Other studies of cultural variations Counterpoint – research with rats shows
studies (e.g. Americans Morelli and Tronick). The critical period deprivation can harm social development
Simonelli et al.: Italian secure attachment rates
dropped to 50%, may be due to increased day Confounding variables The first 2½ years are critical and (Lévy et al.).
care. Apparent cultural differences might have deprivation in that time causes Deprivation and privation
been due to sample characteristics or damage.
Jin et al.: Korean secure vs insecure attachment Some of the 44 thieves may have been
rates similar to other studies. But insecure– environmental differences (e.g. room size). Effects on development ‘prived’, deprivation may be less damaging
avoidant similar to Japan, could be due to Imposed etic Goldfarb – deprivation causes low IQ. (Rutter).
similar child-rearing styles.
Behaviours in the Strange Situation have Bowlby – deprivation of emotional Critical versus sensitive period
Conclusions different meanings in different cultures care leads to affectionless Czech twins’ (Koluchová) recovery
It appears that attachment is innate and (e.g. low affection = independence in psychopathy. suggests it is a sensitive period.
universal and secure attachment is the norm. Germany).
Bowlby’s research Evaluation extra: Conflicting evidence
However cultural practices affect rates of Evaluation extra: Competing explanations Many more affectionless No evidence for link between deprivation
attachment types. Cross-cultural similarity may be due to psychopaths than controls had and psychopathy (e.g. Lewis), but other
innate system or media influences. prolonged early separations. research supports it (e.g. Gao et al.).

Romanian orphan studies: Influence of early attachments on later relationships

Institutionalisation Research
The effect of the internal working model.

Evaluation
An example of the effects of (de)privation.
Internal working model Research support
Research Evaluation Bowlby’s idea that the primary attachment Review (Fearon and Roisman) showed consistent
relationship provides a template for later links e.g. disorganised type and mental disorder.
Rutter et al.’s research Real-world application relationships. Counterpoint – Regensburg longitudinal study
ERA project studied 165 Both institutional care and adoption (Becker-Stoll et al.) no continuity in attachment
Romanian orphans adopted practice have been improved using Relationships in childhood
Securely attached children have better type from 1 to 16 years.
in UK later showed low IQ and lessons from Romanian orphans.
disinhibited attachment. friendships (Kerns). Validity issues with retrospective studies
Fewer confounding variables Securely attached children less likely to be Self-report answers not always honest, and
Zeanah et al.’s research Romanian orphans had fewer negative involved in bullying (Myron-Wilson and Smith). assumes that attachment type has remained the
BEI project found secure influences before institutionalisation than same into adulthood.
attachment in 19% of e.g. war orphans. Relationships in adulthood
institutional group (74% Counterpoint – especially poor conditions Securely attached adults have better Confounding variables
in controls), disinhibited in Romanian orphanages could be a relationships with friends and partners Associations between attachment type and later
attachment in 44% (20% in confounding variable. (McCarthy). development may be due to e.g. parenting style
controls). Secure responders had better and longer- or genes.
Lack of adult data lasting relationships, avoidant responders had
Effects of institutionalisation We don’t know the effects of institutional Evaluation extra: Balancing opportunity and risk
fear of intimacy (Hazan and Shaver).
Disinhibited attachment care on adult development. Knowing early attachment type might cause self-
and delay in intellectual Mothers’ attachment type matched that of their fulfilling prophecies.
development if Evaluation extra: Social sensitivity mothers and their babies (Bailey et al.).
institutionalisation continues Findings report poor outcomes for late-
after sensitive period for adopted children, might affect self and
attachment. others’ expectations.
Revision summaries // 99
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Schaffer identified different stages in the development of attachment. Briefly outline one of these different stages. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer There are four different stages in Schaffer’s theory: asocial Morticia correctly identified three of the four stages (and got one wrong),
stage, indiscriminate, discriminate and multiple attachments. In this last stage a but she only needed to name one. There is a partial outline here of
baby forms more than one attachment. multiple attachments but only a weak answer.
Luke’s answer The first stage is the asocial stage. In this stage a baby doesn’t Luke’s is a more focused answer as one stage is identified (as required)
behave differently towards people and objects and has no attachments. and the outline is just about detailed enough for a question of this kind.
Vladimir’s answer One of the stages is when a baby becomes attached. Before
that the baby has no especial attachments and after that the baby develops Vladimir’s answer would not gain any credit. He gives a vague and
many attachments. muddled answer that describes the process of attachment in general but
not specific stages.

Question 2 Explain how the behaviour of a child who is classified as insecure–avoidant would be different from a child classified as insecure–resistant.
(4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Insecure–avoidant means a baby avoids its mother on reunion Morticia has clearly met the ‘distinguish’ requirement of the
whereas insecure–resistant means the baby resists at reunion. Another difference is question and made two relevant contrasting points, so top-class
in terms of stranger anxiety. Insecure–avoidant babies show little stranger anxiety answer.
whereas insecure–resistant babies show a lot.
The first part of Luke’s answer is inaccurate. The second sentence
Luke’s answer Stranger anxiety is low in both types of attachment and the same is is correct but there is no distinction made with resistant children so
true for separation anxiety. Avoidant children don’t seek proximity but they do explore the answer offers nothing of value.
freely.
Vladimir’s answer Insecure–avoidant babies explore freely but don’t seek proximity. All the detail in Vladimir’s answer is correct; however, his expression
They show little separation or stranger anxiety. Insecure–resistant babies resist is poor. The reader is rather left to make the distinction between
comfort on reunion and can get very distressed. the two types themselves rather than being directed by Vladimir
(Morticia’s answer is much better in this respect). Therefore this
constitutes a partial answer.

Question 3 Edgar is an only child. He is one year old. His mother has to work away from home most of the time so he is cared for by his father.
Explain the relationship Edgar is likely to have with his father. Refer to psychological evidence in your answer. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Since he is cared for by his father most of the time then he might be In Morticia’s answer the reference to secure attachment is
securely attached to his father, though he might not be because research has shown that relevant as is the evaluative comment regarding quality. There
what matters is the quality of the relationship. So even though he isn’t with his mother a is very little evidence though so the answer is not really
lot of the time he still might be more closely attached to her. He would still be attached to addressing the question.
his father but not as closely.
Luke’s answer is too generic and anecdotal (and there is also
Luke’s answer The role of the father can be for fun and play. Or children are sometimes no application to Edgar). The brief reference to ‘a study’ at the
most closely attached to their father, more than their mother. There is nothing that says end of the answer needs additional detail to be regarded as a
close attachments have to be to mothers. There was a study where some children were more contribution.
attached to their father than their mothers.
Vladimir’s answer The study by Schaffer and Emerson found that children were Vladimir makes reference to evidence here as well as a clear
occasionally more closely attached to their fathers than their mothers. This means that link to Edgar in the context of this. The analytical comment at
Edgar might be more closely attached to his father especially as he spends more time with the end is also relevant. The application and/or use of evidence
him. Though Schaffer and Emerson didn’t find that amount of time was important. needs a little bit more development.

Question 4 Briefly evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation. (3 marks)

Morticia’s answer Bowlby claimed there was a critical period in development, around Unfortunately Morticia appears to have misinterpreted the
the age of 2. If attachments don’t form at that time it is unlikely they will develop at all. question and focused on Bowlby’s monotropic theory of
The importance of attachments is that they influence relationships later in life because attachment instead. There is some marginal relevance in what is
they are a template from the internal working model. written. This reinforces the fact that questions should always be
read carefully.
Luke’s answer One limitation of this theory is that Bowlby may have confused
deprivation and privation. Another psychologist called Rutter pointed this out – the Luke has focused on one limitation only but there is nothing in
difference is that privation would refer to a child never having formed an attachment. the question to suggest this is not a legitimate approach. This is a
This might be much more serious than separations and maybe some of Bowlby’s 44 reasonably, well-elaborated point.
thieves experienced privation. So it is all muddled.
Vladimir’s answer There are some problems with the evidence. For example, in Vladimir takes a different approach and provides three separate
Bowlby’s 44 thieves it could be that there were other extraneous variables, such as a evaluative points. The emphasis on evaluating the ‘evidence’ rather
poor physical environment, that caused the later problems. Other research has shown than the theory detracts from the overall value of the answer. Not
that children can recover from such experiences. Another issue is that animal studies as good an answer as Luke’s.
were used to support this and they can’t be generalised to humans.

100 // Chapter 3 Attachment

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Discuss animal studies of attachment, including research by Lorenz and Harlow. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Luke’s answer Animal studies of attachment are useful because you can’t do the same kinds of things
practically or ethically with humans, so they give support to theories like Bowlby’s theory. In this essay Luke’s essay is an AS response whereas
I am going to describe and evaluate Lorenz’s research on imprinting and Harlow’s research on contact Vladimir’s is an A level response.
comfort. Both were important in the development of Bowlby’s theory. Before Bowlby’s theory there was
also learning theory and this research was important in showing that learning theory was wrong.
Apart from a hint of an evaluative point at the
Lorenz did research with geese and goslings. He had a group of goose eggs and when one lot hatched beginning, there is not really anything of value
the first thing they saw was Lorenz. They followed him around. To test this Lorenz put a whole lot of in Luke’s first paragraph. Many students waste
young geese together, some of them had imprinted on their real mother. As expected the ones that important time with introductory paragraphs.
imprinted on Lorenz followed him instead of their real mother. Bowlby based his idea of attachment on
imprinting and said that babies become attached like geese imprint – because it makes them more likely The second paragraph is better, though
to survive as they stick close to an adult and are less likely to be eaten. elements of the Lorenz description are poorly
expressed. There is effective use of evidence at
Harlow’s study was with baby monkeys. He had observed that baby monkeys often survived better in the end of the study though.
cages without their mother if you gave them a soft cloth to cuddle. He set up an experiment to test this
where there were two wire mothers. One of the mothers was just wire-covered whereas the other was There is more relevant detail of Harlow’s
covered in cloth. The monkeys were kept all the time in a cage just with these two wire mothers. The research in the next section followed by
monkeys spent their time with the cloth-covered mother not the other one which shows that contact another hint of analysis at the end.
comfort is important in attachment.
There is an evaluative comment in the final
The big issue with these studies is how much they do tell us about human attachment. In the case of paragraph too but this should be developed
geese they are quite different from humans because the attachment system is much more advanced. much more. In summary, an overly descriptive
Research with monkeys is better because they are mammals too. essay that includes too little analysis.
 (323 words)
Vladimir’s answer The two most important studies are by Lorenz and Harlow. Lorenz studied This is an excellent essay that is extremely
imprinting in geese. He did this by taking the eggs from a goose and putting some of them in an well written and clear throughout. The studies
incubator so when they hatched the first thing they saw was Lorenz. The other eggs hatched with their at the beginning of the answer are concisely
mother. The goslings with Lorenz continued to follow him around. presented but contain all the relevant details.
Perhaps Vladimir could have used the evidence
Lorenz also investigated the relationship between imprinting and mate preferences. He observed that a in the first paragraphs a little more effectively
peacock tried to mate with a tortoise because it had been raised in a reptile house. by adding an implication/conclusion at the end
of each paragraph – a bit of analysis. However,
Harlow did an experiment with monkeys kept in a cage with two wire mothers. In one condition the this is a minor point.
feeding bottle was on a wire mother with no covering. In another condition the bottle was on the other
wire mother, which was covered in cloth. The monkeys always preferred the mother covered in cloth,
which shows that feeding is not important in attachment.
The research by both Lorenz and Harlow has been very valuable for understanding attachment and how In the 4th paragraph there is effective use
early attachment affects later behaviour. There is support for imprinting from Regolin and Vallortigara of supporting evidence for both Lorenz and
who observed that chicks imprint on shapes and follow them when they moved. Later research on Harlow.
attachment supports Harlow’s findings about difficulties later in life.
There is the important issue of ethics. In both these studies the animal’s subsequent development was
affected by the research. For example the monkeys remained quite disturbed because they were raised As this is a ‘studies’ rather than a ‘theories’
in isolation. But it is a question of costs and benefits because, on the other hand, this research has been essay, discussion of ethical issues is perfectly
valuable not only in developing theories but also in the way children are treated. It has helped social appropriate (ethical issues can’t change a
workers understand the risk factors in child abuse. theory) and the explanation of the costs and
benefits in such research is particularly well
A major issue is how much these studies can be used in theories of human behaviour. In the case considered.
of geese there is much that is different. The mammalian attachment system is quite different from
imprinting so it is a mistake to base the idea of attachment on the behaviour of birds. There is a
stronger argument for generalising from monkeys to humans, as they are genetically very similar to us
but nevertheless differ in important ways. For example, they do not have such prolonged childhoods The rest of the answer is also impressive and
and may not develop permanent relationships. Their behaviour is less guided by thinking than in the develops the theme of generalisation (or the
case of humans, which means that their behaviour would be more determined by experiences than their lack thereof) from animal studies to human
capacity to think about how to conduct a relationship. behaviour very well.
 (411 words)

