EXP NO.

1
DATE:
SIMPLE DIPOLE ANTENNA
AIM: To study and plot the radiation pattern of simple dipole antenna for the given frequency
300MHz.
SYSTEM/SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1) Computer with keyboard and mouse.
2) 4NEC2 Antenna Vlab software
THEORY: The dipole antenna or dipole aerial is one of the most important and commonly used
types of RF antenna. It is widely used on its own, and it is also incorporated into many other RF
antenna designs where it forms the radiating or driven element for the antenna. The dipole is a
simple antenna to construct and use. Dipole antenna is an antenna that can be made by a simple wire.
Typically a dipole antenna is formed by two quarter wavelength conductors or elements placed back
to back for a total length of /2. This antenna consists of two linear wires with same length and
distance 3 between the wires (2 ) is assumed to be infinitely small. The centre of the antenna is
located at the origin of the coordinate system and the dipole wire run along the z-axis. In figure 1 the
elementary dipole antenna is shown
Radiation Patterns for Finite Length Dipole Antennas The far-fields from a dipole antenna of length
L are given by: The normalized radiation patterns for dipole antennas of various lengths are shown in
below Figure.1

Fig. 1 Dipole Antenna and its Radiation Pattern

PROCEDURE:
1. Create a new Antenna Virtual Lab project.
2. Define variables list.
 3. Construct Antenna Structure using Element panel in Geometry Mode.
4. Assign Physical Parameters in Model Mode.
5. Create Structure Cable Based on Dipole Antenna Geometry
6. Define Device between Terminations.
7. Define Far Field Calculation.
8. Convert Model to Mesh Mode.
9. Run Calculation
10. View Dipole Gain in Viewer 3D.
11. View Antenna Parameters.
12. View Dipole 3D Polar Pattern
CALCULATIONS: Given frequency freq = 300MHz
Lambda = c/freq = 3X108/300X106 = 1m
Set antenna length L = lambda/4

OUTPUT RADIATION PATTERN:

RESULT:
EXP NO. 2
DATE:
HALF WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA
AIM: To study and plot the radiation pattern of half wave dipole antenna.
Operating Frequency 300MHz.
SYSTEM/SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1) Computer with keyboard and mouse.
2) 4NEC2 Antenna Vlab software
THEORY:
A half wave dipole antenna is an antenna constructed using a conductive tube or metallic element
that has a length equal to the electrical half wavelength. The excitation to the half wave dipole is
provided at the centre. So, we can say that the feeding to the dipole is present at quarter wavelength
point. The figure below represents the structure of a half wave dipole antenna:

Fig.1 Antenna Structure for Half wave Dipole Antenna

Basically while feeding an antenna, the major concern is related to the way of transferring the power
from transmission line to the antenna with the least possible loss. As there are two open ends of the
conductor, thus voltage will be maximum but while moving towards the centre from the end voltage
starts decreasing. As against though the current was 0 at the ends along the length side of the
radiating element, the current increases. Generally current reaches a maximum value at the centre
which is 0 at the ends. In this way, there is sinusoidal variation in these quantities. So, the external
excitation to the antenna is provided at the centre, where the current is maximum and voltage is
minimum. Due to this, there is minimal impedance to the feeder by the antenna.

Working of Half Wave Dipole Antenna

We know that a half wave dipole is a metallic rod or thin wire having a physical length of half
wavelength in free space. We have already discussed that excitation to this antenna is provided at the
centre where the voltage is minimum while the current is maximum. Thus, the two quantities vary in
a sinusoidal manner along the length of the radiating element. So, as the voltage varies sinusoidally,
so for the positive half of the voltage, when the amplitude is maximum then the charge carries inside
the conductor gets attracted towards the positive applied potential. As against, when the negative half
of the sinusoidal signal is provided then the charges present in the conductor experience repulsion.
So, every time with the change in polarity of the applied signal, there is a change in the direction of
flow of electrons inside the conducting material. Hence, the back and forth movement of the
electrons from an end to another causes it to get charged either positively or negatively. This
cumulative action of the electrons leads to generate current and the field is radiated from the half
wave dipole.

