AC Machines Notes

Prepared By

P. Praveen Kumar

EEE
 CONTENTS
Syllabus

Unit-I : Three-Phase Induction Motors

Unit-II: Induction Motors Testing, Starting & Speed Control Methods
Unit-III: Synchronous Machines
Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Machines & Synchronous Motors
Unit-V: Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:
 AC Machines
Unit 1: Three-Phase Induction Motors

UNIT-1
Three-Phase Induction Motors

 Construction details of cage and wound rotor machines

 Production of a rotating magnetic field
 Principle of operation
 Rotor emf and Rotor frequency
 Rotor reactance, rotor current and Power factor at standstill and
during operation.
 Rotor power input, Rotor copper loss and
mechanical power developed and their interrelation
 Torque equation – expressions for maximum torque and starting torque
 Torque-Slip & Torque-Speed characteristics
 Equivalent circuit – Phasor diagram
 Summary

 Important concepts and conclusions

 Important formulae and relations
 Illustrative Problems
 Important Questions

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 AC Machines
Unit 1: Three-Phase Induction Motors

Introduction:

The induction machine is an important class of electric machines which finds wide
application as a motor in industry and in its single-phase form in several domestic
applications. More than 85% of industrial motors in use today are induction motors. It is
substantially a constant-speed motor with a shunt characteristic i.e. a few per cent speed drop
from no-load to full-load. It is a singly fed motor (stator- fed), unlike the synchronous motor
which requires ac supply on the stator side and dc excitation on the rotor. The torque
developed in this motor is due to current induction) in the rotor (Hence the name Induction
Motor) which is possible only at non-synchronous speed. (Hence it is also asynchronous
motor) It is a singly-fed machine i.e. it draws its input power from the mains to set up the
rotating magnetic field in the air-gap which is essential for its operation and no external field
supply is required.

Induction motor construction:

The stator of an Induction motor is similar to that of a Synchronous machine with three
phases wound on it, but with a different type of rotor construction. Atypical two-pole stator is
shown in the figure below.

Fig: The stator of a typical induction motor showing the stator windings

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 AC Machines
Unit 1: Three-Phase Induction Motors

The rotor core is of laminated construction with slots suitably punched in for accommodating
the rotor winding/rotor bars. The punched laminations are stacked and fitted directly onto a
shaft in the case of small machines, while in the case of large machines a stack of annular
punchings of a suitable cross- sectional area are fitted onto a spider web arrangement on the
shaft.

There are two types of induction motor rotors which can be placed inside the stator. One is
called a cage rotor, (or a squirrel cage rotor) and the other is called a wound rotor.

A cage type induction motor rotor consists of a series of conducting bars placed in the rotor
slots carved in the face of the rotor and shorted at either end by large shorting rings. In large
machines alloyed copper bars are driven in the slots and are brazed onto copper end-rings.
Small Rotors usually have a die cast aluminum bars wherein the end-rings are also cast
simultaneously with the same material byusing a suitable mould. This is an economical
process and is generally employed inmass production of small size induction motors.
Figures below show cage type induction motor rotors and the cutaway view of complete
Squirrel Cage Induction Motors.

Figure :(a) Sketch of cage rotor. (b) A typical cage rotor.

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 AC Machines
Unit 1: Three-Phase Induction Motors

(a) Cutaway diagram of a typical small cage rotor induction motor

(b) Cutaway diagram of a typical large cage rotor induction motor.
The rotor circuit of a squirrel-cage motor cannot be tampered with and the machine has a low
starting torque, while it has excellent running performance. Therefore, it cannot be used
where a high starting torque is required. The starting torque of a squirrel-cage motor can be
improved by employing either a double cage rotor or a deep-bar rotor. Such type of
construction serves the purpose of a medium starting torque requirement.

The rotor has a lesser number of slots than the stator and these must be a non integral
multiple of stator slots so as to prevent magnetic locking of rotor and stator teeth at the time
of starting. Further for the same purpose rotor teeth are skewed (twisted) slightly.

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The slots in the induction machine are semi-enclosed so as to increase the permeance per pole
so that the magnetization current, which is responsible for less than unity power factor of this
motor, is kept within limits.

The other type of rotor is a wound rotor similar to that of the stator except that the number of
slots is lesser and fewer turns per phase of a heavier conductor are used. A wound rotor has a
complete set of three-phase windings placed in the slots of the rotor core that are similar to the
windings on the stator. The three phases of the rotor windings are usually Y-connected. The
ends of the three rotor windings are brought out and connected to the slip rings on the rotor's
shaft. The slip-rings are tapped by means of copper-carbon brushes which are riding on the
slip rings. Hence motors with such wound rotors are also called as Slip Ring Induction
Motors.
Two wound rotors are shown in figure (a) below, and a complete wound-rotor induction
motor is shown in the figure (b) below.

Fig: Typical wound rotors for induction motors. (Notice the slip rings and the bars
connecting the rotor Windings to the slip rings)

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Fig: Cut away diagram of a wound-rotor induction motor (Notice the brushes and
slip rings. Also notice that the rotor windings are skewed to eliminate
slotharmonics)

Wound- rotor construction is generally employed for large size machines to be used where
the starting torque requirements are stringent. Wound-rotor induction motors are more
expensive than cage induction motors, and they require higher maintenance because of the
wear associated with their brushes and slip rings. External resistance can be included in the
rotor circuit through slip- rings for reducing the starting current and simultaneously
improving the starting torque.

The connection diagram of a 3-phase slip-ring induction motor with delta- connected stator
and star connected rotor is shown in the figure below. The rotor winding is connected to slip
rings which are shorted through external resistances at the time of starting. The resistances are
cut-out as the motor attains full speed.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: 3-phase slip-ring induction motor—connection diagram

Production of a rotating magnetic field:

The torque induced in a loop of wire in an external magnetic field is proportional to the
strength of the loop's magnetic field, the strength of the external magnetic field, and the sine
of the angle between them. This is also true of real ac machines. In general, the torque in any
real machine will depend on four factors:
I. The strength of the rotor magnetic field
2. The strength of the external magnetic field
3. The sine of the angle between them
4. A constant representing the construction of the machine (geometry. etc.)

Hence we can say that if two magnetic fields are present in a machine, then a torque will be
created which will tend to line up the two magnetic fields. If one magnetic field is produced by
the stator of an ac machine and the other one is produced by the rotor of the machine, then a
torque will be induced in the rotor which will cause the rotor to rotate and align itself with the
stator magnetic field.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

If there is some way to make the stator magnetic field rotate, then the induced torque in the
rotor would cause it to constantly rotate so as to "chase" the stator magnetic field around in a
circle. This, in a nutshell, is the basic principle of all ac motors’ operation.

The fundamental principle of an ac machine operation is that if a three-phase set of currents,

each of equal magnitude and differing in phase by 1200, flows in a set of three-phase
windings located 1200 (mechanical ) apart around the surface of the machine, then it will
produce a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude. The rotating magnetic field concept
is illustrated in the simplest case by an empty stator containing just three coiIs, each 1200
apart as shown in figure ‘a’ below. Since such a winding produces only one north and one
south magnetic pole, it is atwo pole winding.