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 101

Multiple-choice questions
Caregiver–infant interactions The role of the father Explanations of attachment: Learning theory
1. Which of the following best describes reciprocity? 1. According to Schaffer and Emerson, what 1. According to classical conditioning, which of the
(a) A walk. percentage of babies attach to their father before following best describes the attachment figure:
(b) A chat. anyone else? (a) An unconditioned stimulus.
(c) A dance. (a) 0% (b) An unconditioned response.
(d) A fight. (b) 3% (c) A conditioned stimulus.
(c) 27% (d) All the above.
2. During interaction, the mother’s and baby’s signals (d) 50%
are often seen to: 2. A parent learning to comfort a crying baby in order
(a) Synchronise. 2. Which of the following statements best describes to stop it crying is an example of:
(b) Differentiate. the importance of attachment to the father? (a) Negative reinforcement.
(c) Slow down. (a) Not important at all. (b) Positive reinforcement.
(d) Stay the same. (b) The most important attachment. (c) Punishment.
(c) More important than attachment to the mother. (d) A primary drive.
3. Which of the following are associated with good (d) Less important than attachment to the mother.
quality caregiver–infant attachment? 3. In learning theory, which of the following is the
(a) Low levels of caregiver skill in responding to 3. Which of the following activities is more common in focus of a primary drive?
signals. fathers than mothers? (a) Food.
(b) High levels of stress in caregiver(s). (a) Smiling. (b) Love.
(c) Low levels of interactional synchrony. (b) Holding. (c) Comfort.
(d) High levels of interactional synchrony. (c) Imitating. (d) Aggression.
(d) Playing.
4. Which of these is a strength of research into early 4. Which of the following is true of learning theory
interaction? 4. Which of these is a strength of research into the role explanations of attachment?
(a) It is a socially sensitive topic. of the father? (a) They make use of classical conditioning only.
(b) It is easy to interpret babies’ behaviour. (a) It has real-world applications. (b) There is counter-evidence from human studies.
(c) Controlled observations capture fine detail. (b) It has good external reliability. (c) Attachment is seen as a primary drive.
(d) Observations tell us the functions of behaviour. (c) It is subject to bias. (d) They focus on the role of interactional synchrony.
(d) It is socially sensitive.
Schaffer’s stages of attachment Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory
Animal studies of attachment
1. In which of these stages does a child first display 1. Which of the following statements is true of
social behaviour towards all adults? 1. The term that describes how early contact monotropy?
(a) The asocial stage. influences mate preference: (a) One attachment is seen as different and more
(b) The indiscriminate attachment stage. (a) Imprinting. important than others.
(c) The specific attachment stage. (b) Contact comfort. (b) Children can only attach to one person.
(d) The multiple attachment stage. (c) Deprivation. (c) Children must have one caregiver only.
(d) Sexual imprinting. (d) The primary attachment figure must be the
2. At what age do children usually start to form a biological mother.
specific attachment? 2. Which of these behaviours describes Harlow’s
(a) 2 months. monkeys that were maternally deprived? 2. Which of the following is probably not a social
(b) 7 months. (a) Aggressive. releaser?
(c) 11 months. (b) Sociable. (a) Smiling.
(d) 18 months. (c) Socially skilled. (b) Cooing.
(d) Good parents. (c) Gripping.
3. In the 1964 study which of the following best (d) Projectile vomiting.
describes the participants? 3. In which condition were Harlow’s monkeys most
(a) 60 girls aged 18 months from Glasgow. damaged by early experience? 3. Internal working models have an influence on which
(b) 60 middle-class children and fathers from (a) Biological mother from birth. of the following?
Edinburgh. (b) Wire mother with milk bottle. (a) Romantic relationships.
(c) 30 working-class boys and their families from (c) Wire mother covered in cloth. (b) Relationships with children.
Glasgow. (d) Biological mother from two months. (c) Relationships with friends.
(d) 60 working-class children and their families from (d) All of these.
Glasgow. 4. Which of the following statements is true of
Lorenz’s research? 4. According to Bowlby, the critical period in humans
4. Schaffer and Emerson assessed what in the babies? (a) A control group was hatched with a mother may extend to:
(a) Stranger anxiety. goose. (a) One month.
(b) Separation anxiety. (b) The experimental group was hatched with a (b) Twelve months.
(c) Separation and stranger anxiety. mother goose. (c) Two years.
(d) Zombie-related anxiety. (c) Both groups of young geese preferred the mother (d) Sixteen years.
goose to Lorenz.
(d) Both groups of young geese preferred Lorenz to
the mother goose.

102 // Chapter 3 Attachment

Types of attachment Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation 4. Why are the Romanian orphanage studies socially
sensitive?
1. The Strange Situation can be best described as 1. Which of the following best describes maternal (a) They involve adoption.
what kind of study? deprivation?
(b) They involve immigration.
(a) Naturalistic observation. (a) Separation from the primary attachment figure.
(c) They risk self-fulfilling prophecies.
(b) Controlled observation. (b) Failure to attach to a primary attachment figure.
(d) They risk breaking international law.
(c) Laboratory experiment. (c) Failure of attachment figures to feed the baby.
(d) Self-report. (d) Loss of emotional care of the primary Influence of early attachment on later
attachment figure without a substitute.
2. How is separation anxiety assessed in the Strange relationships
Situation? 2. The critical period in which prolonged separation
1. Which of these is a true statement concerning
(a) Being spoken to by a stranger. can lead to deprivation is within the first:
internal working models?
(b) Playing in an unfamiliar room. (a) 6 months.
(a) They serve as templates for future relationships.
(c) Being left alone in the playroom. (b) 1 year.
(b) They are the result of temperament.
(d) Reunion with the primary attachment figure. (c) 2½ years.
(c) They predict perfectly what sort of relationships
(d) 5 years. people will have.
3. Which is true of securely attached babies in the
Strange Situation? 3. Which of the following is true of the 44 thieves (d) They determine social development and are
(a) They are clingy. study? unalterable.
(b) They get extremely anxious at separation. (a) There was no association between maternal 2. According to Wilson and Smith (1998), which
(c) They are happy at reunion with the primary deprivation and affectionless psychopathy. attachment type is likely to be linked with being
attachment figure. (b) Partial replications, e.g. Lewis (1954) have found a bully?
(d) They show little or no anxiety. similar results. (a) Securely attached.
(c) Goldfarb was part of the team investigating the (b) Insecure–resistant.
4. Which of these is a strength of Ainsworth’s 44 thieves.
attachment types? (c) Insecure–avoidant.
(d) There may be bias because Bowlby assessed
(a) Influence of temperament. (d) Disinhibited.
affectionless psychopathy and deprivation.
(b) Inter-rater reliability of the Strange Situation. 3. Which attachment type did McCarthy find had
4. Which of the following is not usually a symptom of
(c) Cross-cultural validity of the Strange Situation. problems maintaining friendships in adulthood?
affectionless psychopathy?
(d) Additional attachment types appear to exist. (a) Securely attached.
(a) Lack of empathy.
(b) Insecure–resistant.
(b) Lack of guilt.
Cultural variations in attachment (c) Inability to form close relationships.
(c) Insecure–avoidant.
1. In van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study, which (d) Disinhibited.
(d) Serial murder.
country had the highest rate of secure attachment? 4. Which study found no evidence of continuity
(a) Israel. Romanian orphan studies: Institutionalisation between infant and adult attachment?
(b) US. (a) Rutherford cross-cultural study.
1. Which of the following best describes the aim of
(c) Great Britain. the ERA study? (b) Regensburg longitudinal study.
(d) China. (a) A follow-up of Polish orphans looking at social (c) Romanian adoption project.
2. In van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study, which and intellectual development. (d) Rotterdam university project.
country had the highest rate of insecure–avoidant (b) A follow-up of Romanian orphans fostered in
attachment? Romania.
(a) Germany. (c) A follow-up of Romanian orphans looking at
(b) Sweden. social and intellectual development.
(c) Great Britain. (d) A follow-up testing the quality of adoptees
available from Romania.

The influence of early attachment on later relationships 1A, 2B, 3B, 4B

(d) Japan.
2. At four years:
3. In their Italian study, Simonelli et al. found an
unusually high level of: (a) A negative correlation was found between age
at adoption and intellectual development.
Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory 1A, 2D, 3D, 4C
Explanations of attachment: Learning theory 1C, 2A, 3A, 4B

(a) Insecure–resistant attachment.

(b) A positive correlation was found between age at
(b) Secure attachment. adoption and social-emotional development. Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation 1D, 2C, 3D, 4D
(c) Insecure–avoidant attachment. (c) A positive correlation was found between age at
Cultural variations in attachment 1C, 2A, 3B, 4D

(d) Atypical attachment. adoption and intellectual development.

Schaffer’s stages of attachment 1B, 2B, 3D, 4C

Animal studies of attachment 1D, 2A, 3B, 4A

Caregiver–infant interactions 1C, 2A, 3D, 4C

4. Which is not true of cross-cultural attachment (d) No correlations of any sort.

Romanian orphan studies 1C, 2A, 3B, 4C

comparisons? 3. Which of the following is a symptom of

The role of the father 1B, 2D, 3D, 4A

(a) Secure attachment is the most common type in disinhibited attachment?

Types of attachment 1B, 2C, 3C, 4B

every country. (a) Avoidant attachment behaviour.

(b) There is more variation within countries than (b) Indiscriminate attachment behaviour.
between them.
(c) Secure attachment behaviour.
(c) Some attachment behaviours seem to have
different meanings in different countries. (d) Resistant attachment behaviour.
(d) Some countries have particularly bad parents.
MCQ answers

Multiple-choice questions // 103

Revision summaries
Origins of Psychology
We’re going to go back in time.

Wundt and introspection Evaluation The emergence of Psychology as a science Evaluation

Wundt’s lab Scientific Science involves systematic and objective measurement to Modern psychology
First psychology lab in Leipzig, introduced Controlled environment, discover general laws. Learning, cognitive and biological
introspection to study the human mind carefully standardised. approaches all use scientific
systematically (scientific). 1900s Behaviourists methods e.g. lab research.
Subjective data Researchers (e.g. Watson and Skinner) conducted controlled
Standardised procedures General laws not possible as all experiments on behaviours that were directly observable. Subjective data
Observations of objects and sounds are introspections are different. Humanistic and psychodynamic
recorded. 1950s Cognitive approach approaches rely on unscientific case
Evaluation extra: Wundt’s Made the study of the mind legitimate and scientific, experiments studies. Research hampered by
Structuralism contribution tested the computer metaphor (e.g. multi-store model). demand characteristics.
Consciousness divided into three The founder of modern
categories: thoughts, images, sensations 1980s Biological approach Evaluation extra: Paradigm
psychology.
(structuralism). Observable behaviours studied, using controlled measures e.g. The question of whether
fMRI. Also genetic testing studies relationship between genes psychology has agreed methods
and behaviour. and assumptions is open to debate.

Learning approaches
The behaviourist approach Social learning theory
All behaviour is learned through association or consequences. All behaviour is learned from observing other people.

The approach Evaluation The approach Evaluation

Assumptions Well-controlled research Assumptions Cognitive factors
Observable behaviour is all that is Behaviour broken down to stimulus–response Behaviour is learned from experience. More comprehensive account of learning
needed to be studied. units, helps remove extraneous variables. In contrast with behaviourism, learned than proposed by the behaviourist approach.
Basic processes same in all species. Counterpoint – reducing behaviour in this way through observation and imitation of Counterpoint – underestimates influence
removes important influences on behaviour others (social). of biology, social learning involves mirror
Classical conditioning – Pavlov (e.g. thought). neurons in the brain.
Research on salivation in dogs. Vicarious reinforcement
Association of UCS with NS to produce Real-world application Observation leads to imitation if behaviour Contrived lab studies
new CS and CR. Token economy systems used in prisons and is vicariously reinforced (Bobo doll Demand characteristics (Bobo doll is
psychiatric institutions. experiment). designed to be hit), so low validity.
Operant conditioning – Skinner
Research with rats and pigeons in Environmental determinism Mediational processes Real-world application
Skinner box. All behaviour influenced by past experience, no Attention, retention, motor reproduction, SLT can account for development of cultural
room for free will. motivation. differences e.g. in gender role.
Animal operates on the environment,
behaviour shaped by consequences. Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Evaluation extra: Reciprocal determinism
Identification
Reinforcement (positive and negative). Controlled conditions important for research but More likely to imitate role models you Less determinist than behaviourism
Punishment. not good for animals (e.g. kept hungry). identify with (e.g. attractive, high status). (reciprocal determinism).

The cognitive approach

The study of internal mental processes.

The approach Evaluation

Assumptions Scientific methods
Internal mental processes can be studied through inference. Lab studies to produce reliable, objective data.
Cognitive neuroscience is scientific.
The role of schema
Beliefs and expectations affect thoughts and behaviour. Counterpoint – use of inference and artificial stimuli lead
to low external validity.
Innate (e.g. sucking schema) or learned.
Mental shortcut, leads to perceptual errors. Real-world application
Successfully applied to the fields of artificial intelligence,
Theoretical and computer models depression and eyewitness testimony.
Information processing approach.
Mind is likened to a computer and applied to artificial intelligence. Machine reductionism
Computer analogy is too simple, it ignores the influence of
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience emotion e.g. effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.
Scientific study of how brain structures affect mental processes.
Evaluation extra: Soft determinism
Biological structures link to mental states e.g. Broca.
Cognitive approach is an example of soft determinism, a
Brain imaging (e.g. fMRI) used to read the brain. middle-ground and more reasonable than behaviourism.

128 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 The biological approach
Everything psychological is at first biological.

The approach Evaluation

Assumptions Real-world application
The mind and body are one and the same. Understanding of biochemical processes is associated
with the development of psychoactive drugs.
The neurochemical basis of behaviour
Counterpoint – antidepressants do not work for
Thought and behaviour depend on chemicals everyone (Cipriani et al.).
(neurotransmitters e.g. serotonin).
Scientific methods
The genetic basis of behaviour
Precise and objective methods e.g. scanning
Concordance between MZ and DZ twins shows techniques such as fMRI and EEGs.
genetic basis of psychological characteristics.
Biological determinism
Genotype and phenotype
Sees human behaviour as governed by internal
Genes versus expression of genes in genetically-determined factors, an oversimplification.
environment (nature and nurture).
Evaluation extra: Natural selection
Evolution and behaviour Popper claims theory of natural selection can’t be
Natural selection of genes based on survival falsified, but fossil record is supportive.
value and, ultimately, reproductive success.

