Enteria

Akbarzadeh

Solar energy is available all over the world in different intensities.

Engineering Applications
Solar Energy Sciences and
Theoretically, the solar energy available on the surface of the earth is enough
to support the energy requirements of the entire planet. However, in reality,
progress and development of solar science and technology depends to a large
extent on human desires and needs. This is due to the various barriers to
overcome and to deal with the economics of practical utilization of solar energy.
This book will introduce the rapid development and progress in the field
of solar energy applications for science and technology: the advancement in
the field of biological processes & chemical processes; electricity production;
mechanical operations & building operations enhanced by solar energy.
The volume covers bio-hydrogen production and other biological processes
related to solar energy; chemical processes for the production of hydrogen from
water and other endothermic processes using solar energy; the development
of thermo-electric production through solar energy; the development of solar
ponds for electric energy production; the mechanical operation with solar
energy; the building operation with solar energy optimization and urban
planning.
This book is an invaluable resource for scientists who need the scientific
and technological knowledge of the wide coverage of solar energy sciences and
engineering applications. This will further encourage researchers, scientists,
engineers and students to stimulate the use of solar energy as an alternative
Napoleon Enteria
energy source. Aliakbar Akbarzadeh

Solar Energy Sciences and

Engineering Applications

an informa business
Solar Energy Sciences and
Engineering Applications
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Solar Energy Sciences and
Engineering Applications

Napoleon Enteria
Enteria Grün Energietechnik, Davao, Philippines

Aliakbar Akbarzadeh
RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20140515

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Table of contents

Preface xv
About the editors xvii

1 Physics of solar energy and its applications 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Solar energy and energy demand 1
1.3 Solar energy utilizations 3
1.4 Perspective 5

2 Exergy analysis of solar radiation processes 7

2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Exergy 8
2.2.1 Definition of exergy 8
2.2.2 Exergy annihilation law 10
2.2.3 Exergy of substance 12
2.2.4 Exergy of photon gas 17
2.2.5 Exergy of radiation emission 19
2.2.6 Exergy of radiation flux 25
2.3 Thermodynamic analysis 31
2.3.1 Significance of thermodynamic analysis 31
2.3.2 Energy balance equations 32
2.3.3 Exergy balance equations 36
2.3.4 Process efficiency 41
2.4 Solar radiation processes 45
2.4.1 Conversion of solar radiation into heat 45
2.4.2 Solar cylindrical-parabolic cooker 62
2.4.3 Solar chimney power plant 71
2.4.4 Photosynthesis 84
2.4.5 Photovoltaic 91

3 Exergy analysis of solar energy systems 97

3.1 Introduction 97
3.2 Energy and exergy aspects and analyses 98
vi Table of contents

3.3 Case studies 100

3.3.1 Case study 1: Exergy analysis of an integrated solar, ORC
system for power production 100
3.3.2 Case study 2: Exergy analysis of solar photovoltaic/thermal
(PV/T) system for power and heat production 105
3.3.3 Case study 3: Exergy assessment of an integrated solar
PV/T and triple effect absorption cooling system for
hydrogen and cooling production 111
3.4 Concluding remarks 116

4 Solar energy collection and storage 119

4.1 Solar thermal energy collectors 119
4.1.1 Overview 119
4.1.2 Flat plate solar energy collectors 120
4.1.3 Evacuated tube collectors 121
4.1.4 Collector components 122
4.2 Integral collector storage systems 124
4.2.1 Integral passive solar water heaters 124
4.2.2 Salt gradient solar ponds 124
4.3 Concentrators 126
4.3.1 Introduction 126
4.3.2 Concentration systems 126
4.4 Solar water heating 128
4.4.1 Overview 128
4.4.2 Applicability of particular collector types to specific outlet
temperatures and diffuse fractions 129
4.4.3 Freeze protection methods 131
4.4.4 Sensible and latent heat storage 133
4.4.5 Analytical representation of thermosyphon solar energy
water heater 134
4.4.6 Solar water heater design 137
4.5 Solar energy collection and storage for drying crops 140
4.6 Solar energy collector and storage for thermal power generation 142
4.7 Overall system optimization 142

5 Basics of the photovoltaic thermal module 149

5.1 Introduction 149
5.2 PV/T devices 151
5.2.1 Liquid PV/T collector 153
5.2.2 Air PV/T collector 154
5.2.3 Ventilated PV with heat recovery 157
5.2.4 PV/T concentrator 159
5.3 PV/T module concepts 160
5.3.1 Different types of PV/T modules 161
5.4 Techniques to inprove PV/T performance 162
5.5 Conclusion 165
 Table of contents vii

6 Thermal modelling of parabolic trough collectors 171

6.1 Introduction 171
6.2 The energy model 176
6.2.1 Convection heat transfer between the HTF and the
receiver pipe 178
6.2.2 Conduction heat transfer through the receiver pipe wall 179
6.2.3 Heat transfer from the receiver pipe to the glass envelope 180
6.2.4 Conduction heat transfer through the glass envelope 182
6.2.5 Heat transfer from the glass envelope to the atmosphere 182
6.2.6 Solar irradiation absorption 184
6.3 Code testing 187
6.4 Conclusions 191