To understand the concept of the rotating magnetic fie ld, we will apply a set of currents to
the stator of Figure below and see what happens at specific instants of time. Assume that the
currents in the three coils are given by the
equations

A simple three-phase stator. Currents in this stator are assumed positive if they flow into
the Unprimed end and out the primed end of the coils. The magnetizing
intensitiesproduced by each coil are also shown.
(b) The magnetizing intensity vector H aa’(t) produced by acurrent flowing in coil aa'.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

iaa'(t) = IMsinωtAmps
ibb'(t) = IMsin(ωt- 120°) Amps
icc' (t) = IMsin(ωt- 240°) Amps

The current in coil aa' flows into the ‘a’ end of the coil and out at the a' end of thecoil. It produces
the magnetic field intensity

Haa'(t) = HMsinωt/00A ·turns/ m

where0°is the spatial angle of the magnetic field intensity vector, as shown in the figure (b)
above .The direction of the magnetic fie ld intensity vector Haa’(t)is given by the right-hand
rule: If the fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the current flow in the coil, then the
resulting magnetic field is in the direction that the thumb points. Notice that the magnitude of the
magnetic field intensity vector Haa'(t) varies sinusoidally in time, but the direction of Haa'(t) is
always constant.

Similarly, the magnetic field intensity vectors Hbb’(t) and Hcc’(t) are also given by

Hbb'(t) = HM sin (ωt- 120°) /1200 A ·turns/ m

Hcc’(t) = HM sin(ωt- 240°) /2400 A ·turns/ m

The flux densities resulting from these magnetic field intensities given by the basicrelation B = µH
are:

Baa'(t) = BM sin ωt/00

T
0
eslaBbb'(t) = BM sin (ωt- 120°) /120
TeslaBcc'(t) = BM sin (ωt- 240°) /2400 Tesla

Where BM = µHM. The currents and their corresponding flux densities can be examined at
specific times to determine the resulting net magnetic field in the stator.

For example, at time ωt = 0°, the magnetic field from coil aa’ will be:
Baa = 0
The magnetic field from coil bb' will be:
Bbb = BM sin (- 120°)/1200
And the magnetic field from coil cc' will be:
Bcc' = BM sin (- 240°)/2400

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be

Bnet = Baa' + Bbb’+ Bcc’

= 0 + (-√3/2BM) /120°+ (√3/2 BM) /240°
= 1.5 BM/-90°
The resulting net magnetic field is shown in figure (a) below.

(a) The vector magnetic field in a stator at time ωt= 0°. (b) The vector
magneticfield in a stator at Time ωt= 90°.

As another example, let us look at the magnetic field at time ωt= 90°. At that time, the currents
are:

iaa'(t) = IMsin900 Amps

ibb'(t) = IM sin (-30°) A
icc' (t) = IMsin(- 150°) A
and the magnetic fields are

Baa'(t) = BM/00 Tesla

Bbb'(t) = -0.5 BM/1200 Tesla
Bcc'(t) = -0.5 BM/2400 Tesla

The resulting net magnetic fields are:

Bnet = Baa' + Bbb’+ Bcc’

= BM/00+(-0.5BM) /120°+ (-0.5BM) /240°
= 1.5 BM/0°
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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

The resulting magnetic field is shown in the figure (b) above. Notice that although the direction
of the magnetic field has changed, the magnitude is constant. The magnetic field is maintaining a
constant magnitude while rotating in a counter clockwise direction. This explains the concept of
the production of a rotating magnetic field.

Principle of operation & The Development of Induced Torque in an InductionMotor:

When current flows in the stator, it will produce a magnetic field in stator such that Bs(stator
magnetic field) will rotate at a speed:
nS = 120.fS/P
Where fs is the system frequency in hertz and P is the number of poles in the machine. This
rotating magnetic field Bs passes over the rotor bars and induces a voltage in them. The voltage
induced in the rotor is given by:
eind = (v x B) l
Where v is the velocity of the Rotor bars relative to the Stator magnetic field
B = magnetic flux density vector
And l = length of the rotor bar in the magnetic field.
Hence there will be rotor current flow which would be lagging due to the fact thatthe rotor is
Inductive. And this rotor current will produce a magnetic field at the rotor, Br. Hence the
Interaction between these two magnetic fields would giverise to an induced torque:
Tind = k.BR X BS
The torque induced would accelerate the rotor and hence the rotor will rotate . However, there is a
finite upper limit to the motor’s speed due to the following interactive phenomenon:
If the induction motor’s speed increases and reaches synchronous speed then the rotor bars would be
stationary relative to the magnetic field
↓
No induced voltage
↓
No rotor current
↓
No rotor magnetic field
↓ Induced
torque
=0
↓
Rotor will slow down due to friction

Conclusion: An induction motor can thus speed up to such a near synchronous speed where the
induced torque is just able to overcome the load torque but itcan never reach synchronous
speed.

The Concept of Rotor Slip:

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

The induced voltage in the rotor bar is dependent upon the relative speed between the stator
Magnetic field and the rotor. This is termed as slip speed andis given by: nslip = n sync -- n m
Where nslip = slip speed of the machine
nsync = speed of the magnetic field (also motor’s synchronous speed) and
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor.
Apart from this we can describe this relative motion by using the concept of slip which is the
relative speed expressed on a per-unit or percentage basis. Slip ‘s’ is defined as:

On percentage basis and is defined as

S= (Nsync—N m ) / Nsync On per unit basis.

Slip ‘S’ is also expressed in terms of angular velocity ω ( Rad/Sec) as given below:

It can be noted that if the motor runs at synchronous speed the slip ‘S’ =0 and if the rotor is
standstill then the slip ‘S’ =1.It is possible to express the mechanical speed of the Rotor in terms
of Slip S and synchronous speed nsync as given below:

Rotor e.g. , Rotor frequency ,Rotor reactance, rotor current and Power factor at standstill
and during operation: (Effect of Slip on Rotor parameters )
In case of a transformer, the frequency ‘f’ of the induced e.m.f. in the secondary issame as the
applied voltage to the primary. But in the case of an Induction motor,the frequency of the
induced voltage in the rotor is not same as that of the applied voltage to the stator and it
depends on the slip. At start, the speed N = 0, the slip ‘s’= 1 and the frequency of the
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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

induced voltage in the rotor is same as

that of the voltage applied to the stator. As the motor picks up speed, the slip becomes smaller
and hence the frequency of the induced e.m.f. in the rotor also becomes lesser. Due to this, some
of the Rotor parameters also get affected. Let us study the effect of slip on the following
parameters.
1. Rotor frequency
2. Magnitude of induced e.m.f in rotor.
3. Rotor reactance
4. Rotor power factor and
5. Rotor current.

Rotor frequency:

The speed of the Stator rotating magnetic field is given by

NS = 120.fS/P (1)
Where fs is the system (supply) frequency in hertz and P is the number of poles in the machine.
At start the speed N = 0, the slip ‘s’= 1 and the rotor which is stationary has maximum relative
motion i.e. same as that of the R.M.F. Hence the frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor is
same as that of the voltage applied to the stator. As the motor picks up speed the relative speed
of the Rotor with respect to the Stator RMF decreases and becomes equal to slip speed (NS-N).
As we know the frequency and magnitude of induced e.m.f in the rotor depends on the rate of
change of cutting flux i.e. relative speed (NS-N). Hence in running condition the magnitude and
frequency of induced voltage decreases. The rotor is wound for the same number of poles as that
of the Stator i.e. P. If fr is frequency of the Rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition at slip
speed of (NS - N) (when the motor is running at a speed of N) then there exists a fixed relation
between slip speed (NS -N) ,fr and P just as in the case of stator. So for Rotor we can write:

Ns-N =120fr/P (2)

Dividing equation (2) by (1) we get:

(Ns-N)/Ns=(120fr/P) / (120.fS/P)

But (NS -N) / Ns = Slip ‘s’ and Hence s = fr/fs or fr = sfs

Thus we can say that the frequency of the Rotor induced e.m.f fr is slip ’s‘ times the supply
frequency fs.

