Culture is defined as an individual's way of life, encompassing food, clothing, housing, and

both material and non-material possessions1. Non-material aspects include norms, values,
music, dance, poetry, and other forms of creative expression2. Culture also covers fads,
fashion, manners, taboos, scientific knowledge, and technology, as seen in architecture,
engineering, medicine, transportation, and communication advancements3. Filipinos are
recognized for their rich traditions and cultural practices4.

Society is an organized group of interdependent people sharing a common territory,

language, and culture, who act together for collective survival and well-being5. Their
interdependence is evident in economic, communication, and defense systems, and they are
united by a common identity and pride of place6.

Politics refers to the theory, art, and practice of government7. The political institution involves
the acquisition and exercise of power and decision-making in society8. The state is the
institution that establishes social norms regarding the legitimate use of physical force within a
territory, how power is acquired and maintained, and how it is organized and exercised9. The
government is a concrete example of a political institution that exercises power in governance
and decision-making10.

Power is manifested through the acquisition of statuses and functions11. For example, the
president or prime minister heads the government, serving as chief executive and
commander-in-chief in policy-making, governance, and law enforcement12. They lead the
military and cabinet, designate roles for cabinet members, and can approve or veto decisions
made by the cabinet or legislative body13. They also have a check-and-balance power to
review other government branches14. In democratic principles, power is granted to individuals
or institutions to run the government and implement the rule of law15. The president or prime
minister and cabinet members have executive power to execute governance and implement
laws16. Legislators (senators and congressmen) have legislative power to make and pass
laws17. The judiciary interprets laws according to societal standards and norms18. The
executive, legislative, and judiciary branches are expected to work harmoniously to maintain
the balance of power19. These concepts—culture, society, and politics—are essential for
understanding human behavior and social groups, being interrelated and reflective of each
other, yet distinct20.

Gender refers to the socially-constructed characteristics of being male or female, essentially

society's division of humanity into two categories based on sex21. It guides how males and
females think, act, interact, and perform societal roles22. While sex is biological, gender is
culturally learned23. Hormonal distinctions and varying sexual arousal levels are sex
differences24. Masculinity and femininity, and productive/reproductive roles, vary by culture25.
Historically, in the Judeo-Christian world, men were seen as superior and assigned more
vigorous roles like plowing, while women were relegated to homemaking and child-rearing26.
Gender is not just about differences but how society confers power to each sex, leading to
empowerment and sensitivity27. Gender also functions as a dimension of inequality,
particularly in the division of labor where gender stereotypes were ascribed to job domains28.
In the past, banking and finance were male domains, while fashion, interior design, and
cooking were female29. However, overlapping of domains has occurred, with men becoming
top chefs and women becoming leading bankers, due to more gender-friendly
environments30. Some indigenous communities, however, maintain traditional stereotypes,
such as women warriors in the Amazon and New Guinean highlanders where men are more
gossipy, artistic, and nurturant than their wives31.

Socioeconomic status refers to categories of people with similar socioeconomic privileges

acquired through inherited wealth or the breadwinner's job position32. In the Philippines, three
social classes are identified: upper, middle, and lower, also categorized as A, B, C, D, and E33.

The upper class consists of elite families, productive in resource generation and successful in
agriculture, industry, business, and government34. This class has two types: the new rich
(nouveau riche) who rose from humble beginnings through hard work, and the traditional
upper class who inherited wealth35. Some upper-class families have questionable pasts36.
Rodel Rodis's article "The self-perpetuating elite of the Philippines" traces their origin to
Spanish colonizers appointing prominent local ilustrados (educated ones) as gobernadorcillos
(petty governors) to collect taxes37. The American colonizers, including Governor William
Howard Taft, continued this practice, believing these ilustrados would easily adopt
self-government due to their status38. Political power in Philippine provinces was held by local
ilustrados who kept it within their families39. Carlos Conde noted that political dynasties are an
offshoot of the colonial experience where the Filipino elite was nurtured by Spanish and
American colonizers, and this feudal system persisted post-independence as landed families
protected interests by occupying public office40.

The middle class includes small business/industry owners and managers, professionals, office
workers, and farm owners with sufficient income for a comfortable living41. Filipino overseas
workers contributing to the remittance economy are also in this category42.

The lower class comprises farm employees, skilled/unskilled artisans, service workers, the
unemployed/underemployed, and indigent families or informal sector workers43. This is the
largest group, earning a living through subsistence, characterized by difficulty affording three
meals a day, insufficient daily income for the family, and lack of permanent jobs for the
breadwinner44. Rising percentages of those in the lower class are often attributed to
poverty-stricken communities45.

The Class A, B, C, D, and E categorization is also used46. A and B are high-income groups (1%
of families), with an average annual income of P1.8 million and above in 200947. Class C
constitutes 9% with an average annual income of P600,00048. Class D makes up 60% with an
average income of P190,000 per annum49. Class E covers 30% of the population, earning a
mere P62,000 per year50.

Ethnicity is the expression of cultural ideas held by a distinct ethnic or indigenous group51. An
ethnic group is defined by collective public identification based on cultural features like
language, shared ancestry, common origin, customs, and traditions52. In 2000, major
ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines included Tagalog (28.1%), Cebuano (13.1%), Ilocano
(9%), Bisaya/Binisaya (7.6%), Ilonggo/Hiligaynon (7.5%), Bikol (6%), Waray (3.4%), and others
(25.3%)53.

Religion is an organized system of ideas about spirituality and the supernatural, including
practices, ceremonies, and rituals used to understand phenomena not explained by human
reason54. The 2000 census showed Catholics (82.9%, with 80.9% Roman Catholic and 2%
Aglipayan), Islam/Muslims (5%), Evangelical (2.8%), Iglesia ni Kristo (2.3%), other Christian
denominations (4.5%), others (1.8%), unspecified (0.6%), and no religion (0.1%)55.

Exceptionality refers to being intellectually gifted or having physically/mentally challenged

conditions related to personality/behavior, communication (learning disability, speech
impairment, hearing problems), intellect (mild intellectual and mental development
disabilities), physical appearance (blind-low vision), or a combination of these56.

Nationality is the legal relationship binding a person to a country, allowing the state to protect
and have jurisdiction over them57. Those born of Filipino parents or naturalized after fulfilling
residence requirements are granted Filipino nationality58. For example, Philippine-born
Chinese who become naturalized Filipinos fall into this category and comprise 4% of the
Philippine population59.