7 Salinity gradient solar ponds 195

7.1 Introduction 195
7.2 Solar pond – design philosophy 197
7.2.1 Sustainable use of resources 197
7.2.2 Best site characteristics 198
7.2.3 Performance and sizing 198
7.2.4 Liner, salt and water 199
7.2.5 Transient performance prediction 201
7.3 Solar pond – construction and operation 202
7.3.1 Set-up and maintenance 202
7.3.2 Turbidity control 204
7.3.3 Heat extraction 205
7.3.4 Performance monitoring 206
7.3.5 EEE (Energy, Environmental and Economic) benefit
evaluation 206
7.4 Solar ponds – worldwide 209
7.4.1 Solar ponds – Israel 209
7.4.2 Solar ponds – Australia 209
7.4.3 Solar ponds – USA 210
7.4.4 Solar ponds – Tibet, China 212
7.4.5 Solar ponds – India 213
7.5 Solar ponds – applications 214
7.5.1 Heating 214
7.5.2 Aquaculture 214
7.5.3 Desalination 215
7.5.4 Power production 215
7.6 Future directions 215

8 The solar thermal electrochemical production of energetic

molecules: Step 219
8.1 Introduction 219
8.2 Solar thermal electrochemical production of energetic molecules:
An overview 221
8.2.1 STEP theoretical background 221
viii Table of contents

8.2.2 STEP solar to chemical energy conversion efficiency 225

8.2.3 Identification of STEP consistent endothermic processes 230
8.3 Demonstrated step processes 233
8.3.1 STEP hydrogen 233
8.3.2 STEP carbon capture 233
8.3.3 STEP iron 239
8.3.4 STEP chlorine and magnesium production (chloride
electrolysis) 244
8.4 Step constraints 246
8.4.1 STEP limiting equations 246
8.4.2 Predicted STEP efficiencies for solar splitting of CO2 247
8.4.3 Scaleability of STEP processes 249
8.5 Conclusions 250

9 Solar hydrogen production and CO2 recycling 257

9.1 Sustainable fuels with solar-based hyrogen production and
carbon dioxide recycling 257
9.2 Solar-based hydrogen production with water splitting methods 259
9.2.1 Solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of water splitting
processes 259
9.2.2 Matching the temperature requirements of solar-based
hydrogen production methods 261
9.2.3 Thermolysis, thermal decomposition and
thermochemical methods 262
9.2.4 Water electrolysis 267
9.2.5 Photoelectrolysis and photoelectrochemical water
splitting 270
9.2.6 Photochemical, photocatalytic, photodissociation,
photodecomposition, and photolysis 272
9.2.7 Hybrid and other hydrogen production methods 275
9.3 Solar-based CO2 recycling with hydrogen 277
9.4 Summary 281

10 Photoelectrochemical cells for hydrogen production from

solar energy 293
10.1 Introduction 293
10.2 Photoelectrochemical cells systems overview 293
10.2.1 Solar water-splitting arrangements 293
10.2.2 Working principles of photoelectrochemical cells for
water-splitting 297
10.2.3 Materials overview 299
10.2.4 Stability issues – photocorrosion 304
10.2.5 PEC reactors 306
10.3 Electrochemical impendance spectroscopy 311
10.3.1 Fundamentals 312
10.3.2 Electrical analogues 315
10.3.3 EIS analysis of PEC cells for water-splitting 318
 Table of contents ix

10.4 Fundamentals in electrochemistry applied to

photoelectrochemical cells 320
10.4.1 Semiconductor energy 321
10.4.2 Continuity and kinetic equations 328
10.5 Pec cells bottlenecks and future prospects 333

11 Photobiohydrogen production and high-performance

photobioreactor 343
11.1 Introduction 343
11.2 General description of photobiohydrogen production 344
11.2.1 Photoautotrophic hydrogen production 344
11.2.2 Photoheterotrophic hydrogen production 347
11.2.3 Critical issues in photobiohydrogen production 348
11.3 Genetic and metabolic engineering 349
11.4 High-performance photobioreactor 352
11.4.1 Modification of photobioreactor configurations 352
11.4.2 Optimization of the operating parameters 357
11.4.3 Application of cell immobilization 361
11.5 Challenges and future directions 367

12 Decontamination of water by combined solar advanced oxidation

processes and biotreatment 375
12.1 Introduction 375
12.2 Solar photo-fenton 376
12.2.1 Solar photo-Fenton hardware 378
12.3 Strategy for combining solar advanced oxidation processes and
biotreatment 382
12.3.1 Average oxidation state 383
12.3.2 Activated sludge respirometry 384
12.3.3 Zahn-Wellens test 386
12.3.4 Factors to be considered in designing a combined
system 388
12.4 Combining solar advanced oxidation processes and
biotreatment: Case studies 389
12.4.1 Case study A: An unsuccessful AOP/biological
process 389
12.4.2 Case study B: A successful AOP/biological process 389

13 Solar driven advanced oxidation processes for water

decontamination and disinfection 395
13.1 Introduction 395
13.2 Solar radiation collection for AOPs applications 396
13.3 Solar homogenous photocatalysis 398
13.3.1 Degradation of organic pollutants by solar driven
photo-Fenton processes 399
13.3.2 Microorganisms inactivation by solar driven
photo-Fenton processes 400
x Table of contents