Radiation Pattern

As this antenna is a centre fed so, the maximum current offers maximum radiation in the plane which
is in perpendicular direction. The radiation pattern of half wave dipole antenna is omnidirectional
and is represented in the figure shown below:

Fig.2 Radiation Pattern for Half wave Dipole Antenna

PROCEDURE:
1. Create a new Antenna Virtual Lab project.
2. Define variables list.
3. Construct Antenna Structure using Element panel in Geometry Mode.
4. Assign Physical Parameters in Model Mode.
5. Create Structure Based on Dipole Antenna Geometry
6. Define Device between Terminations.
7. Define Far Field Calculation.
8. Run Calculation
9. View Half wave Dipole Gain in Pattern window.
10. View Antenna Parameters.
11. View Half wave Dipole 3D Polar Pattern

OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT GEOMETRY:
Length of the Antenna wire: _______________________
Radius of the Antenna Wire:________________________
Conductivity of wire material:_______________________

RESULT:
EXP NO. 3
DATE:
LOOP ANTENNA
AIM: To study and plot the radiation pattern of Loop antenna.
SYSTEM/SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1) Computer with keyboard and mouse.
2) 4NEC2 Antenna Vlab software
THEORY
The Loop antenna consists of a basic dipole, but with an added conductor connecting the two ends
together. This makes a ‘loop’ of wire that is a short circuit to DC. As the ends appear to be folded
back, the antenna is called a Loop antenna. The basic format for the Loop aerial is shown below.
Like the basic dipole, the Loop antenna is a balanced antenna, and needs to be fed with a balanced
feeder. The additional part of the Loop antenna is often made by using a wire or rod of the same
diameter as the basic dipole section. However, this is not always the case.

Also, the wires or rods are typically equi-spaced along the length of the parallel elements. This can
be achieved in a number of ways. Often for VHF or UHF antennas the rigidity of the elements is
sufficient, but at lower frequencies spacers may need to be employed. To keep the wires apart.
Obviously if they are not insulated it is imperative to keep them from shorting. In some instances,
flat feeder can be used.

Practical Antenna Antenna Structure

Fig.1 Loop Antenna

One of the main reasons for using a Loop antenna is the increase in feed impedance that it provides.
If the conductors in the main dipole and the second or "fold" conductor are the same diameter, then it
is found that there is a fourfold increase (i.e. two squared) in the feed impedance. In free space, this
gives an increase in feed impedance from 73Ω to around 300Ω ohms. Additionally, the RF antenna
has a wider bandwidth.
Radiation pattern

Fig.2 Radiation Pattern for Loop Antenna

PROCEDURE:
1. Create a new Antenna Virtual Lab project.
2. Define variables list
3. Construct Antenna Structure using Element panel in Geometry Mode.
4. Assign Physical Parameters in Model Mode.
5. Create Structure Cable Based on Dipole Antenna Geometry
6. Define Device between Terminations.
7. Define Far Field Calculation.
8. Convert Model to Mesh Mode.
9. Run Calculation
10. View Loop Gain in Viewer 3D.
11. View Antenna Parameters.
12. View Loop 3D Polar Pattern.
RESULT:
EXP NO. 4
DATE:
YAGI UDA ANTENNA

AIM: To study and plot the radiation pattern of 4-element Yagi Uda antenna.
SYSTEM/SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1) Computer with keyboard and mouse.
2) 4NEC2 Antenna Vlab software

THEORY:

A Yagi-Uda consists of parasitic elements and the dipole. The figure shows a Yagi-Uda antenna.
Many directors can be used to increase the directivity of the antenna. The feeder is the folded dipole.
The reflector is the lengthy element, which is at the end of the structure. The centre rod like structure
on which the elements are mounted is called as boom. The Yagi antenna consists of a single 'feed' or
'driven' element, typically a dipole or a folded dipole antenna. This is the only member of the above
structure that is actually excited (a source voltage or current applied). The rest of the elements are
parasitic - they reflect or help to transmit the energy in a particular direction. The length of the feed
element is given in Figure 1 as F. The feed antenna is almost always the second from the end, as
shown in Figure 1. This feed antenna is often altered in size to make it resonant in the presence of
the parasitic elements (typically, 0.45-0.48 wavelengths long for a dipole antenna).

The element to the left of the feed element in Figure 1 is the reflector. The length of this element is
given as R and the distance between the feed and the reflector is SR. The reflector element is
typically slightly longer than the feed element. There is typically only one reflector; adding more
reflectors improves performance very slightly. This element is important in determining the front-to-
back ratio of the antenna. The frequency range in which the Yagi-Uda antennas operate is around 30
MHz to 3GHz which belong to the VHF and UHF bands.