As slip of an induction motor is normally in the range of 0.01 to 0.05 the Rotor frequency is
very small in the running condition.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Rotor Induced e.m.f:

We know that just like the induced frequency, the induced e.m.f is also is proportional to the
relative speed between the Rotor and the stator.
Let E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f when it is standstill i.e. relative speed is N s And E2r =
Rotor induced e.m.f when it is running i.e. relative speed is Ns – N So we have E2αNs
i.e. E2 = kNs (1)
And E2rαNs – N i.e E2r = k (Ns – N) ------- (2)

Dividing the second equation by first equation we get: E2r / E2 = (Ns – N) / Ns . But (Ns –
N) / Ns = slip ’s’ . Hence we get finally:
E2r = s E2
i.e. The magnitude of the Rotor e.m.f. in running condition also gets reduced to
slip times the magnitude of the e.m.f. in standstill condition.

Rotor Resistance and Reactance:

Just like the stator, Rotor winding also has its own Resistance and Reactance and let them be R2
Ω /Ph and X2 Ω /Ph respectively.
We know that Resistance of a coil is independent of frequency while it’s Reactance
is given by X= 2πfL where L is the Inductance of the coil. Thus
X2( @ standstill ) = 2πfsL
And since fr = sfs
X2r( @ running condition ) = 2πfrL = 2πsfsL = s X2
i.e. X2r = s X2
Thus we can conclude that the Resistance of the Rotor which is independent of
frequency remains the same at both standstill and in running condition while the reactance which
is dependent on the frequency gets reduced to slip times the Reactance in standstill condition.
Then we have Rotor impedance Z2 per phase as:

Z2 = R2 + j X2 = √2 R 2+2 X 2
Ω /Ph (@standstill)

And Z2r = R2+ j X2r = 2√ R 2+ (sX2)2 Ω /Ph (@ Running condition)

Rotor power factor:

We know that the power factor any inductive circuit is given by:
Cos θ = R/Z
Using the above values of Resistance and impedance of the Rotor in both standstill and
running conditions in this relation for p.f. we get:

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Cos θ = R2/Z2 = R2/√ R

2
2
+X
2
2
Ω /Ph (@standstill) and

Cos θ r= R2/Z2r = R2/√ 2R 2+ (sX2)2 (@ Running condition)

The corresponding impedance triangles for both standstill and running conditions are shown in
the figures (a) and (b) below.

Fig: (a) Impedance triangle at standstill (b): Impedance triangle while running Note: As

Rotor circuit is inductive power factor is always lagging.

Rotor current:

The rotor currents (per phase) in both cases are given by (using the basic relation
I = E/Z):

I2 = E2 / Z2 = E2 / √ R2 2+ j X2 2(@standstill) and
I2r = E2r / Z2r = E2r / √2 R 2+ j X2r2 = s E2 / √2 R 2+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition)

Note: (θ2r is the phase angle between the Rotor voltage E 2r and Rotor current I2r which decides
the power factor while the motor is running )

The corresponding Rotor equivalent circuits for both standstill and running conditions are shown
in the figures (a) and (b) below.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Fig (a): Rotor equivalent circuit at standstill (b): Rotor eq. circuit while running

Rotor power input, Rotor copper loss and mechanical power developed and their
interrelation:
An induction motor can be basically described as a rotating transformer. Its input is a 3 phase
system of voltages and currents. For an ordinary transformer, the output is electric power from
the secondary windings. The secondary windings in an induction motor (the rotor) are shorted
and so no electrical output exists from normal induction motors. Instead, the output power is
mechanical. The power flow diagram given below shows how the Input Electrical power given to
the Induction Motor stator gets converted into Mechanical power at the Rotor end and what are
the losses taking place in between.

The input power to an induction motor Pin is in the form of 3-phase electric
voltages and currents and is given by:
PIN = √3 VLIL Cos θ
Where VL , IL are line values of voltage & current and Cos θ is motor power factor.

Fig: Power flow diagram of an Induction motor.

The first losses encountered in the machine are I2 R losses in the stator windings (stator copper
loss PSCL).Then,some amount of power is lost as hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator
(Pcore). The power remaining at this point is transferred to the rotor of the machine across the
air gap between the stator and rotor. This power is called the air gap power PAG of the machine
like.
PAG = PIN – (PSCL + Pcore) = Tind.ωs
After the power is transferred to the rotor, some of it is lost as I2R losses (the rotor copper loss

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

PRCL), and the rest is converted from electrical to mechanical form (PCONV).i.e.
PCONV = PAG- PRCL = Tind.ωm
When this mechanical power is delivered to the load through the rotor shaft again some more
power is lost as mechanical losses known as friction and windage losses PF&W and then again
some unaccounted losses known as stray losses PMISC. Finally the remaining power is the net
output power delivered by the Motor to the load as POUT i.e.
POUT = PM – (PF&W + PMISC) = Tload.ωm
This total power flow along with the losses in between is shown in the diagram above.

The core losses do not occur in the stator side alone as shown in the figure above. The core losses
of an induction motor come partially from the stator circuit and partially from the rotor circuit.
Since an induction motor normally operates at a speed near synchronous speed, the relative
motion of the magnetic fields over the rotor surface is quite slow, and the rotor core losses are
very tiny compared to the stator core losses. Since the largest fraction of the core losses comes
from the stator circuit, all the core losses are lumped together and shown as if they are occurring
at the stator end. The higher the speed of an induction motor, the higher the friction, windage,
and stray losses. On the other hand, the higher the speed of the motor (up to nsync), the lower its
core losses. Therefore, these three categories of losses are sometimes lumped together and called
as rotational losses. The total rotational losses of a motor are often considered to be constant
with changing speed, since the component losses change in opposite directions with a change in
speed as explained.

Torque equation – expressions for maximum torque and starting torque:

Torque equation: The torque developed in an Induction motor depends on the following factors.

1. The stator magnetic field φ which induces e.m.f. in the rotor.

2. The magnitude of the Rotor current I2r in running condition.

3. The power factor ‘Cos Ɵ2r ‘ of the Rotor circuit in running condition.

Thus the expression for Torque can be given as: T𝖺 φ . I2r .Cos Ɵ2r ---------------------------- (1)

We know that the flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to the voltage applied to the stator
E1. And similarly the Stator and Rotor voltages E1 and E2 are related to each other by a ratio of
their effective number of turns ‘K ‘.

I.e. φ 𝖺 E1 and E1 / E2 = K and so effectively φ 𝖺 E2 ----- (2)

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

We have earlier obtained expressions for the Rotor current and Rotor power factor as:

I2R= E2r/ Z2r = s E2 / √2R 2+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition) ----- (3) Cos

Ɵ2R = R2 / Z2r = R2 / √ R 2+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition ) ----- (4)

2
Using the above equations at (2) ,(3) and (4) in equation (1 ) we get :

T 𝖺 [s E2 2 R2 / R22 + (sX2)2]

Where ‘k’ is total the constant of proportionality and can be shown that k = 3/2πns where ns =
synchronous speed in r.p.s. = Ns/60 ( Ns = Synchronous speed in RPM). Substituting this value
of the constant ‘k’ in the above expression for Torque we get finally

T = (3/2πns) [s E2 2R2/ R22+ (sX2)2] N-m

So, Torques at any load condition can be can be obtained if Slip‘s’ at that load and
Standstill Motor parameters are known.
Starting Torque: Is the torque at the time of start in an induction motor and can be obtained by
substituting the corresponding value of slip ’s’ . At the time of starting the speed N= 0 and hence
the slip ‘s’ = 1. Using this value of ‘s’ in the above equation for Torque we get the starting torque
as :

