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 Varone/
LAST JUDGEMENT
Western f arade. Detail:
THE SEA YEALDING BACK ITS VICTIMS

NICOLAE IORGA
()ur lands ha·ve not only their glorious past of 4

grand and good deeds, \vhich defended their life and rule, '
but also their past of great scholars and artistic valLtes.
In the old days, in \Vriting as \vell as in the crafts of ·
house building, of \Vall painting, of precious
tnetal \Vorking, of all kinds of embroideries, v..re had
our o\vn paths, belonging to nobody else in this world,
pave~ for and in our O\Vn favour and use.
JOSEF STRZYGOWSI<I
"fhese are treasures \Vhich the best-inforn1ed connoisseur,
1n his O\Vn journeys, can see no\vhere else.
Above all that can b~ seen in l\1o.ldavia,
there are strange churches
which, through the polychromy of the fas:ades,
are con1parable \Vith churches such as San J\ Iarc in Venice
1

or the Dome of Orvieto ... ,

no other country provides one \Vith anything the like.
Voronet
. '
OUR LADY OF ME RCY
Ante-nave. Detail

,,

ANDRE GRABAR
Seen from outside, each church is an enchanting piece
of decoration, to be admired in its environment of
green and white, the green of the lawn from
which ·the church rises, the white of the surrounding " rall
and of the monastic buildings, which
sim~ltaneously constitute a rectangular setting around it.
But, these painted fas:ades,
with their figures and scenes,
resemble an illustrated book with all its pages open.
PAUL HENRY
Exterior wall painting is Moldavia's
most personal and original product;
.not only the ordinance of this painting but also
the interpretation of traditional motifs and
:the introduction of some themes dra"ring upon folklore
betray a ~hought of its own,
a real local school, with its own traditions and conceptions.
virgil vdtdfianu

WALL PAINTING IN
NORTHERN MOLDAVIA

meridiane publishing house

bucharest, 1974
TRANSLATED FROM THE ROMANIAN BY
CATERINA AUGUSTA GRUNDBOCK
EDITOR :
MARIN IVAN

ENGLISH EDITOR:
DELIA RAZDOLESCU

.J :\O.:LT :
IO \::-\ \ DRAGO.MIRESCC

L Y-UUT :
K L \R TA \LAS

.·1!.L RIGHTS RE ERVED

introduction

Towards the middle of the 14th century, the principality of Moldavia consolidated as a feudal state,
reaching its utmost territorial extent - from the Eastern Carpathians and down to the Black Sea -
during the rule of Alexander the Kind (1400- 1432). The principality took shape, gradually, by the
fusion of some tiny political structures, ·which had been set up along the commercial roads,
connecting the ports from the Black Sea - Chilia and Cetatea Alba - with Kiev, Halice and
Lvow. Fighting, in turn, with Kiev, Halice and subsequently with the Tartars of the Golden
Horde, the pre-statal systems from the territory, which was to become Moldavia, reached
their freedom, towards the middle of the 14th century, simultaneously turning into a bone of
contention between the Hungarian kingdom and the Polish one. The attempts of the Hungarian
king to subject Moldavia, with the support of the local rulers of the Maramurq, from the kin of
Drago§ (1351 - 1359), are put an end to, by the ascent of Bogdan I. (1359-1365) to the throne of the
same Maramurq, being first reigning prince or independent ruler of the country. This independence
was subsequently threatened by the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. After dramatic and heroic
battles, waged during the reign of Stephen the Great (1457-1504) and after the resistance put up by
Petru Rare§, during his first rule (1527-1538), Moldavia was, ultimately, forced to acknowledge
Turkish suzerainty, nevertheless making further efforts to conclude alliances and organize an
anti-Ottoman front. Down to the 19th century, the entire political history of Moldavia was covered
by more or less sustained actions, directed against Turkish encroachments which became more and
more oppressive. Within this historical context, alongside the feudal social-political machinery, the
ecclesiastical body of the Eastern Orthodox Church also came into action, while the complex interplay
of forces in which there interposed inner social movements and clashes, blended with the relationships
with the neighbouring countries, relationships alternating alliances with devastating incursions
and wars. In moments of leisure, against this troubled background, the fascinating lights of a cultural

7
 and artistic creation are being projected, woven from the warp of local tradition and the wefts
of the contacts with the ideas and forms of culture and art, belonging to the neighbouring countries.
Some aspects of this artistic creation will further be dealt with.
Our theme consists of wall painting. But with a view to understand the latter's aim, its
possibilities as well as its limits, it is necessary, first, to cast a glance at the buildings, which this
p~tinting was called up to cover.
During the stage of the formation of the Moldavian state, the buildings, either secular or
religious, were erected of timber, of wreath of beams arranged horizontally (B/ockverband) , while the
fortifications were made of earth and palisades. There have not been preserved timber churches
from this period (the church of Putna, moved over from Volovat and attributed, by tradition, to
ruler Drago§, suffered restorations and even some changes), but the assumption is well founded
that those churches consisted of a nave and narthex, inscribed within a rectangle, ending eastward
in a rectangular or polygonal sanctuary. Beside this planimetrical disposition, there also exists
a variant, in which the narthex clo,ses, on the western side, with the three sides of a polygon.
As a proof thereof we can mention, among others, the stone foundations of a former graveyard
timber chapel (the middle of the 16th century), excavated in the tableland facing the capital city of
Suceava, as well as the transposition of this type into masonry, represented by the church of the
High Steward of Biline§ti (1499; the graffiti in the altar, prior to this date, being most likely
apocryphal). In their plan, as well as in some peculiarities, both variants of timber churches reveal
a close kinship with the ecclesiastical monuments from the 11aramurq as well as from the
neighbouring areas of Central Transylvania. Concretely, such monuments, built of timber, have
been preserved beginning with the 16th century, while the transpositions into masonry are attested
in ;\foldavia, as early as the 1Sth century. Of course, while being transposed, the prototypes in
timber underwent adaptations and unavoidable influences of a constructional and morphological
n:iturc, characteristic of architecture in stone and brick.
As far as we can judge today, upon the basis of the construction that have been preserved,
as well as upon the basis of ruins and archaeological material, architecture in stone and brick

8
made its appearance in JV1oldavia, as early as the first years following the setting-up of the new state,
that is to say just after the middle of the 14th century. These first buildings were citadels, churches
and princely courts.
Ranging among the first churches of masonry is the basilica St. Nicholas, at Radauti, a
building deriving from an old Cistercian pattern, whose spreading eastward, from Burgundy, can
be traced as far as the churches belonging to the Viktring group, in Austria (13th century). The
arc hi tectonic peculiarities as well as the presence of the tomb of Bogdan 1. (at whose side the
graves of his successors are also to he found) justify the dating of the church, prior to 13(>5. But this
basilica from Radauti did not set a trend and neither was it imitated.
The type of church huilt on a triconch plan indisputably prevail~ in l\Ioldavi::i - as ,,-ell
as in \Vallachia, as a matter of fact. The first specimen. that has been preserved, is the Trinity
Church, at Siret, attributed, by tradition, to reigning prince Sas (1354-1358). This tradition,
emphazized by all the authors of the past, deserves all credit, I feel , for the very reason that it involves
a relatively unimportant historical figure. Besides the typolog ical peculiarities, which \Vere already
to he found in \X/allachia several decades earlier (the foundations of the Vodita I Church), both
the architectonic design of the fac;ade (the niches from the apses) as well as the decoration with
glazed terra-cotta betray relation ships with the neighbouring principality and, further, \vith the
Balkan countries (particularly with Bulgaria). But further on, the Moldavian triconch underwent a
separate evolution, leading towards the vaulting solutions , which are first to be found in the church of
the Holy Cross at Patrauti (1487). We do not know the stages of this evolution , on account of the
fact that all the churches of the triconch type, built during the intcrYal , separating the building of
Siret from the one of Piitrauti, are now in a state of complete dilapidation, so that the de tails of the
elevation can no longer be reconstructed. Nevertheless, this very fact suggests the assumption that
there had occurred experimentations, gradually preparing a solution which subsequently hecamt
typical of .l\.1oldayjan churches.
In order to understand the elaboration of the iconographical system, as well as some
decorative aims of wall painting, it is necessary to get a preciser knowledge of the planimetrical