Antenna Structure Elements of the Yagi Uda Antenna

Fig.1 Yagi-Uda Antenna

Radiation Pattern

Fig.1 2D and 3D Radiation Pattern for Yagi-Uda Antenna

ELEMENT SPECIFICATION
Length of the Driven 0.458λ to 0.5λ
Element F
Length of the Reflector 0.482 λ
Length of the Director 1 0.428λ
Length of the Director 2 0.424λ
Length of the Director 3 0.428λ
Spacing between Directors 0.2λ
Reflector to dipole spacing 0.2λ
Dipole to Director spacing 0.125λ
Diameter of elements d 0.0085 λ
Boom Length 0.8 λ

PROCEDURE:
1. Create a new Antenna Virtual Lab project.
2. Define variables list
3. Construct Antenna Structure using Element panel in Geometry Mode.
4. Assign Physical Parameters in Model Mode.
5. Create Structure Cable Based on Dipole Antenna Geometry
6. Define Device between Terminations.
7. Define Far Field Calculation.
8. Convert Model to Mesh Mode.
9. Run Calculation
10. View Yagi Uda Antenna Gain in Viewer 3D.
11. View Antenna Parameters.
12. View Yagi Uda Antenna 3D Polar Pattern
OBSERVATIONS:

RESULT:
EXP NO. 5
DATE:
HELICAL ANTENNA
AIM: To study and plot the radiation pattern of given Helical antenna with following dimensions.
Dimension Length (m) radius R1(in Radius No. of turns
cm) R2(in cm)
value 0.2342 2.982 2.982 5

SYSTEM/SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1) Computer with keyboard and mouse.
2) 4NEC2 Antenna Vlab software

THEORY:

Helical antenna is an example of wire antenna and itself forms the shape of a helix. This is a
broadband VHF and UHF antenna. The frequency range of operation of helical antenna is
around 30MHz to 3GHz. This antenna works in VHF and UHF ranges.
Construction & Working of Helical Antenna

Fig.1 Helical Antenna

Helical antenna or helix antenna is the antenna in which the conducting wire is wound in helical
shape and connected to the ground plate with a feeder line. It is the simplest antenna, which
provides circularly polarized waves. It is used in extra-terrestrial communications in which satellite
relays etc., are involved. The above image shows a helical antenna system, which is used for
satellite communications. These antennas require wider outdoor space. It consists of a helix of thick
copper wire or tubing wound in the shape of a screw thread used as an antenna in conjunction with a
flat metal plate called a ground plate. One end of the helix is connected to the centre conductor of
the cable and the outer conductor is connected to the ground plate.
 Fig.2 Antenna Structure for Helical Antenna

The image of a helix antenna detailing the antenna parts is shown above. The radiation of helical
antenna depends on the diameter of helix, the turn spacing and the pitch angle. Pitch angle is the
angle between a line tangent to the helix wire and plane normal to the helix axis.
α= tan−1(S/πD)
where,
• D is the diameter of helix.
• S is the turn spacing (centre to centre).
• α is the pitch angle.

Fig.3 2D and 3D Radiation Pattern for Helical Antenna

Helical Antenna operating modes:
Normal mode
In normal mode of radiation, the radiation field is normal to the helix axis. The radiated waves are
circularly polarized. This mode of radiation is obtained if the dimensions of helix are small
compared to the wavelength. The radiation pattern of this helical antenna is a combination of short
dipole and loop antenna. The above figure shows the radiation pattern for normal mode of radiation
in helical antenna. It depends upon the values of diameter of helix, D and its turn spacing, S.
Drawbacks of this mode of operation are low radiation efficiency and narrow bandwidth. Hence, it
is hardly used.
Axial mode
In axial mode of radiation, the radiation is in the end-fire direction along the helical axis and the
waves are circularly or nearly circularly polarized. This mode of operation is obtained by raising the
circumference to the order of one wavelength (λ) and spacing of approximately λ/4. The radiation
pattern is broad and directional along the axial beam producing minor lobes at oblique angles. The
figure shows the radiation pattern for axial mode of radiation in helical antenna. If this antenna is
designed for right-handed circularly polarized waves, then it will not receive left-handed circularly
polarized waves and vice versa. This mode of operation is generated with great ease and is more
practically used.
PROCEDURE:
1. Create a new Antenna Virtual Lab project.
2. Define variables list
3. Construct Antenna Structure using Element panel in Geometry builder Mode.
4. Assign Physical Parameters in Model Mode.
5. Define source location.
6. Define Far Field Calculation.
7. Convert Model to Mesh Mode.
8. Run Calculation
9. View helical antenna Gain in Viewer 3D.
10. View Antenna Parameters.
11. View helical antenna 3D Polar Pattern

RESULT:
EXP NO. 6
DATE:
PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ANTENNA
AIM: To study and plot the radiation pattern of Parabolic Reflector Antenna.
Operating Frequency: 10000MHz
Input Geometry: Aperture:0.22 m, Focus point=0.055 m
SYSTEM/SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
1) Computer with keyboard and mouse.
2) 4NEC2 Antenna Vlab software
THEORY:
Parabolic Reflectors are Microwave antennas. The frequency range used for the application of
parabolic reflector antennas is above 1MHz. These antennas are widely used for radio and wireless
applications.