Tst = (3/2πns) [E2 2R2/ R22+ X22]

Maximum torque:
Condition for maximum Torque:
As can be seen from the above Torque equation, the torque depends only on the slip with which
the motor is running since all the other parameters are constant. Supply voltage to the stator is
usually rated and hence constant and the turns ratio between Stator and Rotor is also constant.
Hence E2 is constant. Similarly R2 , X2 and ns are constants in an Induction motor. So to find
out the maximum torque we have to find out at what slip maximum torque occurs. Hence,
mathematically we can write the condition for maximum Torque as:

dT/ds = 0

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

where T = k [s E2 2 R2/ R 2+ (sX2)2] . While evaluating the above differential it is to be noted

that in the above expression for
2 Torque all the parameters like E2,R2and X2 are also constants
apart from the constant of proportionality ‘k’ and the only variable is ‘s’ and this term is present
in both numerator and denominator. Hence we can differentiate the expression for torque using
the formula for differential of a quotient (u/v) after taking out all the constant terms out of the
differential as shown below.
T = (k E2 2 R2 ) [s / R2 2+ s2X2 2]

Now differentiating the term within the square brackets and equating the numerator alone to
zero we get:

s.d/ds[R22+ s2X2 2] – [R2 2+ s2X 22]d/ds (s) = 0

i.e. s. [2 sX 22] – [R 22+ s2X 2].1

2
=0

i.e. 2 s2X 22 - s2X 22 – R 22= 0

i.e. s2 = R 22/ X 2
2

Or finally s = R2 / X2

So we conclude that the torque is maximum at a slip ‘s’ = R2 / X2 or in other words the slip at
maximum torque ‘sm’ is given by:

‘sm’ = R2 /X2

Maximum Torque:

Now we can obtain the magnitude of maximum torque T max by substituting the value of
‘sm’ = R2/ X2in place of ‘s’ in the general expression for Torque.

T max = k[sm E2 2 R2/ {R2 2+ (smX2)2}]

T max = k[(R2 / X2) E2 2 R2/ {R 2 2

2 + {(R2 / X2)X2) }]

Or finally T max = kE22/2X2

From the above expression for Maximum Torque we can observe the following important points:

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

 It is directly proportional to the Square of the induced e.m.f. E2 in the rotor at stand
still.
 It is inversely proportional to the Rotor Reactance X2 at stand still
 The most interesting is :It is not dependent on the Rotor resistance R2. But the slip or
speed at which such a maximum Torque occurs depends on the value of Rotor
resistance R2

Ratios of Important Torques (In terms of Slip):

These are straightforward calculations. However since these ratios are very important in
several problems they are calculated and kept ready for quick use.

Ratio of Full load Torque to Maximum Torque: T =

k [s E2 2 R2/ R 2+2(sX2)2]

Tfl = k [sfl E2 2 R2/2R 2+ (sfl X2)2]

Tst= k [E2 2 R2/ R

2 2+ ( X2)2]

T max =k [sm E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sm X2)2]

Tfl / T max = k [sfl E2 2 R2/ R2 2+ (sfl X2)2] / k [sm E2 2 R2/ R 2 2

2 + (sm X2) ]

= (sfl/ sm) [R22+ (sm X2)2]/ R22+ (sfl X2)2]

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X2 2

2
Tfl / T max = (sfl/ sm) [(R
2
/ X2 2)+ (sm)2]/ (R22/X 22)+ (sfl)2]

Substituting sm in place of (R2/ X2)

= (sfl/ sm) [(sm)2+ (sm)2]/ [(sm)2+ (sfl)2]

= (sfl/ sm) (2s 2m)]/ [(sm)2+ (sfl)2]

2
Tfl / T max = (2sflsm)]/ [(s m )+ (sfl)2]

Ratio of Starting Torque to Maximum Torque:

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

k [E2 2 R2/ R 2
2 + ( X2) ]
2

(Tst/ T max) = -------------------------------

k [sm E2 2 R2/ R 2
2 + (sm X2) ]
2

= [R22+ (s m X2 )2]/ s m
[R22+ ( X 2)2]

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X2 2

= [(R22 / X22) + (sm)2]/ sm [(R22 / X22)+ 1]

Substituting sm in place of (R2/ X2)

(Tst/ T max) = [(sm)2+ (sm)2]/ sm [(sm)2+ 1] = [ 2s m2]/ sm [(sm )2+ 1]

(Tst/ T max) = 2sm/ (1+ sm2)

Torque slip characteristic:

When an Induction motor is loaded from no load to full load its speed decreases and slip
increases. Due to increased load, motor has to produce higher torque to satisfy higher load torque
demand. The torque ultimately depends on the slip as we have seen earlier. The behavior of the
motor can be easily analyzed by looking at the Torque versus slip curve from s=0 to 1. (Instead
of Torque versus Speed Characteristics because we have readily available equations for Torque
in terms of slip ’s’. The Torque vs. Slip Characteristics can then be easily translated to Torque
vs. Speed Characteristics since they are complementary to each other.)
We have already seen that for a constant s u p2 ply vol2tage, E2 is also constant. So
we can rewrite the Torque equation T 𝖺 [s E R / R + (sX )2] as
2 2 2 2
T 𝖺 [s R2 / R 22+ (sX 2)2] .
To study the Torque versus Slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s=0 to 1) into three
parts and analyze.

The Torque speed characteristic can be divided into three important regions:

1. Low Slip Region:

In this region‘s’ is very small. So, the term (sX2)2 in the denominator would be
small compared to R 2and 2 hence can be neglected. Thus T 𝖺 s R2 / R .i.e Torque
2
2
becomes directly proportional to slip ‘s’. Thus torque increases linearly with
increase in slip ’s’ and satisfies the load demand. Thus we can conclude that in this region.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

• The mechanical speed decreases approximately linearly with increased load

• The motor slip increases approximately linearly with increased load.
• Induced Torque increases linearly with slip thus satisfying the load demand.
• Rotor reactance is negligible. So Rotor Power factor is almost unity.
• Rotor current increases linearly with slip.
The entire normal steady state operating range of an Induction motor lies in this linear low
slip region. Thus in normal operation, an induction motor has a linear speed drooping
characteristic.

2. Moderate slip region: In this region:

 Rotor frequency is higher than earlier and hence the Rotor reactance is of the same order
of magnitude as the rotor resistance.
 Rotor current no longer increases as rapidly as earlier and the Power factor starts
dropping.
 The peak torque (Pull out or Break down Torque) occurs at a point where for an
incremental increase in load the increase in the current is exactly balanced by the
decrease in rotor power factor.

3. High slip region: In this region:

Slip is high i.e. approaching the value 1. Here it can be assumed that the term R 22 is very small
compared to (sX2)2. Hence the expression for Torque becomes T 𝖺 s R2 / (sX2)2 i.e T𝖺 1/ s.
So in high slip region Torque is inversely proportional to slip ‘s’. Hence the induced Torque
decreases with increase in load torque since the increase in Rotor current is dominated by the
decrease in Rotor power factor where as it should increase to meet the increase in Load demand.
So speed further comes down and Induced Torque still reduces further. So in this process the
motor comes to standstill i.e. the motor cannot run at any point in the high slip region. Hence this
region is called unstable region. On the other hand the low slip region where the characteristic is
linear is called the stable region.

