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This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
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Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
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A Comprehensive Review of Solar Photovoltaic

Systems: Scope, Technologies, Applications,
Progress, Challenges and Recommendations
SHOAIB AHMED1,2, AMJAD ALI3,4 (Senior Member IEEE), JAMSHED AHMED ANSARI5
(Senior Member IEEE), SIKANDAR ABDUL QADIR3, AND LAVEET KUMAR6 (Senior Member IEEE)
1
Department of Engineering, University of Basilicata, Via dell’Ateneo Lucano, 10, 85100 Potenza, PZ, Italy
2
Department of Information and Electrical Engineering and Applied Mathematics (DIEM) Invariante 12/B, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084,
Fisciano, (SA), Italy.
3
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Sustainable Energy Systems (IRC-SES), King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261,
Saudi Arabia
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
5
Department of Electrical Engineering, Sukkur IBA University, Sukkur, Pakistan
6
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar.

Corresponding author: Shoaib Ahmed ([email protected] ), Laveet Kumar ([email protected])

The open access funding is provided by the Qatar National Library. The Author Dr. Shoaib Ahmed also acknowledges the National Photovoltaic program in
Italy and Sukkur IBA University.

ABSTRACT The paradigm for energy systems has shifted in the last several years from non-renewable
energy sources to renewable energy sources (RESs). Leveraging RESs seeks to meet local demand while
reducing complexity, expense, and inefficiencies and promoting energy independence, local resilience, and
the transition to zero CO2 emissions. One of the RES technologies that could help create clean, dependable,
scalable, and reasonably priced energy is solar energy. This article offers a detailed analysis of solar
photovoltaic (PV) technology. It examines the distinct qualities and developments of the three generations of
solar PV technologies: first-generation crystalline silicon, second-generation thin-film, and third-generation
developing technologies including perovskite and organic cells. The study also looks at the many diverse
applications of solar photovoltaics, such as energy communities, microgrids, transportation systems,
telecommunications, and agriculture. Moreover, it highlights the deployment of the solar PV system in Italy
by overseeing the installed capacity, electricity generation, and energy consumption with different types of
energy sources after focusing on global and European scenarios. From the data, it is seen that China, USA,
and India have led the world in capacity growth for solar PV, while Europe continues to lead the way in
policy-driven solar adoption. Italy has made great growth in Europe after Germany in 2023 as compared to
previous years. Apart from this, the challenges are also seen which could result the hindrances in the
deployment of solar PV growth. So, the article also offers recommendations for the future like the
establishment of a balanced policy environment for distributed PV, encouragement of off-grid electrification
system adoption, maintenance of the solar PV cost reduction trajectory, and encouraging the creation of more
intelligent inverter systems to help with balance-of-system cost reductions and grid integration, friendly
relation with community and supportive policies in the country.

INDEX TERMS Renewable energy sources, Solar Energy, Solar Photovoltaics, Types and Applications

I. INTRODUCTION investor-owned companies, which emerged from the social

Globally, the electrical industry has undergone a revolution goals of attaining universal energy access because of the
in the last century, shifting mostly toward large-scale, sector's substantial contribution to economic growth and
centralized energy systems that use fossil fuels having societal well-being. Accessing money and effectively
negative impacts on the environment. These systems are managing interconnected electricity systems have also been
mainly controlled and managed by big state-owned or made more difficult by this centralized structure [1]–[3]

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Moreover, environmental problems are getting worse and the RESs. There are different RESs as depicted in Fig. 1
increasing everywhere, which demands that society's [4]. These sources use fewer resources, are cleaner, and are
activities be reorganized. The change in the energy more sustainable. Furthermore, these cutting-edge
paradigm is one of the most pressing of these, replacing the technologies are already regarded as dependable and
conventional and polluting energy production sources with reasonably priced [5]–[8].

Biomass

Renewable
Energy
Hydro Sources Solar

Wind Geothermal
FIGURE 1. Types of renewable energy sources [4]
RESs address urgent problems like advancing package emphasizing that 32% of the energy mix should
technological innovation, improving public health, creating come from RESs by 2030. The EU's binding renewable
economic opportunities, and increasing energy security. energy objective for 2030 after revised share which is
Societies may lessen their adverse effects on the increased to at least 42.5% by the updated Renewable Energy
environment, encourage sustainable growth, and clear the Directive, which was implemented in 2023 [13], [14].
path for a more resilient and just energy future by switching Different RESs are available in different countries depending
to RESs [9], [10]. Decentralized energy sources are now upon the location. Among them, one of the most well-known
more prevalent in the grid because of this change. In RESs is solar energy which stands out as the main pillar of
comparison to centralized energy systems, local hope [15]. The sun's heat and radiant light are captured and
decentralized energy resources bring energy generation used to generate solar energy as this is an abundant energy
closer to users, plummeting complexity, expense, and source because the sun emits enormous amounts of it every
inefficiencies; they also strengthen local resilience, day [16], [17]. From solar energy technologies, solar
encouraging energy independence; and they help the photovoltaic (PV), has become the most popular technology
transition to zero carbon emissions [11]. Different countries due to its low cost and high power installed globally. Based
are trying to overcome environmental issues and moving on the number of installations, solar photovoltaic (PV) power
towards utilizing RESs having different missions with is currently the most popular electricity source worldwide.
different years. The European Union (EU) also seeks to Due to the ongoing reduction in PV panel prices and the rise
achieve climate neutrality to mitigate climate change [12]. in solar cell efficiency [18], [19]. PV also has the potential to
Over 75% of the GHG emissions are caused due to the assist certain developing countries in addressing the power
energy sector in the EU. Consequently, increasing the RESs shortage issues and increase the generations from solar PV
in all economic sectors is very important to achieve the systems to utilize it and mitigate the power and load-
targets which lowers net GHG emissions by 55% by 2030 shedding issues [20]. Solar PV generation peaked at 270
and converts the region into a climate-neutral by 2050. Given TWh (up to 26%) in 2022, reaching approximately 1300
the climate catastrophe and the vital role in the energy TWh. In 2022, it surpassed wind power for the first time and
industry, the European Union hurled the Clean Energy demonstrated the most absolute generation growth when

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compared to all other RE technologies. It is expected that shown in Table I, which primarily focus on individual
PV's continued economic attractiveness, substantial supply aspects such as technologies, key factors, applications, and
chain expansion, and increased regulatory support— other aspects. This work uniquely combines multiple key
particularly in China, the US, the EU, and India—will further research areas such as technologies with different
drive capacity growth in the years to come. This led to a generations, key factors, and applications, and their progress
change in the solar PV tracking status from "more effort including global and regional perspectives specifically the
needed" to "on track" in 2023 [21]. Recently the interest and Italian perspective. In addition, the study delves into the
advancements in solar PV technologies have resulted the challenges with different perspectives as well as future
good growth globally. This article is also focused on the solar suggestions. The contribution of this review paper can be
PV system which provides a detailed discussion on the summarized as below:
concept and scope of solar PV technology along with the • Discussing the different types of solar PV technologies
classification of various PV technologies. It also investigates from first generation to third generation including the
the most recent developments in PV technologies and the gap comparison highlighting the characteristics, advantages,
to close this gap in literature. The purpose of this research is limitations, and applications.
also to focus on Italy country by considering solar PV • Focusing on the key factors like sustainability, cost,
technologies with various aspects like applications in efficiency, and lifetime of solar PV modules.
different sectors, progress, and associated challenges to • Discussing the various applications for solar PV
examine how one of the biggest problems with solar PV technologies in detail
technology could be addressed and solved. The study also • Highlighting the progress of solar PV installation
provides future recommendations having the aim to further around the world and Europe specifically focused on the
our awareness of how solar energy is drastically altering the Italy country
world's energy scene and providing new avenues for a • Discussing the key challenges associated with the
sustainable and greener energy future by showcasing its deployment of the solar PV system and suggesting key
relevance and promise. future recommendations accordingly
Many research and review articles have been published in All the contents are organized into six sections. Section (II)
different directions relevant to photovoltaic systems. [22]– discusses the different types of PV technologies and their
[26]. The review articles from them are also focused on evolution, Section (III) discusses the key factors for the solar
technologies, key factors, applications, policies, and others PV system, Section (IV) elaborates on the applications and
as depicted in Table I [25], [26], [35]–[38], [27]–[34]. usage of PV technologies in different parts including the
energy sector, Section (V) focus on the progress and growth
TABLE I
COMPARISON FROM DIFFERENT ARTICLES of PV system usage globally and specifically in Italy in
different sectors, Section (VI) highlights the challenges
Global scenario