13.4 Solar heterogenous photocatalysis 403

13.4.1 Degradation of organic pollutants by solar driven
heterogeneous photocatalysis 405
13.4.2 Microorganisms inactivation by solar driven
heterogeneous photocatalysis 406
13.5 Challenges and perspectives 406
13.5.1 Photorreactor design 406
13.5.2 Suspended vs. immobilized photocatalyst 407
13.5.3 Visible light active photocatalyst materials 408
13.6 Conclusions 408

14 Solar energy conversion with thermal cycles 413

14.1 Introduction 413
14.2 Solar concentration concept in thermal systems 414
14.3 Concentrating solar technologies 417
14.3.1 Linear focus 420
14.3.2 Parabolic trough 422
14.3.3 Reflectors 424
14.3.4 Heat collection element 425
14.3.5 Structure 427
14.3.6 Parabolic trough performance 428
14.3.7 Linear fresnel 430
14.3.8 Heat collection element 432
14.3.9 Reflectors 433
14.3.10 Linear Fresnel performance 434
14.3.11 Cost comparison of linear focus technologies 438
14.3.12 Point focus 438
14.3.13 Central receiver systems 439
14.3.14 Collector field 440
14.3.15 Central receiver 442
14.3.16 Solar dish 445
14.3.17 Receiver 446
14.3.18 Power system 447
14.4 Heat transfer fluids and storage 448
14.4.1 Heat transfer fluids 449
14.4.2 Storage 452
14.5 From heat to power 459
14.5.1 Rankine cycle 461
14.5.2 Rankine cycle performance 466
14.5.3 Stirling cycle 466
14.5.4 Stirling configurations 468
14.5.5 Stirling working fluids 471
14.6 Economics and future perspectives 472

15 Solar hybrid air-conditioning design for buildings in

hot and humid climates 485
15.1 Introduction 485
 Table of contents xi

15.2 Design approaches of solar air-conditioning 486

15.2.1 The solar-electric approach 486
15.2.2 The solar-thermal approach 486
15.2.3 A hybrid approach to system design 490
15.2.4 A hybrid approach to energy sources and system design 491
15.3 Performance evaluation of various solar air-conditioning systems 492
15.3.1 Principal solar-thermal air-conditioning systems 493
15.3.2 SHAC with load sharing 494
15.3.3 SHAc with radiant cooling 495
15.3.4 SHAC coordinated with new indoor ventilation
strategies 497
15.3.5 SHAC for premises with high latent load 499
15.4 Application potential of SHAC in various hot and humid cities in
southeast asia 501
15.5 Conclusion and future development 502

16 Solar-desiccant air-conditioning systems 507

16.1 Introduction 507
16.1.1 Energy and environment 507
16.1.2 The building environment 508
16.2 The basic concept 510
16.2.1 Thermodynamic processes 510
16.2.2 Advantages of the open systems 512
16.2.3 Desiccant materials 513
16.3 Solid-based system 515
16.3.1 Basic concept 515
16.3.2 Typical systems 516
16.3.3 Modified systems 517
16.3.4 Hybrid systems 520
16.4 Liquid-based system 522
16.4.1 Basic concept 522
16.4.2 Typical systems 522
16.4.3 Modified systems 523
16.4.4 Hybrid systems 523
16.5 System application 525
16.5.1 Countries 525
16.5.2 Temperate regions 526
16.5.3 Sub-temperate regions 529
16.5.4 Hot and humid regions 531
16.6 Future and perspectives 536

17 Building integrated concentrating solar systems 545

17.1 Introduction to building integration of solar energy systems 545
17.1.1 Solar thermal systems and building integration
requirements 546
17.1.2 Solar photovoltaic systems and building integration
requirements 550
xii Table of contents

17.2 Building integrated concentrating systems 556

17.2.1 Physics of concentrating solar system 556
17.2.2 Types of concentrators 557
17.2.3 Building integrated concentrating photovoltaics 561
17.2.4 Building integrated solar thermal (concentrating) 575
17.2.5 Concentrating systems and building integration
requirements 578
17.3 Conclusions 579

18 Solar energy use in buildings 589

18.1 Introduction 589
18.2 Passive solar gains in cold and moderate climatic regions 590
18.2.1 Passive solar gains by glazing 592
18.3 Total energy transmittance of glazing 592
18.4 New glazing systems 596
18.5 Transparent thermal insulation (TTI) 597
18.6 Operational principle of transparent thermal insulation 597
18.7 Materials used and construction 601
18.8 Heat storage by interior building elements 602
18.9 Component temperatures for sudden temperature increases 605
18.10 Solar gains, shading strategies and air conditioning of buildings 609
18.11 Influence of the urban form on solar energy use in buildings 614
18.12 Residential buildings in an urban context 614
18.13 Site density effect and urban shading in moderate climates 614
18.14 Climate effect 617
18.15 Solar gains and glazing 618
18.16 Office buildings in an urban context 620

19 The contribution of bioclimatic architecture in the improvement

of outdoor urban spaces 623
19.1 Introduction 623
19.2 Mitigation strategies 625
19.2.1 Planted areas 626
19.2.2 Cool materials 627
19.2.3 Shadings 629
19.2.4 Thermal sinks 629
19.2.5 Combination and interplay of mitigation strategies 629
19.3 Experimental analysis of outdoor spaces 630
19.3.1 Assessment of outdoor comfort conditions 630
19.3.2 Assessment of bioclimatic technologies 634
19.4 Conclusions and future prospects 638

20 Legislation to foment the use of renewable energies and solar

thermal energy in building construction: The case of Spain 643
20.1 Introduction 643
20.2 European regulatory framework for renewable energy sources in
the context of the energy performance of buildings 643
 Table of contents xiii

20.3 Application of EU regulations in member states: The case in spain 648

20.3.1 National action plan for renewable energies 649
20.3.2 Basic procedure for the certification of energy efficiency 651
20.3.3 The spanish technical building code 652
20.3.4 Spanish regulations for thermal installations in buildings 653
20.4 The solar thermal system 654
20.5 The spanish technical building code as a legal means to foment
the use of renewable energies in building construction 657
20.6 Measures to foment the use of renewable energies: Government
incentives 659
20.7 Economic impact of solar thermal energy 660
20.8 Conclusions 662

Subject index 665

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Preface

As the world’s conventional energy supply nears its peak, and with the demand for that
energy increasing year on year, it is expected that balancing supply and demand will
become increasingly challenging. Consequently it is expected that non-conventional
energy sources and renewable energy resources are likely to play a greater role in
addressing the imbalance between supply and demand.
Many experts advocate increased harnessing of renewable energy as an impor-
tant alternative energy source. Utilization of renewable energy resources is sometimes
expensive and difficult to apply fully in particular sectors of society because of the
location, intensity and nature of the applications. Therefore specific matching of the
renewable energy source to the application is a very important aspect of maximizing
the utilization of renewable energy.
Solar energy is available in differing intensities in different parts of the planet.
Maximization of its potential as a primary alternative renewable energy source depends
however on the specific usage made of it. Hence, this book was conceived to serve the
purpose of identifying primary and secondary applications of solar energy in order to
maximize their potential.
As solar energy applications can span almost the entire spectrum of human activity,
including for example biological processes, chemical processes, mechanical processes
and other aspects of our daily lives, preparation of a book that considers all these facets
is very important in determining how existing sciences and technologies can further
refine and expand solar energy utilization and applications.
Many experts in solar energy were invited to contribute to this book, with content
ranging from basic to higher concepts of solar radiation, the thermodynamics of solar
energy processes and applications, the application of solar energy to producing an
alternative, renewable secondary energy source through hydrogen production, thermo-
chemical processes to separate some greenhouse gases, how to apply solar energy in
thermo-mechanical processes, maximization of solar energy use in energy-efficient
housing and other buildings, and the role of solar energy in planning the outdoor
environment.
International experts from the many different fields of science and technology to
which solar energy has feasible application have collaborated in the preparation of
this book. Consequently there is wide coverage of solar energy as an alternative energy
source which can also offer low greenhouse gas emissions.
In this context, firstly the editors acknowledge with gratitude each of the global
experts in solar energy who have fully supported and contributed chapters to this
xvi Preface

book and who are individually listed in the book chapters. Secondly, we are grateful
to Janjaap Blom of the Taylor Francis-CRC Press for the support given from concep-
tualization through to the publication of this book. Thirdly, we thank our families
for their support during the entire process of production of the book with our aim of
supporting the prospect of sunnier and clearer skies in the future of our planet.

Napoleon Enteria
Aliakbar Akbarzadeh
About the editors

Napoleon Enteria is the Managing Consultant of the

Enteria Grün Energietechnik, Philippines. At the same
time, he is a Visiting Researcher of the Faculty of Engi-
neering, Tohoku University, Japan. He was a Research
Staff of the Faculty of Engineering, Tohoku University,
Japan, for the Industry-Academia-Government Collab-
oration. He was doing research in collaboration with
different Japanese universities and companies with the
prime support of Japanese government agencies in the
area of solar energy, HVAC systems and building sci-
ences. In addition, he provides technical and scientific
advice to graduate and undergraduate students. He was a scientist with the Solar
Energy Research Institute of Singapore, a component of the National University of
Singapore, performing collaborative research with the Fraunhofer Institute of Solar
Energy Systems in Germany, a German company and the Department of Mechani-
cal Engineering of the National University of Singapore in the field of solar thermal
energy, HVAC systems and membrane heat exchangers; the latter was supported by
the Singaporean government agency during his stay in Singapore. Before going to Sin-
gapore, he was a Global Center of Excellence Researcher in the Wind Engineering
Research Center of Tokyo Polytechnic University doing research in natural ventilation
and air-conditioning systems in collaboration with Japanese universities, companies
and the Global Center of Excellence Program of the Japan Ministry of Education, Cul-
ture, Sports, Science and Technology. In addition, he was a guiding instructor to two
undergraduate students for theses research.
Napoleon has authored several scientific and engineering papers in books, review
journals, research journals and conference proceedings. He has presented and sub-
mitted dozens of technical reports for collaborative projects with research institutes,
universities and companies in different countries. He is regularly invited as reviewer
for several international journals in the field of air handling systems, energy systems
and building sciences. On occasion, he is invited to review research funding appli-
cations and gives technical and scientific comments on international scientific and
engineering activities. He is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME), the International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and an associate member
of the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR). He was awarded his Doctor of
Philosophy (2009) in engineering, specializing in Building Thermal Engineering at the
xviii About the editors

Tohoku University, Japan, as Japanese Government Scholar; and his Master of Science
(2003) and Bachelor of Science (2000) in the field of mechanical engineering from
Mindanao State University at Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines, as Philippine
Government Scholar.

Aliakbar Akbarzadeh was born in Iran in 1944. He

received his BSc degree in Mechanical Engineering from
Tehran University in 1966. In 1972, he obtained his MSc
and in 1975 his PhD, also in Mechanical Engineering
and both from the University of Wyoming, USA. From
1975 to 1980 he was an Associate Professor and also
Head of the Mechanical Engineering Department at
Shiraz University in Shiraz, Iran. Later he worked at the
University of Melbourne as a Research Fellow (1980–
1986), primarily doing research on applications of solar
energy as well as energy conservation opportunities in
thermodynamic systems. Since June 1986, Aliakbar has been working as an academic
at RMIT University in Melbourne, Australia. During this period, he also worked
as a visiting Fellow for half-a-year at the Nuclear Engineering Department of the
University of California at Berkeley, USA, where he did research on passive cooling of
nuclear reactors through computer modelling as well as experimental simulations. At
present, Aliakbar is a Professor in the School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manu-
facturing Engineering at RMIT University, and also the Leader of the Energy CARE
(Conservation and Renewable Energy) Group in the same school. Aliakbar lectures
in thermodynamics as well as remote Area power supply systems. He is the Principal
Supervisor of ten full-time PhD postgraduate research students on energy conservation
and renewable energy systems. He has also one post-doctoral research fellow working
with him on geothermal energy utilization for power generation.
Aliakbar is a specialist in thermodynamics of renewable energy systems. His
industry oriented research projects enrich his teachings and makes them relevant. He
spends about half of his time in supervising industry supported research in energy
conservation and renewable energy area, which also form a vehicle for postgraduate
training of his PhD students. He has been the first supervisor of about 30 PhD candi-
dates who have completed their degrees. Aliakbar has over 100 refereed publications
and two books all in his area of specialization which is solar energy applications. One
of his publications on solar energy won the ASME Best Paper of the year award in
1996. Aliakbar’s industry-oriented research on energy systems has resulted in a num-
ber of Australia National Energy Awards for him, as well as a number of products,
such as the Heat Pipe-based Heat Exchanger for waste heat recovery in bakeries, the
Temperature Control of solar water heaters using thermo-syphons and an innovative
system for simultaneous power generation and fresh water production using geother-
mal resources. Aliakbar has also been working on salinity gradient solar ponds as a
source of industrial process heat and also for power generation. In the last 35 years
he has developed several concepts related to salinity gradient maintenance, as well as
efficient methods of heat extraction from solar ponds. At present, his research group
is the world leader on applications of solar ponds.
Chapter 1

Physics of solar energy and

its applications
Napoleon Enteria1 & Aliakbar Akbarzadeh2
1
Enteria Grün Energietechnik, Davao, Philippines
2
School of Aerospace, Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering,
RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Solar energy has existed for millions of years and has been used by many non-living
and living things for physical, chemical and biological changes and processes. For
generation after generation, solar energy has been the main source of daily energy in
many ways. The start of human modernity and civilization changed the utilization
of solar energy. Previous human civilizations utilized solar energy for lighting, food
drying and personal care. Modern humans utilize solar energy for everyday existence,
work purposes and generally for living. As human demand for modern energy supply
increases, attention to solar energy becomes more intense.
Because of the increasing population, demand for better comfort, urbanization and
industrialization, the pressure on conventional energy sources is increasing. The rapid
increase of energy demand rattles the chain of energy supply which has difficulty in
meeting the rapid rise in energy demand. This rapid demand not only makes the world
more volatile in terms of energy politics but also accentuates the environmental hazards
associated with emission of greenhouse gases, particularly from chemical processes
involved in utilizing the thermal energy obtained from conventional energy sources.
Consequently there are active plans to utilize solar energy for different processes to
minimize energy demand from conventional energy supply sources.
Conventional energy supplies are based on fossil fuel or carbon-based energy
sources, based on the liberation of stored energy through combustion. Through com-
bustion processes or chemical processes, thermal energy is generated. At the same time,
radiant energy or solar energy is an available energy which can be used as replacement
for the energy liberated/generated during combustion processes. Therefore, several
methods, concepts and ideas are being pursued to maximize the utilization of solar
energy as an alternative form of energy to minimize the usage of carbon-based energy
sources. This chapter introduces the concept of solar energy and its applications as
alternatives for conventional energy supply and demand.

1.2 SOLAR ENERGY AND ENERGY DEMAND

The Sun is the nearest and only star around which the Earth and other planets are
constantly rotating. The energy generated by the Sun is utilized on Earth for the support
of living organisms. As the Sun is radiating and transmitting energy in the form of
2 Solar energy sciences and engineering applications

radiant energy with a range of wavelengths and intensities, a nuclear fusion-fission-

fusion reaction is happening inside the core of the Sun. The nuclear processes of the Sun
create tremendous amounts of energy which are sometimes devastating due to the
power of nuclear processes. The power generated by the Sun is almost endless and the
human benefit from it is expected to last for countless generations to come.
The energy generated in the Sun is transmitted to its surface through convection
and radiation. From the surface, the energy is transmitted to its surroundings through
solar radiation. This is a consequence of space being a vacuum from which both
conductive and convective modes of energy transmission are eliminated. The solar
energy available in the upper atmosphere of the Earth is almost constant and depends
on the motions and distance between the Earth and the Sun associated with the constant
rotation and revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the nuclear activities of the
Sun. As the Earth has a layer of atmosphere, the available solar energy in the upper
atmosphere of the Earth is reduced in transmission before it reaches the surface of the
Earth, depending on the weather and climatic conditions, surface locations and local
activities such as heavy smokes from wildfires.
The net energy of the Sun, reaching the surface of the Earth in the form of radiant
energy, has different intensities. The intensities depend on the radiant energy wave
spectrum. The radiant energy wave spectrum is generally classified as short wave (0
to 300 nanometer), infrared (300 to 750 nanometer) and long wave (750 nanometer
and above). With these different radiant energy wave spectrum energy intensities,
utilization of solar energy is very interesting and for different applications depends on
a variety of techniques and methods.
The radiant energy from the Sun has been naturally utilized by different terrestrial
living organisms for millions of years. Early humans utilized solar energy in different
applications including food production, cloth making and others. As modern civi-
lization demands more energy, alternative sources can be investigated and attention
to solar energy and its provider, the Sun, becomes an interesting topic for the mod-
ern world. There are many concepts, methods, ideas and practical solutions both for
simple and for more advanced utilization of radiant energy from the Sun. As global
demand is for clean energy sources which are potentially renewable and inexhaustible,
solar energy becomes the center of attention.
Demand for conventional energy sources has increased tremendously since the start
of the industrial revolution. Conventional energy sources are carbon-based, including
coal, oil and gas, and burning these sources creates large amounts of carbon dioxide
which is a so-called greenhouse gas. The greenhouses gases are responsible for the
increase of the Earth’s temperature through trapping the Sun’s radiant energy as it
reflects from the surface of the Earth. Hence, massive consumption of carbon-based
conventional energy sources has major future effects – depletion of the energy stock
resulting in increased prices, political issues related to energy shortage and increase of
the Earth temperature as human demand for better comfort increases. Moreover there
are other effects on biological and agricultural production.
As the population, urbanization, industrialization and demand for better human
comfort increase, it is expected that the demand for energy consumption will
increase. The rapid increase in demand for energy is associated with rapid industrial-
ization of the developing world. China and India are expected to contribute a bigger
share in the rapid increase of energy consumption. Latin America and South East Asia
 Physics of solar energy and its applications 3

are also expected to contribute a bigger part of the increase of energy demand. The
rapid demand for conventional energy sources has created a geopolitical energy tension
due to the sizable amount of energy supply from major energy producing countries and
regions instead. It is expected that the Middle East and Russia will play a major role
as global energy producers.
The increase of greenhouse gas emissions is attributed to the increase of carbon-
based energy consumption. With rapid demand for coal for power plants and oil
and gas for transportation and other sectors, greenhouse gas emissions are increasing.
The report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) shows that the
increase of the global temperature is caused by the increase of greenhouse gas emissions
(IPCC). As global warming and climate change have tremendous and complex effects,
they will have greater significance for human survival. Therefore, minimization of
greenhouse gas emissions without stifling the demand for progress and human comfort
is crucial.
The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is possible through reduction of the con-
sumption of conventional energy resources. The reduction of the use of conventional
energy resources is achievable by the means of energy efficiency, energy conservation
and utilization of renewable energy sources. Existing processes, devices and opera-
tions can be energy efficient through application and development of new and novel
technologies with the aid of basic sciences. The energy conservation measures are pos-
sible through the combined application of the passive (natural) and active (artificial)
methods, of which in previous and present times active methods have dominated.
Utilization of renewable energy sources, particularly solar energy which is available
in most parts of the planet, can be advanced through investigation of the existing
equipment, processes and sources of energy and energy requirements which can be
alternatively sourced from solar energy. In this scenario, demand for and consumption
of conventional energy sources or carbon-based energy sources will gradually decrease,
resulting in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATIONS

In the modern world, cities and other modern facilities are operated using electrical
energy. This is because of easy and simple transmission and storage of electrical energy
in different forms. In this situation it is expected that demand for electrical energy will
increase in future generations.
Electricity production through solar energy is being achieved in two major
processes – solar thermal and solar-photovoltaic. Solar thermal power plants employ
concentrating solar collectors to produce high temperatures by focusing solar energy
in order to produce steam for power plants. Solar-photovoltaic power plants employ
semiconductor materials to convert radiant energy photons to electrons to produce
electricity. The two technologies have both advantages and disadvantages depending
on the point of view of the user. However, as solar energy is free and clean, the uti-
lization of solar energy for electricity production is compelling and offers both energy
security and environmental benefits.
There are many biological processes in which thermal energy is a requirement
and which are called endothermic processes. In endothermic processes, the thermal
4 Solar energy sciences and engineering applications

energy is utilized to accelerate the biological processes and thus reduce the waiting
time or increase the production cycle. In endothermic biological processes, application
of solar energy directly or indirectly is possible using different solar energy collectors.
Production of bio-fuels with the support of solar energy enhances the processes.
Hydrogen production from water and other sources has been demonstrated as an
alternative clean energy source. However, production of hydrogen through thermo-
chemical or molecular breaking or through electro-chemical processes are the main
methods and require external energy input. Hydrogen production or any thermo-
chemical processes can be done with the support of solar energy either as direct thermal
energy or using electricity generated from solar energy. There are several large scale
research facilities for the production of hydrogen through thermal energy. It has also
been demonstrated that the production of hydrogen through electrochemical processes
is feasible.
In agricultural industries, application of thermal energy for drying is most impor-
tant to increase the shelf life of the products. Solar energy can also be used for
the bio-chemical processes in agricultural production. There are many existing and
under-demonstration technologies for agricultural applications. The most common
and typical application is the solar dryer which has been demonstrated to be feasible
and practical using simple design, local materials and unskilled workers. In addi-
tion, solar cookers and other food processing applications of solar energy have been
demonstrated.
Machines minimize human effort with increase of production and operations in
many different applications. There are many thermally operated mechanical processes
including heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems, heat engines, pumps and
fans. Application of solar energy to support the thermal requirements of these machines
and equipment is feasible. Thermally operated air-conditioning systems, pumps and
fans have been shown and demonstrated to be feasible and practical. There are many
concepts, designs and technologies readily available and being conceptualized for
applications.
The occupants of buildings always demand thermal comfort conditions during
summer time and winter time, both daytime and nighttime. The maintenance of indoor
thermal comfort conditions in buildings consumes large amounts of energy. Also, the
reduction of humidity in buildings consumes large amounts of energy in tropical cli-
mates. Indoor cooling and heating both in tropical and temperate climates consumes
considerable amounts of energy. Furthermore, the lighting for buildings is another main
consumer of energy particular for office buildings. Solar energy which is readily avail-
able can be utilized to support the day-to-day operation of buildings and to support
the indoor comfort conditions for occupants. For instance, solar energy can be utilized
to support the air flow rate requirement through natural ventilation. Solar energy can
be used to support the thermal energy requirement of buildings through solar thermal
collection. Solar energy can be used to support the electricity requirements of build-
ings through photovoltaic installations. Solar energy can be collected through thermal
storage to support the nighttime thermal energy requirement of buildings.
The effect of a heat island is felt in big cities because of the increased utilization of
air-conditioning systems and application of urban materials which absorb solar energy.
Proper design through urban planning can minimize the effect of solar radiation includ-
ing sun shading, alternative materials, air movement for natural ventilation and the
 Physics of solar energy and its applications 5

general utilization of solar energy for building applications. There are conceptualizing
technologies to capture the solar energy in urban areas through photovoltaic technolo-
gies and solar thermal technologies to reduce the solar energy contribution to the heat
island effect. Application of technologies, which can effectively collect the solar energy
in the different areas of cities or urban areas, minimizes its contribution to the heat
island effect.
There are several day-to-day applications of solar energy which we are using that
can be alternatively sourced. Day-to-day applications of light to illuminate us such as
during reading or other indoor activities are common. Washing of clothes and drying
can consume energy. The daily usage activities and personal usage of energy can be
sourced alternatively using solar energy in the form of day lighting and thermal energy
which can make us minimize the use of conventional and existing energy sources.

1.4 PERSPECTIVE

Solar energy is available in every part of the planet; however, utilization of the energy
depends on our desire and needs and in most cases on economic factors. Depleting
conventional energy sources and the issue of global energy politics have become very
serious. Global warming and climate change present a serious situation which endan-
gers humanity. Therefore, serious consideration of alternative approaches to the issue
of energy resources is vital.

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Appendix 14.1 Operating Concentrated Solar Power on a

worldwide scale.

Database Net Electricity

existing Turbine production Storage

plants Location Start capacity (MWh/yr) Technology HTF (h)

Type

Andasol -1 Spain 2008 49.9 158000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2 tank

Biphenyl oxide indirect

Andasol -2 Spain 2009 49.9 158000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2 tank

Biphenyl oxide indirect

Andasol -3 Spain 2010 49.9 175000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2 tank

Biphenyl oxide indirect

Archimede Italy 2010 4.72 9200 PT Molten salts 8 2 tank

direct

Aste 1A Spain 2012 50 170000 PT Thermal oil 8 2 tank

indirect

Aste 1B Spain 2012 50 170000 PT Thermal oil 8 2 tank

indirect

Astexol II Spain 2012 50 170000 PT Thermal oil 8 2 tank

indirect

Augustin France 2012 0.25 – LFR Thermal oil 8 2 tank

Fresnel 1 indirect

Colorado USA 2010 2 49 PT

Integrated

Solar Project

Extresol-1 Spain 2010 50 158000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2 tank

Biphenyl oxide indirect

Extresol-2 Spain 2010 49.9 158000 PT Diphenyl/ 8.5 2 tank

Biphenyl oxide indirect

Gemasolar Spain 2011 19.9 110000 ST Molten salts 15 2 tank

Thermosolar direct

plant

Helioenergy 1 Spain 2011 50 95000 PT Thermal oil none

Helioenergy 2 Spain 2012 50 95000 PT Thermal oil none

Helios I Spain 2012 50 97000 PT Thermal oil none

(Helios I) (Continued)

Appendix 14.1 (Continued)

Database Net Electricity

existing Turbine production Storage

plants Location Start capacity (MWh/yr) Technology HTF (h)

Type

Holaniku at USA, 2009 2 4030 PT Xceltherm-600 2 non

Keahole Haweii fornito

Point

Ibersol Spain 2009 50 103000 PT Diphenyl/ NA

Ciudad Real Biphenyl oxide

(Puertollano)

ISCC Hassi Algeria 2011 25 NA PT Thermal oil none

R’mel (ISCC

Hassi R’mel)

ISCC Kuraymat Egypt 2011 20 3400 PT Therminol none

(ISCC Kuraymat) VP-1

ISCC Morocco Morocco 2010 20 NA PT Thermal oil none

(ISCC Morocco)

Jülich Germany 2008 2.5 NA ST Air 1.5 Ceramic

Solar Tower heat sink

Kimberlina USA, 2008 5 NA LFR Water none

Solar Thermal California

Power Plant

La Dehesa Spain 2011 49.9 175000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2-tank

Biphenyl oxide indirect

La Florida Spain 2010 50 175000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2-tank

Biphenyl oxide indirect

La Risca Spain 2009 50 105200 PT Diphenyl/ none

(Alvarado I) Biphenyl oxide

Lebrija 1 (LE-1) Spain 2011 50 120000 PT TherminolVP1 none

Majadas I Spain 2010 50 104500 PT Diphenyl/ NA Biphenyl

oxide

Manchasol-1 Spain 2011 49.9 158000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2-tank

(MS-1) Biphenyl oxide indirect

Manchasol-2 Spain 2011 50 158000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2-tank

(MS-2) Biphenyl oxide indirect

Maricopa USA, 2010 1.5 NA Dish/ non fornito none

Solar Project Arizona Engine

(Maricopa)

Martin Next USA, 2010 75 155000 PT Thermal oil none

Generation Florida

Solar Energy

Center

(MNGSEC)

Morón Spain 2012 50 100000 PT Thermal oil none

Nevada USA, 2007 72 134000 PT DowthermA 0.5 0.5 hours

Solar One Nevada full-load

(NSO) storage

Palma del Spain 2011 50 114500 PT Diphenyl/ none

Río I Biphenyl oxide

Palma del Spain 2010 50 114500 PT Diphenyl/ NA

Río II Biphenyl oxide

Planta Solar Spain 2011 11 23400 ST Water 1 other

10 (PS10)

Planta Solar Spain 2009 20 48000 ST Water 1 other

20 (PS20) (Continued)

Appendix 14.1 (Continued)

Database Net Electricity

existing Turbine production Storage

plants Location Start capacity (MWh/yr) Technology HTF (h)

Type

Puerto Errado Spain 2009 1,4 2000 LFR Water NA Single-tank

1Thermosolar gross thermocline

Power Plant

(PE1)

Puerto Errado Spain 2012 30 49000 LFR Water 0.5 Single-tank

2Thermosolar thermocline

Power Plant

(PE2)

Saguaro USA, 2006 1 2000 PT Xceltherm 600 NA

Power Arizona (solar field);

Plant n-pentane (ORC working fluid)

Sierra USA, 2009 5 NA ST Water none

SunTower California
(Sierra)

Solaben 3 Spain 2012 50 100000 PT Thermal oil none

Solacor 1 Spain 2012 50 100000 PT Thermal oil none

Solacor 2 Spain 2012 50 100000 PT Thermal oil none

Solar Electric USA, 1984 13.8 NA PT Therminol 3 2-tank

Generating California direct

Station I

(SEGS I)

Solar Electric USA, 1985 30 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating California

Station II

(SEGS II)

Solar Electric USA, 1985 30 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating California

Station III

(SEGS III)

Solar Electric USA, 1989 30 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating California

Station IV

(SEGS IV)

Solar Electric USA, 1989 30 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating California

StationV

(SEGSV)

Solar Electric USA, 1989 30 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating California

StationVI

(SEGSVI)

Solar Electric USA, 1989 30 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating California

StationVII

(SEGSVII)

Solar Electric USA, 1989 80 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating California

StationVIII

(SEGSVIII) (Continued)

Appendix 14.1 (Continued)

Database Net Electricity

existing Turbine production Storage

plants Location Start capacity (MWh/yr) Technology HTF (h)

Type

Solar Electric USA, California 1990 80 NA PT Therminol NA

Generating

Station IX

(SEGS IX)

Solnova 1 Spain 2009 50 113520 PT Thermal oil none

Solnova 3 Spain 2009 50 113520 PT Thermal oil none

Solnova 4 Spain 2009 50 113520 PT Thermal oil none

Termesol 50 Spain 2011 49.9 175000 PT Diphenyl/ 7.5 2-tank

(Valle 2) Biphenyl oxide indirect

Thai Solar Thailand 2012 5 8000 PT Water/Steam none

Energy 1

(TSE1)

http://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/operational.cfm

PT= Parabolic Trough, LFR= Linear Fresnel, ST= Solar tower,

DS=Dish Stirling
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