The maximum Torque which the motor can produce before going into unstable region occurs at
‘s’ = ‘sm’. Since beyond this torque the motor gets into unstable region, this maximum Torque is
also called as Break down Torque or pullout Torque. The entire Torque slip characteristics are
shown in the figure below.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Fig: Torque-slip Characteristics

Torque vs. Speed Characteristics:

They are just complimentary to the Torque-slip Characteristics. The detailed Torque speed
characteristics of an a Induction Motor Showing the Starting, Pull- out and Full-load torques are
shown in the figure below.

Fig: Torque speed characteristics of an a Induction Motor Showing the Starting, Pull-out
and Full-load torques

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Important characteristics of the Induction Motor Torque Speed Curve:

 Induced Torque is zero at synchronous speed.

 The graph is nearly linear between no load and full load (at near synchronous speeds).In
this region the Rotor resistance is much larger than the Rotor reactance ,and hence the
Rotor Current, magnetic field and the induced torque increases linearly with increasing
slip.
 There is a Max. Possible torque that cannot be exceeded which is known as pull out
torque or breakdown torque. This is normally about two to three times the full load
torque.
 The Starting torque is higher than the full load torque and is about 1.5 times. Hence this
motor can start with any load that it canhandle at full power.
 Torque for a given slip varies as the square of the applied voltage. This fact is useful in
the motor speed control with variation of Stator Voltage.
 If the rotor were driven faster than synchronous speed, then the direction of the Induced
torque would reverse and the motor would work like a generator converting mechanical
power to Electrical power.
 If we reverse the direction of the stator magnetic field, the direction of the induced torque
in the Rotor with respect to the direction of motor rotation would reverse, would stop the
motor rapidly and will try to rotate the motor in the other direction. Reversing the
direction of rotation of the magnetic field is just phase reversal and this method of
Braking is known Plugging.

Full load Torque: When the load on the motor Torque increases, the slip increases and thus the
Induced torque also increases. The increase in induced Torque is produced by a corresponding
increase in the current drawn from the supply.

The load which the motor can drive safely depends on the current which the motor can draw
safely. When the current rises, the temperature rises. Hence the safe limit on the current is
dictated by permissible temperature rise. The safe limit of current is that which when drawn
for continuous operation of the motor produces a temperature rise which is well within the
limits. Such a full load point is shown as point ‘C’ on the plot and the corresponding torque is
called the Full load Torques TFL. If the motor is operated beyond this full load continuously the
windings’ insulation is likely to be damaged. But for short durations of time the motor can be
operated beyond the Full load Torque but up to the limit of Breakdown Torque/Pull out Torque

Effect of change in Rotor resistance on Torque:

Earlier we have indicated that in slip ring Induction Motors external Resistance is introduced at
the time of starting to get higher Starting Torque and then it is withdrawn in the running

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

condition to get higher efficiency. Let us now see how this is achieved. Let us get back and
recollect the most important relation i.e. general expression for Torque T:

T = k [s E2 2 R2/ R2 2+ (sX2)2]

At the time of starting, the slip = 1 and hence the starting Torque Tst becomes:

Tst= k [ E2 2 R2/ R 2 2
2 + (X2) ]

We have also seen earlier that the maximum Torque Tmax is given by:

2
Tmax= KE
2
/2X2

and this Torque occurs at a slip Sm = R2/X2

Using these expressions the Torque - slip curves for various values of Rotor resistance greater
than the original value R2 are drawn and shown in the figure below.

Figure: Effect of change in Rotor resistance on Torque slip characteristics

From these figures and also from the above relations we get the following important
observations:

 As the Rotor resistance increases, the slip at which maximum torque occurs increases i.e.
the Torque-slip curve moves to the right i.e. towards higher slip with the result the
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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

starting torque increases.

 But the other effect is the droop in speed becomes more for the same change in Induced
Torque (Load Torque). With higher droop losses are more and hence we get reduced
efficiency.
 So to get these both advantages, in Slip ring induction motors resistance is added initially
to get higher torque and once the motor picks up speed the resistance is withdrawn to
achieve higher efficiency.
 With increasing rotor resistance the maximum starting Torque remains same but the slip
at which it occurs only becomes higher.

Equivalent circuit – Phasor diagram:

Equivalent circuit:

The equivalent circuit of an Induction Motor is developed on the same lines as a Transformer
with the following nomenclature and as shown in the following figure of an Induction motor
depicted as a Transformer.

V1 = Applied Voltage to the stator /phase

E1= Induced Voltage in the stator /phase

E2 = Induced Voltage in the rotor /phase @standstill

K = Turns ratio = Stator turns/Rotor turns = E1/ E2

E2R = Induced Voltage in the rotor /phase @running condition

R1 = Stator Resistance /phase X1

= Stator Reactance /phase R2 =

Rotor Resistance /phase

X2R= Rotor Reactance /phase @running condition

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: Induction Motor depicted as a Transformer

Just like in a Transformer the no load current I0 of an Induction motor has two components
IC and IM where:

IC = Active current component which supplies no load losses and

IM = Magnetizing component which sets up the flux in the core and the air gap.

These two currents give us two elements in the exciting branch R0 and X0 as shown in the
basic equivalent circuit below.

Figure: Induction Motor Basic Equivalent Circuit

The stator and the Rotor are shown separated by an air-gap. The rotor current I2R
shown in the circuit is given by:
I2R = Rotor current in running condition

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

= E2R/ Z2R = s E2 / √ R 2+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition which is represented

suitably on the rotor side in the equivalent
2 circuit.

Representation of Rotor circuit in different equivalent forms:

We have I2R = s E2 / √ R22+ (sX2)2 = E2 / √ (R2/s)2 + (X2)2

This other form of equation for I2R indicates that the rotor circuit can be represented
equivalently with a fixed voltage E2, fixed reactance X2 and a variable resistance R2/s. Further
(R2/s) can also be represented as:

R2/s = R2+ R2/s- R2 = R2 + R2 [(1/s) –1] = R2 + R2 [(1–s)/s] .

This indicates that the variable Rotor resistance can be equivalently represented as two parts:

1. Rotor resistance R2 itself which represents the copper loss and RL= R2 [(1– s)/s]
representing the load resistance which is the electrical equivalent of the mechanical load on
the motor.

So, the modified equivalent circuit of the Rotor can thus be shown as below:

Figure: Modified Rotor Equivalent Circuit

Equivalent circuit referred to Stator: Is shown in the figure below with all the parameters E2
,I2R, R2 , and X2 referred to the stator side and shown with additional “ ‘ “ (prime) as given
below.

E’2 =KE2 ;I’2R = I2R/K ; R’2 = K2 R2 ;X’2 = K2X2

and R’L = K2 RL = K2R2 [(1–s)/s] = R’2 [(1–s)/s]

The equivalent circuit with these changes is shown in the figure below:

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: Total Equivalent circuit referred to Stator

Final Approximate Equivalent circuit referred to Stator: Just like in the case of Transformer,
the excitation circuit (R0and X0) can be moved to the input side i.e. to the left of R1 and X1
with the assumption that the voltage drop across R1 and X1 due to the small current I0 can be
neglected. With this assumption and after combining the R1 and X1 with R’2 and X’2 we get
the final Approximate Equivalent circuit referred to Stator as shown in the figure below with the
following final equivalent values of all parameters.

Figure: Final Approximate Equivalent circuit referred to Stator:

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

R1E= Total equivalent resistance referred to Stator =R1 + R’2 = R1 + K2 R2

X1E= Total equivalent reactance referred to Stator =X1 + X’2 = X1 + K2 X2

Phasor diagram:
The Phasor diagram of a loaded Induction Motor is similar to that of a loaded Transformer. The
only difference is, the secondary of Induction Motor is rotating and short circuited while a
transformer secondary is stationary and connected to a load. The load on Induction Motor is
mechanical while the load on a transformer is electrical. So by finding the electrical equivalent of
mechanical load on the motor, the phasor diagram of an Induction Motor is developed with the
following notation and using the given relations. (All bold faced letters indicate Phasor
quantities)

Φ = Magnetic flux linking between Stator and Rotor

E1 = Self induced e.m.f. in the stator

E2R = Mutually induced e.m.f. in the rotor

R1 and X1 = Stator resistance and reactance /phase respectively.

V1 = Voltage applied to the stator which has to counter balance the induced e.m.f. in the stator
E1 and the voltage drops I1R1and I1X1 . Hence on the stator side we can write

V1= -E1 + I1(R1+ jX1) = - E1 + I1 Z1

E2R =The rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition has to supply the drop across the rotor
impedance as the rotor is short circuited.

= I2R (R2+ jX2R) = I2R Z2R

The rotor current in running condition is I2R and it lags E2R by rotor power factor angle Φ 2R.
The rotor current reflected to stator side I’2R is given by I’2R = I2R/K Where K = Stator/Rotor
turns ratio. The induction motor draws a no load current of I0 which is the phasor sum of core
loss current IC and magnetizing current IM.Thus the total current I1 drawn by the stator is
the phasor sum of I’2Rand I0and is given by: I1 = I’2R + I

Φ 1 = Phase angle between V1and I1and hence Cos Φ 1is power factor of the Induction
Motor.

Using all the above relations and the notation the phasor diagram is developed in the

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

following steps:

 Take Φ as the reference phasor

 The induced voltage E1lags Φ by 900
 Show -E1 by reversing the voltage phasorE1
 The phasorE2R is in phase with E1 . So show I2R lagging E2Ri.e. E1 direction by
Φ 2R
 Show I2RR2 in phase with I2Rand I2RX2R leading the resistive drop by 900, to get
exact location of E2R
 Reverse I2R to get I’2R
 IM is in phase with Φ while IC is at 900 leading withΦ . AddIM and IC to get
I0
 Add I0 and I’2R to get I1
 From tip of -E1phasor add I1R1 in phase with I1 and I1X1 at 900leading to
I1to getV1Phasor.
 Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1

The phasor diagram is shown in the figure below.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Power and Torque in an Induction Motor: (In terms of slip’s’ and equivalent circuit
parameters)

In the power flow diagram we have already studied broadly the power and torque relations. Now
with the development of the motor equivalent circuit we have a better insight into these relations
including the important term slip‘s’. Accordingly we will redefine the power flow in terms of
slip’s’ and equivalent circuit parameters. This approach is essential to solve many problems. For
quick reference Power flow diagram and the Rotor side equivalent circuits are appended here
again.

The stator copper losses in the 3 phases are: PSCL = 3 I 2 R

1 1
The core losses are: PCore = 3 E 2/R
1 0
And the air gap power is: PAG= Pin – PSCL - Pcore

Figure: Power Flow Diagram

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: Modified Rotor Equivalent Circuit

In the above equation it is to be noted that Pcore combines both stator and rotor core losses
which can be acceptable since Rotor core losses are very small compared to the rotor copper
losses. It is also to be remembered that the only element in the equivalent circuit where the air-
gap power can be subsequently consumed [(lost + used as output power (used to drive the load)]
is in the resistor R2/s. Thus, the air-gap power is given by:

PAG = 3I2R2 .R2/s = Tind.ωs …. (1)

The actual Rotor copper losses are given by: PRCL = 3I22R.R2 …. (2)

I2Ris the rotor current (running condition) and R2 is the Rotor resistance before referring to
stator] From the above two equations (1) and (2) we notice that the rotor copper losses are
equal to slip times the air gap power i.e. PRCL = s .PAG ..(1)

After stator copper losses & core losses are subtracted from the input power we got the Air gap
power from which rotor copper losses are subtracted, to get the remaining power which is
converted from electrical to mechanical form. The power thus converted, which is called
developed (converted) mechanical power is given as: [from equations (1) and 2)]

Pconv = PAG - PRCL = 3I 2.R2/s - 3I 2R2 = 3I 2

R2 [(1/s) –1 ]
2R 2R 2R

= 3I2R2 (R2 /s)(1- s) = Tind .ω m

Thus finally Pconv = PAG (1--s) = Tind.ωm ……. (2)

If we carefully observe the above equations 1 and 2 we can notice that the three important
equations PAG, PRCL and PCONV are in the ratio of 1: s: (1-s). This relation is very useful
in solving several problems.

Summary:
Important formulae and relations:

 Synchronous speed of rotating magnetic field :nS = 120.fS/P

 Torque induced in the rotor: T𝖺 φ . I2r .Cos Ɵ2r or T = k φ . I2r .Cos Ɵ2r
 slip s on percentage basis:

 Slip s on per unit basis: S= (Nsync—N m ) / Nsync

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

 The magnitude of the rotor induced voltage E2Rin terms of the rotor induced
voltage at rotor in locked conditionE2 : E2R = s.E2
 The magnitude of the rotor Reactance X2Rin terms of the rotor Reactance at rotor locked
condition X2 : X2R = s.X2(since fr = s.fsandX2R= s.2π fsLR)

 The rotor frequency can be expressed as :

fr = (P/120). (nsync -- n m.)

 Important relationships between Air gap power PAG, converted power Pconv
,Rotor induced Torque T ind ,Rotor copper losses Prcl and the slip s :

T ind = Pconv/
ωm T ind =
PAG/ ωs Prcl =
s.PAG
Pconv = (1-s) PAG

 Induced Torque Tind : Tind = (k E2 2 R2 ) [s / R 2+ s2X 2]

2 2

 Slip at maximum Torque S maxT:‘sm’ = R2 / X2

Maximum developed torque Tmax = kE 2/2 2X 2

Starting Torque Tst : Tst= k [E2 2 R2/ R 2

2 +X
2
2 ] N-m

Illustrative Problems:

Example 1: In a 6 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz Induction motor with star connected Rotor, the rotor
resistance per phase is 0.3 Ω, the reactance at standstill is 1.5Ω per phase and the e.m.f between
the slip rings on open circuit is 175 V. Calculate:(i) Slip at a speed of 960RPM (ii) Rotor e.m.f
per phase (iii) Rotor frequency and reactance at speed of 950 RPM

Solution: Given data: R2 = 0.3 Ω, X2 = 1.5 Ω, P = 6, f = 50 Hz, E2(line @standstill) = 175 V

E2ph = 175/√3 = 101.0362 V (@ standstill)

i) Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = 120x50/6 = 1000 RPM.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Slip ‘s’ @960 RPM = (Ns-N)/ Ns = (1000-960)/1000 = 0.04 i.e. 4%

ii) Rotor e.m.f. per phase at the speed of 960RPM = E2r = s E2ph

= 0.04 × 101.362 = 4.0414 V

iii) For N = 950 RPM , slip ‘s’ = (1000-950)/1000 = 0.05
Rotor frequency fr = s f = 0.05 × 50 = 2.5 Hz
X2r = s X2 = 0.05 × 1.5 = 0.075 Ω

Practice example: A 3 φ, 50 Hz slipring Induction Motor gives a stand still open circuit
voltage of 500 V between slip rings. Calculate the rotor current and power factor at (i)
standstill and (ii) with a slip of 4%. The per phase rotor resistance and Inductance are 0.2
Ω and 0.04 H .

Example 2: A- 6-pole, 50Hz, 3-phase, induction motor running on full load with 4% slip
develops a torque of 149.3 N-m at its pulley rim. The friction and wind age losses are 200 W and
the stator copper and iron losses equal 1620 W. Calculate:

(i) Output power (ii) Rotor cu loss and (iii)The efficiency at full-load.

Solution: Torque at pulley rim means final torque out put at the shaft end and hence Tsh =
149.3 Nm, Number of poles P = 6, f = 50 Hz, s = 4 % i.e. 0.04
i) Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = 120 × 50/6 = 1000 r.p.m

And Motor speed N = Ns (1-s) = 1000 (1-0.04) = 960 r.p.m Pout =

Tsh ×ω (Motor speed in Rad/sec) = Tsh ×2π N/ 60 = 15009.273 W

ii) Torque developed by the motor:

Pm = Pout + Friction loss = 15009.273 + 200 = 15209.273 W

From the power flow diagram we know that: PAg : PcL : Pm is 1 : s : 1 – s

Pm /Pc = 1 – s/s i.e. Pc = s Pm/(1 – s) = 0.04 ×15209.273/(1- 0.04) = 633.7197 W

iii) PAG = Pm +Pc = 15209.273 + 633.7197=15842.9927 W
∴ Pin = PAG + Stator loss = 15842.9927 + 1620 = 17462.9927 W

∴ % ƞ = (Pout/ Pin) × 100 = (15009.273/17462.9927 )× 100 = 85.949 %

Example 3: The power input to the rotor of a 440 V, 50 Hz 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor is
80 kW. The rotor emf is observed to make 100 complete alteration per minute.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Calculate : (i) The slip (ii) The rotor speed (iii) Rotor copper losses per phase.

Solution : Power input to rotor = P2 = 80 kW, P = 6, f = 50 Hz, fr = 100 alterations per

min = 100/60 Hz = 1.667 Hz.
i) We know that the frequency of the Rotor Induced frequency fr= s f . Thus slip
‘s’ = fr / f = 1.667/50 = 0.0333

ii) Motor synchronous speed Ns = 120 f/ P = (120x 50)/ 6 = 1000 RPM

ii) Motor(Rotor) speed N = Ns (1- s) =1000x( 1- 0.0333) = 966.667 r.p.m

iii) We know that the ratio: PAG : PCL: Pm is equal 1 : s : 1 – s
i.e. Rotor copper Losses Pc = s PAG = (0.0333) x 80,000 = 2666.64 W
∴ Rotor copper Losses per phase = PCL Per Phase = 2666.4/3 = 888.888 W

Example 4: The power input to a 500 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-Phase induction motor running at 975
rpm is 40 kW. The stator losses are 1 kW and the friction and windage losses total to 2 kW,
Calculate: i)The slip ii) Rotor copper loss and
iii) Shaft power

Solution: Given data: Pin = 40 kW, f = 50 Hz, P = 6, N = 975 r.p.m, Stator Loss = 1kW,
Friction and windage loss = 2kW
i) Motor synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = (120x 50)/ 6 1000 RPM

We know that the slip’s’ = Ns - N/Ns = (1000 -975)/100 = 0.025 i.e. 2.5%
ii) We know that the Air gap power PAG = Pin - Stator losses = 40 - 1 = 39 kW
We know that the ratio: PAG : PCL : PM is 1: s : 1- s i.e. PAG/PCL = 1/s

∴ Rotor copper loss : Pc = s PAG = 0.025 ×39 = 0.975 kW

iii) Power developed by motor: Pm = PAG - Pc = 39-0.975 = 38.025 kW
∴ Finally Shaft power = Output Power Pout

= Pm - Frictional losses = 38.025 - 2 = 36.025 kW

Example 5: A10 Kw, 400 V, 3- Phase induction motor has full load efficiency of
0.87 and power factor 0.85. At standstill at rated voltage the motor draws 5 times full load
current and develops a starting torque of 1.5 times full load torque. An autotransformer is
installed to reduce the starting current to give full load torque at the time of starting. Calculate
the voltage applied and line current.

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Solution:
From the given data first we can calculate directly the full load current IFL.Using the straight
forward formula.

Ifl = Pout/ (√3 VLcos Ø × ƞ) = 10 × 103/ (√3 ×400 ×0.85 × 0.87)

= 19.5182 A
Then let us use the standard Torque relation ‘Torque is proportional to the square of the voltage’
to calculate the reduced voltage to get starting Torque equal to FL Torque.
Tst1 = 1.5 Tfl α (400)2
2
Tst2 = Tfl α (V2)
∴ Tst1/ Tst2 = 1.5 Tfl/T fl = (400/V2)2
∴ V2 = 400/√1.5 = 326.6 V
For 400 V, Ist1 = 5 Ifl
Then for 326.6 V, Ist2 = 5Ifl × 326.6/400 = 4.0825 Ifl
∴ Ist2 = 4.0825 × 19.5182 = 79.6833 A
On the autotransformer secondary, motor current is 79.6833 A and secondary voltage is 326.6
V.
∴ Iprimary = (326.6/400 )× 79.6833 = 65.0614 A
∴ Line current = 65.0614 A

Example 6 : A 3Ø slip ring IM with a synchronous speed of 1500 r.p.m. develops 4 HP at

1410 r.p.m. Calculate the stator input, if the stator power loss is 500 W. If a resistance is
inserted in the rotor circuit so that the mechanical power is 5 HP at 1125 r.p.m then calculate the
stator input assuming the stator losses to be 150
% of the previous value.

Solution : From Given Data we have : Ns = 1500 RPM, P m1 = 4 HP at N1 = 1410 r.p.m,

Pm2 = 5 HP at N2 = 1125 r.p.m.

From the standard ratio of powers and loss we have : PAG : PCL: Pm is 1 : s : 1 - s

Hence PAG/Pm = 1/1 – s

Applying this relation to the two cases we have, we get

Case 1: s1 = (Ns - N1)/Ns = [(1500 – 1410)/1500 = 0.06

(PAG)1/Pm1 = 1/(1 - s1)

i.e. (PAG)1= Pm1 [1/(1 - s1)] = (4×735.5)/(1- 0.06) = 3129.7872 W

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

∴ (Stator input)1 = (PAG)1 + Stator loss = 3129.7872 + 500 = 3629.79 W

Case 2: s2 = (Ns - N2) / Ns = (1500 – 1125) /1500 = 0.25

(PAG)2/Pm2= 1/(1 – s2 )
∴ ( PAG)2 = Pm2[1/(1 - s1)] = (5×735.5)/(1 -0.25) = 4903.333 W
Stator loss = 150 % of 500 W = 750 W
∴ (Stator input)2 = 4903.333 + 750 = 5653.333 W

Example 7: A-3 Phase wound rotor of induction motor develops a maximum torque of 4 times
the full load torque at a slip of 0.20. The per phase rotor resistance is 0.04Ω. The stator resistance
and rotational losses are negligible. Calculate the value of external resistance that must be
inserted in the rotor circuit in order to maximize torque at staring.