Policy Aspects
Europe/Other

associated with PV technology, Section (VII) gives the

Technologies

Applications
Key factors

Challenges
Progress

future recommendations to be considered for the successful

Other

Referenc
e
utilization of solar PV technologies and its growth and
Section (VIII) concludes the overall work covered in this
article.
[25] × × × × × × × × √ II. SOLAR PV TECHNOLOGIES
[26] √ ± × × × × × × √ Solar radiation that can produce heat, electricity, or chemical
[27] √ ± × × × × × × √
reactions is known as solar energy [39]. The potential and
[28] √ × × × × × × × ×
total amount of solar energy available on Earth greatly
[29] √ ± × × × × × × ×
[30] √ ± × × ± × × × ×
surpasses the world's present and future energy
requirements. Solar energy consumption has a lot of
[31] √ × × × × × × × ×
potential benefits. The Sun emits energy at a high speed of
[32] √ ± × × × × × × ×
3.8×1023kW, of which 1.8×1014kW is available on Earth.
[33] √ × × × × × × × × This is a readily available, renewable source of energy.
[34] × ± × × × × × × √ Moreover, the Sun's energy is almost limitless, offering a
[35] √ ± × × × × × × √ plethora of options for energy sources [40], [41]. There are
[36] √ × × √ ± × × × √ different types of solar energy technologies as depicted in
[37] × ± × × × × × ± √ Fig. 2 [42]. From them, solar PV technology has great
importance resulting in the frequent growth in its usage.
[38] × ± × × × × × √ √
Solar Photovoltaic systems are made up of solar panels made
Our
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ - of linked solar cells, which are the basic components that
article
turn light energy into electricity. The PV effect, a 19th-
century phenomenon, is essential to PV cell performance.
This research study presents a comprehensive approach
Layers of a semi-conductive substance are present in every
relevant to the solar PV system. Unlike previous studies as

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PV cell. Light striking the cell causes an electric field to form in peak kilowatts (kWp) [30], [43]. A typical PV cell's
across the various semiconductor layers, which in turn operation and electricity generation are depicted in Fig. 2
generates energy. The intensity of the light striking the cell [29].
determines how much electricity it has. PV cells can convert
their direct current into alternating current (AC), which can
be saved for later use. PV system ratings are often expressed

O
A
D

FIGURE 2. PV Cell Working Principle [29]

Silicon (a-Si), CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Di-Selenide),
PV cells are the fundamental component of a PV system and Cadmium Telluride (CdTe). On the other hand,
having the diameter of a single cell which can range from multijunction cells and developing organic material cell
roughly 0.5 to 4 inches. From this cell, only 1 watt or 2 watts technologies are included in the third-generation [28].
of power can be generated, which is insufficient for tiny Depending on the type of cell material and technology, PV
devices like wristwatches and calculators. PV modules or cells convert sunlight into electricity at varying rates of
panels that are packed and weathertight have their PV cells efficiency. The average efficiency of PV modules was less
electrically connected. PV modules come in different sizes than 10% in the middle of the 1980s, but by 2015, it had risen
and have varying power outputs. A PV module's ability to to over 15%, and for the most advanced modules, it is
produce power increases with the number of cells it contains currently close to 20%. Nearly 50% of solar cells used in
or its surface area. A PV array can be made by connecting experiments and on space missions are efficient [44]. The
PV modules into groups. Hundreds of PV modules make up first and second generations are commercially mature and
a PV array. The entire amount of electricity that a PV array available in large quantities for civil applications, in contrast
can produce depends on how many PV modules are to the third generation [46]. As per the market, the first-
connected [44]. generation c-Si is dominant with 69% multi-crystalline and
24% mono-crystalline cells having a significant market share
A. CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION of 93% of the total generating capacity in 2015. In contrast,
There are different types of solar PV technologies classified thin-film technologies accounted for only 7% of the total
as first, second, and third generation based on the type of production, comprising 3% a-Si, 2.5% CdTe, and less than
material and technologies depicted in Fig. 3 [45]. The first 2% of CIGS [47]. Moreover, third-generation technologies
generation contains wafer-based crystalline silicon cells; the like GaAs and multi-junction cells are costly, highly
second generation includes thin-film technologies like efficient, and mostly used for space applications [28], [48],
single-junction Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) cells, amorphous [49].

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 Poly-crystalline solar cells

First Generation  Mono-crystalline solar cells
(Crystalline silicon)

 Amorphous silicon (a-Si)

Solar PV Second Generation  Cadmium telluride (Cd-Te)
(Thin-film technologies)  Copper-Indium-Selenide (CIS) and
Technologies Copper-Indium-Gallium-Di-Selenide (CIGS)

 Organic
Third Generation  Emerging  Dye-sensitized
( New Emerging Technology)  Perovskite

FIGURE 3. Solar PV technologies [45]

1) FIRST GENERATION decreased production costs, even though these cells are
First-generation PV cells are mostly made of crystalline marginally less effective than monocrystalline cells [56].
silicon and represent an early stage in the development of PV Polycrystalline cells have several benefits over
technology. Currently, the most extensively used cell monocrystalline ones in addition to being less expensive to
technology in the worldwide photovoltaic industry is single- manufacture. These benefits include improved aesthetics,
junction c-Si. Approximately 90% of the market for lower energy consumption throughout the cell's life cycle, a
photovoltaic cells is made up of silicon, making it the most shorter energy return period, a reduced greenhouse effect,
widely used material in commercial solar cell modules. This and the ability to use less energy during the manufacturing
achievement can be attributed to various advantageous process [55], [57], [58]. Commercial monocrystalline silicon
properties of silicon; a bandgap of 1.12 eV, making it nearly cells now have an efficiency of about 25%, up from about
perfectly matched to the terrestrial solar spectrum; generally 10% in the early 1980s [59]. Many researchers have been
stable and non-toxic; abundant, being the second most working to improve the monocrystalline silicon cells'
plentiful material on earth; and the silicon-based efficiency by using passivated emitter rear contact (PERC)
microelectronics (transistor and integrated circuit technology and others [60], [61].
manufacture) industry can easily integrate silicon 2) SECOND GENERATION
photovoltaic cells [50], [51]. Second-generation technology has been established since the
Conventional wafer-based cells are divided into four 1970s. In this category of generation, thin-film technologies
primary categories as per their crystalline structure: are the main representation. Thin-film photovoltaic cells
monocrystalline, poly-crystalline (or multi-crystalline), have many benefits including reduced material prices,
heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT), and flexibility, and the possibility of large-scale production [62].
microcrystalline [28]. These cells laid the groundwork for Moreover, this technology is favorable in circumventing the
the PV industry's expansion and paved the way for later significant material and energy costs associated with c-Si
developments. Although they needed thick silicon wafers cells, both economically and environmentally [63]. Because
and expensive production techniques, they had rather good of this technology's great versatility, ease of installation, an
energy conversion efficiency [52]. Over the years, crystalline approximate 12% diffuse light efficiency, and 25-year
silicon-based PV cells have undergone substantial research service life, its application has expanded recently [64]. To
and optimization. Two familiar types of monocrystalline (m- create a heterojunction barrier, thin layers of photovoltaic
Si) and polycrystalline silicon cells (p-Si) considered as Mult materials with a thickness of less than 2 μm are deposited to
crystalline (mc-Si) are available with this generation [53], create thin-film PV cells. The majority of thin-film
[54]. Although the cells made from a single silicon crystal semiconductor materials have a direct and wide bandgap of
have a high conversion efficiency, they also have higher 1.5–1.8 eV, which allows 2G cells to function well in indirect
production costs, longer energy return times during their life light and have superior temperature coefficients [28].
cycles, and require exceptionally pure materials (solar-grade Thin film cell technologies have different classifications
silicon) with the optimum crystal structure [55]–[57]. The which are predicated on the materials deposited. This
cells based on multi-crystals have also emerged. The comprises amorphous silicon (a-Si), I-III-VI semiconductors
technique is becoming more and more attractive due to the like CIGS, and II-VI compound semiconductors like