9
 principles, as well as of those of the elevation and vaulting system, peculiar of the churches of the
triconch tape.
\\ ·th regard to vaultings, we should specify here that, in Moldavia, there were known
both the forms spread in the Byzantine world (calottes on pendentives, cylindrical vaults) as well
as the Gothic vaults on ogives (resorted to preferably in secular architecture, and only by way of
exception in churches). In the meantime, in Moldavia, there had also been worked out a special
system, that of "1vfoldavian vaults", used with all the churches of triconch type, as well as with
those of the "mixed" type. The "mixed" type settles the fusion of the single-ailed church with
the triconch, in the sense that the lateral apses are reduced to mere reserved space in the thickness
of the side walls, while the vaulting systems remain essentially those of the triconch. The Moldavian
vaulting system consists of the four master-arches, building up the central square of the nave on
top of which a row of pendentives (spheric triangles) are being placed, meant to turn the square of the
base into a circle; further there are superposed on top of this circle, four small arches, disposed
aslant the main axes of the building, ·'arches that again reduce the upper void to a square, on top
of \Vhich another row of pendentives makes up the circle supporting either a simple calotte or a
drum with a calotte, that is to say a "dome" (fig. II). This system of vaults is also mirrored outside,
in the stepped base of the dome. From the constructional point of view, the advantage of such a
combination of vaults consists in the distribution of the side thrusts, exerted by the mass of the
dome or calotte, over the entire perimeter of the master arches as well as the adjacent walls, while
from the aesthetical point of view it leads to the enhancement of vertical dynamism.
Opinions diverge as to the origin of this system, but most likely appears its explanation
from the structure of a timber ceiling, with squares, built up of beams arranged, one on top of
the other (fig. IV). The contact with the morphology of architecture in timber can also be recognized
in other details, such as the stepped and successive arches replacing the cylindrical vaults (compare
with section from fig. II). Such stepped arches are also frequent in Russian architecture, also
accounted for as deriving from the shapes of timber buildings. One should not overlook the
fact that in 15th century 11oldavia the churches of masonry usually replaced an old timber

10
building and certain 18th century descriptions specify that, under the circumstances, the new church
of masonry was being erected around the timber one, the latter staying in operation and being
simultaneously used as an inner scaffold. It was only when the church of masonry had reached a
certain height, that the timber church was taken down, beam by beam, and removed through the door.
The fragmentation of the inner space, along the West-East axis, is also characteristic of
Moldavian architecture. In proportion with the need to enlarge the interior, the builders adopted
the solution of adding some new chambers. Thus besides the altar, nave and narthex, there is
introduced, according to necessities, a crypt between the nave and the narthex, while an exonarthex
or, at other times, a porch is being added in front of the narthex. Significant in this case, as well,
is the partition of each chamber by a full wall, pierced only by a door. The explanation of this
fragmentation is also to be traced back to the practices of architecture in timber, because, in the
system of building with horizontal beams, the extension of the building, by adding parietal beams,
requires necessarily an anchorage through the cross-walls.
From the above it results that the surfaces offered to the wall-painters, called to decorate
the interior of a Moldavian church, consist of relatively numerous walls as well as of tiny and
stepped vaults.
As to the fas:ades of the churches (fig. I) - for these also posed problems to 16th century
wall-painters - these are partially articulated by buttresses, which do not always fulfil] a constructional
role, being at times set out for the mere reason of symetrically flanking the side apses. The curved
surfaces of the apses are animated by slender, blind-arcades, while, under the cornice, there are
placed one or two rows of recesses with semicircular arches, making up the frieze, encircling the
entire building. Therefore, the fas:ades are covered by a complex interplay of shades and lights, some
polychrome elements also taking part in this interplay. The masonry is composed of alternating
layers of stones and bricks, a fundamental two-colour system completed by circular plates of glazed
terra-cottas, partly provided with reliefs, featuring either the arms of Moldavia or a griffon, a stag,
a lion, a siren. Such plates decorate the tvmpanums between the recesses of the frieze, at times, even
the crownings of the windows. This bias for polychromy - very discreet during the 1 Sth century

11
(the colours of the glazes are yellow, brown, violaceous, shallow-green) - was to stimulate the
pict11r··:il soluri1. ms adopted hy J\foldaYian art during the 16th century.
During the 15th century, as we see, the .Moldavian builders worked out a type of church,
of masonry, to be found nowhere else, which developed, on the one hand, from the premises of
architecture in timber and on the other one from the creative adaptation of some forms of Balkan
architecture, conycycd through \X "allachia, as \Vell as from some specifically Gothic peculiarities. and
subsequently from some Renaissance ones (the profilation of the stone frames of doors and windows),
\'-'hich got naturalized as a consequence of the collaboration with some stone masons fetched over
fr•>m Tran ,-hr;;inia and Pobnd.
wall painting

The oldest information about Moldavian wall painting date hack from the first half of the 15th
century. A document from about 1416 (preserved only in copy) mentions the names of two wall-
painters, l'\ichita and Dobre , as well as their obligation to paint some churches, if need be, a house or
a porch. It results , hereof, that wall painting adorned not only the churches but also some yuartcrs
belonging to the reig ning princes or to the monasteries. In a document fro m 1443 mention is nude
of a wall-painter named ~tefan, who had owned a mill up to that date. The archaeolog ical diggings made
in the princely castle of Suceava revea led, in the exterior yard, a layer of debris, partially consisting of
tiny frag ments of wall painting, coming from an inte.rior building probably, from a chapel that
might be attributed to the constructions from the time of Alexander the Kind. These fragments
bear many traces of go ld-leaf, a proof that they were part of a most lavish decoration. As an indication
pointing to the importance of Moldavian paintings, during this stage, we might invoke the religiou s
paintings preserved in some Catholic churches from South-East Poland (the Ladislau Iagello Chapel of
the cathedral in Cracow, the cathedral at Sandomierz, the college church at Wislica), dating from
the first half of the 1 Sth century and revealing close stylistical and iconographical relationships with
Balkan-Byzantine painting, a fact that would suggest the idea of a possible .M oldavian mediation.
In the Romanian environment, from the neighbouring province" of \Xfa1lachia and
Transylvania, there have been handed do"\vn important testimonies with regard to the spreading
of wall painting, as far back as the middle of the 14th century.
In :\f oldavia, the very acti v ity carried on by a miniaturist, of the fame of Gavril, the son
of Uric ( The Four Gospels, 1429, Oxford, Bodleian Library), a number of icons and particularly some
liturgical embroideries, of a special quality certainly wrought, in the .M oldavian workshops, during
the first half of the 1 Sth century, reflect an important artistic activity as well as close links with
Balkan-Byzantine art. Concretely speaking, we have but a fragme ntary knmvledge of the begi nnings

13
 THE NEAMT MONASTERY
I Ascension Church. South-west view
II Longitudinal section and groundplan
III Frame of interior door from Moldavian churches }
I'

(Stephen the Great' s epoch) I '

IV Moldavian vaults /
of Moldavian wall painting, from what has been preserved m some churches, such as the one at
Dolhe~tii Mari (about 1481 ), the St. Nicholas Church at Radauti (paintings from about 1481,
extensively restored subsequently). The series of monuments, we are going to deal with, opens with
the wall paintings of the church of the Holy Cross at Patrauti, undoubtedly executed soon after
the erection of the building, that is to say after 1487.
Technically, the wall paintings from the interiors of the Moldavian churches appear to be
a mixture of fresco and tempera, that is to say fresco for ground colours and huge areas, tempera for
details and finishing touches, as well as for subsequent refurnishments and restorations (along the
centuries, the paintings suffered a good deal, especially from candle smoke). The paintings, preserved from
the end of the 15th century, were generally executed within a brief span of time, following the erection
of the buildings, over a layer of fine plaster. But soon the shortcomings of this method came to be
noticed, for the subsequent sinking of the masonry - in spite of the never-failing use of some anchors
of beams sunk into the core of the walls - must have caused, many a time, the crumbling of the
plaster, which constitutes the support of the painting and, consequently, the degradation of the
latter. This is the explanation for the precautionary measures taken at those times. As early as the
first years of the 16th century, it has become customary to decorate provisionally the interior, by
covering up the walls with a simple painting, imitating a wall-face of bricks, coloured in white,
bluish light-grey and reddish brown. Only after about five years, that is to say after a period
during which it was deemed that the foundations had sunk and the mortar had crystallized, the
building thus turning into an artificial conglomerate, was the ultimate decoration executed, there
being applied a fresh layer of plaster over the walls, as a support for the painting. In this respect too,
the Moldavian artists were innovators, and only thanks to the precautions and experience acquired,
were they able to venture, at a certain moment, at covering the exterior walls with paintings, as well.
The number of churches which have preserved relatively intact their exterior decoration (particularly
on the sides that were more protected from bad weather, that is to say on the southern, eastern
and \Vestern ones) is restricted, hut the very fact that these wall paintings, and moreover the
plasters, managed to withstand the hardships of the seasons (and the climate of Moldavia is severe,
lV
 BALINESTI
V The Last Supper. Altar

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16
continental) is a proof of an exceptional technical knowhow. Of course, the exterior paintings
were executed only in fresco as any other technique could have withstood not even the summer
ra1ns.
These paintings of the fa<;ade are particularly valuahle, among other reasons also because the~
are devoid of any subsequent interventions, possible only in an al secco technique, whi ch, of
course, would not resist and would be very quickly removed by the atmospheric agents. Of course,
exterior painting was also carried on along two stages: in the damaged sections one can easily discern the
layer with the temporary painting.
It is not astonishing that not all the masters revealed the same skill in handling this
technique, anrl proof hereof is provided hy the large number of monuments which presen·e hut
traces -of the paintings of yore (plate 2) or where one can make out only the outlines of the
figures (plate 83). Painting in fresco is executed over small areas of fresh plaster, which must
receive the ultimate painting, within 24 hours, at the most, after its application over the wall. The
painter starts - as is the case of any painting with colours suspended in a water vehicle - from
the light ground, from the white of the plaster, gradually applying the darker tints. In the case of
Arbore, as well as in other similar ones, some painters did not always manage to paint the figures
within this schedule, the steam of the milk of lime from the surface crystallizing in the meantime,
on the respective area and, consequently, the colours were no longer able to bind. The dyestuffs
used were, of course, of mineral extraction, so that the intensity of tints could be attacked neither
by the sun-rays, nor by the atmospheric agents.
The iconographic ordinance of the paintings from the interior basically corresponds to the
principles worked out in Byzantium, along the centuries, subsequent to the ultimate victories over
the iconoclasts (843). Broadly speaking this ordinance gradually became normative to all churches
throughout the Eastern Orthodox countries, but everywhere there emerged variants, characteristic of
each region, variants that further developed according to local circumstances. As far as we can judge,
at present, based upon the monuments preserved, the specifically Moldavian variant was worked
out during the last years of the 15th century, it lasted and gradually got enriched, during the first half of

17
 BAUNESTI
VI Descent into Hell. Nave
VII Pr'!}er on the Mount of Olives. Nave
VIII Face of Hierarch. Nave

18
the following century, and underwent some rather substantial changes from about the middle of
the 16th century onwards.
The dominating cupola of the nave is always devoted to the "Heavenly Church". Therefore,
the calotte is taken up by the figure of Christ in the Pantocrator (the All-Mighty, plate 64), hypostasis
surrounded by the angelic hosts, by the prophets and by the apostles, portrayed on the walls
of the drum. The upper pendentives feature the four evangelists whose work constitues the
link between the "Heavenly Church" and the "Earthly" one. Also belonging to the same thematic
categories are the scenes crowning the intradoses of the stepped arches between the cupola of the
nave and the semi-calotte of the altar: Hetimasia (the throne of the Last Judgement), Jesus and the
"Ancient of Days" (Jesus in the hypostasis of God the Father), a figure that appeared somewhat earlier
in Serbian art, under the obvious influence of Western iconography (plate 63).
In the altar there is being illustrated the dogma of "Salvation", which begins with the
miraculous incarnation of Christ. The semi-calotte of the apse therefore portrays the Virgin Mary and Child.
The iconographic type (Byzantine art knows many variants thereof) preferred in Moldavia is that of
the Plarytera (the All-Comprising). Mary, in her capacity of heavenly empress, appears enthroned holding
the child with both her hands, and on each side there bow two angels. In the altar of the church of
Moldovita, there is to be found an apparently local variant, the figures of Joachim and Ann being
added next to those of the angels, an obviously more humanized version (plate 62). The walls of
the sanctuary portray, centrally, The Apostles' Receiving the Eucharist, under both hypostases of bread
and wine (plate 5). Next, there are to be found various scenes directly or indirectly linked with the
mystery of transubstantiation (the Washing of the Apostles Feet, the Last Supper, plates 6 and 8). The
bottom register of the walls features a theory of saints of whom the main interpreters of the dogmas
are portrayed in the section inside the altar. Also referring to the dogma of salvation is the representation
of Christ in the tomb, supported by his mother, a Western theme, similarly conveyed to ,\'loldavia,
through the intermedium of Serbian painting and which is usually portrayed in the prothesis.
The walls of the nave as well as the vaults surrounding the cupola illustrate a selection from
the legends of the New Testament and namely the principal moments connected with the acts of

19
 Christ: the semi-calottes of the side apses feature some "lordly" feasts (major feasts) such as
Baptism, Tran.ifiguration (plate 11), Entry into Jerusalem, The Raising from the Dead of Lazarus, the
lateral vaults - a cycle of miracles, while the walls of the nave - a sequence from the tale of the
Passion. In Moldavia this sequence generally includes the following scenes: The Prayer on the Mount
qf Olives, Betra_ya!, A rrest, The Kiss of Judas, Trial lry the High Priest Caiaphas, Denial of St. Peter, Trial before
Pi/ate, Flagellation, Repentance of Judas, Judas hangs himself, The W try of the Cross, Elevation to the Cross,
Crucifixion (plate 65), Descent of the Cross, Entombment, Resurrection, The Descent of the Ho!J Ghost.
Additionally, on the lower part of the walls, there are also being featured a series of martyrs as well
as the Yotive scene (always on the eastern wall, on the southern side), in which the founder,
accompanied by the members of his family, and assisted either by Mary of by a patron saint,
carries the model of the church, as a homage brought to the enthroned Christ (plates 39 and 67).
The narthex is devoted to the Virgin Mary and to the saints. In the calotte there is portrayed a
variant of the Blacherniotissa (the bust of J\fary as an orant with the image of the child on her
breast, plate 68), always surrounded by the four hymnists (Cosma, Joseph, Teophanus and John
the Damascene, the authors of some hymns devoted to Mary). On the walls the menologion is being
portrayed (the ecclesiastical calendar), with the miracle or martyrdom of the saint of the respective
day. It starts with the first day of the ecclesiastical year, on September 1. In the churches with a small
narthex, the menologion is incomplete, on account of the lack of space. A more comprehensive
development is to be found only in the churches, provided with an exonarthex and respectively
with a crypt. In these chambers rather deemed as additional ones, . ~he range of themes is less
rigorous and more varied, being rounded off with images narrating the legend of a saint (of
preference the legends of Nicholas and George).
\X'hat characterizes the painting from the interior of Moldavian churches, from the end
of the 1Sth century and down to the middle of the following century, is the. consistent development
and strict ohservance of the scheme in contradistinction with what is to be found later on.
J\'c\·ertheless, from time to time, there turns up an allusion made at topical social-political events, of
course also in a religious garb. We first come across such a subject in the church of the Holy Cress at

20
Patrauti, where in the narthex there appears a retinue of riders (plate 3), headed by Archangel Michael
pointing towards a white cross in the sky, and glancing back at the rider, behind him, who is
Constantine the Great, followed by the saints George, Demetrios and others (eleven in all). The
patron of the church as well as the Cavalcade - a real crusade - call forth the fight waged by
Constantine the Great against his rival Maxantius - interpreted by ecclesiastical authors, as a fight
against the infidels, and it is obvious that, at Patrauti, the scene constitutes an invocation of the
heavenly hosts in the war waged by Stephen the Great against the invading Turks.
A program essentially drawn up from the point of view of socio-political topicalities
lies at the basis of the paintings decorating the fa~ades of the Moldavian churches, at the time of
Petru Rare§ as well as of the subsequent period. Contradictory discussions have been carried on and will
further be carried on, with regard to the origin of the idea to cover integrally the walls, ·w ith mural
paintings, from the foundation of the building and up to the cornice, as well as the base and the tambour
of the dome. It is a fact that one occasionally comes across such a decoration - but always
restricted on the main fa~ades of some churches in Italy especially in mosaic, while in Serbia in
painting), and one can find isolated figures, painted on the exterior of some Transylvanian Catholic
churches, from the last stage of the Gothic period. But none of these sources can account for the
extensive and systematical development of Moldavian exterior painting. One would be rather entitled
to assume a suggestion on the part of the decorators of fa~ades of some secular buildings from
the areas of expansion of the Renaissance (Switzerland, Southern Germany, Austria) just at the time
when the phenomenon of l\1oldavia was taking place, only that in this case, too, this could be only
a matter of analogy of principle, without any kind of thematic or stylistical implications. From this
point of view the Moldavian creation is absolutely original.
The oldest traces of exterior painting are to be found in the church of the Probota
l\t1onastery (1532) but the oldest relatively well-preserved monument is the church of the former
Monastery of Humor (built in 1530, painted in 1535 under the guidance of the master Toma, from
Suceava, plate 33). The group of churches boasting such paintings, executed during the first half of
the 16th century, also includes: the church of the Moldovita Convent (built in 1532, painted in

21
 POPAUTI
IX The W qy of Calvary. Nave
X Trial by the High Priest Caiaphas. Nave
XI The Last Supper. Altar
XII The Apprehension of Christ. Nave
1537, plate 61), the church at Arbore (built in 1502, the interior partially painted perhaps at once,
but the ensemble only as late as 1541) a work signed by wall-painter Drago§, the son of a priest of Jassy
(the latter's name, Coman, is uncertain), as well as the church of the former monastery of Voronet
(built in 1488, painted inside soon after that date, the exterior painting being of a later date, but prior to
1547, when the exonarthex was added, which was also decorated with exterior painting, during the
subsequent years.
While examining the thematic range of the paintings from the fas:ade, we are to mention
the extensive rendering of the Heaven/y Hierarchy. The latter is always being reserved the walls of
the sanctuary, as well as the walls adjacent to the nave and of the side apses. At Arbore alone, a church
of a mixed type, does the scene cover, besides the walls of the altar, but the eastern side of the nave.
The appearance of a modest iconographic display of the Hierarchy in European mediaeval art can
be traced back to the 16th century, but an extensive illustration thereof is to be found only in Molda-
via. Precisely in the eastern axis of the sanctuary there are rendered one underneath the other, the
different hypostases of divinity. On top, there generally appears the Ancient of Days either under
the guise of the Enthroned Christ or under that of the Pantocrator: right below there appears,
enthroned, Plarytera, further down, Intercession (Deisis), then the Man4Jlion relict, possibly the Lamb
ef Sacrifice, or Emmanuel in Chalice. The bottom row is reserved for a saint, for Simon, holding the
child in his arms, for Archangel Michael or St. George. Corresponding to each hypostasis, there
unfolds, on both sides, a long frieze , each portraying, in the upper register, seraphim, while, in
the following ones, angels, prophets, apostles (plate 54), holy patriarchs of the church, martyrs and
hermits (plate 71 ). The development of this theme is to be accounted for through the home
policy of Petru Rare§, who manifested a firm tendency to strengthen the autocratical system, while
demonstrating to all his subjects, and more particularly to the great boyars, who were hostile to
him, the obligation of observing feudal hierarchical order, a reflection of the heavenly one. The
iconographical composition also stresses that all the members of the hierarchy must piously turn
towards the hypostases of divinity, thus implicitly condemning the betrayal of the boyars who
entered into a compact with the Sublime Porte with a view to replace the reigning prince.

23
 ST. GEORGE'S CHURCH OF SUCEAVA
XIII St. George and D emeter. Nave

24
 The second theme further portrayed, either on the northern fa<_;:ade or on the southern
one, by the crypt or the narthex, portrays the Tree of J esse or the G enealogical Tree. The composition
includes a large rectangular panel, crossed by dendrons rising from the body of Jesse, dendrons
composed of semi-palmates and flowers, lending, to the whole, unity and the aspect of an immensely
decorative carpet (plate 15). Within the ondulations of the dendron from the median axis, there
appear the kings of Judeea, the descendants of Jesse, imagined as the ancestors of Mary, who is shown
enthroned, in the upper extremity. Within the lateral ondulations, there appear the prophets
(plate 73) as well as the representatives of the twelve tribes, and scattered among all these are
featured a number of biblical scenes, partly taken from the Old Testament and partly from the
New Testament, in a selection and order which have not yet been accounted for. In any case, the
scenes refer to the would-be prophecy as well as to the achievement of salvation, through the
birth of Jesus Christ, of the Virgin Mary.
The subjects approached include - with unimportant variations - the following themes:
Moses Receiving the Tables of the Law, The Crucifix, The Queen of Sheba, Christ Holding the Scales ef Justice
in Front ef Mary, The Cursing ef Jerusalem, Jacob' s Ladder, Archangel Michael on Horseback,
Ascension, The Nativiry ef Cbrist, the Revelation ef the Second Coming of Messiah, The Dream of
Nabonassar, the Blessing of Egypt (as a matter of fact the blessing of Jacob's ten Sons, plate 74),
The Presentation to the Temple, The Three Young Men in Flames, David Anointed King, Gideon' s Fleece,
Jacob' s Dream, Balaam and The Vision of Ezekiel.
On the bottom or side edge or, as in the case of Moldovita, on the wall of the adjoining
buttress (plate 75), there are portrayed the Hellenic wise men, philosophers, writers, poets, as well as
the sybil, as prophets of the "miracle of salvation". These included Thucydide, Socrates (plate 17),
Plato, Pythagoras, Aristotle, Homer, Plutarch, a.s.o.
The theme is not new, but a rare one, and is to be found, in the 16th century, at Athos, in the
refectory of the Lavra Monastery (in 1512) in an arrangement related with the Moldavian one,
which is nevertheless far from being identical with it. It comes to be more frequently approached
in Balkan painting, from the middle of the 16th century onwards. In order to account for the preference

25
 SUCEVITA
XIV Philosophers Aristotle and Pythagoras. Southern fafade
 enjoyed by the representation of the Genealogical Tree1 in Moldavia, precisely at the time of Petru
Rare§, we must again refer to the contemporary problems and namely to the fact that Rarq's right
to the succession of the throne had been disputed, as he was only an illegitimate son of Stephen the
Great. In the absence of a legitimate heir, Rare§ availed himself of his quality of a bastard of princely
descent and the biblical image was, undoubtedly, meant to enforce the observance of the. feudal
genealogical system.
The third subject, apparently never failing from the program of the exterior decoration,
of this period, is the Acathist H)'mn (which is sung with the people standing), a hymn in honour
of the Virgin Mary. The hymn was most likely written during the 6th century but according to
other authors on the occasion of the siege of the Byzantine capital by the Persian king Chosroes (626).
The legend claims that the Byzantine capital was rescued from this danger through the intercession
of the Virgin. Yet the iconographic cycle was drawn up in the Byzantine world only as late
as the 12th-13th centuries, perhaps for the very purpose of beseeching again the support of
Mary in the armed clashes with the Latins, Bulgarians and the Serbians. The hymn has 24 stanzas and the
illustration includes 24 scenes (plate 76), the first 12 rendering the miraculous conception (The Annunciation
of the Archangel1 The Astonishment and Opposition of Mary 1 The Submission1 The Descent of the Holy
Ghost and Conception1 The Visitation 1 Joseph' s Doubts1 The Nativity of Christ, The Way of the Magi
Directed by the Star (plate 55), The Adoration of the Magi1 The Return of the Magi Directed by the Angel
(plate 77), The Flight into Egypt (plate 56)and The Presentation to the Temple. The other 12 scenes portray
mystical visions, in connection with salvation and the adoration of the Virgin, the culminating
moment being featured in the concluding scene. This section reveals large number of variants and even
certain confusions, not only in respect of the iconographic display, spread in Balkan art, but also
in respe'..:t of the isolated Moldavian displays which simultaneously hoast of a large number of
original aspects. Thus the action of salvation sung in the 18th stanza and generally represented by a
scene related with the Resurrection (Anastasia) illustrates at Moldovita stanza 22 (plate 76), while
being replaced, at Humor, with the scene of the Crucifixion (plates 58 and 59). The illustration of stanza
23 'Singing the Praize' (plate 76) appears, by mistake, at Humor, as a pictorial rendering of stanza 17

27
 SUCEVITA
XV Ascension. Conch ef the altar

28
 (plate 57). But here the king, who presents the icon of the Hodegetria to the worshippers, does not hold
in his hands the pole, unto which the icon is fastened, as is the case at Moldovita. It grows from
his left side, which means that the painter portrayed Jesse. Also at Humor, an additional scene is
being featured, which takes up, in an image of much wider scope, the theme of the Adoration (plate 60).
In this display, with the 24 scenes, the Acathist Hymn was also illustrated in Wallachia (at Cozia
in 1386, subsequently at Snagov during the 16th century, etc.). In Moldavia, alongside the
Acathist, there is rendered the tale from the Old Testament, with Moses and The Burning Stake,
where, instead of Jehovah, there appears the Virgin and the Child, according to an iconographic
display, attested as early as the 14th century. Finally, and this is one of the characteristic traits of the
Moldavian scheme of the time, the Acathist Hymn concludes with the Siege of Constantinople
by the Turkish hosts. This scene has been best preserved in the church of the Moldovita Convent
(plate 78). One side portrays the city, in which the procession with the Mancfylion relict (a kerchief
"miraculously" impressed with the face of Jesus) and with the icon of the Hodegetria (Guide or
Instructress) is taking place, while the archers on the city walls fight the besiegers, coming from the sea,
whose ships are sinking (plate 79). From a distance, in a hilly landscape, there appear the Turkish
artillery and cavalry, preparing for the onslaught (plate 80).
The rendering of the Acathist H_ymn with the above-mentioned additional scenes, appears
in the Moldavian churches either on the southern fac;ade (corresponding to the narthex) or on the
northern one. In this case, too, the hint at the contemporary events is obvious, with the specification
that it is an invocation of the Virgin's intercession in the anti-Ottoman fight. It is significant, in this
respect, that in the church at Arbore, decorated after the capitulation of Rare§, the painter replaced
the Turkish army with the Persian one, in accordance with the legend. The inscription too specifies
that the besieger is Chosroes. Moreover, in the subsequent paintings the scene of the Siege was
to disappear completely.
The last theme, which is never-missing from this context, is devoted to the Last Judgement,
The latter is generally painted on the western wall, either on that of the narthex (in this case the
scene is situated in the porch) or of the exonarthex, and but rarely on the southern fac;ade. The Last

29
 SUCEVITA
XVI Transfer to Sucevi/a ef the relics f!f St. John the New. Exonarthex

30
Judgement began to be illustrated both in Byzantine art as well as in the Western one, as early
as in 6th century manuscripts, of course, in a restricted display; only as late as the 12th- 13th centuries
did it receive a development of wider scope in the framework of mosaics and wall paintings. The
Moldavian arrangement belongs to the category of the most complex ones. The Last judgement, on
the western fas:ade of the exonarthex from Voronet, ranges among the well preserved specimens
(plate 20). In the upper register, one sees the open gates of Heaven, through which one catches
sight of the bust of the Ancient ef Dcrys, while on the left and on the right the angels are holding the
scroll of the zodiac, rolling it up, a sign that transistoriness has come to an end (plate 21). Underneath
i~ the centre, Christ the Judge is p~rtrayed, surrounded by angels' guards, while on either side, Mary
and John the Baptist intercede for the dispensation of humanity (consequently a lavish Deisis, plate 22).
On either side, there minister the apostles, in their capacity of assessors, followed by the hosts of
angels. In the centre of the next register, appears the throne of the Hetimasia, flanked by Adam
and Eve, kneeling (plate 51 ). On the left, the register is filled in by the groups of the righteous (plate 23 ),
while on the right, holding the Tables of the Law, Moses adresses the infidels: Jews, Turks
(plate 52), Tartars (plate 24) and Armenians. Underneath the throne of the Hetimasia, there hangs the
balance, in front of which the frightened souls are expecting their verdict. Tiny devils try to
tamper with the result, pulling at the arm of the balance, and carrying boxes of sins, in order to
increase the weight. They are scared off by some guardian angels, headed by Archangel Michael
(plate 50), who are provided with long spears. On the left side - i.e. to the right of the Judge - the
righteous are flocking, while on the opposite side, overflown by the river of fire which springs from
under the feet of Christ, the rejected are being hurled down. In the centre of the bottom register, where
David plays his lute, sitting in the midst of a rocky landscape (plate 25), the death of the righteous man as
well as that of the sinner is portrayed. On the right, the last two registers are merging into a land-
scape of wide scope. Angels blow into some sort of alpenhorns heralding the ressurection of the
dead, while the earth, an allegorical character, wearing a high, green furcap, opens up the graves,
where from there emerge corpses, wrapped up like mummies (plate 53). Sundry quadrupeds belch
forth various limbs of those they had gulped down (plate 26). Underneath, astride a d)lphin, appears

31
 SUCEVITA
' .
XVII St. Mao• with her protecting cloak. Southern f afade
· XVIII The Ladder of John the Climax. Northern fafade
XIX Scenes of the Genesis and from St. Pahomie' s Life. Northern fafade

the allegory of the sea, a woman, holding a boat in her hand, while fish and birds, also yeald back
their victims (plate 27). On the opposite side, the righteous have flocked together crowding at the
gates of Heaven, guarded by Apostle Peter, holding his key (plates 28 and 29). Finally, beyond the
gates, in a garden with trees, against a white background (symbolical of the representation of Heaven)
Mary is sitting, flanked by two angels, side by side with the kind thief who is carrying his cross,
and the three patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) receiving into their bosom the souls of the
blessed (plate 29). A large number of the details mentioned betray the contamination with Bogomilism.
The Last Judgement thus concludes the social-political, educational program, with a serious warning
addressed to all those who will not conform.
Besides the Last Judgement, Moldavian painting also reminds the believers of another danger
lying in wait of the soul: the Customs of Heavens. According to this legend, widely spread in the
Eastern world, after one's death, twenty-four devils take toll from the soul. For each sin there is a
devil. The pictorial rendering of this eschatological adventure is to be found only in Moldavia.
Accompanied by a guardian angel, the soul climbs up a tall tower towards the sky, being obliged
to comply with the questioning of a tollman-devil, on each flight. Unfortunately, this scene always
painted on the northern or western wall has not been preserved intact, in any place. In the
church at Arbore, it is rendered on the northern pilaster of the western fa<;ade, where all one can see
now is the white outline of the composition. With a view to justify the biblical action of Salvation,
there is being featured a brief cycle of Genesis illustrating the Creation of Heaven and Earth,
the Original Sin and the consequences thereof. This cycle is also portrayed on the western or northern
wall. The scenes in paradise are easily recognizable, from the symbolically white background (plate
81, Sin, Arraignment and the Casting out). Next comes the narration of the lives of Adam and Eve
upon earth, the toils that are in stone (plate 30), as well as the characteristically Bogomilical scene, in
which Adam signs the covenant with the devil (plate 31 ). Themes, varying according to local preferences,
are the legends of Joachim and Ann, of the saints George and Nicholas, to mention but a few
of those, most frequently to be found. The painting, from the western niche of the Arbore Church,
also includes, among the adventures and toils George was subjected to, the relatively uncommon

33
scenes of the solemn reception in the palace of the emperor, whose daughter he had delivered, as
well as that of the Banquet (plates 91 and 93) . .A Moldavian creation is the story of the martydrom
of St. John the New whose relics were brought to Suceava in 1402. A cycle of the legend is picturized
on the southern fa<_;:ade of the exonarthex of the church at Voronet (plate 18, the stripping off the
saint's clothes as well as scenes of torture).
Stylistically, the entire religious painting of the Orthodox world of the feudal period,
directly derives from the artistic legacy of Byzantium. The leading principle of Byzantine figurative
art prescribed a clear and logical representation of the characters and of the action, in the sense
of an abstracting synthetical image, devoid of illusionistic effects, of the suggestion of volumes, of
tridimensional space, of perspectival relationships, that is to say of concrete, earthly realities, deemed
as non-essential and ephemeral. During its longstanding evolution, this conception naturally underwent
different moments of crisis, the need being felt, at times, to enliven the schemes, by the updating
and re-adaptation of some patterns, handed down by some more naturalistic stages of art, from the
past. Characteristic traits of this type :of renewal while resorting to borrowings are also to be found
occasionally in Moldavian painting, for instance in the Last Supper at Voronet (plates 6 and 7) in which
the table takes the ancient, semicircular shape, while Christ is seated on the edge, the place of honour,
in Roman antiquity, being in cornu sinistro. The introduction into Moldavian painting of more naturalistic
motifs is due, partially, at least, to borrowing, for instance, from Macedonian painting (the church of
St. Clement at Ohrida) as well as from Serbian painting and this is where the master who fastens the cross
with strong hammer blows, handled with the left hand came from - ..an indication that the painter
made use of a tracing in the Crucifixion scene at Moldovita (plate 65). But the costume of the master is
updated corresponding to 16th century fashion. In the above-mentioned scene significant is also
the '-Vrithing of the unrepenting thief, an obvious inspiration taken from \X'estern Art. To these are
being added the lively movements of the extras, an expression of empathy with the development of
the drama, attended by Moses, an exceptional presence in the scene of Crucifixion, of a nature to
emphasize the correspondence existing between the contents of the Old and the New Testament.
This narrative and descriptive bias, obvious in Moldavian painting from the first half of the 16th

34
 century (for instance, in the development of the scene of The Siege ef Constantinople from the Acathist
H_ymn,· plates 78-80), has an impact upon the entire composition, toning down the hieratical
characteristics.
The hieratical schemes ever more often give way to the emotional side of the narrative.
The attitudes and expressions mirror the interiorization to which there corresponds a simplification of
the composition, obvious in scenes such as that of Crucifixion at Humor (plate 58), of Peter in the
scene of the Washing of the Apostles' Feet (plate 9), of the Ho!J Women at the Sepulchre (plate 35), as well
as in the theme of Western inspiration of Christ in the sepulchre, a kind of Vir dolorum. A spontaneous
and expansive gesture of tenderness, taken from life, animates the child and the Eleusa Virgin (of
Mercy) in the groin of the portal of the church at Humor (plate 48), while the corresponding
representation at Moldovita (plate 69), which is more traditional, excells in the atmosphere of
tenderness, wrapping up the characters. Drawing a parallel between these two scenes, both, doubtlessly,
the oeuvre of the masters who had led the execution of the paintings, edifies us with regard to the
temperamental distinctions, mirrored in the stylistical shading, which differenciates the ensembles
from Humor and Moldovita, that are, on the other hand, so closely related, from the point of view
of their iconographic program. Not less touching appears the glance cast by the child, who presses
his cheek against the Eleusa Virgin in the painting at Arbore. The evolution of the means of expression
also results from the examination of the proportions and of the attitudes of the characters. From
·the lively saints, in the nave of the church at Baline§ti, and down to the lithely arched
figure of Mark (plate 89) as well as of St. Marina, chastising a tiny devil with hammer blows (plate 87)
- the latter from the church at Arbore - one notices a steady enhancement of the plastical
language.
The elan of these characters simultaneously blends with a touch of refined elegance
(compare with plate 51 ). Taking another step forward this language succeeds even in suggesting
superhuman visions (plate 88, Arbore, Acathist Hymn, stanza 13). Following a direction, opposed
to the language inclined towards emotional expressiveness, there are to be found, particularly
in the narrative scenes, a large number of naturalistic traits which, as a matter of fact, also

35
characterized Byzantine painting during the Palaeologue period. An example of tender naturalism
is the bathing of the child, a detail from the Nativiry scene in the church at Humor (plate 45). Also
there, in the narthex, Archangel Gabriel (plate 46) at the right of the Platytera provides a beautiful
example of plastical modelling. In connection with these considerations, the portraits of founders
are worth special attention. In spite of the fact that, in these votive scenes, the representative and
solemn side of the ceremonial prevails, the artist nevertheless had to observe certain concrete
traits, in the first place the peculiarities of the physiognomy, and in the second place the
characteristics of the ceremonial costume. At times the features of the face are incisively enhanced
(plate 32), at other times the countenance is less expressive, but more plastically modelled (plate 41 ).
These portraits are also of interest for the history of the costume. Tau tu wears a tunic with gimps, of
Polish fashion, while Bubuiog wears an oriental robe. Both, additionally, wear caftans and so do
their wives (plate 40). More pretentious are the votive scenes portraying the family of the reigning
prince (plates 38, 39, 67). They all wear the Byzantine imperial granatza. Solemn and rather more
schematical are the portraits of the r:nembers of the clergy, of Metropolitan Grigore Ro§ca and of
the hermit Daniil (plate 19).
This occasional touch with reality finds some additional echoes in wall painting. The
scene of the Banquet, from the cycle of the legend of St. George (plate 93), includes a hora (Romanian
folk round dance). In the rendering of Genesis we see Adam tilling (plate 30), the plough being as
authentically rural as the chariot in which Elijah was carried to Heaven (plate 12) or the fur coat
and cap worn by some of the shepherds in the scene of the Nativity of <;_hrist (plate 14). Further, there
are also to be found some nafve interpretations of literary metaphors, such as, for instance, when
the Bible is referred to as the "spring of life". From the open book of John the Goldenmouthed,
there gushes forth the " spring of life", the faithful do partake of (plate 4 7).
In conclusion, we ought to mention the decorative role fulfilled by this painting. The
floral motifs, in the shape of dendron, together with geometrical elements and medalions, separate
and articulate the different cycles of paintings as well as the plan surfaces, simultaneously setting
off the architectonic elements of the vaulting (plate 68).

36
 But the hardest problem to overcome was that of exterior paintings, on account of the
fact that the fragmentation of the surfaces, with tiny scenes, tends to annihilate the unity of the
architectonic whole. Nevertheless, the Moldavian masters managed to fend off this danger, by a
dominant coloristic harmony. A Moldavian church, with exterior painting, makes the impression of
an enameled Limoges reliquary, transposed unto a monumental scale. H ere, too, dominant is dark
blue, contrasting with a faint red, the other colours being entirely subordinated.
It is obvious that the execution of wall paintings, over such huge areas, necessitated an
extensive participation of masters and journeymen, who had neither the same background nor
talent and mentality. This is how we are to account for the qualitative differences, that are to be noticed
with each complex ranging from the refinement of the more important paintings, of the sanctuary, the
nave, and several portions of the fac;ade, on the one hand, and down to the naive verv e, directly related
with folk art (particularly in the scenes of the meno!ogion), on the other hand.
In comparison with the relatively large number of churches, whose exterior we know has
been painted during the reign of Petru Rare§, the information concerning such paintings, dating
back from the second half of the 16th century, are scanty, the palpable specimens thereof being
restrir..:ted to two monuments: the church of the Ri~ca Jvfonastcry and that of the Suce\·ip
Convent.
The church at Ri§ca, founded by bishop 11acarie, was erected, according to a later document,
with the support of Petru Rarq, in 1542. An inscription, found in the altar, comprises the signature
of the Greek master Stamatelos Kotronas, a native of the Zakinthos island, as well as the date 1554,
which most likely refers both to the painting from the interior (in its present state disfigured by
subsequent restorations and refurnishments) as well as to the exterior one, preserved on the southern
side (plate 94, the belt underneath the cornice, featuring portraits of monks ag ainst a white
background, is also an addition of the restoration undertaken in 1827). On the eastern extremity,
corresponding to the altar, and partially on the curved surface of the side apse there are rendered
several scenes from the life of some saints, of which that of hermite Antonie has the precedence.
Further, on the wall of the same apse, the Ladder ef J ohn Climax ( =- Ladderer, or John the Sinai:te) is

37
being featured, an allegory in which each rung stands for a monachal v irtue, threatened by a devil.
Apparently, the theme had been previously introduced into Moldavian painting (in the narthex of the
church of the monastery at Dobrovat, achieved about 1527-1531), but it was only at Ri§ca that it made
it-. appearance on the fa~ade, taking up a prominent position.
The Last Judgement is painted on the wall adjacent to the nave and to the initial narthex. The work
of master Stamatelos Kotronas is hallmarked by different iconographical ,stylistical and compositional
elements, differing simultaneously from the J\1oldavian tradition also in point of themes, a fact
which was linked with the new political circumstances. In the church of Rl§ca, the decisive say, in drawing
up the program, revolved upon bishop Macarie, who was exclusively concerned with ·the spiritual
salvation of the faithful.
Consequen-:es of this monachal orientation are to he found down to the end of the
16th ce ntury, although some other fact o rs had also turned up in the meantime. A monument,
which clearly illustrates this stage, is the church of the Sucevita Convent, a foundation of the
Movila family, erected about 1582-.1586 and painted by the masters Ion and Sofronie about
1595 -1596.
What surprizes one, in the first place, in the sanctuary is the replacement of the Platytera
Virgin with a rendering of the Ascension (fig. XV), a licence to be accounted for by the dedication of the
church, to the Resurrection. In the nave as well as in the other chambers, the registers on the walls are
multiplied with a view to provide room for a more detailed narration. In the lateral semicalottes of
the nave, there are featured mystical allegories: in the southern apse, for instance, the Ancient
ef Dq_ys1 Jesus-Emmanuel, The Saviour Risen from the Tomb, a composition of wide scope, which also
includes angels, seraphim and where one can also see a well (of life?), a eave with demons, a fortress
w ith a m onster, towards which some seraphim are running, the figures and landscape being set
against a red background studded with golden stars. On the walls, side by side with the traditional cycle
of the Passion - which, instead of a friese, takes the shape of a succession of images, set in
co mpartments - there are also featured scenes from Genesis and particularly a minute illustration
nf e-Yents and miracles from the story of the New T estament.

38
 The votive scene (plate 97) takes up the south-west corner, featuring the retinue of the
reigning prince Ieremia Movila, followed by his mother, the lady Maria (plate 96) - a very bright
personality-, his spouse and children.
The paintings, from the crypt, include an exceptionally ample series from the legend of
Moses, starting with the birth, continuing with his being entrusted with the delivery of the children
of Israel, and with the adventures from Exodus.
The imagination and verve of the painter are remarkable, while his sources of inspiration
are most varied. In the scene in which the convoy of chariots is being pursued by Pharaoh's host
(plate 99), the development along superposed horizontal stripes corresponds to a na"ive imagination
which is nevertheless also reminiscent of the miniatures from the world and the area of diffusion of
the Persian manuscripts. But a popular interpretation, boasting local, Moldavian elements of folklore,
prevails both with the costumes of the fugitives, as well as with the aspect of the chariots and more
especially with the row of animals, in the foreground, illustrating a metaphorical idiom referring
to people leaving with all their goods and chattels. Picturesquely featured appears the Miracle with
the Manna and the Quails (plate 100), a scene blending legend with motifs borrowed from village life.
The vault of the narthex confronts one with a different style, peculiar to a miniaturist,
characterized by effects of hachured golden lights as well as by the unusual projection of the figures
against a green background. Among others, the Feast of Abraham and the seven oecumenical
synods (plate 102) are being portrayed here. The tiny figure, from the foreground, who kills the
calf - frequent in Moldavian painting in the scenes of miraculous feasts - is a replica of an old
mithraistic image.
A solemn ensemble decorates the vault of the exonarthex, portraying the Blacherniotissa and
the hymnists within a calotte, on ribs, that are enhanced by decorative elements. The main surface
of the walls illustrates the Last Judgement with the ordinary details, among which that wag of the
greenish devils, weighed down by the burden of some caskets filled with sins; one of them, who
is lazier, lets himself to be dragged along, by taking hold of the tail of the one preceding
him, while the others get astride, or are hanging down from the balance of justice (plate 106).

39
 Ranging among the legends of the saints, rounding off this setting, is that of St. John the New,
culminating "vith the scene of his relics being brought to Suceava (fig. XVI). Allegories from the
Pro1•erhs o/ Solomon are also rendered in the exonarthex, intricate elucubrations, of the type of the
apocalyptical visions, featured on the semicalottes of the nave, both of them symptomatic
manifestations of the theological pedantry, which also characterized the thematical range of Russian
p:1intin!!- during- the :-ccond half of the 16th century.
This mystical, monachal spirit can also be found in the combination of the thematic range
on the fac_;:ade. The Heavenly hierarchy is here portrayed over seven registers (plate 109) and similarly
the details composing the Genealogical Tree are also being multiplied, but the treatment is drier,
the dendrons which structure the entire surface being more rigid (plate 107). The Acathist Hymn,
painted next, also on the southern fac_;:ade, opens with scenes featuring the Nativiry ef the Virgin
A1ar_y (according to the apocriphal Protevangelum of James) and concludes with two monumental
representations; the first illustrating stanza 24, that is to say the Adoration of the Virgin, by the
entire universe (plate 108), while the s~cond one features Mary with her protecting cloak (fig. XVII),
an obvious borrowing from Western iconography, taken over in an arrangement which reveals a
Rus-;iao mecliadon (Pokrov) and replacing· the Siege of yore.
The representation of the Ladder ef John Climax deserves special mention. It ~.; placed on
the northern fac_;:ade of the church (fig. XVIII), taking up a huge surface and being treated as a decorative
whole. To the fullest details, there are suggested some dialogues carried on between the devils and
the damned, dialogues rendered with verve and a sense of psychologi_cal humour (plate 110). On
top of the Ladder, a row of scenes from Genesis is being featured followed next by the narration of the
I ifr •)f anachorite Pahomie, the founder of monachism.
Those mentioned above corroborate the change that occurred in the educational program
of wall painting during the second half of the 16th century. In this case too, the thematic range
was drawn up by members of the clergy, while the execution devolved upon some decorators, who
found inspiration in miniatures, multiplying the scenes and giving them a treatment in a minute
style at times precious, at other times popular. But there is not to be found any sense of a unitary grouping,

40
or any understanding of the plastic values of architecture. The harmony of colours has also changed.
The deep blue, dominating so far, has been replaced, at Sucevi~a, with green, which is mellower and, for
this very reason, less incisive, less firm. This new decorative style, showing an inclination towards
effects of detail, further develops in interior wall painting (for instance the church of the Dragomirna
Monastery, about 1609), while henceforward the execution of the decoration of the fac;ades is
again entrusted to masons and stone-cutters. And the latter, in turn, will manage to work out a
peculiarly Moldavian decorative system, boasting a plastical nature.
The painting of the period, examined above, therefore hallmark an entirely particular stage.
The major part of the constituent elements can be accounted for by influences, but the way in which
these influences were assimilated and re-structured, the social and artistic postulates, which they
were supposed to meet, are the Moldavian contribution - decisive, valuable and unique in its way.
bibliographical sun>n>ary

BAL~. G. .Maica Domn11lui ind!lriitoare (Eleusa Virgin), Bucharest, 1930

BAL}, ST..NICOLESCU, C Miimistirea Mo/dovi/a (The Moldovita Monastery), Bucharest, 1958
BEZA, M ., Byzantine Art ;n Romania, London, 1940
CO\fARNESCU, P. i Ndreptar m·Jistic £11 monummtelor di11 11ordul Moldovei (An Artistic Guide to the Monuments of Northern
Moldavia), Bucharest, 1962
DR.\GUT, Y Drago/ Coman, 111aestrulfrescelor de la Arbore (Drago& Coman, the Master-painter of the Arbo re Wall Paintings).
Bucharest, 1969
GR1\BAR ANDRE Die mittelalterliche Kunst Osteuropas, Baden-Baden, 1968
HENRY, PACL Lu iglises de la Moldavie dt1 Nord des orig,ines a la fin d11 XVI' siecle. Text and album, Paris, 1930
IORGA. ::-..: , BAL~, G. Histoire de I' art rou1nai11 a11den, Paris, 1922
MUSICESCU, ~L-A . ,
Manrlstirea St1ce11ifa (The Sucevita Monastery), Bucharest, 1968
BERZA. M.
MUSICESCU, :r...I.- A.,
Varone/, Bucharest, 1968
ULEA, SORIN
~TEF\ l' E S CL' l. D. L'i /11tlo11 de la pe1i1ture religie11se m Bucovi11e et en Moldavie depuis les originesj11squ'a11 Xlx_e siede. Text and
album, Paris, 1928
STIT <\N f SCU, l . D. L'ivo/11ti011 de la pei11t11re religieuse m Bucovrite et m .Moldavie depuis /es origines jusqu' au Xlx_e siede. Nouvelles
recherches. Text and album, Pads, 1929
~TEF \N 'SCl ", I D. I.: art byzanlin et I'art lombard en Transylvanie. Pei11t11res 111ura/es de Valachie et de .Mo/davie, Paris, 1938
\ " \ r}; ~J \ N L', V lttoria artei Jeudale in /rlrile romane (The History of Feudal Arts in the Romanian Countries), I,
Bucharest, 1959
Isto ria artehr pla.rtice 1i1 Romania (A .H istory of the Romanian Fine Arts), 17 Bucharest, 1968
** • Romanian Pamting Iii Pictures, Bucharest, 1970
reproductions Neamt. 1

St. George of Sucea·va 2

Patrauti 3

Voronet. 4

Baline~ti 32

Humor 33

Moldovita 61

i'\rbore 83

Ri~ca 94

Sucevita
•
95
·~ f'XTFRIOR Dl'.O >R;\"l"!Cll\:
2. ST. GEORGE'S CHURCH OF SUCEAVA. SOUTH-WESTERN VIEW
3. PATRAUTI. CAVALCADE OF THE HOLY CROSS. ANTE-NAVE. DETAIL
 5. VORONET. COMMUNION WITH CONSECRATED WINE. ALTAR

I"
6. VORONET. LAST SUPPER. ALTAR
7. VORONET LAST SUPPER. ALTAIC DETi\JL
8. VORONET. THE WASHING OF THI::: APOSTLES' FEET. ALTAR
9. VORONET. THE WASHING OF THE APOSTLES' FEET. ALTAR. DETAIL: APOSTLE PETER
IO. VORONET. VOTIVE SCENE. DETAIL:: STEPHEN THE GREAT
11 . VORONET. TRA NSFIGURATION AND PRAYER ON THE ~MOUNT OF OUVES . N.W F.. CONCH OF THE SOUTHERN AB SIDE

12. VORONET. PROPHET EL/AH IN HIS CHARRJOT. ANTE-NAVE

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13. VORONET. OUR LADY OF MERCY. ANTE-NAVE. DETAIL

14. VORONET. SCENE FROM THE MENOLOGION. ANTE-NAVE
 15. VORONET. THE TREE OF JESSE. SOUTHERN FA<,;ADE

16. VORONET. THE TREE OF JESSE. SOUTHERN FAc;ADE. DETAIL

17. VORONET. THE TREE OF JESSE. SOUTHERN PA<;ADE. DETAIL: SOCRATES
18. VORONET. TRANSFER TO SUCEA1 .A OF THE RELICS OF ST JOHN THE NEW. SOUTHERN FACADE
19. VORONET. METROPOLJT AN GRJGORB ROSCA 4ND DAN!/L THE HERMIT. SOUTHERN FACADE
 20. VORONET. LAST JUDGEMENT. WESTERN FAc;ADE

21. VORONET. LAST JUDGEMENT. WESTERN FA<;ADE. DETAIL: THJ? ZODIAC

25. VORONET. LAST JUDGEMENT. WESTERN FA~ADE. DETAii.: DAVID PLAYING HIS WTE

2<>. \'ORONET I.AST jl'DC/3MENT. WESTERN FACADE. DETAIL: QUADRUPEDES BELCHING FOR711 THE LIMBS OF THGSE THEY HAD Gfi!l:;NID¥~
'1:1. VOl.ONBf. L~T JUDGEMENT. WESTERN FA<;ADE. DETAIL: THE SEA YEALDIN<; /JACK ITS VICTIMS
28. VORONET. LAS T JUDGEME. VT. WESTE RN FA«;ADE. DETAIL: mE RIGHTEOUS A1. THE
. GA,,
...ES OF HEAVEN
29. VORONET. LAST JUDGEMENT. WESTERN FAf,:ADE. DETAIL: PARADISE
30. VORONET. ADAM PLOl!GHJNG. NORTHERN FACADE
31. VORONET. ADAM SIGNING THE PACT w1m THE DEVIL NORTHERN FA~DE
32. BALINESTI. PORTRAIT OF LOGOTHETE TAUTU. NAVE
33. HUMOR. DORMITION CHURCH OF mE FORMER MONASTERY. SOUTHERN VIEW
34. HUMOll. PRAYER ON 111E MOUNT OF OLIVES. NAVE. DETAIL
35. HUMOR. THE HOLY WOMEN ON THE SEPULCHRE. NAVE. DETAIL
36. HUMOR. THE WAY OF THE CROSS . NAVE. DETAIL
37. HL1MOR . s;·. MAK A R/OS. l'\ .\ VF
38. HUMOR. VOTIVE SCENE WITH PRINCE RARES. LADY ELENA AND THEIR SON STEFAN. NAVE DETAIL: LADY ELENA
39. HUMOR. VOTIVE SCENE WITH PRINCE RARE.f, LADY ELENA AND THEIR SON .fTEFAN. NAVE.
43. HUMOR. CHASING OF THE FALSE PROPHET BALAAM. CRYPT
14. HUMOR. PRESENTATION TO THE TEMPLE. CRYPT

45. HUMOR. NATIVITY. CRYPT. DETAIL: 111E BA111 OF THE CHILD

r+c l\ L:MOR /! RCH.;JJ1:GE I. GAB RIEi. ANTE-NAVE. DETAii.
47. HUMOR. ST. JOHN COLDENMOU1H PREACHING. ANTE-NAVE
 •

48. HUMOR. ELEUSA VIRGIN. LUNETTE OF THE PORTAL

49. HUMOR. VAULT OF THE PORCH
51. HUMOR. LA:'Jl JUDGEMENT. PORCH. DETAIL : EVE
52. HUMOR. LAST JUDGEMENT. PORCH. DETAIL: lliE TURKS
53. HUMOR. LAST JUDGEMENT. PORCH. DETAIL: RESURRECT/ON OF THE DEAD
54. HUMOll. HEAVENLY HIERARCHY. SOUTHERN FA~ADE. DETAIL: APOSTLES
55. HUMOR. ACATHIST HYMN. SOUTHERN FA<;ADB. DETAIL: THE WAY OF THE MAGI
56. HUMOR. ACATHIST HYMN. SOUTHERN FAl;ADE. DETAIL: FUGHT INTO EGYPT
57. HUMOR. ACATH!ST HYMN. SOUTHERN FAc;ADE. DETAIL: ADORATION
'511. HUMOR. ACATHIST HYMN. SOUTHERN FA<;ADE. DETAIL: THE VIRGIN

59. HUMOR. ACATHIST HYMN. SOUTHERN FA<;ADE. DETAIL: CRUCIFIXION

60. HUMOR. ADORATION OF THE HOLY VIRGIN. SUPPLEMENTARY SCENE TO THE ACATHIST HYMN SOUTHERN FA<;ADE
61. THE MOLDOVITA MONASTERY. SOUTH-WESTERN. VIEw
62. MOLDOVITA. PLATYTERA. ALTAR CONCH
63. MOLDOVITA. HETIMASIA. j&SUS THE ANC!RNT OF DAYS. INTRADOS OF THE ARCHES FACING THE ALTAR
64. MOLDOVITA. PANTOCRATOR. CUPOLA OF THE NAVE
65. MOLDOVITA. CRUCIFIXION. CPNCH OF THE NORTH APSE
i<i. MOLDOVJTA. APPREHENSION OF JESCIS. NAVI.
67. MOLDOVITA. VOTIVESCJENE WITH PRINCE PETRU RARE.f,LADYELENA AND THEIR SONS $TEFAN ANDIUAJ', NAVE
68. MOLDOVITA. VAULT OF THE PORCH
69. MOLD OVITA. ELEUSA VIRGI N LUNETTE OF THE PORTAL
7'1. M O!.DOVIT \. EN TRANC E TO THF POR CH
71. MOLDOVITA. THE HEAVENLY HIERARCHY. SOUTHERN FACADE
 72. MOLDOVITA. THE TREE::. OFJESSE. GENERAi. VIEW

73. MOLDOVITA. THE 7'Hf:"l; OF JESSE. SOUTHERN FA~ADE. DETAIT.: THE PROPHET AVACVM
74. MOLDOVITA. THE TRE:.E OF JESSE. SOUTHERN FACADE. DETAIL: THE BLESSING OF EGYPT
75. MOLDOVITA. THE TREE OF JESSE. SOUTHERN FACADE. PHILOSOPHERS AND SYB!LS
If.. MOLDOVIT\ ACAT!i!ST HYMN GENERAL VIEW'. SOUTHERN FACADE.
77. MOLDOVITA. ACATHIST HYMN. THC. Dl:.PA RTURE OF THE MAGI. SOUTHERN FAc;ADE
78. MOLDOVITA. ACATHIST HYMN. THE SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE. SOUTHERN PA<;:ADE.

... .
79. MOLDOVITA. ACATHIST HYMN THE SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOP LE. SOUTHERN FAc;ADR DETAIL: mECITY
80. MOLDOVITA. ACATHIST HYMN. THE SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE. SOUTHERN FA<;ADE. DETAIL: THE TURKISH ARMY

81. MOLDOVITA. WES'.FBP/Nl-ft'AfZMd

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82. MOLDOVIT A. GENERAL VIEW
.. .

83. THE ARBORE CHURCH. SOUTH-EASTERN VIEW

84. ARBORE. THE LAST SUPPER. ALTAR. DETAIL
85. ARBORE. VOTIVE SCENE WITH LUCA ARBORE, HIS WIFE /UUANA AND THEIR CHILDREN. NAVF
86. A.RBORE. WARRIOR SAINTS. NAVE
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87. ARBORE. ST. MARINA. ANTE-NAVE

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88. ARBORE. DESCENT TO THE HELL. SOUTHERN FAc;ADE

89. ARBORE. APOSTLE MARC AND ANOTHER APOSTLE FROM THE HEAVENLY HIERARCHY. ALTAR APSI
90. ARBORE. WESTERN FA<;ADE.
91. ARBORB. LEGEND OF ST. GEORGE. THE RECEPTION OF 11iB SAINT AT THE EMPEROR'S COURT. WESTERN FA«;ADE
92. ARBORE. LEGEND OF ST. GEORGE. THE RECEPTION OF THE SAINT AT THE EMPEROR'S COURT. WESTERN FA<;:ADE. DETAIL
93. ARBORE. L EGEND OF ST. GEORGE. THE BANQUET. WESTERN FA<;:ADE
94. THE RI~CA MONASTERY. SOUTHERN FA~DE
95. SUCEVITA. GENERAL VIEW
96. SUCEVITA. VOTJV[] SCEN1'. NAVE. DETAIL: LADY MARIA MOVILA
97. SUCEVITA. VOTIVE SCENE. NAVE. GENERAL VIEW
98. SUCEVITA. VOTIVE SC/;'.\'/,, Nr\ VE. I) ET AI L : ll:.RL.11! . l JJU ['/LA
99. SUCEVITA. EXODUS. CRYPT
100. SUCEVIT·"-· MIRAl.LE WITH THE MAV'-'4 A ~'D Ql ' 4JL\ ( RY? '
 101. SUCEVITA. OECUMENICAL SYNOD. ANTE-NAVE

102. SUCEVITA. THE FEAST OF ABRAHAM AN!J THE OECUMENJCAL SYNODS. VAULT OF THE ANTE-NAVE
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103. SUCEVITA. THE CREATION OF THE UV/NG BEINGS. ANTE-NAVE

104. SUCEVJTA. LASTJUG"EMEiVT. EXOl'<ARTHEX. DETAIL FROM THE ZODIAC
105. Sl'CEVITi\ .If .\K HO l ..-l\' .\f!R .-J(f,/ I .\'..: T F'-J \V E
106. SUCEVITA. LAST JUDGEMENT. EXONARTHEX. DETAIL: DEVILS
107. SUCEVITA. THE TREE OF JESSE. SOUTHERN FAC:ADE. DETAIL: JESSE, DAVID AND niE PHILOSOPHERS
108. SUCEVITA. ACATHl.\'T HYMN. ADORATION OF mE f/OLY VIRGIN BY THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE. SOUTHERN PA<;ADE
1011'. 'S:OCEVl'fa . .ffEA<Jl:ENLY HIERARCHY. EASTERN FACADE
110. SUCEVITA. THE LADDER OF JOHN lliE CLIMAX. NORTHERN FA<;ADE. DETAIL
 PRINTED IN ROMANIA

"ART A GRAFICA" Printing Wor-ks Bucharest, 1974

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