Principle of Operation

The standard definition of a parabola is - Locus of a point, which moves in such a way that its
distance from the fixed point (called focus) plus its distance from a straight line (called directrix) is
constant.
The following figure shows the geometry of parabolic reflector. The point F is the focus (feed is
given) and V is the vertex. The line joining F and V is the axis of symmetry. PQ are the reflected
rays where L represents the line directrix on which the reflected points lie (to say that they are being
collinear). Hence, as per the above definition, the distance between F and L lie constant with respect
to the waves being focussed.
The reflected wave forms a collimated wave front, out of the parabolic shape. The ratio of focal
length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f over D ratio” is an important parameter of parabolic
reflector. Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.50. The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence
and the angle of reflection are equal. This law when used along with a parabola helps the beam
focus. The shape of the parabola when used for the purpose of reflection of waves, exhibits some
properties of the parabola, which are helpful for building an antenna, using the waves reflected.

Properties of Parabola

• All the waves originating from focus, reflects back to the parabolic axis. Hence, all the
waves reaching the aperture are in phase.
• As the waves are in phase, the beam of radiation along the parabolic axis will be strong and
concentrated.
Construction & Working of a Parabolic Reflector with their feed systems
If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the signal from the feed, comes out
of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave on to the parabola. It means that, the waves come
out of the focal point and strike the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets reflected
as collimated wave front, as discussed previously, to get transmitted.
The same antenna is used as a receiver. When the electromagnetic wave hits the shape of the
parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point. The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as
the receiver antenna at its feed, receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and forwards it
to the receiver circuitry.

Practical Antenna Antenna Structure

Fig.1 Parabolic Reflector with their feed systems

The gain of the paraboloid is a function of aperture ratio (D/λ). The Effective Radiated
Power (ERP) of an antenna is the multiplication of the input power fed to the antenna and
paraboloid reflector antenna
Radiation pattern

Fig.2 Radiation Pattern of Parabolic Reflector with their feed systems

PROCEDURE:
1. Create a new Antenna Virtual Lab project.
2. Define variables list
3. Construct Antenna Structure using Element panel in Geometry Mode.
4. Assign Physical Parameters in Model Mode.
5. Create Structure Cable Based on Dipole Antenna Geometry
6. Define Device between Terminations.
7. Define Far Field Calculation.
8. Convert Model to Mesh Mode.
9. Run Calculation
10. View Parabolic Reflector Gain in Viewer 3D.
11. View Antenna Parameters.
12. View Parabolic Reflector 3D Polar Pattern

RESULT:
EXP NO. 7
DATE:
HORN ANTENNA
AIM: To study and plot the radiation pattern of Horn Antenna.
Operating Frequency: 300MHz

SYSTEM/SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

1) Computer with keyboard and mouse.

2) 4NEC2 Antenna Vlab software
THEORY
The open-ended waveguide, in which open end is flared so that it looks like a horn, is called a Horn
Antenna. This antenna forms a smooth transition between the waveguide and free space whilst also
directing the radio waves in a beam. The horn antenna may be considered as an RF transformer or
impedance match between the waveguide feeder and free space which has an impedance of 377
ohms. By having a tapered or having a flared end to the waveguide the horn antenna is formed and
this enables the impedance to be matched. the main advantage of the horn antenna is that it provides
a significant level of directivity and gain. For greater levels of gain the horn antenna should have a
large aperture. Also to achieve the maximum gain for a given aperture size, the taper should be long
so that the phase of the wave-front is as nearly constant as possible across the aperture. However
there comes a point where to provide even small increases in gain, the increase in length becomes
too large to make it sensible. Thus gain levels are a balance between aperture size and length.

a. Antenna Structure b. Radiation Pattern

Fig.1 Horn Antenna and its radiation Pattern

PROCEDURE:
1. Create a new Antenna Virtual Lab project.
2. Define variables list
3. Construct Antenna Structure using Element panel in Geometry Mode.
4. Assign Physical Parameters in Model Mode.
5. Create Structure Cable Based on Antenna Geometry
6. Define Device between Terminations.
7. Define Far Field Calculation.
8. Convert Model to Mesh Mode.
9. Run Calculation
10. View Horn Antenna Gain in Viewer 3D.
11. View Antenna Parameters.
12. View Horn Antenna 3D Polar Pattern

RESULT: