TED

Why don't poisonous animals poison

themselves?
One fine day, when Charles Darwin was still a student at
Cambridge, the budding naturalist tore some old bark off a tree
and found two rare beetles underneath. He’d just taken one
beetle in each hand when he spotted a third beetle. Stashing one
of the insects in his mouth for safekeeping, he reached for the
new specimen – when a sudden spray of hot, bitter fluid scalded
his tongue.
Darwin’s assailant was the bombardier beetle. It’s one of
thousands of animal species, like frogs, jellyfish, salamanders,
and snakes, that use toxic chemicals to defend themselves – in
this case, by spewing poisonous liquid from glands in its
abdomen. But why doesn’t this caustic substance, ejected at 100
degrees Celsius, hurt the beetle itself? In fact, how do any toxic
animals survive their own secretions? The answer is that they
use one of two basic strategies: securely storing these
compounds or evolving resistance to them.
Bombardier beetles use the first approach. They store
ingredients for their poison in two separate chambers. When
they’re threatened, the valve between the chambers opens and
the substances combine in a violent chemical reaction that sends
a corrosive spray shooting out of the glands, passing through a
hardened chamber that protects the beetle’s internal tissues.
Similarly, jellyfish package their venom safely in harpoon-like
structures called nematocysts. And venomous snakes store their
flesh-eating, blood-clotting compounds in specialized
compartments that only have one exit: through the fangs and
into their prey or predator.
Snakes also employ the second strategy: built-in biochemical
resistance. Rattlesnakes and other types of vipers manufacture
special proteins that bind and inactivate venom components in
the blood. Meanwhile, poison dart frogs have also evolved
resistance to their own toxins, but through a different
mechanism. These tiny animals defend themselves using
hundreds of bitter-tasting compounds called
 Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/rebecca_tarvin_why_don_t_poisonous_animals_poison_themselves?
subtitle=en
alkaloids that they accumulate from consuming small arthropods
like mites and ants. One of their most potent alkaloids is the
chemical epibatidine, which binds to the same receptors in the
brain as nicotine but is at least ten times stronger. An amount
barely heavier than a grain of sugar would kill you.
So what prevents poison frogs from poisoning themselves? Think
of the molecular target of a neurotoxic alkaloid as a lock, and the
alkaloid itself as the key. When the toxic key slides into the lock, it
sets off a cascade of chemical and electrical signals that can
cause paralysis, unconsciousness, and eventually death. But if
you change the shape of the lock, the key can’t fit. For poison
dart frogs and many other animals with neurotoxic defenses, a
few genetic changes alter the structure of the alkaloid-binding
site just enough to keep the neurotoxin from exerting its adverse
effects.
Poisonous and venomous animals aren’t the only ones that can
develop this resistance: their predators and prey can, too. The
garter snake, which dines on neurotoxic salamanders, has
evolved resistance to salamander toxins through some of the
same genetic changes as the salamanders themselves. That
means that only the most toxic salamanders can avoid being
eaten— and only the most resistant snakes will survive the meal.
The result is that the genes providing the highest resistance and
toxicity will be passed on in greatest quantities to the next
generations. As toxicity ramps up, resistance does too, in an
evolutionary arms race that plays out over millions of years.
This pattern appears over and over again. Grasshopper mice
resist painful venom from scorpion prey through genetic changes
in their nervous systems. Horned lizards readily consume
harvester ants, resisting their envenomed sting with specialized
blood plasma. And sea slugs eat jellyfish nematocysts, prevent
their activation with compounds in their mucus, and repurpose
them for their own defenses.
The bombardier beetle is no exception: the toads that swallow
them can tolerate the caustic spray that Darwin found so
distasteful. Most of the beetles are spit up hours later, amazingly
alive and well. But how do the toads survive the experience? That
is still a mystery.
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TED
The history of the world according
to cats
On May 27th, 1941, the German battleship Bismarck sank in a
fierce firefight, leaving only 118 of her 2,200 crew members
alive. But when a British destroyer came to collect the prisoners,
they found an unexpected survivor - a black and white cat
clinging to a floating plank. For the next several months this cat
hunted rats and raised British morale - until a sudden torpedo
strike shattered the hull and sank the ship. But, miraculously,
not the cat. Nicknamed Unsinkable Sam, he rode to Gibraltar
with the rescued crew and served as a ship cat on three more
vessels – one of which also sank - before retiring to the Belfast
Home for Sailors.
Many may not think of cats as serviceable sailors, or
cooperative companions of any kind. But cats have been
working alongside humans for thousands of years - helping us
just as often as we help them. So how did these solitary
creatures go from wild predator to naval officer to sofa sidekick?
The domestication of the modern house cat can be traced back
to more than 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent, at the
start of the Neolithic era. People were learning to bend nature to
their will, producing much more food than farmers could eat at
one time. These Neolithic farmers stored their excess grain in
large pits and short, clay silos. But these stores of food attracted
hordes of rodents, as well as their predator, Felis silvestris lybica
- the wildcat found across North Africa and Southwest Asia.
These wildcats were fast, fierce, carnivorous hunters. And they
were remarkably similar in size and appearance to today’s
domestic cats. The main differences being that ancient wildcats
were more muscular, had striped coats, and were less social
towards other cats and humans.
The abundance of prey in rodent-infested granaries drew in
these typically solitary animals. And as the wildcats learned to
tolerate the presence of humans and other cats during
mealtime, we think that
 Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/eva_maria_geigl_the_history_of_the_world_according_to_cats?
subtitle=en
farmers likewise tolerated the cats in exchange for free pest
control. The relationship was so beneficial that the cats migrated
with Neolithic farmers from Anatolia into Europe and the
Mediterranean.
Vermin were a major scourge of the seven seas. They ate
provisions and gnawed at lines of rope, so cats had long since
become essential sailing companions.
Around the same time these Anatolian globe trotting cats set
sail, the Egyptians domesticated their own local cats. Revered for
their ability to dispatch venomous snakes, catch birds, and kill
rats, domestic cats became important to Egyptian religious
culture. They gained immortality in frescos, hieroglyphs, statues,
and even tombs, mummified alongside their owners. Egyptian
ship cats cruised the Nile, holding poisonous river snakes at bay.
And after graduating to larger vessels, they too began to migrate
from port to port. During the time of the Roman Empire, ships
traveling between India and Egypt carried the lineage of the
central Asian wildcat F. s. ornata. Centuries later, in the Middle
Ages, Egyptian cats voyaged up to the Baltic Sea on the ships of
Viking seafarers.
And both the Near Eastern and North African wildcats –
probably tamed at this point -- continued to travel across Europe,
eventually setting sail for Australia and the Americas. Today,
most house cats have descended from either the Near Eastern or
the Egyptian lineage of F.s.lybica. But close analysis of the
genomes and coat patterns of modern cats tells us that unlike
dogs, which have undergone centuries of selective breeding,
modern cats are genetically very similar to ancient cats. And
apart from making them more social and docile, we’ve done little
to alter their natural behaviors. In other words, cats today are
more or less as they’ve always been: Wild animals. Fierce
hunters. Creatures that don’t see us as their keepers. And given
our long history together, they might not be wrong.
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TED
Why can't we see evidence of alien
life?
Communicating underwater is challenging. Light and odors
don't travel well, so it's hard for animals to see or smell. But
sound moves about four times faster in water than in air, so in
this dark environment, marine mammals often rely on
vocalization to communicate.
Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/chris_anderson_why_can_t_we_see_evidence_of_alien_life?subtitle=en

One reason whale songs are so fascinating is their pattern.

Units, like moans, cries, and chirps are arranged in phrases.
Repeated phrases are assembled into themes. Multiple themes
repeated in a predictable pattern create a song. This hierarchical
structure is a kind of grammar. Whale songs are extremely
variable in duration, and whales can repeat them over and over.
In one recorded session, a humpback whale sang for 22 hours.
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TED
How to make your stress work for
you
Billions of people deal with a nail-biting habit at some point in
their lives. Many will go to great lengths to try to stop,
employing strategies like rubbing chili peppers on their cuticles,
wearing gloves all day, dipping their hands in salt, and
envisioning bacteria crawling on their fingers.
 Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/shannon_odell_how_to_make_your_stress_work_for_you?
subtitle=en
people spend more than 40% of their days performing regularly
repeated behaviors while their minds are occupied with other
thoughts. A seemingly automated morning routine, for example,
saves you both time and precious mental energy.
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TED
This mushroom will kill you before
you know what’s happening
Since their emergence over 200,000 years ago, modern humans
have established homes and communities all over the planet. But
they didn’t do it alone. Whatever corner of the globe you find homo
sapiens in today, you’re likely to find another species nearby: Canis
lupus familiaris. Whether they’re herding, hunting, sledding, or
slouching the sheer variety of domestic dogs is staggering. But
what makes the story of man’s best friend so surprising is that
they all evolved from a creature often seen as one of our oldest
rivals: Canis lupus, or the gray wolf.
Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_beug_this_mushroom_will_kill_you_before_you_know_what_s_happening

The earliest of these Proto-Dogs or Wolf-Dogs, seem to have

appeared around 33,000 years ago, and would not have looked
all that different from their wild cousins. They were primarily
distinguished by their smaller size and a shorter snout full of
comparatively smaller teeth. But as human cultures and
occupations became more diverse and specialized, so did our
friends. Short stocky dogs to herd livestock by nipping their
heels; elongated dogs to flush badgers and foxes out of burrows;
thin and sleek dogs for racing; and large, muscular dogs for
guard duty. With the emergence of kennel clubs and dog shows
during England’s Victorian era, these dog types were
standardized into breeds, with many new ones bred purely for
appearance. Sadly, while all dog breeds are the product of
artificial selection, some are healthier than others. Many of these
aesthetic characteristics come with congenital health problems,
such as difficulty breathing or being prone to spinal injuries.
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TED
Are there any places on Earth with
no bugs?
A male firefly glows above a field on a summer’s night, emitting
a series of enticing flashes. He hopes a nearby female will
respond with her own lightshow and mate with him. Sadly for this
male, it won’t turn out quite the way he plans. A female from a
different species mimics his pulsing patterns: by tricking the
male with her promise of partnership, she lures him in– and turns
him into an easy meal. He’s been deceived.
Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/charles_wallace_are_there_any_places_on_earth_with_no_bugs?
subtitle=en
One of the more fascinating examples of animal deception
comes from the fork-tailed drongo. This bird sits atop tall trees in
the Kalahari Desert, surveying the landscape for predators and
calling when it senses a threat. That sends meerkats, pied
babblers, and others dashing for cover. But the drongo will also
sound a false alarm when those other species have captured
prey. As the meerkats and babblers flee, the drongo swoops
down to steal their catches. This tactic works about half the
time– and it provides drongos with much of their food.
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TED
Why are cockroaches so hard to kill?
The body becomes its own corset.
Past, present, and future exist as a single force.
A swing without gravity soars to a terrifying height.
The outlines of people and things dissolve.

Countless poets and writers have tried to put words to the experience
of a panic attack— a sensation so overwhelming, many people
mistake it for a heart attack, stroke, or other life-threatening crisis.
Though panic attacks don’t cause long-term physical harm,
afterwards, the fear of another attack can limit someone’s daily life—
and cause more panic attacks.
Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/ameya_gondhalekar_why_are_cockroaches_so_hard_to_kill?subtitle=en

In a panic attack, the body’s perception of danger is enough to trigger

the response we would have to a real threat— and then some. We
don't know for sure why this happens, but sometimes cues in the
environment that remind us of traumatic past experience can trigger a
panic attack. Panic attacks can be part of anxiety disorders like PTSD,
social anxiety disorder, OCD, and generalized anxiety disorder.
Recurring panic attacks, frequent worry about new attacks, and
behavioral changes to avoid panic attacks can lead to a diagnosis of a
panic disorder.