Biopsychology
The two major physiological systems that regulate behaviour.

The nervous system The endocrine system Structure and function Synaptic transmission
Nervous system Glands and hormones of neurons Synapse
A specialised network of cells, fast-acting Glands produce hormones. Types of neurons Neurons separated by very tiny gap.
and electrical (and chemical) internal Hormones distributed in bloodstream, Sensory – PNS to CNS, long dendrites – short Chemical transmission
communication system. e.g. thyroid gland produces thyroxine. axons. Neurotransmitter released from synaptic
Central nervous system (CNS) Pituitary is the master gland. Relay – sensory to motor or other, short – vesicle into synapse, taken up by postsynaptic
Brain – divided into hemispheres, cerebral short. receptor site on receiving dendrite.
Fight or flight
cortex (outer layer), 3 mm thick. Motor – CNS to effectors, short – long.
Sympathetic arousal: hypothalamus + Neurotransmitters
Spinal cord – connects brain to PNS, pituitary → adrenal gland → adrenaline.
reflexes. Structure of a neuron Specialist functions e.g. acetylcholine for
Adrenaline leads to increased heart Cell body contains nucleus, has dendrites. muscle contraction.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) rate, faster breathing, sweating, inhibits
Axon covered in myelin sheath divided by Excitation and inhibition
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) – digestion.
nodes of Ranvier.
governs vital functions. Immediate and automatic. Adrenaline is excitatory, serotonin is inhibitory.
Somatic nervous system (SNS) – muscle Parasympathetic state – once threat has Electrical transmission Summation
movement, sensory information. passed, body returns to rest and digest. Positive charge leads to action potential. Impulses are ‘added up’, net effect is excitatory
or inhibitory.

A LEVEL ONLY A LEVEL ONLY

The psychodynamic approach Humanistic psychology
Behaviour is determined by unconscious forces that we cannot control. Emerged as the third force in psychology.

The approach Evaluation The approach Evaluation

The role of the unconscious Real-world application Free will Not reductionist
The conscious mind is the ‘tip of the iceberg’. New form of therapy (psychoanalysis), People are active agents who are self-determining. Emphasis placed on the whole
forerunner to ‘talking therapies’. person (holism).
The structure of personality Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Counterpoint – not suitable for all mental Counterpoint – concepts can’t be
Id – primitive part, pleasure principle. disorders (e.g. not for schizophrenia). 5 levels – physiological, safety and security, love observed or measured, so approach
Ego – reality principle, protected by defence and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualisation. lacks empirical evidence.
mechanisms. Explanatory power
Self-actualisation Positive approach
Superego – formed age 5, sense of right and Influential theories about personality,
moral development and gender identity. An innate tendency to want to reach your Optimistic approach that sees people
wrong, morality principle. potential. as basically good and in control.
Psychosexual stages Untestable concepts
Much of the theory is unfalsifiable, The self, congruence and conditions of worth Cultural bias
Five stages, a different conflict at each stage
and based on case studies, thus Personal growth requires congruence between Associated with individualism.
leads to fixations.
pseudoscientific. self and ideal self.
Defence mechanisms Evaluation extra: Limited application
Evaluation extra: Psychic determinism Counselling psychology Critics claim little impact but
Used by the Ego to keep the Id ‘in check’
and reduce anxiety – repression, denial, All behaviour is driven by the Counsellor is genuine, empathic, unconditional revolutionised therapy (counselling),
displacement. unconscious, leaves no room for free will. positive regard (Rogers). Maslow’s hierarchy explains
motivation.

Revision summaries // 129

Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Explain what Wundt meant by ‘introspection’. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer This is a method that was used by Wundt to investigate the way Morticia’s answer is too vague to be of any merit.
people thought.
Luke’s answer It means to look inwards, specifically to look inside a person’s head Luke’s answer is somewhat better but there remains little
to understand what they are thinking and the way their mind works. It’s a way to reference to what Wundt did or how he did it.
access conscious thinking.
Again, a disappointing answer. Vladimir’s reference to the first
Vladimir’s answer Wundt opened the first lab dedicated to the study of psychology.
psychology lab does not help define the term and how Wundt
He wanted to investigate human behaviour and consciousness and used
investigated consciousness is not explained properly.
introspection to do this.

Question 2 Using an example, explain the difference between ‘genotype’ and ‘phenotype’. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Genotypes are your genes which determine things The phenotype explanation is too vague to be of any value. The genotype
like eye colour and many aspects of behaviour. Phenotype is what you definition is marginally better.
actually see in terms of what people are like.
This is an excellent answer from Luke. The definitions are supported by the
Luke’s answer You are born with a set of genes, called your genotype.
example that clearly communicates the distinction between the two terms.
However, these are expressed through the environment so the outcome
is your phenotype which is your genes plus the environment. A good
example is PKU, a genetic disorder which can cause later difficulties
unless the baby’s diet is adjusted (their environment). This adjustment
of the environment leads to the baby’s phenotype.
Vladimir almost communicates what is meant by ‘phenotype’ in the last
Vladimir’s answer Identical twins are a good example of phenotype sentence but more explanation is required. The only solid comment is the
because they have exactly the same genotype but not necessarily the example of identical twins.
same phenotype. Their phenotype is affected by their experiences
(environment) which may be different.

Question 3 Outline the fight or flight response. (3 marks)

Morticia’s answer The fight or flight response describes how a person Morticia’s answer is rather generic but there is relevant content, including
or animal reacts in an emergency situation. The first thing is that reference to adrenaline. Better answers would include detail of physiological
adrenaline is produced and this makes the body ready for physical action. changes and the nervous system.
This might mean fighting or fleeing. If there is no danger then the body
can go back to the relaxed state.
Luke’s answer When stressed the sympathetic branch of the autonomic Luke provides a sophisticated general description of the stress response
nervous system is aroused. This leads the hypothalamus and pituitary followed by specific detail of fight or flight and there are examples of relevant
gland to trigger a response in the adrenal glands, producing adrenaline. physiological changes. Well done.
It is this hormone that causes the physiological arousal associated with
the fight/flight response, e.g. heart rate and breathing increase.
Vladimir’s answer is spot on but a little ‘list-like’ in terms of examples of the
Vladimir’s answer Adrenaline causes biological changes such as
various bodily changes. Some additional detail is at the end but there really
increased heart rate, increased breathing, eye pupils dilate, digestion is
needs to be a bit more – it’s all in the detail.
inhibited, saliva production is suppressed, the rectum contracts and so
on. All of this enables an animal to be able to stand and fight or flee for
their life.

Question 4 A research report claimed that people who believe in aliens are 17 times more likely to claim that they have seen a UFO compared to people
who do not.
Explain what cognitive psychologists mean by ‘schema’. Refer to the information above in your answer. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Schema are packages of ideas that generate expectations. They are Morticia gives a brief but accurate definition of schema
part of the way we think. Cognitive psychologists use them to explain thinking. People supported by a similarly brief link to the stem, so neither
see UFOs because they believe in aliens and therefore are more likely to report them. component amounts to more than a partial answer.
Luke’s answer Schema are used by cognitive psychologists to describe how people Luke’s definition of schema offered here is not strong, though the
think about the world and their experiences. This would explain UFOs because if you link to the stem is partially successful.
don’t believe in them you wouldn’t see them. This is an example of schema because it
shows how people are thinking and it is affected by their schema.
Vladimir’s answer In the example the schema would be the belief that some people
have that aliens do exist. Such schema are a mental framework for thinking about Vladimir has done well. There is reference within this answer to
certain types of things such as UFOs as well as aliens. Having this belief leads to ‘mental framework’, ‘expectations’ and to the idea that schema
expectations and makes such people more likely to actually interpret something they may speed up or distort processing, all of which show clear
see as a UFO. Schema may speed up information processing or may make our cognitive understanding of the concept. The application is also thorough
system prone to error (the UFO may not be there). and well embedded in the answer.

130 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach in psychology. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer Behaviourists take the view that the only thing that psychologists should concern
themselves with is observable behaviour. Behaviourists are also focused on learning. They believe that all Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas
behaviour can be explained through learning – the experiences you have after you have been born. Vladimir’s is an A level response.

Learning may involve classical conditioning or operant conditioning. In the case of classical
conditioning, first described by the Russian Pavlov, learning begins with a basic stimulus–response link. Morticia’s answer is well written and well
An unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response. If a neutral stimulus becomes associated balanced. The first paragraph is clear enough
with the unconditioned stimulus it eventually predicts the unconditioned response, then it has become and followed by accurate, detailed accounts
a conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response. Pavlov demonstrated this with dogs and of the two forms of learning. Her descriptive
salivation. The dogs eventually salivated when they heard a bell because that became associated with content demonstrates knowledge, accuracy,
the arrival of food. clarity and organisation as well as use of
specialist terminology.
Operant conditioning is about operating on your environment. An animal operates on its environment
and this has consequences. If these consequences are rewarding then this reinforces the behaviour There are relevant strengths and a limitation
that brought about the reward and it will be repeated. A behaviour might lead an animal to avoid a here too. Some of these – such as the point
negative experience and this is also reinforcing (negative reinforcement), so the behaviour is likely to be about being a determinist explanation –
repeated. Punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. might have been supported by reference
to alternative approaches. This is not a
One limitation of behaviourist ideas is that they present a rather determinist view of behaviour. They requirement of the question but is just plain
leave out the idea that people can make decisions themselves which is called free will. This is better good analysis. Morticia could have offered
explained by the cognitive approach. Behaviourists suggest that everything we are can be explained by more commentary/analysis in relation to the
past conditioning experiences. use of lab studies.

One strength of the approach is that it is very scientific with lots of very controlled studies of animals Overall the answer is light on evaluation, which
where there are few extraneous variables so the conclusions are firm. On the other hand there is the is especially important for A level. In order
question of whether such very controlled artificial research with non-human animals really can be to produce good answers students must give
applied to human behaviour in the real world. special focus to evaluation and evaluation
skills.
Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has been applied usefully. For example, token
economy systems are used in prisons where rewards are used to shape prisoner behaviour.
 (393 words)

Vladimir’s answer The behaviourist approach is to explain all behaviour in terms of classical and Vladimir also describes the two forms of
operant conditioning, i.e. learning. learning but with slightly less sophistication
than in the answer above.
The first demonstration of classical conditioning was by Pavlov. He was investigating salivation in dogs
and noticed that they could be trained to salivate to the sound of a bell. He demonstrated this process Besides this initial description there is further
in controlled lab conditions. If a bell was rung repeatedly at the same time as food was presented, the descriptive detail. He makes points related to
animal learned to associate the bell with food and eventually salivated to the bell alone. the focus on observable behaviour and the link
between human and animal learning though
Operant conditioning was demonstrated by Skinner with rats and pigeons in a cage called a Skinner these are not always clearly expressed.
box. If the animal pressed a lever a food pellet appeared. This reinforced the lever-press behaviour so
that the animal repeated it more and more. Rats (and pigeons) could also be conditioned to avoid a Evaluation/analysis is present but it is not
stimulus such as an electric shock. the main focus of the essay. There is some
analytic reference to free will (or lack of it),
Both kinds of learning involve no thought. New connections are formed in the brain but behaviourists
the qualitative difference between humans
are not interested in what goes on in the brain – they just focused on how new behavioural links are
and animals, and a very brief comment on the
formed, i.e. learned. They proposed that everything can be learned in this way.
limitations of animal studies at the end.
Behaviourists suggest that humans are made of the same building blocks as animals and therefore the
same laws apply. So all human behaviour too is learned and it is a passive process. Your behaviour is Overall, not as strong on evaluation as the
previous answer and an overly descriptive
conditioned by things outside you. Of course this suggests that we have no free will yet most people do
answer. The evaluation content is partly
feel they have a sense of their own will. Skinner would argue that this is just an illusion of having made
a decision. effective but very limited, whereas the
description is mostly clear and organised and
On the positive side the behaviourist approach has been useful and good because it has led to some specialist terminology has been used. The
good ways to help people such as in prisons where people can be given rewards to encourage different lack of evaluation has a serious impact on
behaviours. Real-world application is a positive for any approach. the overall worth of the answer. There should
 (313 words) always be significantly more evaluation.

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 131

Multiple-choice questions
Origins of Psychology 4. A Behaviourist researcher carried out a lab 2. A cognitive psychologist gave students simple
experiment. He put a rat in a specially designed word lists to learn under lab conditions. The
1. From earliest to most recent, which of the box. Every time a light came on, the rat would students were able to recall an average of seven
following is the correct chronological order of when receive an electric shock to its feet. However, over words within their short-term memory (STM). The
the following psychological approaches were first time, the rat learned that if it pressed a lever when psychologist concluded that the capacity of STM is
established? the light came on, it would not receive the shock. seven items. This is a good example of:
(a) Social learning theory, humanistic, behaviourist, What aspect of operant conditioning is the (a) Inference.
cognitive neuroscience Behaviourist researcher investigating? (b) Interference.
(b) Cognitive neuroscience, social learning theory, (a) Partial reinforcement. (c) Implication.
behaviourist, humanistic (b) Positive reinforcement. (d) Illustration.
(c) Humanistic, behaviourist, cognitive (c) Negative reinforcement.
neuroscience, social learning theory 3. The cognitive approach is a good example of:
(d) Punishment.
(d) Behaviourist, humanistic, social learning theory, (a) Motor reproduction.
cognitive neuroscience (b) Mundane realism.
Learning approaches: Social learning theory
2. Which of the following is a criticism that Watson (c) Mirror reflection.
made of introspection? 1. Which one of the following statements about (d) Machine reductionism.
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments is false?
(a) It can’t be replicated.
(a) Children were more likely to imitate aggression 4. Which statement about cognitive neuroscience is
(b) It doesn’t deal with experience. that was rewarded (reinforced). false?
(c) It produces objective data. (b) Children who saw the model punished were (a) It was first identified in the 1970s as an
(d) It produces subjective data. more likely to imitate aggression than children emergent discipline.
who saw no consequences. (b) It investigates how biological structures
3. Which of the following approaches used a
computer metaphor to study the mind? (c) The experiments have been used to support the influence mental processes.
idea that children may be influenced by what (c) It brings together the fields of cognitive
(a) The humanistic approach.
they see in the media. psychology, anatomy and neurophysiology.
(b) The behaviourist approach.
(d) The experiments support the idea that learning (d) It makes use of advances in brain imaging
(c) The cognitive approach. can often occur indirectly. technology such as fMRI.
(d) The social learning theory approach.
2. Which of the following is not a mediational process
4. The name of Wundt’s pioneering method: in the social learning approach? The biological approach
(a) Introjection. (a) Motivation. 1. Which of the following formulas is true?
(b) Interlocution. (b) Attention. (a) Genotype + phenotype = environment.
(c) Interpretation. (c) Retention. (b) Phenotype + environment = genotype.
(d) Introspection. (d) Application. (c) Genotype + environment = phenotype.
3. Learning through observing the consequences of (d) Genotype – phenotype = environment.
Learning approaches: The behaviourist other people’s behaviour is:
approach 2. Which is the best definition of natural selection?
(a) Positive reinforcement. (a) The perpetuation of the best physical and
1. Which is a basic assumption of the behaviourist (b) Negative reinforcement. psychological traits.
approach? (c) Operant reinforcement. (b) The selection of traits that promote successful
(a) Learning processes in animals cannot be (d) Vicarious reinforcement. survival and reproduction.
generalised to humans.
(c) The survival of the fittest.
(b) The main influence on behaviour is your genes. 4. Which statement about the social learning theory
approach is false? (d) Choosing the best genes for future generations.
(c) Learning is influenced by private mental
processes. (a) Learning and performance always occur 3. Dizygotic twins share approximately what
(d) Learning should be studied scientifically in a together. percentage of their genes?
laboratory. (b) Attention and retention are more likely to be (a) 100.
involved in the learning than performance of (b) 50.
2. Which correctly describes the key steps in classical behaviour.
conditioning? (c) 25.
(c) Motor reproduction and motivation are more
(a) UCR + NS = UCS and CS. likely to be involved in the performance than (d) 0.
(b) UCS + UCR = CS and CR. learning of behaviour. 4. Which of the following is not an assumption of the
(c) NS + UCS = UCR + CR. (d) Role models that children identify with need not biological approach?
(d) UCS + NS = CS and CR. be real but may be symbolic. (a) The brain and the mind are distinct and
separate.
3. Complete this sentence: Operant conditioning is The cognitive approach (b) Psychological characteristics may be genetically
best described as:
1. Which statement about the role of schema is false? determined in the same way that physical
(a) A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped characteristics are.
and maintained by its consequences. (a) They allow us to make mental shortcuts.
(c) An imbalance in neurochemical levels may
(b) A form of learning in which a stimulus is (b) They may lead to perceptual errors. explain mental disorder.
associated with a response. (c) They are not present at birth. (d) Human behaviour has adapted to the
(c) A form of learning in which an observer imitates (d) They act as a mental framework of environment through natural selection.
the behaviour of a role model. interpretation.
(d) A form of learning in which new behaviour
is produced that avoids an unpleasant
consequence.

132 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Biopsychology: The nervous system and the The psychodynamic approach A LEVEL ONLY Humanistic psychology A LEVEL ONLY
endocrine system 1. Which of the following is not a term used by Freud 1. When it first emerged, humanistic psychology
1. Which division of the nervous system is divided in relation to the structure of the mind? came to be known as:
into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches? (a) Conscious. (a) The first force.
(a) The central nervous system. (b) Preconscious. (b) The second force.
(b) The peripheral nervous system. (c) Subconscious. (c) The third force.
(c) The somatic nervous system. (d) Unconscious. (d) May the force be with you.
(d) The autonomic nervous system.
2. In which stage does the Oedipus complex take 2. When there is a mismatch between the self-
2. Which describes the somatic nervous system? place? concept and the ideal self, this is referred to as:
(a) Maintains homeostasis by regulating body (a) Oral. (a) Self-actualisation.
temperature, heartbeat, etc. (b) Anal. (b) Conditions of worth.
(b) Made up of the brain and the spinal cord. (c) Phallic (c) Congruence.
(c) Controls muscle movement. (d) Genital. (d) Incongruence.
(d) Passes messages to and from the brain and
connects nerves to the PNS. 3. Which of the following is ‘transferring feelings 3. According to Rogers, an effective therapist should
from the true source of distressing emotion onto a provide the client with three things. Which of the
3. The master endocrine gland is the: substitute object’? following is not one of these?
(a) Adrenal gland. (a) Displacement. (a) Being empathic.
(b) Pituitary gland. (b) Denial. (b) Being judgemental.
(c) Thyroid gland. (c) Repression. (c) Being genuine.
(d) Hypothalamus. (d) Regression. (d) Unconditional positive regard.
4. Which is not an action of the parasympathetic 4. Freud’s theory is most associated with? 4. Which of the following is a ‘growth need’ in
branch of the ANS? (a) Environmental determinism. Maslow’s hierarchy?
(a) Inhibits digestion. (b) Biological determinism. (a) Self-actualisation.
(b) Contracts pupils. (c) Reciprocal determinism. (b) Love and belongingness.
(c) Stimulates saliva production. (d) Psychic determinism. (c) Safety and security.
(d) Decreases heart rate. (d) Physiological.

Biopsychology: Neurons and synaptic

transmission
1. Which of the following carries messages from the
PNS to the CNS?
(a) Sensory neuron.
(b) Motor neuron.
(c) Relay neuron.
(d) Synaptic neuron.
2. Which is not part of the basic structure of a neuron?
(a) Cell body.
(b) Axon.

Biopsychology: The nervous system and the endocrine system 1D, 2C, 3B, 4A
(c) Effector.
(d) Dendrite.
3. Which of the following does not occur during

Biopsychology: Neurons and synaptic transmission 1A, 2C, 3A, 4D

synaptic transmission?
Learning approaches: The behaviourist approach 1D, 2D, 3A, 4C

(a) The neuron is in a resting state.

Learning approaches: Social learning theory 1B, 2D, 3D, 4A

(b) An electrical impulse triggers the release of

neurotransmitter.
(c) Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic
gap.
The psychodynamic approach 1C, 2C, 3A, 4D

(d) The chemical message is converted back into an

electrical impulse.
The biological approach 1C, 2B, 3B, 4A
The cognitive approach 1C, 2A, 3D, 4A

Humanistic psychology 1C, 2D, 3B, 4A

Origins of psychology 1D, 2D, 3C, 4D

4. The following describes what process?

‘When a neuron is activated by a stimulus, the
inside of the cell becomes positively charged for
a split second. This creates an electrical impulse
that travels down the axon towards the end of
the neuron.’
(a) Synaptic transmission.
(b) Inhibitory response.
MCQ answers

(c) Presynaptic terminal.

(d) Action potential.

Multiple-choice questions // 133

Revision summaries
Definitions of abnormality
How do we decide when someone needs treatment for a mental disorder?

Statistical infrequency Deviation from social norms Failure to function adequately Deviation from ideal
Definition Definition Definition mental health
Numerically unusual behaviour or Social judgements about what is acceptable. Inability to cope with demands of everyday Definition
characteristic. life.
Norms are culture-specific Jahoda considered normality rather
Example: intellectual disability disorder What is thought normal in one culture may not be When is someone failing? than abnormality.
IQ below 70 (bottom 2%) is part of the in another (e.g. homosexuality). Rosenhan and Seligman listed signs e.g. What does ideal mental health look
diagnosis of IDD. non-conformity to social rules, personal
Example: antisocial personality disorder like?
distress, severe distress or danger to self or
Includes lack of symptoms, rationality,
Evaluation Impulsive, aggressive, irresponsible behaviour is
not socially acceptable in many cultures.
others.
self-actualisation, coping with stress,
Example: intellectual disability disorder realistic world-view.
Real-world application
Evaluation Failing to function is part of the diagnosis of
Useful in diagnosis (e.g. IDD) and
assessment (e.g. BDI for depression).
IDD as well as low IQ. Evaluation
Real-world application
Unusual characteristics can be positive Used to diagnose some disorders e.g. antisocial Evaluation A comprehensive definition
Some unusual characteristics would not and schizotypal personality disorder. Includes most of the reasons anyone
be judged abnormal e.g. high IQ. Represents a threshold for help might seek help.
Cultural and situational relativism Provides a way to identify when someone
Evaluation extra: Benefits versus Different standards, therefore hard to make social needs professional help. May be culture-bound
problems judgements (e.g. hearing voices). Some ideas e.g. self-actualisation are
Some people with low IQ function Discrimination and social control specific to US/European cultures, and
adequately and don’t benefit from Evaluation extra: Human rights abuses May lead to people living non-standard independence varies within European
being labelled (social stigma). Social norm approach maintains control over lifestyles being judged as abnormal. cultures (e.g. Germany versus Italy).
minority groups, e.g. women (nymphomania)
and slaves (drapetomania), but useful e.g. for Evaluation extra: Failure to function may not Evaluation extra: Extremely high
antisocial personality disorder. be abnormal standards
Most of us experience such failure e.g. Few people ever meet them, but
bereavement, but still may require help. useful as a goal for mental health.

Phobias
An anxiety disorder.

Characteristics Behavioural explanation Systematic desensitisation (SD) Flooding

Behavioural Two-process model Anxiety hierarchy What is it?
Panic – scream or run away. Two processes of conditioning (Mowrer). A list of situations ranked for how much anxiety Exposes clients to a very frightening
Avoidance – conscious they produce. situation without a build-up.
Acquisition by classical conditioning
effort to avoid.
UCS linked to NS, then both produce UCR (fear), now called Relaxation How does it work?
Endurance – may stay and the CR. Reciprocal inhibition – relaxation and anxiety Works by extinction of the conditioned
bear it. can’t happen at the same time. fear response.
E.g. Little Albert played with rat (NS), heard loud noise
Emotional (UCS), then rat (now CS) produces fear response (now CR). Relaxation includes imagery and/or breathing
Ethical safeguards
Anxiety – unpleasant techniques.
Maintenance by operant conditioning Clients must give informed consent and
state of high arousal, be prepared for flooding.
Avoidance of phobic stimulus negatively reinforced by Exposure
disproportionate to threat.
anxiety reduction, so the phobia is maintained. Exposed to phobic stimulus whilst relaxed at
Fear – short-lasting, more
intense.
each level of the anxiety hierarchy. Evaluation
Evaluation
Emotional response
is unreasonable/ Evaluation Cost-effective
Clinically effective and not expensive,
Real-world application
disproportionate to threat. may take only 1–3 sessions.
Phobias successfully treated by preventing avoidance, as Evidence of effectiveness
Cognitive suggested by the model. More effective than relaxation alone after 33 Traumatic
Selective attention – can’t months (Gilroy et al.) and effective for a range of
Cognitive aspects of phobias Rated as more stressful than SD
look away. phobias (Wechsler et al.).
Fails to account for cognitive aspects of phobias, e.g. (Schumacher et al.), lack of informed
Irrational beliefs – irrational fears. People with learning disabilities consent and higher attrition rates.
unfounded beliefs. SD best – cognitive therapy requires complex
Phobias and traumatic experiences Evaluation extra: Symptom substitution
Cognitive distortions – rational thought, flooding is traumatic.
unrealistic. 73% of people with a dental phobia had past trauma, in Occurs if cause of phobia is not
control group with no phobia only 21% had trauma (De Evaluation extra: SD in virtual reality tackled e.g. women with death phobia
Jongh et al.) Avoids dangerous situations and cost-effective, (Persons), but only evidence is from case
but lacks realism (Wechsler et al.). studies, may not generalise.
Counterpoint – not all cases of phobias follow bad
experiences and vice versa.
Evaluation extra: Learning and evolution
Two-process model explains individual phobias, but
evolutionary approach explains general aspects of phobias.

160 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

 Depression
A mood disorder.

Characteristics Beck’s theory Ellis’s ABC model Cognitive behaviour therapy

Behavioural Faulty information processing A Activating event Beck’s cognitive therapy
Activity levels – lethargy or Attending to the negative aspects of a A negative life event that triggers an Aims to identify negative thoughts (negative triad) and challenge
agitation. situation. irrational response e.g. failing a test. them (client as scientist).
Disruption to sleep/eating
Negative self-schema B Beliefs Ellis’s REBT
– increased or decreased
Negative information about ourselves is Beliefs that lead us to overreact to the ABC + D (dispute) and E (effect). Aims to identify and challenge
Aggression and self-harm, accessed whenever we encounter a self- activating event, e.g. that life must irrational beliefs e.g. by empirical argument.
and irritability. relevant situation. always be fair (‘utopianism’), we must
succeed (‘musturbation’). Behavioural activation
Emotional The negative triad Encouraging the depressed person to engage in enjoyable activities.
Lowered mood. Negative views of the world, the self and C Consequences
Anger towards self
and others, leading to
the future. Depression results when we overreact to
negative life events.
Evaluation
behavioural change.
Evaluation Evidence for effectiveness
Lowered self-esteem, self-
loathing.
Evaluation CBT is as effective as antidepressants, most effective combined
Research support (81% vs 86%, March et al.).
Research shows cognitive vulnerability Real-world application
Cognitive Suitability for diverse clients
precedes depression (Clark and Beck, Cohen Irrational thoughts can be identified and
Poor concentration – et al. prospective study of adolescents). challenged by a therapist. May not be suitable for severe cases of depression or for people
difficulty making decisions. with learning disabilities (e.g. Sturmey).
Attending to and dwelling Real-world application Reactive and endogenous depression Counterpoint – newer evidence suggests CBT is as effective as
on the negative – half- Identify cognitive vulnerability to screen Only explains reactive depression, does drugs or behavioural therapies (Lewis and Lewis) and OK for
empty glass instead of those at risk of depression, then target not explain cases that do not follow an learning disabilities (Taylor et al.).
half-full. vulnerabilities in CBT. activating event (endogenous depression).
Absolutist thinking – Relapse rates
Evaluation extra: A partial explanation Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Benefits short-term, 42% relapsed after 6 months and 53% within
‘black-and-white’.
Explains patterns of cognition, but cannot ABC model places responsibility on the a year (Ali et al.). May need regular repeating.
easily explain extremes of anger or depressed person (victim blaming), but
hallucinations and delusions. the therapy derived from the model Evaluation extra: Client preference
(REBT) does create resilience. CBT effective, at least short-term but some clients prefer to take
medication or explore past.

OCD
An anxiety disorder.

Characteristics Genetic Neural Drug therapy

Behavioural Candidate genes The role of serotonin SSRIs
Compulsions are repetitive. Genes that may be involved in producing Low levels of serotonin (lower Antidepressants that increase levels of serotonin at the synapse
Compulsions are performed symptoms of OCD, e.g. 5HT1-D beta. mood) linked to OCD. e.g. fluoxetine.
to reduce anxiety.
OCD is polygenic Decision-making systems Combining SSRIs with other treatments
Avoid situations that Different combinations of up to 230 genetic Frontal lobes and parahippocampal SSRIs plus CBT offers best effectiveness, plus maybe other drugs.
trigger anxiety. variations (Taylor). gyrus may be malfunctioning.
Alternatives to SSRIs
Emotional Different types of OCD Tricyclics e.g. clomipramine (acts on serotonin plus other systems)
Anxiety and distress Different combinations of gene variations may Evaluation or SNRIs (noradrenaline).
created by compulsions/ cause different kinds of OCD.
obsessions. Research support
Accompanying depression. Antidepressants that work on Evaluation
Guilt and disgust – directed
Evaluation the serotonin system alleviate
OCD, biological conditions (e.g. Evidence of effectiveness
at something such as dirt Research support 17 studies all showed SSRIs more effective than placebos (Soomro
Parkinson’s) have similar symptoms
or oneself. 68% MZ twins and 31% DZ twins have OCD et al.).
to OCD (Nestadt et al.).
Cognitive (Nestadt et al.), OCD 4 times more likely if Counterpoint – psychological therapies alone (e.g. CBT) are likely
family member has it (Marini and Stebnicki). No unique neural system to be more effective than drugs for OCD.
Obsessive thoughts, e.g.
The apparent serotonin–OCD link
about germs. Environmental risk factors may just be co-morbidity with Cost-effective and non-disruptive
Cognitive coping strategies, Over half OCD clients in one sample depression – the depression disrupts Relatively cheap for NHS and don’t involve time spent going to
e.g. meditating. experienced a traumatic event, and OCD was serotonin. therapy sessions.
Insight into excessive more severe (Cromer et al.).
anxiety – may include Evaluation extra: Correlation and Serious side-effects
catastrophic thoughts and Evaluation extra: Animal studies causality SSRIs may lead to indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive,
hypervigilance. Candidate genes have been found in e.g. mice Dysfunction of neural systems may worse for clomipramine (e.g. weight gain and aggressiveness).
(Ahmari), but can we generalise from animal cause OCD but most evidence is
repetitive behaviour to human OCD? correlational, so could be vice versa. Evaluation extra: Biased evidence
Drug researchers sponsored by drug companies, biased results
(Goldacre), but still best available evidence and psychological
therapies research may be biased too.

Revision summaries // 161

Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Beck’s negative triad consists of three kinds of negative views. One of these negative views is about the self. Identify one of the other
components of the negative triad and explain how this might lead to depression. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer The world is another negative view. If people think it is Morticia’s answer fits the bill. Another point of the triad is identified
always going to be negative then they give up trying and withdraw. and the elaboration meets the requirement set out in the question.
Luke’s answer The triad is the self, the future and the world. Negative Luke takes a slightly different approach and the elaboration this time
worldview makes you just generally feel negative, for example you think the is communicated via an example, but the overall effect is the same as
world is a cruel place and this makes you lose hope. Morticia’s.
Vladimir’s answer Feeling negative about other people makes you feel Not so good for Vladimir. ‘Other people’ is too vague as is the
depressed because everything seems black and depressing. elaboration.

Question 2 What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)? (3 marks)

Morticia’s answer OCD has three components. The behavioural component Morticia organises her answer around the three features identified in
is having compulsions which the person tries to avoid. The emotional the specification (behavioural, emotional and cognitive components)
component is accompanying anxiety and distress. The cognitive component is but her answer is rather list-like. For example she just says the cognitive
the obsessive thoughts that give rise to compulsions. component is obsessions - but what are the obsessions?
Luke’s answer OCD is an anxiety disorder where a person has obsessions This is a clear and accurate answer from Luke. Both elements of the
and compulsions. Obsessions are recurring intrusive thoughts and disorder are outlined and there is additional detail in recognising that
compulsions are repetitive actions that the person feels they must complete in OCD is an anxiety disorder. Notice that he wrote less than the other two
order to stop the obsessions. students but his is the best answer.
Vladimir’s answer An obsessive-compulsive disorder is a recurring intrusive Vladimir defines the idea of an obsession (though it is not labelled as
thought that produces anxiety. In order to reduce this and feel better many such). ‘Compulsion’ is not clearly defined and the example does not work
people with OCD feel compelled to do certain things. For example, they might very well – washing your hands five times a day doesn’t really qualify as a
wash their hands five times a day. This reduces their anxiety. compulsion! A weak answer.

Question 3 Rashid has a phobia of balloons. She decides to overcome this phobia using systematic desensitisation. Her therapist teaches her how to relax.
Explain another important part of preparing for her treatment. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Rashid needs to construct the hierarchy. This would go from Morticia shows some understanding of an anxiety hierarchy,
low to high. At the high level it might be her exposure to the biggest thing she would which is relevant, as is the application to Rashid’s fear of
be frightened of, such as a room with lots of balloons. At the lowest level would be balloons. There is engagement with the context beyond just
something that creates just a little anxiety, such as a picture of a balloon on the other using the word ‘balloons’ or ‘Rashid’ occasionally which is all
side of the room. that Vladimir has done. A reasonably good answer from Morticia.
Luke’s answer Rashid would produce a hierarchy of her anxieties, starting from Luke’s answer is even better. It includes implicit reference to the
something that produces very little fear (just a photo of one balloon) up to something ‘stepped approach’ in confronting the phobia and is well focused
that would produce a lot of fear (a room with lots of balloons). Then Rashid starts at on the scenario. An ace response.
the bottom level and practises being relaxed with the photo. When she can do that she
does the same for each level until she can cope with a lot of balloons.
Vladimir’s answer She produces an anxiety hierarchy working with the psychologist. Vladimir gives some relevant detail of the process but there is no
This hierarchy contains items at the bottom which cause very little anxiety and application to Rashid or her balloon fear – just including names
gradually increases until there is an item which would create maximum anxiety. At doesn’t really count as engaging with the stem of the question.
each level Rashid practises feeling relaxed until she is finally cured. She also might have The information on systematic desensitisation is relevant but
homework to do. that’s it.

Question 4 Briefly explain one limitation of using systematic sensitisation to treat phobias. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Systematic desensitisation is a reasonably effective method used Morticia’s answer is somewhat muddled but there is sufficient
to treat phobias such as balloon phobia. However, it isn’t the most effective therapy detail for a 3-mark question. She gets side-tracked a little in the
as research has found that flooding is more effective but far more scary so clients may middle part of this answer but the comparison point is made
drop out. Therefore, overall, systematic desensitisation may be better to use because clearly enough by the end.
there is more likelihood of a positive end result.
Luke’s answer An important limitation of this kind of treatment is that it is not really This is a weak answer because the limitation offered lacks
effective. In fact it results in symptom substitution which makes people worse not better. elaboration. Luke should have explained what symptom
substitution is and why it is a particular problem for systematic
desensitisation. His second sentence is wrong – symptom
substitution does not necessarily make the client worse.
Vladimir’s answer One limitation of systematic desensitisation is that it is based on Vladimir’s answer gets nothing because it is more a limitation
behaviourism and behaviourism is based on animals. This means we are trying to apply of the behaviourist approach in general rather than applied to
the results from research on animals to human behaviour. Humans are different from the therapy particularly. Also just saying ‘quicker’ or ‘cheaper’
animals so this is not really justified. It doesn’t make sense to make such assumptions. without adequate explanation of why is not sufficient.

162 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer There are four main definitions of abnormality. The first is the
statistical infrequency model, the second is deviation from social norms, the third is Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas Luke’s is an A
failure to function and the fourth is deviation from ideal mental health. level response.

According to the first, statistical infrequency model, people are judged to be

abnormal because they do not statistically behave in the same way as others. Most Morticia starts with an introduction listing all the definitions
people behave one way but a few people behave differently and therefore are judged at the beginning. This wastes valuable time when answering a
abnormal. One problem with this definition is that some desirable traits can be judged question and is simply repeated later. Introductions rarely make a
as abnormal. valuable contribution.

The second definition is also deviation, this time not statistical but from social She has managed to cover all four definitions that are named on
norms. This means that a person might be judged as abnormal because they behave the specification but that has been at the expense of detail in
differently from the group. For example, the group might think that people should not places. Descriptively though, this is a good response. Although the
murder other people so anyone who does this is judged as abnormal. A problem with first definition is a little vague, the other three are well described
this definition is that social norms change and therefore it isn’t a fixed way to judge and include examples to illustrate key points. This essay deals well
abnormality. It also is subjective and can lead to human rights abuses. with description.

The third definition is failure to function. What this means is that some people can’t The downside of comprehensive description is a lack of time to
do normal everyday things like get up and go to bed at usual times, feed themselves, produce evaluation, which is especially important when writing a
hold down a job and so on. So they aren’t really coping adequately with life and this is timed essay. It would have been better to simply be selective and
a way to judge them as abnormal. This too requires subjective judgements but on the just cover two definitions (as Luke has done below). In a question
positive side it is more about the client’s experience than the other definitions, which such as this full marks are available for just two definitions.
is a good thing.
The evaluation in Morticia’s answer is placed after each definition.
The final definition is deviation from ideal mental health. Jahoda suggested a list of At least one point has been given for each definition but it is
things that could be used to judge mental health. For example, she said having good a shame Morticia did not elaborate these and develop a more
self-esteem, a job, having no distress, a realistic view of the world, coping with stress, thorough discussion. The point about human rights abuses,
being independent and so on – all of these things are what mentally healthy people particularly, would benefit from further qualification.
have. The trouble with this definition is that very few people actually have all of these
things and therefore it isn’t a very good definition.  (342 words) This answer is descriptively strong but with only some cursory
underdeveloped evaluation. The overall result is weak.
Luke’s answer One of the ways to define abnormality is in terms of social norms. A social norm is how Luke has taken a very different approach to the
society has defined what is acceptable. A norm is something that is typical in any society not just in question from the one above by focusing on
terms of how frequent some behaviours are (which is the statistical infrequency definition) but also in two definitions only. This is arguably the more
terms of what that society has deemed acceptable. An example of this would be antisocial personality difficult route as this requires more depth of
disorder which is defined by DSM-5 in terms of a failure to conform to behaviour that is culturally detail which many find demanding. However, on
normative. Thus this mental disorder has been specifically defined in terms of social standards. the positive side it leaves him much more time
for evaluation.
In a sense this can be seen as a useful and defendable position. People who behave in an antisocial
way, doing things that disrupts the lives of other people and the fabric of our society is abnormal and Both definitions are clearly and accurately
suggests something is wrong with that person’s moral standards. The problem, however, is that this explained. There is a sophisticated level of
kind of definition is open to abuse. It offers a means for any society to control behaviours that are descriptive detail in both, supported by relevant
seen as undesirable by some. For example, women who were sexually promiscuous were diagnosed as examples.
nymphomaniacs and put in mental hospitals. By defining abnormality in terms of social norms, societies
make moral judgements absolute and allow a small number of people to decide what is right. The evaluative points are thorough and very well
developed (compare these with those above).
A further important issue with the deviation from social norms approach is that it is culturally relative. The answer is rich in analysis and commentary
What is acceptable in one society is not acceptable in another. This means that a person living in the and this makes all the difference to the overall
UK from another culture may behave in ways following their own social norms but be judged abnormal value of the answer. Well done.
by local standards. This clearly creates problems for them because they are behaving normally but are
judged as abnormal.
A second definition of abnormality is failure to function adequately. Essentially this is about not being
able to cope with day-to-day life. A person should be able to independently maintain basic standards
of eating and hygiene. We also expect that people should be able to relate to other people and should
be able to do some kind of work. In a sense this definition spills over into the social norms definition
because some of these ideas of ‘functioning adequately’ are socially determined – in some cultures it
might not be expected that everyone has to have a job.
Other signs of inadequate functioning have been suggested such as being distressed and being a
danger to oneself. From this point of view this definition of abnormality takes the client’s perspective
and tries to find a way of defining abnormality, which will help the people who need it.
One problem with this is that such judgements may lead to social control. Some people choose
alternative lifestyles and may only work when they have to and not be in a relationship or may engage
in dangerous leisure activities. Defining such behaviours as abnormal means there is a risk that such
people would be treated as having a psychological disorder.  (487 words)

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 163

Multiple-choice questions
Definitions of abnormality (1) Phobias 2. Which of the following is not an emotional
characteristic of OCD?
1. Which of the following is statistically abnormal? 1. Which of these is a behavioural characteristic of (a) Anxiety.
(a) An IQ of 45. phobias?
(b) Lowered mood.
(b) An IQ of 71. (a) Fear.
(c) Guilt.
(c) An IQ of 120. (b) Avoidance.
(d) Compulsions.
(d) An IQ of 100. (c) Anxiety.
(d) Aggression. 3. People with a diagnosis of OCD are unlikely to
2. What is the main reason why someone with experience which of these cognitions?
antisocial personality disorder would be judged 2. Which of these is an emotional characteristic of (a) Obsessive thoughts.
abnormal? phobias?
(b) Rational thoughts about their obsessive
(a) They are very unusual people. (a) Fear. stimulus.
(b) Their behaviour deviates from social norms. (b) Sadness. (c) Cognitive coping strategies.
(c) They can’t function effectively. (c) Anger. (d) Good insight into their OCD.
(d) They don’t display ideal mental health. (d) Humour.
4. Maintaining constant alertness is called:
3. Which of these is a strength/limitation of statistical 3. Which of these is a cognitive characteristic of (a) Catastrophic attention.
infrequency? phobias?
(b) A behavioural characteristic.
(a) It has no real-world application in diagnosis and (a) Selective attention.
assessment. (c) Hypervigilance.
(b) Delusions.
(b) All unusual characteristics are a bad thing. (d) Paranoia.
(c) Avoidance.
(c) Unusual people need a diagnosis to help them (d) Endurance.
become more normal. The behavioural approach to explaining
(d) Unusual positive characteristics are just as 4. What is the difference between fear and anxiety? phobias
uncommon as unusual negative characteristics. (a) Fear is cognitive, anxiety is emotional. 1. The two-process model of phobias involves:
(b) Fear is emotional, anxiety is cognitive. (a) Classical conditioning only.
4. Which is the best definition of ‘cultural relativism’?
(c) Fear is immediate and anxiety is long term. (b) Operant conditioning only.
(a) Social norms vary between different cultures.
(d) Fear is long term and anxiety is immediate. (c) Social learning only.
(b) Mental health is more common in some
cultures. (d) Classical and operant conditioning.
(c) Social norms are only useful in some cultures.
Depression
2. A case study of learning a phobia by classical
(d) Relationships between relatives is the same in 1. People with depression may experience which of conditioning involved:
all cultures. the following behavioural characteristics?
(a) Little Peter.
(a) Changes to activity level.
(b) Little Hans.
Definitions of abnormality (2) (b) Changes to sleep patterns.
(c) Little Albert.
1. According to Rosenhan and Seligman which of (c) Changes to eating patterns.
(d) Little Mix.
these is a sign of failing to cope? (d) All of the above.
(a) A person no longer conforms to social rules. 3. Which is a limitation of the two-process model?
2. People with a diagnosis of depression are likely to
(b) A person hears voices. (a) It can’t explain how phobias are maintained over
have:
time.
(c) A person experiences mild distress. (a) Lowered mood.
(b) There is no supporting evidence.
(d) A person’s behaviour is unusual. (b) Anger.
(c) It can’t explain how fear of dogs might be
2. According to Jahoda’s ideal mental health criteria, (c) Low self-esteem. acquired.
which of the following is a sign of ideal mental (d) All of the above. (d) It can’t explain preparedness for certain phobias.
health?
3. Which of the following is a cognitive characteristic 4. What reinforces avoidance in the two-process
(a) Failure to cope with stress. of depression? model?
(b) Good self-esteem. (a) Focusing on the negative aspects of a situation. (a) Anxiety reduction.
(c) Being dependent on other people. (b) Low self-esteem. (b) Safety cues.
(d) Conforming to social norms. (c) Anger. (c) Preparedness.
3. Which of these people is failing to function (d) All of the above. (d) Positive reinforcement.
adequately?
4. Absolutist thinking is also called:
(a) Someone who cannot hold down a job.
(a) Half-full, half-empty thinking. The behavioural approach to treating phobias
(b) Someone with an alternative lifestyle.
(b) Black-and-white thinking. 1. Which of the following is not normally part of
(c) Someone who has a fairly happy relationship. systematic desensitisation?
(c) Self-harming thinking.
(d) Someone with a smallish house. (a) Learning relaxation procedures.
(d) Psychomotor thinking.
4. Which of these is a strength of deviation from ideal (b) Constructing an anxiety hierarchy.
mental health? OCD (c) Massive immediate exposure to the phobic
(a) It is usefully narrow. stimulus.
1. Most people with OCD experience:
(b) It applies well to a variety of cultures. (d) Gradually increasing exposure to the phobic
(a) Obsessions only. stimulus.
(c) It is comprehensive.
(b) Compulsions only.
(d) It sets a realistic standard for mental health.
(c) Obsessions and compulsions.
(d) Obsessions or compulsions.

164 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

2. Which of these is a good example of flooding? The cognitive approach to treating depression 4. Which of these would not suggest a genetic basis
(a) Placing a small spider in the next room to a for OCD in a person?
person with arachnophobia. 1. CBT does not use techniques from which of the (a) OCD runs in their family.
following?
(b) Making a person with kinemortophobia watch a (b) They have an identical twin with OCD.
zombie film in the front row of a cinema. (a) Behavioural therapies.
(c) A brain scan shows reduced activity in the lateral
(c) Showing a person with zemmiphobia a giant (b) Cognitive therapy. frontal lobes.
mole rat through a window. (c) Beck’s theory of depression. (d) They had a recent trauma.
(d) Showing a person with lutraphobia a small (d) Biological treatments.
picture of a book about otters through glass. The biological approach to treating OCD
2. Which is the main technique in REBT?
3. Which of the following applies to systematic (a) Reality testing. 1. Drugs are often used to treat OCD for which of the
desensitisation? (b) Disputing irrational beliefs. following reasons?
(a) It has very limited application. (c) Disputing automatic thoughts. (a) No side-effects of drugs.
(b) It is unsuitable for clients with learning (d) Behavioural activation. (b) The cost of drugs compared to other treatments.
difficulties. (c) Drugs have an instant effect.
(c) It has a high dropout rate. 3. Which of the following is true of CBT?
(d) The permanent cure offered by a course of drugs.
(d) It is more effective than relaxation alone. (a) It treats the way people think.
(b) It treats the way people behave. 2. What is the standard biological treatment for OCD?
4. Why might flooding be considered to be superior to (a) SNRIs.
(c) It is reasonably cost-effective.
systematic desensitisation?
(d) All of the above. (b) CBT.
(a) It is less traumatic.
(c) SSRIs.
(b) It is suitable for a wider range of clients. 4. Which of these is a strength of CBT?
(d) Clomipramine.
(c) It is more cost-effective. (a) It only takes several weeks to work.
(d) There are fewer ethical issues. (b) It is of benefit for most clients. 3. Which of the following is not a side-effect of
(c) CBT focuses on the circumstances in which antidepressants?
The cognitive approach to explaining clients live. (a) Memory loss.
depression (d) Clients choose CBT to explore their past. (b) Reduced sex drive.
1. Which of the following is not part of Beck’s (c) Weight gain.
cognitive triad? The biological approach to explaining OCD (d) Depression.
(a) Negative view of the world. 1. Which of these is a true statement concerning OCD? 4. Which of the following statements is true?
(b) Negative view of the future. (a) OCD does not run in families. (a) A standard dose of fluoxetine is 20 mg a day.
(c) Negative view of therapy. (b) OCD involves just one gene. (b) SSRIs should not be combined with any other
(d) Negative view of the self. (c) OCD is caused by one particular combination of treatment.
genes. (c) SNRIs increase levels of serotonin and dopamine.
2. Which of these is a type of dysfunctional belief in
Ellis’s cognitive model? (d) Twin studies suggest OCD is genetically (d) SSRIs can take up to four years to have an effect.
influenced.
(a) Negative self-schema.
(b) Musturbation. 2. Which neural system appears not to be involved in
(c) Negative view of the world. OCD?
(d) Negative view of the self. (a) The serotonin system.
(b) The lateral frontal lobes.
3. Which of the following is a limitation of Beck’s (c) The right parahippocampal gyrus.
model of depression?
(d) The left parahippocampal gyrus.
(a) Studies have never found abnormal cognition in
depressed clients. 3. Which of these applies to neural explanations for
(b) Depressed clients do not report abnormal OCD?
cognition. (a) There is no supporting evidence.
(c) It doesn’t explain all aspects of depression (b) The same mechanisms explain all cases of OCD.
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias 1D, 2C, 3D, 4A

The cognitive approach to explaining depression 1C, 2B, 3C, 4D

The cognitive approach to treating depression 1D, 2B, 3D, 4B
effectively. (c) Neural mechanisms may not cause OCD.
The behavioural approach to treating phobias 1C, 2B, 3D, 4C

The biological approach to explaining OCD 1D, 2C, 3C, 4D

(d) All of the above. (d) The serotonin system is a complete explanation.

The biological approach to treating OCD 1B, 2C, 3D, 4A

4. Which of the following is a limitation of the ABC
model?
(a) There is no evidence linking activating events to
Definitions of abnormality (1) 1A, 2B, 3D, 4A
Definitions of abnormality (2) 1A, 2B, 3A, 4C

depression.
(b) It has no practical application in psychological
therapies.
(c) It doesn’t explain cognitive aspects of
depression.
Depression 1D, 2D, 3A, 4B

(d) It can’t explain hallucinations and delusions in

severe depression.
Phobias 1B, 2A, 3A, 4C

OCD 1C, 2D, 3B, 4C

MCQ answers

Multiple-choice questions // 165

Revision summaries
Experiments
Experimental method Research issues Experimental designs Types of experiment
Aims Extraneous variables Independent groups Lab experiments
Purpose of the investigation. Nuisance variables but Participants in each condition of IV is manipulated in a controlled setting. Participants go to researcher.
randomly distributed. experiment are different.
Hypotheses Field experiments
Testable, operationalised Confounding variables Repeated measures IV is manipulated in a natural setting. Researcher goes to participants.
statement. Vary systematically with IV. All participants take part in all
conditions. Natural experiments
Directional or non-directional Demand characteristics IV changes naturally. DV/setting may be natural or in a lab.
Identifying a difference/ Participants second guess Matched pairs
correlation or not. Choice the aims, alter their Similar participants paired on Quasi-experiments
depends on previous theory/ behaviour. participant variables, allocated to IV based on an existing difference between people, effect on DV is recorded.
research. condition A or B.
Investigator effects
Influence of researcher on
Evaluation
Variables DV/design decisions. Evaluation Lab experiments
IVs and DVs Randomisation Independent groups High internal validity (control CVs/EVs, cause and effect shown), replication more
IV manipulated, DV measured. Chance methods to reduce Participant variables not controlled possible (support for findings). However low external validity (generalisability,
researcher’s bias. (use random allocation). mundane realism), low internal validity (demand characteristics).
Levels of the IV
Less economical. No order effects. Field experiments
Experimental and control Standardisation
conditions. Ensuring all participants Repeated measures Higher external validity (more authentic, realism). Lower internal validity (less
have the same experience. Order effects (use counterbalancing). control). Ethical issues (consent not possible).
Operationalisation
Demand characteristics. Participant Natural experiments
Defining variables so they can variables controlled. More
be measured. Only option for practical/ethical reasons, high external validity (real-world
economical. problems). Limited opportunities, no random allocation (CVs), low realism in a
Matched pairs lab, no manipulation of IV (can’t claim cause and effect).
No order effects. Cannot match Quasi-experiments
participants exactly. Time-consuming. If in a lab, issues as for lab experiment. No random allocation, no manipulation
of IV (can’t claim cause and effect).

Sampling Ethical issues Observation

Population and sample The issues How to deal Types of observation Observational design
Random sample Conflict between rights of with them Naturalistic observations Ways of recording data
Equal chance of selection, lottery. participants and aims of research. Behaviour observed where it would Record everything
Informed consent
Informed consent normally occur. No control over variables. (unstructured) or categories
Systematic sample Signed consent form.
(structured).
Selecting every nth person from list. Advise participant what is Presumptive, prior Controlled observations
involved. Reveals research aims. general, retrospective. Some control over environment, e.g. Behavioural categories
Stratified sample manipulation of variables. Target behaviours broken
Sample reflects the proportion of Deception Deception / protection
Misleading participants/ down into observable
people in different population strata. from harm Covert and overt observations
withholding information. OK if components.
Debriefing, right to Observing without or with participants’
Opportunity sample not distressing. withdraw/withhold knowledge. Sampling methods
Choosing whoever is available. data, counselling. Continuous.
Protection from harm Participant and non-participant
Volunteer sample Psychological/physical risk Event sampling: count
Privacy and Join the group or remain an outsider.
should be ‘normal’. events.
Participants ‘self-select’ e.g. advert. confidentiality
Time sampling: count at
Privacy and confidentiality Use numbers not
Evaluation timed intervals.
Evaluation Right to control and protect
names. Data not shared
with other researchers.
Random sample
personal data. All observations
Capture what people do. Observer bias
Evaluation
Potentially unbiased, control CVs/ and no causal relationships shown. Structured versus

Pilot studies (and more)

EVs. Time-consuming, may not
Naturalistic observations unstructured
work.
Low internal validity (control difficult). Structured – numerical,
Systematic sample High external validity (everyday life). easier to analyse.
Objective method, but time-
consuming, those selected may
Research techniques Controlled observations
Unstructured – may just be
eye-catching information,
refuse (= volunteer sample). Pilot studies High internal validity – extraneous qualitative data harder to
Check procedures and techniques, make changes. variables may be controlled. analyse. Observer bias.
Stratified sample Low external validity (except if covert).
Representative. Cannot account for Behavioural categories
Single-blind
all subgroups. Covert and overt observations Must be observable. Avoid
Participants aren’t aware of aims/conditions until end.
Covert – low demand characteristics but dustbin category. No overlap.
Opportunity sample Double-blind ethically questionable.
Convenient. Unrepresentative. Sampling methods
Neither participants nor individual conducting research know Overt – behaviour may be affected.
Event – useful for
Volunteer sample the aim/condition.
Participant and non-participant infrequent behaviour,
Easy and participants engaged. Control groups and conditions Participant – increased external validity misses complexity.
Volunteer bias, responsive to cues. Used as a comparison or baseline. but may lose objectivity. Time – less effort but
Non-participant – more objectivity may not represent whole
(increased internal validity), less insight. behaviour.

206 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Self-report Correlations
Questionnaires Interviews Designing self-report The method
Questionnaires Structured interviews Questionnaires Types of correlation
Pre-set list. Can use to measure DV Pre-set questions, fixed order, face-to-face. Likert scale, rating scale, fixed choice. Positive, negative and zero.
in experiments.
Unstructured interviews Interviews Difference between correlations and
Closed and open questions No formula, just general topic. Standardised schedule, avoids interviewer experiments
Fixed-choice or not. Quantitative Questions based on responses. bias. Comfortable setting for rapport. No manipulation of variables, no
data or not. Ethical issues. cause and effect.
Semi-structured interviews

Evaluation
Some pre-set questions with follow-ups.
Good questions Evaluation
Questionnaires Evaluation Overuse of jargon Strengths
Distribute to many people. Don’t be too technical. Useful starting point. Quick and
Fixed-choice, easy to analyse. Structured interviews
Emotive language and leading questions economical, using secondary data.
Social desirability response bias. Easy to replicate. Interviewer can’t elaborate/explain.
Replace ‘loaded’ phrases with neutral ones. Limitations
Closed and open questions Unstructured interviews
Double-barrelled questions and double Can’t demonstrate cause and effect.
Quantitative or qualitative data, Flexible. Increased interviewer bias. Analysis more Intervening variables. May be
difficult. Social desirability bias reduced by rapport. negatives
affects ease of analysis. misinterpreted.
Ask one question only.

Data analysis
Qualitative and Primary and Meta- Measures of Measures of Presentation of
quantitative data secondary data analysis central tendency dispersion quantitative data
Qualitative data Primary data Type of Mean Range Tables
Written, non-numerical Collected firsthand for secondary data Add up, divide by the number. Subtract the lowest Raw scores summarised in a grid.
description of participants’ purpose of investigation. Statistical from the highest
thoughts, feelings etc. Median (add 1). Bar charts
analysis of
Secondary data The middle value. Discrete categorical data. Frequency
large number
Quantitative data Collected by someone Standard deviation = height of bar.
of studies. Mode
Expressed numerically other than researcher. Produces effect How much scores
rather than words. Most frequently occurring. (on average) Histograms
size. Continuous data rather than discrete,
Evaluation deviate from mean.
Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation so no space between bars. True zero.
Primary data
Mean
Evaluation Scattergrams
Qualitative data Fits the job, targets Large sample, Shows strength and direction of
Rich in detail. Greater relevant information. Most sensitive and representative. Range relationship between co-variables.
high validity. Easily distorted by extreme values.
external validity. Difficult to Requires time. Publication Easy to calculate.
analyse. May be subjective. Unrepresentative if Normal distribution
Secondary data bias/file drawer Median
there are extremes. Bell curve. Mean, median and mode
Quantitative data problem. Less affected by extremes but not
Inexpensive and easy to at same point. Tails never touch zero.
Easy to analyse (e.g. access. Variation in the sensitive. Standard deviation
graphs). Less biased. quality, e.g. outdated. More precise than Skewed distributions
Mode
Narrower in meaning. range. Distorted by Negative leans right. Positive leans
Relevant to categorical data. left.
extreme values.
Crude, unrepresentative.

Mathematical content Statistical testing: Peer review Psychological research

What you need to know The sign test Aims and the economy
Percentages and fractions Main aims of peer review
Out of 100, part of a whole. Statistical testing 1. Allocate funding. Examples
Decimal places 2. Validate quality of
The concept of significance Attachment research
research.
Digits to right of decimal point 10ths, Research findings have not occurred by chance. Role of father – equal care from mother
100ths etc. 3. Suggest amendments/ and father, means more effective
The sign test improvements. contribution to economy.
Ratios Difference. Repeated measures. Nominal data.
Part-to-whole. Part-to-part.
The concept of probability Evaluation Mental health
Absenteeism due to e.g. depression has
Estimates and order of magnitude Likelihood the sample would occur if the null
Anonymity a cost, psychological research reduces
calculations hypothesis were true. mental disorder (e.g. new drugs, CBT).
Ballpark figures to check calculations. May permit unjustified
Usually use the 5% significance level (p < 0.05).
criticisms by rivals.
Significant figures Sometimes more stringent 1% level (p < 0.01).
Publication bias
Count non-zero figures, except zero The critical value
place holders. File drawer problem, creates
Comparison with calculated value for significance. false impression of current
Standard form Steps knowledge.
[number between 1 and 10] × 1. Convert to nominal data. Burying groundbreaking
10 [to the power of x] 2. Add up pluses, add up minuses. research
Mathematical symbols 3. S = less frequent sign. Maintains status quo.
=, >, <, >>, <<, ∝, ≈ 4. Compare calculated value of S with critical value.
If S ≤ critical value, the difference is significant.
Revision summaries // 207
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 A teacher was interested to know whether there was a gender difference in the time spent doing homework between students at his school.
The teacher selected a random sample of 20 boys and 20 girls from the whole school and got them to record the time (in minutes) they spent doing
homework at the end of each day. After four weeks the teacher compared the total time for boys and girls and found there was very little difference in the
time boys and girls spent doing homework.

(a) This is an example of a quasi-experiment. Explain why this is a quasi-experiment. (2 marks)

Morticia’s answer It is a quasi-experiment because it was done in a natural Morticia’s answer does not distinguish a quasi-experiment, many quasi-
setting. experiments are actually done in labs.
Luke’s answer It is a quasi-experiment because participants were not Luke gives half a good answer but the ‘variables were natural’ is too vague
randomly allocated to conditions and the variables were natural. for more than a basic answer.
Vladimir’s answer Participants were not randomly allocated to conditions
and the independent variable was pre-existing categories (gender), not Helpfully, Vladimir supplies the missing element to Luke’s answer! This is
something manipulated. clear and accurate with a relevant link to the study described.

(b) Explain one limitation of a quasi-experiment. Refer to the experiment above in your answer. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer One limitation is that you can’t draw cause and effect Morticia’s answer could be made into a relevant limitation that applies to
conclusions about boys and girls. this study but is too poorly expressed for any value.
Luke’s answer One limitation of quasi-experiments is that there may be This is a good answer from Luke. The limitation is brief but clearly stated
confounding variables because we can’t randomly allocate the participants and explained in the context of the investigation described in the stem.
to conditions, for example it might be that girls were smarter and that’s why
they spent more time on homework. Vladimir’s answer is focused on the stem and is plausible but is not really
Vladimir’s answer In this example a limitation would be that the girls and a limitation of quasi-experiments as much as experiments in general so
boys were aware of what the teacher was investigating and shaped their only some value in this answer.
answer to suit the aims.

(c) The teacher used random sampling to select participants. Explain how the teacher may have used random sampling in this experiment. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer You do this by using the lottery method where you select It’s not clear who ‘they’ are in Morticia’s answer and reference to the
their names from a hat. lottery method alone is not sufficient. Little of merit here.

Luke’s answer First you get a list of everyone in the school, then you put all Luke’s is a better answer – there is some application to the stem – but the
the names in a large bowl and select 20 girls and 20 boys. girls and boys would be selected separately (as described below). This is a
reasonable response.
Vladimir’s answer If you first divide the list of everyone in the school into
girls’ names and boys’ names and number every name you can then use a An excellent answer from Vladimir that is clearly focused on the stem and
computer randomiser to select 20 of each. recognises the importance of the girls and boys as separate groups.

(d) Before the experiment began, the teacher conducted a pilot study. Explain one reason why the teacher decided to conduct a pilot study. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer The teacher would do this because he wants to see if his Morticia makes a common error – pilot studies do not test hypotheses,
hypothesis is right and not waste time on the real study if it isn’t. they ‘road-test’ procedures and materials.

Luke’s answer A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of the study itself Luke’s answer reads more like a definition of a pilot study rather than a
where you can test procedures and see if there are any problems. reason to conduct it. There is reference to testing procedures though, so
there is something of value here.

Vladimir’s answer This is a good way to make sure you don’t waste time Quite a weak, generic answer but Vladimir has cited a reason why pilot
later. studies are conducted and thus the answer has some value but not perfect.

(e) Explain how demand characteristics may have affected the outcome of this experiment. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer The students may have guessed what the study was Morticia has given a generic answer and not focused on the stem. This is
about and changed their behaviour. a weak answer.

Luke’s answer If they guess the aims then they might give the answer the Luke demonstrates understanding of the concept and there is some
teacher wants such as the girls might have exaggerated the time they spent context in the answer suggested by the stem. This question is only worth
because that’s what the teacher expected. 2 marks so his answer is sufficient.

Vladimir’s answer They would have made the experiment less valid because Vladimir’s use of validity is relevant but, unlike above, the understanding
the teacher would not have got honest answers. of demand characteristics is not sufficiently conveyed to go beyond being
‘partial’.

208 // Chapter 6 Research methods

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 2 Following the experiment described on the facing page, the teacher selected a smaller sample of girls and boys from the original study to
take part in an interview. The interview was made up of a list of pre-set questions that the teacher read out to the students one after the other. The topic
was whether students felt they received too much homework, too little, or the right amount.

(a) Identify the type of interview the teacher conducted. Justify your answer. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer It’s a structured interview because there were pre-set Morticia has given the bare minimum but enough! The correct interview
questions. is identified and there is application, albeit brief.
Luke’s answer It’s structured rather than unstructured which suits this Luke has identified the type correctly but the application to this context is
task. too minimal.
Vladimir’s answer The questions were fixed in advance and therefore it is
called a structured interview. Vladmir’s answer is short but accurate.

(b) Write one closed question that the teacher could have asked as part of the interview. (1 mark)
Morticia’s answer Why is homework important? Morticia’s example is not a closed question as it would not restrict the
respondent to a fixed range of answers, so no good.

Luke’s answer Do you mind doing homework – yes or no? In Luke’s example the choice is restricted, so spot on.

Vladimir’s answer How many nights a week do you do homework? Vladmir’s question has a fixed range of answers (between 1 and 7) so it is
also fine.

(c) Explain one limitation of interviews in the context of this study. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer It may be difficult to analyse the answers if there are a lot A relevant limitation is identified here but not developed further, a weak
of open questions. This is a limitation. answer.
Luke’s answer Since the topic is homework it might be better to adapt the Luke’s answer is entirely focused on the context of the study and is well
questions as you go along to get more information from the students instead elaborated, a perfect answer.
of having fixed questions. Further questions depend on how much homework
they actually get and how much they do.
Vladimir’s answer Structured interviews ensure that different interviewers Unfortunately Vladimir has given a strength of structured interviews
don’t behave differently. rather than a limitation.

(d) Identify one ethical issue that the teacher should have taken account of when designing this follow-up investigation and explain one way the teacher
could have dealt with this ethical issue. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Informed consent. Asked them to sign a consent form. Morticia has identified an appropriate issue but the rest of her answer
isn’t complete because, as the children are of school age, consent would
also need to be sought from the parents.

Luke’s answer Protection from harm. Told them beforehand about any Luke again has an appropriate issue but the rest is a brief attempt at the
potential harm such as revealing personal information or feeling upset. second half of the question (protection from harm is quite a difficult issue
to discuss anyway) that would only partially deal with the issue. However,
this answer is obviously a bit better than Morticia’s.

Vladimir’s answer Confidentiality. Told the students before that no names Finally Vladimir has selected a different but creditworthy issue. His
would be stored with the answers and all answers would be confidential. method of dealing with it would only partly deal with the issue. The
students might also be reminded of this during debriefing and the
teacher should not share their data with others. This answer is on a par
with Luke’s because he has identified an issue and given some (but not
sufficient) information about dealing with it.

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 209

Multiple-choice questions
Experimental method Experimental designs Sampling
1. Which statement is the non-directional 1. Which is not a type of experimental design? 1. Which is not a feature of random sampling?
hypothesis? (a) Repeated measures. (a) Obtain a complete list of the target population.
(a) To investigate whether there is a gender (b) Independent groups. (b) Identify subgroups/strata within the
difference in judging the speed of a car. (c) Matched pairs. population.
(b) Men are more accurate in judging the speed of (d) Participant design. (c) Assign all the names on the list a number.
a car than women. (d) Generate a sample using a lottery method.
(c) There is a difference in accuracy of judging the 2. Which is not a type of order effect?
speed of a car between men and women. (a) Fatigue. 2. Choosing every 4th house on a street is an
(d) Women are more accurate in judging the speed (b) Concentration. example of:
of a car than men. (c) Practice. (a) Opportunity sampling.
(d) Boredom. (b) Volunteer sampling.
2. An experiment investigated whether close
proximity to strangers increased heart rate. The (c) Systematic sampling.
DV would be: 3. Which of these is an attempt to control for order (d) Stratified sampling.
effects in a repeated measures design?
(a) Proximity of strangers. 3. Which is most likely to produce a representative
(a) Random allocation.
(b) The strangers. sample?
(b) Control condition.
(c) Heart rate. (a) Opportunity sampling.
(c) Demand characteristics.
(d) The participants. (b) Volunteer sampling.
(d) Counterbalancing.
3. Which would not be an effective way of (c) Systematic sampling.
operationalising aggression? 4. Which of these is an attempt to control for (d) Stratified sampling.
participant variables in an independent groups
(a) Number of punches thrown. design? 4. Standing in a busy shopping centre and picking
(b) Number of expletives used. (a) Random allocation. people ‘at random’ to be part of the sample is:
(c) Distance someone stood from someone else. (b) Control condition. (a) Opportunity sampling.
(d) Facial expressions. (c) Demand characteristics. (b) Volunteer sampling.
4. An effective experimental hypothesis should (d) Counterbalancing. (c) Systematic sampling.
include: (d) Stratified sampling.
(a) A clearly operationalised co-variable. Types of experiment
(b) A clearly operationalised DV. Ethical issues and ways of dealing with
1. An experiment that measured the effects of an them
(c) A clearly operationalised EV. earthquake on stress levels (measured before and
(d) A clear aim. after) would be a: 1. Which is not an alternative way of gaining
(a) Quasi-experiment. consent?
Research issues (b) Lab experiment. (a) Affirmative consent.
1. Which best describes a ‘confounding variable’? (c) Natural experiment. (b) Presumptive consent.
(a) Any variable, other than the IV, that may have (d) Field experiment. (c) Prior general consent.
systematically affected the DV. (d) Retrospective consent.
2. Which would not be classed as a ‘true’
(b) Any variable that may potentially affect the IV experiment? 2. Anonymity is a way of dealing with:
or DV. (a) Field experiment. (a) Informed consent.
(c) Any cue from the researcher or research (b) Lab experiment. (b) Confidentiality.
situation that may reveal the aims of the study.
(c) Quasi-experiment. (c) Deception.
(d) Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour that
may influence the outcome of research. (d) Controlled experiment. (d) Harm.

2. ‘Individual differences between participants that 3. Which one is not usually a strength of a lab 3. Which is not a major principle of the BPS code of
may affect the DV’ is specifically described as: experiment? ethics?
(a) Extraneous variables. (a) High external validity. (a) Respect.
(b) Confounding variables. (b) Establishes cause and effect. (b) Incompetence.
(c) Situational variables. (c) Precise control of variables. (c) Responsibility.
(d) Participant variables. (d) Replication is possible. (d) Integrity.

3. The use of chance in order to control for the effects 4. Which is not possible in a quasi-experiment? 4. Which would not typically be part of a debriefing?
of bias best describes which of the following? (a) Operationalisation. (a) Informing participants of the aim of the
(a) Situational variables. (b) Random allocation. investigation.
(b) Demand characteristics. (c) Standardisation. (b) Informing participants of the right to withhold
(d) Replication. data.
(c) Standardised instructions.
(c) Thanking participants for their involvement.
(d) Randomisation.
(d) Allocating participants to different conditions.
4. Standardisation is useful when it comes to
investigations being…
(a) Reinterpreted.
(b) Replicated.
(c) Complicated.
(d) Estimated.

210 // Chapter 6 Research methods

Pilot studies (and more) Observational design Self-report design
1. Which is not a reason to conduct a pilot study? 1. Counting the number of times a particular 1. Which one is not a style of closed question?
(a) To save time and money. behaviour occurs. (a) Likert scale.
(b) To road-test the procedure. (a) Continuous recording. (b) Fixed-choice option.
(c) To make modifications if necessary. (b) Time sampling. (c) Free response system.
(d) To deal with order effects. (c) Stratified sampling. (d) Rating scale.
(d) Event sampling.
2. Which best describes a double-blind procedure? 2. To reduce interviewer bias, interview schedules
(a) When participants do not know the aim of the 2. Observer bias is more likely using: should be:
study. (a) Event sampling. (a) Individualised.
(b) When participants do know the aim of the (b) Behavioural categories. (b) Itemised.
study. (c) Unstructured observations. (c) Standardised.
(c) When neither the participants nor the person (d) Structured observations. (d) Operationalised.
conducting the study know the aim of the
study. 3. Which would not be associated with an effective 3. Which one is not a feature of a well-written
(d) When both the participants and the person behavioural category? question?
conducting the study know the aim of the (a) Ambiguous. (a) Lack of jargon.
study. (b) Measurable. (b) Emotionally neutral.
3. In a drug trial, the group that received a placebo (c) Observable. (c) Ambiguous.
would be the: (d) Self-evident. (d) No double-negatives (!)
(a) Experimental condition. 4. Which is a term that describes an ineffective 4. Before questionnaires are distributed, questions
(b) Blind condition. behavioural category? should be tested with a small group of
(c) Control condition. (a) Dustbin. respondents. This is a:
(d) Mint condition. (b) Binbag. (a) Matched pairs design.
(c) Dustcart. (b) Double-blind study.
4. Which would not be tested in a pilot study?
(d) Binliner. (c) Control condition.
(a) The hypothesis.
(d) Pilot study.
(b) The procedures.
(c) The standardised instructions.
Self-report techniques
Correlations
(d) The materials to be used. 1. Which is an open question?
(a) Do you smoke? (yes/no) 1. When an untested variable may be causing the
Observational techniques (b) Why do you smoke? relationship between co-variables, this is:
(c) ‘Smoking is bad for you’ (a) The first variable problem.
1. Which of these does not relate to observational (b) The second variable problem.
techniques? strongly agree 5 4 3 2 1 strongly disagree
(d) How many cigarettes do you smoke a day? (c) The third variable problem.
(a) Covert vs. overt.
(less than 10 / more than 10) (d) The fourth variable problem.
(b) Complete vs. partial.
(c) Participant vs. non-participant. 2. A questionnaire can be used as part of an 2. Correlations may be quick and economical to carry
(d) Controlled vs. naturalistic. experiment to measure: out because they use:
(a) The dependent variable. (a) Secondary data.
2. Which is a covert observation? (b) The independent variable. (b) Primary data.
(a) Rosenhan’s pseudopatient study. (c) An extraneous variable. (c) Very little data.
(b) Milgram’s obedience study. (d) A confounding variable. (d) Qualitative data.
(c) Zimbardo’s obedience study.
(d) Bandura’s Bobo doll study. 3. Which one is not a type of interview? 3. Which best describes a negative correlation?
(a) Multi-structured. (a) As one variable falls, so does the other.
3. Which is least likely to apply to participant (b) Unstructured. (b) As one variable rises, the other falls.
observations?
(c) Structured. (c) There is no relationship between the two
(a) The risk of adopting a local lifestyle. variables.
(d) Semi-structured.
(b) Giving a first-hand account. (d) Both variables rise and then fall.
(c) Insight into group mentality. 4. When a respondent answers in a way that makes
(d) Low external validity. them look ‘good’, this is known as? 4. Which is not an advantage of correlational
(a) Acquiescence bias. research?
4. ‘An observation that takes place in the setting (b) Observer bias. (a) It may reveal interesting patterns that can be
where the target behaviour would usually occur’ followed up using other methods.
best describes? (c) Social desirability bias.
(d) Response bias. (b) It tends to be quick and economical to carry out.
(a) Disclosed observations. (c) It provides information on the strength and
(b) Non-participant observations. direction of relationships.
(c) Naturalistic observations. (d) It can demonstrate causal relationships.
(d) All observations.

Multiple-choice questions // 211

Types of data 2. What percentage of the population fall within one 3. On which occasion would a researcher use a more
standard deviation above and below the mean on stringent level of significance?
1. Which would be classed as quantitative data? a normal distribution? (a) Study involving animals.
(a) An extract from a diary. (a) 6.826%. (b) Study cannot be repeated.
(b) A transcript from an interview. (b) 68.26%. (c) When IV changes naturally.
(c) Notes from a counselling session. (c) 3.413%. (d) A matched pairs design.
(d) Scores on an IQ test. (d) 34.13%.
4. Which piece of information is not required to read
2. Which is not a strength of primary data? 3. A very easy test would be likely to produce a: a critical values table?
(a) It requires less time and effort than secondary (a) Normal distribution. (a) The N value.
data. (b) Positive skew. (b) Knowing if the hypothesis is directional or
(b) It can be designed to target the information (c) Negative skew. non-directional.
that the researcher needs. (c) The significance level.
(d) Curvilinear relationship.
(c) It tends to have higher validity than secondary (d) A sound working knowledge of 1970s zombie
data. 4. Which is not a feature of a normal distribution? films.
(d) It is acquired first hand from the participants (a) The mean, median and mode are all at the
themselves. same point. Peer review and psychological research and
3. Which is most likely to produce qualitative data? (b) Most scores are located in the middle of the the economy
curve.
(a) An experiment. 1. Which of the following is not one of the aims of
(c) The extreme ends of the curve never touch the
(b) A structured observation. x-axis. peer review?
(c) A questionnaire (made up of closed questions). (d) The graph demonstrates positive correlation. (a) To validate the quality and relevance of
(d) An interview. research.
Mathematical content (b) To suggest improvements or amendments.
4. Which is another way of saying publication bias in
a meta-analysis? (c) To slow down the rate of progress in a scientific
1. Order of magnitude calculations is another way of field.
(a) The sock drawer problem. saying: (d) To allocate research funding.
(b) The file drawer problem. (a) Convert to a decimal.
(c) The filing cabinet problem. (b) Produce a ratio. 2. Publication bias in peer review is similar to:
(d) The missing file problem. (c) Simplify. (a) Bottom of the ladder problem.
(d) Make an estimate. (b) Filing cabinet problem.
Measures of central tendency and dispersion (c) Lost luggage problem.
2. If there were 6 male students in a psychology class (d) File drawer problem.
1. Which is not a measure of central tendency? of 20, the ratio 6:14 would be:
(a) Range. (a) A part-to-whole ratio. 3. During peer review, it is usually the case that the
(b) Mean. (b) A whole-to-part ratio. peer doing the reviewing remains:
(c) Median. (c) A part-to-part ratio. (a) Anomalous.
(d) Mode. (d) A cheek-to-cheek ratio. (b) Anonymous.
(c) Analogous.
2. Which would be the most appropriate measure of 3. The symbol ∝ means:
central tendency for the following data set: 34, 36, (d) Ubiquitous.
(a) Much greater than.
36, 37, 38, 39, 39, 673? 4. What fraction of absences from work are caused
(b) Inequality.
(a) The mean. by ‘mild to moderate’ mental disorders?
(c) Proportional.
(b) The median. (a) Half.
(d) Weak approximation.
(c) The mode. (b) A third.
(d) None of them. 4. John scored 6 out of 25 in a test. What percentage (c) Quarter.

Peer review and psychological research and the economy 1C, 2D, 3B, 4B
is this? (d) A fifth.
3. A high standard deviation might indicate: (a) 34%.
(a) A high mean. (b) 16%.
(b) A low dispersion.
Ethical issues and ways of dealing with them 1A, 2B, 3B, 4D

Measures of central tendency and dispersion 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D

(c) 36%.
(c) A widely spread set of data. (d) 24%.
(d) A repeated measures design.
4. Adding 1 as part of the calculation of the range is a: Statistical testing: The sign test
Statistical testing: The sign test 1C, 2A, 3B, 4D

(a) Standard error. 1. Which is not a condition for using the

(b) Normal distribution. sign test?
Observational techniques 1B, 2A, 3D, 4C

Graphs and distributions 1D, 2B, 3C, 4D

Designing observations 1D, 2C, 3A, 4A
Pilot studies (and more) 1D, 2C, 3C, 4A

(c) Way of balancing extreme scores. (a) Nominal data.

Self-report techniques 1B, 2A, 3A, 4C

Mathematical content 1D, 2C, 3C, 4D

Experimental designs 1D, 2B, 3D, 4A
Experimental method 1C, 2C, 3D, 4B

Types of experiment 1C, 2C, 3A, 4B

(d) Way to allow for rounded scores. (b) Repeated measures design.
Self-report design 1C, 2C, 3C, 4D
Research issues 1A, 2D, 3D, 4B

(c) Correlation.
Types of data 1D, 2A, 3D, 4B

Presentation of quantitative data (d) Testing for a difference.

Correlations 1C, 2A, 3B, 4D
Sampling 1B, 2C, 3D, 4A

1. Which would be most suitable for displaying a 2. What is the accepted level of
correlation? significance in psychology?
(a) Line graph. (a) 0.05
(b) Bar chart. (b) 0.01
(c) Histogram. (c) 0.1
Answers

(d) Scattergram. (d) 0.5

212 // Chapter 6 Research methods