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cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium sulfide (CdS). Research and development of organic solar cells is still
There are several methods for producing CdTe films, ongoing to compete with inorganic solar cells [72][73].
containing metalorganic chemical vapor deposition • Dye-Sensitized usually employs a porous titanium
(MOCVD), popping, and high vacuum evaporation (HVE) dioxide matrix that has been lightly covered in a highly
[65], [66]. Discussing the efficiencies, the high conversion absorbent dye. At the interface between titanium oxide
efficiencies have been attained by CdTe thin-film solar cells,
and an electrolyte that has seeped into the titania, the dye
having set record efficiency of 22.1% and also having high
absorbs light and separates the photocarriers or excitons
potential because of its great performance in real-world
scenarios and inexpensive for commercial applications [70]. Michael Grätzel and Brian O'Regan proposed the
manufacturing costs [67]. Copper indium gallium selenide first dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) in 1991. Since
(CIGS) solar cells are also a noteworthy example of a these cells are made of both organic and inorganic
second-generation thin-film technology that could be materials, they fall under the category of hybrid solar
manufactured by electron beam deposition, MOCVD, spin cells [74], [75]. The primary distinction between this
coating, spray coating, or screen printing [68]. CIGS thin- kind of cell and traditional solar cells is the separation
film solar cell technology could achieve a record efficiency of the functional component; the dye that oversees light
of 23.35% and may be used to create lightweight, absorption from the charge carrier transport mechanism.
inexpensive, and highly efficient solar cells that can be used As a result, basic cell processing and impure raw
for various applications like building-integrated PV and materials are permitted, which lowers the device's cost
others [69]. [45].
3) THIRD GENERATION • Perovskite organometallic trialkyl semiconductors
Third-generation PV cells incorporate many novel and (CH 3 NH 3 ) PbX 3 , where X can be iodo, bromo, or
emerging technologies designed to augment the
chloro) are a family of semiconductors that can be
effectiveness and potential of solar energy conversion [29].
employed as light-collecting elements in dye-sensitized
These include Organic, Dye-sensitized, and Perovskite.
solar cells, which give growth to perovskite solar cells.
• Organic solar cells or organic Photovoltaics (OPVs), the
These cells are particularly translucent and flexible due
most widely used OPV technologies make use of bulk
to their thinness [76]. Perovskite cells are composed of
heterojunction cells made of organic and/or polymeric
materials that have the perovskite structure which is
small molecules. The idea of bulk heterojunction is to
commonly represented as ABX 3 , where X is a halide
make it easier for the photoinduced exciton to separate
(usually I-and/or Br-), B is a metal cation (usually Pb2+),
into free electrons and holes, which produces a
and A is an organic or inorganic cation (e.g.,
photocurrent [70]. OPVs are extensively researched in
methylammonium). The most often utilized structure is
academics, and a lot of work has gone into making this
known as methylammonium lead halide hybrid organic-
technology commercially viable. These cells provide
inorganic perovskite. The crystal structure of CaTiO 3
versatility and the possibility of low-cost production.
represents the general perovskite structure [70]. Of all
[71]. Given that organic semiconductors are less
the thin-film solar cell technologies, organometallic
expensive than inorganic semiconductors like silicon,
perovskite conversion has now come to light as maybe
organic PV cells have the potential to eventually achieve
the most promising. In less than five years, energy
the objective of a PV technology that is commercially
conversion efficiency reached 20% [77]. The promise of
viable for large-scale power generation [57].
great efficiency and low manufacturing costs has
Furthermore, simpler methods that are unsuitable for
sparked a lot of interest in perovskite solar cells. The
crystalline inorganic semiconductors can be used to treat
promise of great efficiency and low manufacturing costs
organic molecules [72]. Since the total energy
has attracted a lot of attention in perovskite solar cells.
production of solar cells is equal to the product of its
It is also reported that a perovskite solar cell has a 25.2%
lifetime and its efficiency, also the research and
verified efficiency. Moreover, the research emphasized
investigation on organic solar cells attempt to boost the
the swift progress in perovskite solar cells and their
efficiency (conversion) of solar energy. As a result,
potential for commercial application; nonetheless,
stability, which is closely tied to life, is a crucial
issues like stability and scalability still require attention
characteristic of this kind of cell since it affects the value
[78].
(return on investment) of an energy-production system
built using this technology. Numerous facets of organic Moreover, the comparisons for different generations of
solar cells have been the subject of in-depth research in solar PV cells highlighting the types, characteristics,
recent years, such as the development and use of novel advantages, limitations, and applications are described in
materials, large-scale production, large-scale modeling Table I [28][79][80].
of physical processes, enhanced stability, and so on.

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TABLE I
COMPARISION OF DIFFERENT SOLAR PV CELL GENERATIONS [28], [79], [80]
Generations Types Characteristics Advantages Limitations Applications
• High cost (manufacturing)
Monocrystall η: 15 - 24%, • High performance • Higher sensitivity to Civil
ine silicon Band gap: ~1.1eV and • Stable temperature (e.g. devices,
• Absorption problem residential,
(m-si) t: 25 y • Long service life
commercial,
• Loss of material
industrial,
• Simple procedure of manufacturing
Polycrystalli η: 10 - 18%, • Lower efficiency and utility-
First • Profitable
ne silicon Band gap: ~1.7 eV and • Higher sensitivity to scale power
• Reduction in silicon waste plants)
(p-si) t: 14 y temperature
• Large absorption related to m-si
• Lower sensitivity of temperature
η: 28 - 30%,
• More stable
GaAs Band gap: ~1.43 eV and • Extremely expensive Spacecraft
• Better absorption than m-si
t: 18 y
• Higher efficiency
• Lower efficiency
• Less expensive
Amorphous η: 5 - 12%, • Difficulty in selecting
• Availability in large amounts
silicon Band gap: ~1.7 eV and dopant materials -
• Non-toxic
(a-si) t: 15 y • Poor minority carrier
• Excessive absorption coefficient
lifetime
• Lower efficiency
η: 15 -16%, • Cd is extremely toxic
• High absorption rate
Second CdTe/ CdS Band gap: ~1.45 eV and • Te is limited, -
• Less material required for production
Life span: 20 y • Higher sensitivity to
temperature
• Very high-priced, not
η:20%, stable
CIGS Band gap: ~1.7 eV and • Less material required for production • More temperature- -
t: 12 y sensitive
• Highly unreliable
• Lower cost • Problems with
Dye- • Low light and wider-angle operation temperature stability
η: 5-20%
sensitized • Lower internal temperature operation • Poisonous and volatile
• Robustness & extended lifetime substances
Quantum • Lower production cost • High toxicity in nature
η: 11-17%
dots • low consumption of energy • Degradation
• Low processing cost
Research
Organic and • lighter weight
Third η: 9-11% • Low efficiency (still under
polymeric • flexibility development)
• thermal stability
• Low-cost and simplified structure
• Light-weight and flexibility
Perovskite η: 21% • Unstable
• high efficiency
• low manufacturing cost
Multi-
η: 36% and higher • Superior performance • Expensive and complex
junction
Cadmium sulfide=CdS, Cadmium telluride= CdTe, Copper indium gallium selenide =CIGS, *Efficiency= η and *life span=t

III. KEY FACTORS AND DISCUSSION Furthermore, a practical scenario has been depicted in Fig. 4,
From the research and studies, it can be seen how PV showing the main factors to be considered for the
technologies have continued to improve throughout several advancement and development of solar PV technology [29],
generations. Second-generation thin-film technologies, like [45]. These factors are; sustainability, efficiency, PV cost,
CIGS and CdTe, provide benefits in terms of economics and and service life criteria which are taken into account in this
versatility, but first-generation PV cells based on crystalline study that are crucial for assessing and improving the
silicon continue to be extremely efficient and stable. performance of solar PV technology and guaranteeing its
Perovskite solar cells are examples of third-generation PV viability for broad deployment. Together, these elements
cells that show a lot of potential for increasing efficiency and offer a comprehensive evaluation of solar PV technology,
expanding the possibilities for solar energy conversion. combining technical, economic, environmental, and
These illustrations show the continuous efforts being made durability concerns to improve its long-term viability, cost,
in the field of PV technologies research and development, and efficiency. A thorough assessment of PV systems for
which are spurring innovation and opening the door to more sustainable energy solutions is ensured by this
effective and financially feasible solar energy systems. multidisciplinary approach.

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• Temperature
• CO2 emissions
• Irradiance
• LCA Analysis
• Dust/ Shading

Sustainability Efficiency

Solar PV Technology

PV Cost Service Life

• Technology • Degradation
• Location • Environmental
• Structure • Quality

FIGURE 4. Key Factors Considered for PV Technology [29][45]

crystalline (multi-Si) PV installations by performing a life
A. SUSTAINABILITY cycle assessment (LCA) of a typical 1-MW on-grid ground-
This part relates to sustainability focusing on greenhouse gas mounted solar power plant in China. Following a
(GHG) and CO 2 emissions, life cycle assessment and return comprehensive analysis of the solar power plant's life cycle
on investment in energy specifically in solar PV projects assessment (LCA), the goal's boundary is made evident,
[81]. Over a 100-year integrated time horizon, the GHG allowing for the investigation of the system's overall input
emissions from a PV system at different stages of its life and yearly output. Assuming a 30-year operation lifetime,
cycle are evaluated as CO 2 equivalents. The primary source the EPBT of 2.3 years indicates that the installation of the
of GHG emissions for PV cycles is the use of fossil fuels in solar plant would be contributing to clean usage for over 27
the manufacturing of PV materials. The processes used in the years and hence the solar system is far more environmentally
upstream energy production process are crucial in beneficial than the non-renewable fossil fuel systems.
determining the overall greenhouse gas emissions [55], [82].
The energy payback time (EPBT) and GHG emissions are B. EFFICIENCY
the lifecycle metrics that are most frequently measured for One of the most crucial elements in bringing technology to
the PV system's environmental analysis [83]. The time market is solar cell efficiency. In this regard, The National
needed for a RE system to provide the same amount of Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) maintains the best
energy that was used in its development is known as the research cell efficiencies reference chart, which is a plot of
energy payback period [84]. The framework of life cycle the top research cell efficiencies for various PV systems from
analysis (LCA) considers the environmental inputs and 1976 to the present. The efficiency details with various
outputs of a process or product from the point of origin to the generations following the NREL chart are shown in Fig. 5
point of disposal. PV systems go through different stages in showing the progress and growth in efficiencies. The
their life cycle such as raw material manufacturing, efficiency of the associated technology type is indicated by
purification and processing, module fabrication, installation different colors: purple denotes compound semiconductor
and system use, and decommissioning, disposal, or recycling types, green denotes thin film technology, and blue denotes
of the system. LCA is an assessment thorough process that c-Si cells and like others [70]. It should be mentioned here
looks to examine how a product consumes energy and that module efficiency typically falls short of the real cell
impacts the environment across its entire life. To address and efficiency compared with the chart of NREL [88].
solve the environmental and energy issues and advance the It is noteworthy that numerous studies and research have
sustainable development of solar PV technologies, LCA been conducted (and continues to be done) to boost the
studies must be carried out [85]. NA Ludin et. al. [86] efficiency of solar cells. Moreover, solar PV technology has
analyzed and compiled three methods for impact improved with time, becoming more efficient, versatile, and
assessments in LCA were cumulative energy demand less expensive to produce. Research is carried out on
(CED), energy payback time (EPBT), and GHG emission increasing the efficiencies by focusing on decreasing costs to
rate based on data and information from the literature. increase energy consumption from solar PV systems. First-
According to LCA research, monocrystalline silicon PV generation crystalline silicon modules dominate the market
technology has the greatest rate of GHG emissions, the because of their durability and efficiency balance with
longest EPBT, and the largest energy consumption when efficiency limits (15-22%). Third generation developing
compared to other solar PV technologies. P Wu et. al. [87] technologies (Efficiency=20-30%), and second-generation
aims to investigate the environmental performance of multi- thin film panels (Efficiency=10–24%), on the other hand, are

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broadening the use cases and potentially enabling improved sustainability limits with ongoing research, making solar
efficiency and better flexibility in the future. Next- energy an essential component of the global switch to RESs.
generation photovoltaic systems will push efficiency and

FIGURE 5. Changes in solar cell efficiency by various PV technologies from 1976 to Present [70]

Apart from the above, another goal of PV technology has commercial installations [93]. The details of PV cost are also
been to increase efficiency to optimize the conversion of depicted in Fig. 6 [94] showing the decline from 2000 to
solar radiation into electrical power. Through a variety of onwards. This indeed encourages to utilize more RESs
methods, good progress has been achieved in increasing the particularly solar PV where easily available and feasible
efficiency of PV cells by considering different factors that depending on the country's solar PV potential [39].
decrease the efficiency [15], [29], [89]. Mainly these factors Moreover, costs are also changed with different
that affect solar cell efficiency are temperature, sun parameters like technology types, location, and structure of
irradiance, and dust [90]. As temperature has a significant the PV system. The location of the PV system affects how
impact on cell performance, research has concentrated on much it will cost. For example, larger systems are needed in
lowering temperatures through heat extraction and then less sunny locations to generate the same quantity of
using the reduced heat for other uses, including air or water electricity in a sunny area as a smaller system and longer
heating. Due to the possibility of dust accumulation transmission lines are needed to connect the generated power
obstructing the photovoltaic modules' irradiance, it is to the grid. The kind of technology employed and the
advised that the PV surface be cleaned regularly to preserve system's complexity have an impact on expenses as well
performance. This block lacks importance since lower [45], [95]. Apart from this, there must be a focus on the
irradiance corresponds to lower cell efficiency because fewer reduction in PV cost. PV systems must become more
photons enter the cell [57], [91], [92]. affordable to be widely used and to remain competitive in the
energy market. Different approaches have been used to lower
C. COST the cost of PV technologies like the use of innovative
Costs have decreased dramatically over the past 10 years, manufacturing processes. Moreover, cost reductions have
though they are now beginning to level off. This is mostly been aided by advances in material choices. For example, the
due to higher PV module efficiencies (currently 19.5%, up development of plentiful and non-toxic materials like
from 19.2% in 2019) and higher hardware and inverter costs. perovskites has demonstrated potential for low-cost
Since 2010, utility-scale PV systems have become more photovoltaic applications.
affordable by 82%, 69%, and 64%, respectively, for
residential, commercial, and rooftop PV systems. Soft costs D. SERVICE LIFE
continue to make up a sizable and ongoing component of A key component of solar energy systems' sustainability and
installation expenses, as they have in prior years, for both financial viability is its PV cell's service life. The service life
solar and storage systems, and particularly for residential and of PV cells is influenced by different factors, which include

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manufacturing methods, environmental, and material in the market (Gallium Arsenide) [99]. Research has been
deterioration or degradation [96], [97]. Degradation is conducted to assess the processes of degradation and to
characterized by a decrease in the cell's ability to convert develop plans for extending the lifespan of photovoltaic cells
sunlight into electrical energy and results in a reduction of [100], [101]. Different types of Degradation modes seen in
the device's useful life. Understanding the deterioration field-aged modules revealed that five different types of
mechanism and events that occur during outdoor operation, degradation modes ultimately result in failure and a decline
solar modules' reliability may be assessed. The primary in performance: degradation of the semiconductor device,
causes of PV cell deterioration are dust, temperature, adhesion loss, deterioration of the cell/module interconnects,
humidity, and sun exposure [91], [98] Moreover, since some and degradation of the packaging materials [102]. To
materials, like the arsenic used in the production of GaAs mitigate these degradation mechanisms and enhance module
cells, are extremely efficient but also carry a significant design, a comprehensive comprehension of the genesis of
potential for toxicity, the environmental aspect is also an these faults and their progression leading to failure is
important consideration while assessing a technology's place necessary [103].

5
Price ($/W)

P =0.22575 $/W
1

0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2022

Year
(2000-2022)

FIGURE 6. Solar PV Module Price [94]

IV. SOLAR PV APPLICATIONS A. RESIDENTIAL

In order to attain net zero emissions by the 2050 scenario, the PV energy produces benefits for the environment and
remarkable increase in PV deployment in recent years would economy (such as lower energy costs and greenhouse gas
need to be sustained and scaled up, necessitating ongoing emissions), which can be factored into market prices. As a
governmental ambition. Solar PV is a very modular result, there is increasing interest in determining the value
technology that can be employed in large plants that give that PV systems provide to the market pricing of solar
economies of scale, or in very tiny amounts at a time. This homes—that is, residences that are outfitted with PV-
makes many different applications possible, from small producing plants [107]. Solar PV systems are increasing day
rooftop systems for residences to massive power-generating by day in residential buildings having many advantages with
facilities for utilities [21], [104]. Large-scale industrial and different configurations [108]–[110]. There are different
utility projects as well as residential rooftops are powered by types of loads in residential houses, buildings or apartments
the adaptable solar PV technology. Its uses span from grid- like heating and cooling systems, other load (Fans,
connected systems like community solar farms and urban refrigerators, washing machines, ovens, lighting), and EV
infrastructure to off-grid options for isolated locations. charging infrastructure. All these loads could be supplied
Streetlights, EV charging stations, and even rail and from the PV system [111]. Moreover, another benefit could
maritime transportation are all powered by solar energy. be increased energy independence. Apart from this, Energy
Solar provides dependable energy access where it's most storage systems (ESS) can be a way to raise this percentage,
needed for portable power, rural electrification, and disaster as the economic viability of PV systems is generally
relief. While space exploration depends on solar for correlated with the share of self-consumption in a developed
sustainable energy in orbit, emerging uses like agrivoltaics market [112]. The mounting structure for the residential
and building-integrated PV improve efficiency on land and sector is rooftop (sloped or flat or other), BIPV (integrated
in buildings. The contribution of solar PV to a sustainable with building materials like solar facades or shingles
future only increases with further advancements and cost elements), and ground mounted.
reductions. Moreover, different applications and purposes of
PV technology have been depicted in Fig. 7 [105], [106].

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for rural homes, villages in developing nations,

Remote
lighthouses, offshore oil platforms, desalination
Locations plants, and remote health clinics

Utility-scale power—from tens of MWs to more

Solar Farms than a GWs of electricity. feed power into
municipal or regional grids.

Agriculture Water pumping and other irrigation appliances

Different loads and appliances in Houses,

Residential
buildings, apartments , villas
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Applications

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) purpose

shopping malls, hotels, office buildings, and
Commercial hospitals

Textile, construction, fertilizers, energy,

Industrial mechanical, electrical, IT, Telecommunication,
and electronic sector

Powering schools, libraries, municipal office

Municipal buildings, and maintenance centers

for charging electronic equipment in the field or

Military Uses at remote bases

supplied power for ventures such as the

Space International Space Station and surface rovers
on the Moon and Mars

Transportation provide auxiliary power for vehicles such as cars

and boats

Energy sector MGs, Nano grid, Energy communities and

collective self-consumption

FIGURE 7. Solar PV Applications and purposes [105][106]

B. INDUSTRIAL high adjacent land to produce more electricity for the

The industrial sector is one of the main parts that need energy industrial load.
for utilizing their appliances and loads [113]. The loads for
industries are mostly heavy with high capacity like heavy C. COMMERCIAL
machinery, high-pressure pumps and motors, lighting For commercial sectors like shopping malls, hotels,
system, HVAC system, and production lines. PV for warehouses, banks, theatres, cinemas, etc., the appliances
industries could be the pivotal solution with the benefits of and loads usually are overall lighting systems, heating and
decreased electricity cost, saving due to self-consumption, cooling systems, office loads, elevators and escalators, and
sustainable options, and ensuring energy security [114]– HVAC systems. PV for these types of loads could be the
[116]. For industries with heavy loads, there must be high pivotal solution with the benefits of decreased operating
capacity of PV plants which need a big area and space to expenses, savings due to self-consumption, increased
mount the solar PV modules. The options for mounting corporate sustainability options, and increased property
structures used in the industries could be a roof-top with value [117], [118]. The installation and mounting structure
large space, a carport system (dual purposes like energy for these types of plants could be rooftop (for the mentioned
generation and shading of cars), and a ground-mounted with buildings), facade (vertical mounting, BIPV) [119], and
parking structure (carport and canopies in parking).

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D. MUNICIPAL driving conditions), peak loads (high demand, such as rush

Municipal types of loads consisted of street lighting, hour for public transportation or highway driving for EVs)
different buildings (Schools, government sector offices and and auxiliary loads (additional loads that consume relatively
hospitals, etc.), and public transportation like EV charging small amounts of power, such as infotainment systems,
stations. Lightning for streets is utilized to provide lighting charging ports, and communication equipment).
to outdoor locations, signage, and parking spots.
Rechargeable batteries are used by photovoltaic panels, G. TELECOMMUNICATION
which are often integrated into the pole or installed in the It is employed in remote communication stations to generate
lighting structure, to power the lamps. Opening ditches, power from solar PV for the use of equipment like PLCs,
wiring, and other comparable preparations required for video cameras, telemetry stations, radio communication
standard lighting systems are not necessary during devices, and communication radios resulting in offering
installation [114], [120], [121]. The purpose of installing PV dependability, reliability, and less maintenance
plants is to reduce municipal energy costs, support urban [120][114].The other applications could be IoT Networks
planning initiatives and decisions, and promote sustainability and Data Transmission Nodes, Disaster Recovery and
in the community. The mounting structures for these types Emergency Communications, and also the Portable
could be rooftops on public buildings and other, ground Telecommunication Units. Moreover, Telecom firms can
mounted like on parks and lands owned by municipalities lower their carbon footprint and maintain operational
and the carport and canopies over public parking areas. efficiency while also aligning with sustainability goals by
implementing solar PV. Additionally, in places where
E. AGRICULTURE building more infrastructure is essential yet access to
Solar PV Technologies play a crucial role in the modern consistent electricity is still difficult, the usage of solar
agricultural system in the current era as they offer economic, photovoltaics is expanding quickly.
independent, and sustainable solutions for different
applications along with increased productivity and efficiency H. MICROGRID
[122]. These systems have various characteristics like Solar PV technology is a cornerstone of microgrids due to
reliability, autonomy, durability, scalability, and cost- many reasons like decentralized power generation locally
effectiveness Different types of applications and loads for and having reduced reliance on centralized systems,
the agriculture system could be utilized from solar PV like environmental and economic benefits, and resilience due to
irrigation systems (Pumps, sprinkler systems, and drip contributing to MG independence and reliability [132]. Solar
irrigation systems), greenhouse heating and cooling system PV systems are widely used in various MG applications
within the greenhouses (Fans for cooling, heating plants, including residential MGs for homes and small businesses
environmental control like humidity and temperature control (loads Lighting, appliances, heating, cooling, and
system), Lighting (farm buildings, fields, and animal electronics.), commercial MGs to supply power to
shelters), Electric Fencing, Animal husbandry and crop commercial buildings having the loads for shopping centers,
drying processing applications [123][124][125]. The and industrial facilities (loads Lighting, HVAC systems,
mounting structures for the agricultural PV system for office equipment, retail operations, and industrial processes),
different applications are ground-mounted, roof-mounted, remote and island communities to provide electricity to areas
pole-mounted, over the rivers or canals, and floating having no grid access and also for military and disaster relief
mounting structures. offering the power in remote or disaster-stricken areas
[133][134][135]. The load categories could be industrial
F. TRANSPORTATION loads machinery, production processes, and large electrical
Solar PV technology is becoming more important in the equipment, Agricultural loads like Pumping, irrigation,
transportation sector for several reasons, including processing, and storage, and public infrastructure loads are
sustainability (encouraging the use of RESs and reduction in Streetlights, traffic signals, water pumping, and wastewater
reliance on fossil fuels), reduced environmental issues like treatment.
emissions, energy independence, reduced costs like long-
term savings, and technological advancements that make I. RENEWABLE ENERGY COMMUNITY
transportation systems more viable [126]–[128]. Solar PV In Europe, the Energy Community has made great strides
technologies are used for various applications in the and is well-positioned to serve as a cornerstone for the
transportation sector such as Electric Vehicles (EVs), EV development of a more flexible and decentralized Energy
charging stations, public transportation (Buses, trams, and Union, where individuals will have greater sway. The
trains) for auxiliary systems or supporting traction power, 2018/2001 RED II, which was included in the Clean Energy
and many others like off-grid vehicles operating in remote Package, introduced the idea of a Renewable Energy
areas like military or agriculture vehicles [129][130][131]. Community (REC) and established it with the primary goal
Different types of Loads could occur as; fixed loads of providing its members with social, economic, and
(lighting, air conditioning, and heating systems in public environmental benefits [136]–[138]. These communities are
transportation vehicles), variable loads (traction motors in essential to helping people across the world make the shift to
EVs requiring varying amounts of power depending on sustainable development and the use of RESs. RECs provide

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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3558539

a variety of alternatives to promote community people's junctions) are utilized in series [50]. Moreover, the energy
active participation, such as local energy exchange needed to run all measurement devices, weather sensors,
platforms, ownership structures, investment opportunities, computers, and communication devices for weather
decision-making processes, and financial incentives [139]– monitoring purposes is supplied by the solar panel [154].
[141]. The basic building blocks of local communities are
individual homes. Local communities are in a good position V. PROGRESS
to recognize local energy requirements and unite individuals A. GLOBAL SCENARIO
to work toward common goals like self-sufficiency [142], Energy has supported human endeavors throughout history
[143], autonomy, resilience [144], [145], and also and is the foundation of human evolution [155]. The search
sustainability [146]. Additionally, as local communities for energy with the least amount of cost and pollution is still
change the behavior of participants, they encourage by running strong and will do so in the future. Even in the
skipping the role of being only customers and participating modern day, the energy production of many developing
as prosumers, actively participating in energy sharing, local countries regularly falls short of their energy requirements,
generation, demand response tactics, and energy efficiency resulting in frequent power outages. It is anticipated that
initiatives [147], [148]. energy consumption will increase in tandem with the world
economy. Since the limited supply of fossil fuels, it's better
J. COLLECTIVE SELF-CONSUMPTION to take into account alternative energy sources, such as
Solar PV technology is pivotal to a low-carbon economy RESs, to accomplish future energy demands [156]. Q Hassan
having the significance in collective self-consumption is et. al in their research suggests using the information from
multifaceted like energy independence, cost reduction due to the RE map scenario, that by 2050, RESs may account for as
lower electricity bills for participating households and much as two-thirds of the world's primary energy supply, a
businesses, environmental benefits due to decreased GHG significant increase above the reference scenario's modest
emissions, grid stability having the contributions to a more prediction of 24% [157]. With their remarkable
resilient and balanced energy system, community building incorporation of wind energy and overall, RE mixes,
with fostering cooperation and shared energy goals [149], European Union nations, especially Denmark and Germany
[150]. Applications for collective self-consumption could be stand out as leaders in this shift. Asia is making rapid strides,
residential installations (individual households generating with countries like China and India seeing annual growth
electricity for self-consumption and sharing surplus with the rates in the wind and solar industries above 30%. The
community), apartment buildings (shared solar systems on Americas strongly represented by the US, Canada, and
rooftops, with electricity distributed among residents), Brazil showcase a varied integration of RESs, with each
community energy projects (solar farms shared by multiple country contributing differently. Middle Eastern nations are
households or businesses), agricultural installations (solar gradually expanding their energy portfolios. Moreover from
panels on farm buildings or land to generate electricity for the report, the data for the RESs is shown with the highest
agricultural operations and the community [151]–[153]. installed capacity of RESs in Fig. 8 [158].
Overall, the main purpose is to maximize self-consumption, It is analyzed from the results that RES utilization is growing
optimize the sharing of energy and leveraging economies of globally showing continuous growth from 2014 to 2023 and
scale like Reducing of costs through shared investments and onwards. Top countries having high RESs installed capacity
resources. The loads could be lighting, appliances, heating, are also represented like China is leading among all
cooling, electronics, office equipment, machinery, Pumping, countries, then the USA and from Asian countries India has
irrigation, processing, and storage, for residential, also shown high growth and then Germany from Europe and
commercial, and agriculture. Additionally, other loads are other countries like Canada and Brazil.
charging infrastructure for EVs, Public buildings, schools, Continuing with the above RES scenario, this paper
and other shared amenities. mainly focuses on the solar PV scenario, as it is becoming
the dominant RESs among all sources. In an energy crisis,
K. OTHER APPLICATIONS solar energy is one practical and easily accessible energy
In addition to the above applications, other applications for source for solving long-term issues, together with other
solar PV systems could be for spacecraft, water desalination, RESs. Due to the enormous demand for energy the shortage
satellites, and weather monitoring [45]. PV energy is used in of fossil fuels, the main energy source, and the exorbitant
the spacecraft's onboard machinery. Gallium arsenide cells cost of alternative sources, the solar sector is expanding
are the primary technology utilized in this application. steadily worldwide [159]. Over the past 70 years, PV has
Although they are more expensive than silicon cells, they been the focus of high-level research because solar PV
exhibit good efficiency [30], [120], [121]. For the satellites, technology is the most advanced and offers the highest
the solar cells found on the exterior of satellites, which can worldwide prospects, despite several restrictions [160]. The
be either open and facing the Sun or fixed to the satellite data for solar PV is depicted in Fig. 9 from 2014-2023
body, make up the solar panels utilized in spacecraft. globally showing the frequent growth yearly [158].
Currently, three-junction solar cells (also known as triple

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3000000
2023 3870 China India Japan USA Canada Brazil Germany
2022 3396 2500000

RE Capacity (MW)
2021 3089
2020 2823 2000000

2019 2550
Year

1500000
2018 2363
2017 2187 1000000
2016 2017
2015 1854 500000

2014 1700
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
RES Capacity (GW) Year
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8. Renewable Energy Scenario; (a) World RES Scenario, (b) Top countries RES Scenario [158]

2023

2022

2021

2020

2019
Year

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Solar PV 176 224 296 391 487 589 722 867 1067 1412

Capacity (GW)
FIGURE 9. Solar PV Installed capacity Global Scenario [158]
Over the past ten years, solar energy, particularly PV Moreover, the solar energy and solar PV capacity analysis
technology, has grown at the quickest rate of any RES. It can is carried out by following the data to show progress in the
also be seen from the results shown in Fig. 9 that there is last ten years as depicted in Fig. 10. Solar energy has
higher variation and growth in 2023 from 2022 changing in expanded rapidly over the last ten years, and several nations
capacity from 1067-GW to 1412-GW as compared to are increasing their capability to lower carbon emissions and
previous years. However, recent years have seen record- provide clean, reasonably priced electricity. Improved
breaking increases in solar power installations, and this trend technology, supportive legislation, and declining costs are
is predicted to continue, with solar power making up over important motivators. With an emphasis on the nations with
80% of new RE capacity between 2024 and 2030. The the largest solar capacity are China, the USA, Japan,
primary cause of this increase is the sharp decline in solar Germany, India, Brazil, Australia, Spain, and Italy as
installation costs brought about by government incentives, depicted in Fig. 10 summarizing the advancements in solar
economies of scale, and industrial advancements [161]. As PV installed capacity from 2014 to 2023 [158]. Globally,
per report, three-quarters of global renewable capacity solar PV capacity increased at an unprecedented rate
additions in 2023 came from solar PV alone. between 2014 and 2023. Leading the way, China increased

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its PV capacity from 28388 MW to 609351 MW. The USA., key component of the global energy transition thanks to a
Japan, and Germany also saw notable increases, with 137725 mix of declining costs, cutting-edge technology, and
MW, 87068 MW, and 81737 MW, respectively. While encouraging regulations. This worldwide expansion
Australia, Spain, and Italy have also shown good growth in demonstrates how important solar energy is to the energy
2023 and are continuing to concentrate on rooftop and transition and establishes it as the main power source for the
distributed PV systems. India and Brazil have also emerged ensuing ten years [162].
as rapidly expanding markets. Solar PV will continue to be a

1200.0

1000.0
Capacity (GW)

800.0

600.0

400.0

200.0

0.0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Year
China Japan India Germany Spain
Italy USA Australia Brazil
FIGURE 10. Solar PV Installed Capacity [158]
2014 and 2023 like the capacity of Germany from 38 GW to
B. EUROPE SCENARIO 75 GW, Spain grew from 4GW to 28GW, Italy's output
Throughout the current century, the installed capacity of increased from 18GW to 30GW. In the second half of the
solar electricity has increased across Europe. It is the RES decade, other nations like France and the Netherlands had
that has grown the most in recent decades, along with wind impressive development, which helped Europe reach its
power. However, there are currently obvious indications of goals for renewable energy. Moreover, According to the
saturation in Europe's top solar power regions. The data, Europe's energy share has increased steadily and
development of solar power in Europe is studied here, and robustly, especially since 2018, which suggests that the use
for the three top nations (Germany, Italy, and Spain), a of RESs has accelerated. While new leaders like Poland,
logistic growth path at the national level is found, along with Hungary, and the Netherlands have demonstrated
proportionality between each nation's GDP and the remarkable growth, indicating a larger move towards
saturation level of its growth curve [163]. With some of the renewable investments, Germany, Italy, and France continue
first adopters and leaders in both policy and innovation, to dominate, demonstrating their leadership in renewable
Europe has persisted in playing a significant role in the energy programs. After 2018, there was a significant uptick
development of solar PV energy. The region grew steadily in countries like Spain and the Netherlands, most likely due
between 2014 and 2023 considering the combination of to advantageous policy changes and higher investments in
utility-scale installations, rooftop solar expansion, and wind and solar energy. While the UK's growth seems to have
supportive regulations meant to meet renewable energy plateaued after 2017, maybe because of policy changes or
goals. A summary of the key European nations that saturation in early renewable energy projects, Ukraine's
contributed significantly is provided in Table II, along with energy share growth stalled after 2020, perhaps as a result of
information on their solar PV capacity from 2014 to 2023 geopolitical tensions impacting infrastructure expenditures.
[158]. From the Table, it could be analyzed that Europe's top So, overall, with an emphasis on energy storage,
countries doubled or tripled their PV capacities between decentralized generation, and cutting-edge PV technologies

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like floating farms and bifacial modules, the European solar transition thanks to its expertise and leadership in solar PV
PV market has developed beyond simple installations. legislation.
Europe continues to serve as a model for the global energy
TABLE II
SOLAR PV INSTALLED CAPACITY (GW) [158]
COUNTRIES 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
EUROPE 88.8 97.3 103.9 110.0 119.3 140.0 160.5 188.6 231.5 285.8
EU UNION (27) 81.7 85.8 89.6 94.3 102.1 118.3 136.5 162.8 203.8 254.7
GERMANY 37.9 39.2 40.7 42.3 45.2 48.9 53.7 60.0 67.5 81.7
ITALY 18.6 18.9 19.2 19.7 20.1 20.9 21.7 22.6 24.6 29.8
SPAIN 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.8 8.8 10.1 13.7 23.3 28.7
NETHERLAND 1.0 1.5 2.1 2.9 4.6 7.2 11.1 14.8 19.6 23.9
FRANCE 6.0 7.1 7.7 8.6 9.6 10.7 11.9 14.6 17.3 20.5
POLAND 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.5 4.0 7.4 12.2 15.8
UK 5.5 9.6 11.9 12.8 13.1 13.3 13.6 13.9 14.7 15.7
BELGIUM 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.6 4.0 4.6 5.6 6.0 6.8 8.5
UKRAINE 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 2.0 5.9 7.3 8.1 8.1 8.1
GREECE 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.3 4.3 5.4 7.0
AUSTRIA 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.8 3.8 6.8
SWITZERLAND 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.7 4.3 5.8
HUNGARY 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.7 1.4 2.1 3.0 4.2 5.8

the best output occurring in the center and southern regions

C. ITALIAN SCENARIO where temperature and irradiance are excellent.
The 2030 energy efficiency and emissions reduction targets, Photovoltaic plants provide about one-twelfth of all
which call for obtaining 55% of electricity production from electricity produced in Italy, whether it is renewable or not.
RESs and 30% of total energy consumption from RESs, are Because of its radiation, this technique has a lot of potential
being met by Italy. By 2050, the nation also hopes to achieve in Italy. The yearly solar radiation in Italy ranges from 3.6
carbon neutrality. Significant amounts of variable renewable kW per square meter in the Po River region to 5.4 kW per
generation have been successfully incorporated into the square meter in Sicily, according to the Photovoltaic
country, and the RE sector has grown remarkably [164]. Geographic Information System. The data speaks for itself,
Because of regional variations and the distribution of demonstrating that Italy has favorable solar energy
specific RESs, Italy generates a wide variety of green energy circumstances as well as significant market participants who
[165]. Hydroelectric power is more common in the Apennine support its growth [167].The levelized cost of energy
spine and areas with high elevations, such as the Alps. Due (LCOE), which has decreased by more than 80% over the
to its latitude and more exposure to sunlight, PV is more past ten years, is the reason for this remarkable rise in a short
common in the south. The spread and penetration of RESs in period of time [168]. Among RESs, PV had a record-
Italy have significantly increased in recent years. In 2010, breaking output of over 30.7 TWh in 2023 (+9.2% over
only 356 localities in Italy had electric or heating facilities 2022) and also it has been seen a record with a notable 21.0%
fueled by renewable energy. There is currently at least one rise in power, rising from 25.1 GW in 2022 to 30.3 GW
RE plant in every Italian municipality; as of June 2020, there [169]. The development of the PV fleet is a huge opportunity
were more than 7,900 municipalities in the country. for Italy. The restart and development of large-scale factories
Moreover, 3,616 municipalities have bioenergy systems, will yield an estimated 11 billion euros in economic returns.
7,776 municipalities have at least one PV plant installed, Additionally, the research projects a reduction of 12.8
7,223 municipalities have a solar heating plant, 1,489 million tons of CO 2 equivalent emissions and the
municipalities use hydroelectric power (through large participation of nearly 20,000 new jobs, both direct and
structures or mini plants), 1,049 municipalities have wind indirect [170].
turbines, and 594 municipalities also use geothermal energy. Total energy supply (TES) includes all the energy
Regarding the PV, it has shown impressive growth. generated in or imported to a country, minus that which is
Moreover, Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI) and PV power stored or exported. It stands for all the energy needed to
potential for Italy are shown in the map to illustrate Italy's supply the nation's end users. While most of these energy
solar energy potential from the Global Solar Atlas as shown sources are converted into fuels or electricity for ultimate
in Fig. 11 [166]. Because of their ideal weather, southern use, some are used directly. The data for energy supply with
locations like Sicily and Calabria have higher DNI. Strong various sources are depicted in Fig. 12 [171].
potential is shown by the PV power map nationwide, with

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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3558539

Long term average of DNI period, 1994-2018 Long term average of PVOUT, period 1994-2018

(a) Direct Normal Irradiation of Italy (b) Photovoltaic Power Potential of Italy

FIGURE 11. Solar Resource Map of Italy [166]

4,000,000 coal Oil

Natural Gas Hydro
3,500,000 Wind, solar, etc. Biofuels and Waste

3,000,000
Energy (TJ)

2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000

0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023

Year

Oil Natural gas Biofuel &

37.5% 38.1% waste
10.5%

Coal Hydro Wind, Solar, etc.

3.7% 2.6% 7.6%
FIGURE 12. Evolution of total energy supply in Italy from 2000-2023 [171]
from nuclear reactors or burning fuels, thermal power plants
The largest sources of energy in Italy is from Natural gas
produce electricity, however up to half of their energy value is
and Oil with 38% and 37% in 2023 respectively, however,
wasted in the process. RESs use natural sources like the sun,
they decreased from the previous record. The other RESs like
wind, or water flow to directly produce electricity. The largest
Solar, Wind, etc. are showing frequent growth whereas the
sources of electricity generation in Italy as of 2023 are Natural
supply of coal has also decreased. Electricity generation is
gas, hydro, and solar with percentages of 45%, 16%, and
another significant transformational process. Utilizing the heat
11.6% respectively. Other sources with low shares are also

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content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3558539

shown in Figures like Wind, Coal, Biofuels, Oil, Geothermal, generation as of 2023 and compared with the previous years,
Waste, and others as shown in Fig. 13 [171]. From the data, it it has shown good progress from 2010 to 2023.
could be analyzed that Solar stands third in overall electricity
35000
Solar PV Energy (GWh)

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Year

Coal Natural gas Hydro Wind Solar PV

5.4% 45.0% 15.9% 8.8% 11.6%
Oil Biofuels
3.9% 5.2%
FIGURE 13. Evolution of electricity generation in Italy from 2000-2023 [171]
sector, such as through the widespread use of EVs. The
Regarding the total final energy consumption, data is
residential sector has the highest share of natural gas and then
represented with various types of consumption like the
Biofuels and waste and electricity in energy consumption.
highest sources of energy are Oil in final consumption,
Most of the energy used is for cooling and heating in the
second highest is natural gas, and the third highest is
houses in many countries including Italy. Even though air
electricity. Whereas energy consumption as per sector is also
conditioners, appliances, and lights are usually powered by
depicted with the maximum share in the transport sector then
electricity, cooking and heating still frequently involve the
electricity, industry, and commercial and public services
use of combustible fuels including natural gas, oil, coal, and
with the percentage of 32.2%, 25.7%, 21.8%, and 12.4%
biomass. Reducing CO 2 emissions will require electrifying
respectively as shown in Fig. 14 [171]. Moreover, the sector-
these end users, such as by switching from fossil fuel boilers
wise energy profile is also shown in Figure with various
to effective electric heat pumps. The commercial and public
percentages of different consumptions. In the Industrial
services sector is also consuming high energy with the
sector, most of the share is natural gas and the second
highest share of electricity and then natural gas [171].
number, there is a high share of electricity in energy
Apart from the above, the data has been taken for the solar
consumption. Depending on how their economies are
PV installed capacity as per the sector in 2022 as shown in
structured, industrial energy sources might differ
Fig. 15 [172]. It could be seen from the data that most of the
significantly between the countries. Fossil fuels are still
share of solar PV is residential with 1191MW, industrial
needed for high-temperature heat or as feedstocks in several
with 609MW, and commercial with 306MW used as BAP.
industrial processes, such as those in steelmaking, cement,
The whole electricity needs of the residential sector might be
and chemicals. The transport sector also consumes high
satisfied by solar PV systems deployed on 30% of rooftops
energy, having the largest sources of oil products than
[173]. However, on the utility scale, there is the highest share
biofuels and waste, natural gas, and electricity. Oil is still
of ground mounted with 361MW and agricultural share with
dominant and used to power passenger vehicles, trucks, and
2MW capacity. From them, the share with the centralized
airplanes accounting for the majority of transportation
system is about 448MW, and the decentralized system is
energy use in most countries. One key tactic for lowering
2022MW.
CO 2 emissions is the electrification of the transportation

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Biofuels
Oil Products Natural Gas Electricity and
40.3% 28.2% 21.7% waste
7.5%
Solar, Wind, etc.
Coal (0.7%) Heat (1.3%)
<1%
Commercial and
Industry Transport Residential Public services
21.8% 32.2% 25.7% 12.4%

Coal Heat Biofuels & waste

Natural Gas
3.2% 2.2% 3.1%

Agriculture/ Forestry
< 3%

Non-energy use
Non-specified
Electricity
Oil Natural Gas Electricity < 2%
11.8% 40.9% 38.7%
Biofuels & waste
3.8%

Oil Products
91.2% Solar, Wind, etc.
Heat 0.7%
2.3%
Biofuels & waste
Biofuels & 0.9%
Oil Products Natural Gas Electricity waste Solar, Wind, etc.
5.7% 51.2% 19.0% 21.1% <0.9 %

Oil Products Natural Gas Electricity

3.6% 35.3% 57.7%

FIGURE 14. Final Energy consumption and by-sector energy consumption data (2022) [171]

Discussing the technology types used following Fig. 15, (such as a-Si, CIS, and CdTe). The regions and/or provinces
65% of the current capacity is occupied by polycrystalline in the north of Italy have the largest percentage of
silicon PV modules, 30% by monocrystalline silicon monocrystalline modules installed, whereas the south of
modules, and 5% by thin film modules or other materials Italy has most of the thin-film technology.

2
448
609

1191

306 2022

361

Residential Commercial Industrial Ground mounted Agricultural Centralized Decentralized

(a) Building applied PV (BAPV) (b) Utility-scale (c) Type of connection

5%

30%

65%

Polycrystalline Silicon Monocrystalline Silicon Thin film or Other

(d) Type of Technology

FIGURE 15. Solar PV Installed capacity in MW (2022) [171]

From the above data and statistics, it could be analyzed countries. From the above data, it is also seen that the
that Italy has a good potential for solar energy, it has recently decentralized system has a major share as compared to the
also shown a great contribution in utilizing solar PV energy centralized system and on the agriculture side it has very low
if compared with the previous years’ data or with other utilization. From the sector-wise, the residential sector is

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utilizing more solar PV, than industrial and commercial. agricultural PV systems in Italy is land use
Following the data from Figure-14, electricity shares on the legislation, as stringent land use laws can present
commercial side come on top, then industrial, then major roadblocks. Among these is the preservation of
residential, and then transport. This here indicates to utilize agricultural land, particularly sections that have been
more power from solar PV. Apart from this, the transport identified as high value, including olive groves and
sector has final consumption with the highest share of Oil vineyards. Infrastructure problems: careful planning
products, here it shows a big problem of the high cost of fuel is needed to provide the infrastructure needed to
and environmental problems and indicating to go for electric install PV systems in rural or hilly places. Problems
vehicles. Focusing on the 2030 and 2050 targets, Italy is still such as road construction, maintenance, grid access,
behind schedule for 2030, according to experts, despite
and aesthetic effects on picturesque locations.
setting new solar and wind records last year. According to
Economic viability; variations in PV module prices
Italy's national energy and climate plan (NECP), wind and
may have an impact on how profitable farm PV
solar production must increase by 17% annually to meet its
2030 target, up from about 13% the previous year [174]. To projects are. Education and community involvement;
fully utilize the nation's potential, the industry needs gaining public support for agricultural PV systems
connections, authorizations, building regulations, and requires educating and involving local communities.
funding. Analysts are generally requesting greater clarity. 4) Grid and ESS Issues: Due to weather and daylight
Additionally, precise guidelines for agrivoltaics projects are availability, solar power output is essentially sporadic
required, particularly in identifying which projects qualify [186]. To provide a dependable and consistent power
for incentives [175]. supply, sophisticated energy storage technologies and
efficient electrical grid integration are needed.
VI. CHALLENGES Although ESSs that are both economical and effective
Italy is well-known around the world for its rich history, are essential for mitigating the unpredictability of
pleasant climate, and enormous potential for RESs. Some of solar energy. However, cost, capacity, and longevity
the challenges and difficulties facing RESs specifically solar issues still plague current battery technologies [187].
PV are lowering the strong reliance on fossil fuel-based 5) Economic concern and cost Effectiveness: Even if the
energy sources [167], effect on the transmission system, price of solar energy has dropped significantly, more
implementing PV system for agriculture [176], grid and ESS savings are required before it can rival conventional
issues [177], economic concern [178], [179], environmental energy sources on an unsubsidized basis. Moreover,
issues, and land constraints [180]–[182], policy challenges
Widespread adoption may be hampered by the initial
[183], [184] and public opinions. Moreover, they are
expenses of solar systems, which include panels,
discussed in detail below:
inverters, and associated infrastructure, particularly in
1) Lowering the heavy reliance on conventional energy: developing nations.
More than half of the fossil fuels used in Italy are still 6) Environmental impact and Land constraints: There
coal and natural gas. In addition to making, it more are negative effects of solar technology on the
difficult to reduce CO2 emissions to meet the zero net environment, including raw material extraction,
emissions target, this increases the country's manufacturing procedures, and end-of-life disposal.
dependency on energy imports [167]. Apart from this, Large-scale solar farms need a lot of
2) Renewable energy facilities have a significant effect land, which can cause conflicts over land usage,
on the energy transmission system: In particular, particularly in areas with high population density or
energy demand is concentrated in the North of Italy, agricultural value.
but solar and wind resources are more plentiful in the 7) Policy and Regulatory Framework: Investment and
South. The national territory's shape contributes to the advancement in solar technology may be impeded by
difficulty of managing the energy transmission policy uncertainties, modifications to subsidies, and a
infrastructure [167]. The creation of a vast project lack of regulatory backing. There are also technical
pipeline in Italy, notably in the Southern areas, has and legal obstacles to integrating a large portion of
been fueled by strong market fundamentals for solar power into current systems.
renewables, especially solar PV. Nonetheless, the 8) Other challenges: The other challenges that could
industry confronts formidable obstacles such as affect the deployment of solar PV are from grid
heightened cannibalization and transmission grid constraints to permitting issues, engineering,
problems. These difficulties show how important it is procurement, and construction bottlenecks [182].
to comprehend how the location of RE assets affects Another challenge could be the adoption of solar
their economies [185]. technology which can be influenced by public
3) Implementation of agricultural PV systems: Among opinion and acceptability. For the challenges relevant
the many difficulties facing the deployment of to efficiency, great efficiencies have been attained in
lab stages, but it is still difficult to sustain these

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efficiencies for extended periods in real-time cooperation, supporting policies and ongoing R&D are
adoption. Over time, all solar cells degrade to some necessary to realize this promise and guarantee that solar
extent, which lowers their efficiency and energy PV continues to be a major factor in the global energy
output. Degradation can be accelerated by elements transition.
like humidity, temperature changes, and UV radiation • Solar PV installations have grown rapidly worldwide
exposure [188]–[190]. during the past ten years, with China, the USA, and India
leading the way in capacity additions. With the help of
VII. OBSERVATIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES aggressive regulations and green energy objectives,
Because solar PV systems use sunlight to generate
Europe continues to lead the world in solar
electricity, they are essential to the global transition to clean,
photovoltaics, with Germany, Spain, and Italy playing
renewable energy. They have many benefits, including
lowering electricity costs, cutting CO 2 emissions, and important roles. Italy particularly has moved past its
improving energy security through power source initial boom, which was aided by feed-in tariffs, to a
diversification. However, it also lacks many key areas which more stable market that prioritizes rooftop systems,
must be addressed as described below considering all the community projects, and self-consumption. In the
above sections. future, European and international initiatives should
• Over the past ten years, solar PV technology has concentrate on developing floating PV and BIPV
advanced remarkably, and its future rests on increasing technologies, improving grid infrastructure, and
scalability, sustainability, and efficiency for all integrating energy storage. In addition to promoting
generations. Thinner wafers, recycling programs, and policy frameworks for energy communities and growing
bifacial designs will all help first-generation crystalline Agri-PV projects, Italy should keep supporting
silicon cells. Stability, toxicity reduction, and distributed solar systems. Scaling solar PV deployment
specialized applications such as building-integrated PV and guaranteeing a dependable, decentralized, and
(BIPV) require additional advancements in thin-film resilient energy future will require AI-based smart grids,
technologies. Newer third-generation PV technologies, recycling of retired panels, and sustainable production
like perovskite cells, provide innovations with reduced methods in every location.
costs and increased efficiency, but their scalability and • For the challenges, Italy can lead the way in
durability issues need to be resolved. Continuous incorporating solar energy into its diverse agricultural
improvements in the production, material, and terrain by tackling the obstacles with thorough planning,
installation processes are necessary to achieve cost community engagement, and open communication. This
parity. For a larger population to have access to solar will set the standard for other nations with comparable
energy, financing choices and incentives are crucial. geographic and agricultural characteristics.
• Furthermore, reliability will be improved by combining Furthermore, government subsidies and fixed long-term
PV with floating systems, smart AI-driven grids, and purchase agreements can help to reduce the financial
ESS. To guarantee sustainable growth, governments and uncertainties associated with the economic viability
businesses must promote recycling frameworks and difficulties. Apart from this, one of the biggest obstacles
green production methods. to the quicker installation of solar PV projects
• Varied applications of solar PV in important industries worldwide, particularly in Europe and Italy, is the length
will determine its future. As solar PV can power and complexity of regulatory procedures. Solar PV
decentralized energy systems in remote locations and deployment could be greatly accelerated by creating
MGs, while peer-to-peer trading platforms and RECs administrative "one-stop shops," creating clear
encourage local production and sharing of energy. Solar guidelines and procedures for developers seeking a
PV will be essential to space-based systems, supporting building permit, setting stringent deadlines for
satellites and creating future solar power plants, as well application processing, and involving the public in the
as telecommunication networks, powering off-grid process of identifying land that is suitable for
towers and Internet of Things sensors. Furthermore, investment.
BIPV will make net-zero energy buildings possible, • Other recommendations must be incorporated like the
while solar irrigation and agrivoltaics will support establishment of a supportive and balanced policy
sustainable agriculture. Drones, charging stations, and environment for the country which could help the
solar-integrated EVs will transform mobility in the distributed PV generation, encouragement of off-grid
transportation sector, and floating photovoltaics will electrification system adoption, and maintenance of the
effectively use water bodies to power desalination solar PV cost reduction trajectory and encouraging the
plants. Solar PV technology has enormous promise for creation of more intelligent inverter systems to help with
a wide range of uses. Continued innovation, cross-sector balance-of-system cost reductions and grid integration.

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SHOAIB AHMED has completed M.E (Electrical

Power System) from NED University, Karachi
Pakistan and B.E (Electrical Power Engineering)
from QUEST N/Shah, Pakistan. He is doing his PhD
in Photovoltaics (National photovoltaic program in
Italy) with the curriculum 'solar intermittency and an
energy storage system' focusing on renewable
energy communities (RECs) at Department of
Engineering, University of Basilicata and DIEM, University of Salerno Italy
in collaboration with the Industry. He has a good research profile, having
more than 30 research articles in conferences (National and International)
and Journals (IEEE, ELSEVIER, SPRINGER, MDPI, Wiley and National
Journals in Pakistan).

AMJAD ALI (Senior Member IEEE) was born in

Pakistan. He received the Ph.D. degree in microgrid
control and energy management from the College
of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou, China, in 2016. Currently, he is with the
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Sustainable
Energy Systems, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia as
Research Engineer II/ Associate Professor. He has vast experience both
industrial and academic and has more than 100 research articles in reputed
Journals and conferences.

JAMSHED AHMED ANSARI (Senior Member

IEEE) has completed his PhD in Power System
Automation from NCEPU Beijing. He possesses
teaching experience of more than 10 years.
Currently He is Assistant Professor in Department
of Electrical Engineering, Sukkur IBA University.
He has published more than 30 research papers in
various international journals and conferences in
the field of power system. His research interests include Renewable energy
system, Power System Automation, HVDC Systems, and Power System
Protection

SIKANDAR ABDUL QADIR received his B.E.

degree in Industrial and Manufacturing
Engineering from NED University of Engineering
and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan, in 2013, and
his M.S. degree in Industrial and Systems
Engineering from Istanbul Sehir University,
Istanbul, Turkey, in 2019. He earned his Ph.D.
degree in Engineering Management and Decision
Sciences from Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar, in 2023.
Currently, Dr. Sikandar is a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Interdisciplinary

8 VOLUME XX, 2017

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