Solution: Tm = 4Tfl, sm = 0.2, R2 = 0.04 ( where Tm is maximum Torque and Sm is the

Slip at maximum Torque)
We know that sm = R2/X2 i.e X2 = 0.04/0.2 = 0.2
We have the standard formula: T fl/Tm = 2Sfl ×Sm/s2m+ s2fl ( where Tfl and Sfl are
Torque and slip at full load. )
∴ ¼ = 2sfl × 0.2/(0.2)2 + S2fl

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Simplifying and solving we get S2fl – 1.6.Sfl +0.4 = 0 i.e. sfl= 1.574, 0.025
∴ Sfl= 0.025 i.e. 2.5 % ….. (Since slip cannot be higher than 1) We
know that Tst α E 2R2/(R22 +X22) and Tm α smE2 2R 2/[R2 2+(s X )2]
2
m 2
But at start: R’2 = R2 + Rex (With External resistance added)
and Tst = Tm (To maximize
torque)
∴ Tst/Tm = 1 = E2 2R’2/*(R’2)2 +(X2)2] × [R2 2+(sm X2)2 ] /SmE2 R 2
2

i.e. 1 = R’2/*(R’2)2 + (0.2)2 ] × [(0.04)2 + (0.2 × 0.2)2]/0.2 × 0.04

Simplifying we get : (R’2)2 – 0.4 R’2 + 0.04 = 0 i.e. R’2 = 0.2, 1
∴ R’2 = 0.2Ω (Neglecting higher value since we need to find out the
minimum resistance to be added)
∴ Rex = R’2 – R2 = 0.2 -0.04 = 0.16 Ω

Important Questions:

1. Explain briefly the constructional features of (i) Squirrel cage Induction Motors
(ii) Slip ring Induction Motors with the help of suitable figures.

2. Describe with the help of suitable figures and all relevant equations how a Rotating
Magnetic field is generated by a set of three phase voltages.

3. Explain briefly the Principle of operation of an induction Motor & the

development of Induced Torque in an Induction Motor.
4.(a) Explain the concept of slip in an Induction Motor (b) Derive expressions for
(i) Rotor induced emf E2 (ii) Rotor Induced frequency fR (iii) Rotor reactance X2
(iii) rotor current I2 and (iv) Power factor at standstill and during operation: (Effect of Slip on
Rotor parameters ) with the help of Impedance triangles. (c) Using the above parameters draw
the Rotor equivalent circuits @ Standstill and in running condition.

5. Explain clearly the relationship between Rotor power input, Rotor copper loss, other
important losses and final mechanical power developed with the help of a power flow diagram
and appropriate equations.

6. (a) Explaining clearly the underlying principles derive an expression for the Torque induced
in a an Induction motor. (b) Derive the condition for the maximum developed Torque. Using this

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 Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

condition derive the expression for the maximum Torque. (c) Using these relations derive
simplified expressions in terms of slip at various conditions for the important torque ratios:

(i) Tfl /T max (ii) (Tst/T max)

7. (a) Using the basic Torque equation of an Induction Motor explain the dependence of Torque
on slip in the three important regions and thus draw the Torque slip characteristic. (b) Explain the
terms Starting Torque, Maximum Torque and Full Load torque with reference to the Torque –
Slip Characteristics.

8. (a) Draw and Explain how Torque - speed characteristic can be obtained from the Torque -
Slip Characteristic. (b) Explain the important performance characteristics of the Induction Motor
from the Torque Speed Curve

9. (a) Starting from the first principles ,step by step develop the equivalent circuit in the final
simplified form with Rotor referred to Stator side.
(b) Explain what is Phasor diagram and draw the Phasor diagram of the Induction motor with
reference to the above equivalent circuit.

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

UNIT-II
INDUCTION MOTORS: TESTING, STARTING & SPEED CONTROL
METHODS

 Determination of Efficiency

 No load and blocked rotor tests

 Predetermination of performance

 Methods of starting and starting current & torque

calculations.
 Speed Control: Change of frequency, Change of poles & method of consequent poles
 Cascade connection

 Injection of an e.m.f into rotor circuit (qualitative

treatment only)
 Induction generator - principle of operation
 Illustrative Problems
 Important questions

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

Determination of Efficiency:

Efficiency of an induction motor can be determined by directly loading the motor and by
measuring its input and output power. Small motors can be conveniently tested by this direct
method. For motors of higher ratings, however, it may be difficult to arrange loads for the motor
in the testing laboratory. Even if load is arranged there will be heavy power loss in the testing
process. In order to avoid the wastage of power, indirect methods are used for determining
efficiency.
In an indirect method of determining efficiency, various losses of the motor are determined. For
determining the various losses in an induction motor, two tests, similar to those conducted on
transformers, are performed on the motor. They are: (a) no-load test and (b) blocked-rotor test.

No-load Test:
In no-load test, without connecting any load on the motor shaft, full voltage is applied across the
stator winding terminals. Since output of the motor at no-load is zero, the whole input power is
consumed as various losses. At no-load, the speed of the rotor is almost equal to synchronous
speed. Hence Slip “s” is very small and the e.m.f induced in the rotor & the resulting rotor
current both are negligibly small. The rotor can, therefore, be approximately considered as an
open circuit. No-load test of an induction motor is therefore, similar to no-load test on a
transformer. The losses at no-load are:
(a) I2Rloss in the stator winding;
(b) Core losses in the stator and rotor;
(c) Friction and windage losses.
No-load current drawn by an induction motor is much higher than that of a transformer since
losses mentioned in (a) and (c) above will not be present in transformer. Therefore, No load
losses in Induction motor cannot be assumed as negligible and will consist of both constant
losses (core losses plus friction & windage losses) and also Variable losses (Total I2R losses
where ‘R’ is the total equivalent resistance of Stator and Rotor referred to Stator). From the
total input at no-load, these I2R-losses are to be subtracted to get constant losses i.e. core losses
plus friction & windage losses. Both these losses at no-load are nearly the same as those that
would occur under full-load condition and hence are considered as constant losses. This is
because:

(i) Core loss depends on applied voltage which would be constant (Same on no load and Full
load)
(ii) Fiction and windage losses depend upon speed of rotation of the rotor and the variation of
speed of an induction motor from no-load to full-load is negligibly small.
Connection diagram for no-load test on an induction motor is shown in the figure below.
The sum of the two wattmeter readings (W1 + W2) gives the no-load input power to the motor.
Subtracting the ‘I2R loss’ at no load from the input power we get the constant losses (core losses
plus the friction & windage losses).

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
So to get ‘stator I2R loss’ we need current at no load ‘INL’ and Stator resistance ‘R’ Out of these
two ‘INL’ is available from any of the ammeter readings and stator resistance ‘R’ has to be
obtained from the next test viz Blocked Rotor Test(or full Load test)

Figure: No-load test on an induction motor

Blocked Rotor Test: In this test, the rotor of the motor is blocked, i.e., the rotor is not allowed to
rotate. Low voltage is applied across the stator terminals through a three-phase autotransformer.
Voltage is gradually increased to a value so that full rated current flows through the windings.
Since the rotor circuit is closed and is not rotating, this test is similar to short-circuit test on a
transformer. The voltage needed to circulate full load (rated) current under blocked rotor
condition is very low. The power input to the stator is mainly wasted as I2R-loss in the stator and
the rotor windings. The core-loss at reduced voltage can be neglected. The circuit diagram for
blocked rotor test is given in the figure below.

Figure: Blocked-rotor test on an induction motor

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
The sum of the two wattmeter readings gives the total input power. Since full- load current is
allowed to flow through the stator and rotor windings, the input power can be considered
approximately equal to full-load I2R-losses. From the input power it is possible to calculate the
total equivalent resistance of the motor referred to the stator (resistance of Stator and Resistance
of Rotor referred to the stator side)
Using the value of this total equivalent resistance which would be same on no load and on full
load, we can calculate the value of I2R-loss at no load.
As mentioned earlier, if we subtract I2R-loss at no-load from the no-load input power obtained
from no-load test, we get the constant losses of the induction motor.
From the data of the no-load and blocked-rotor tests, therefore, it is possible to calculate the
efficiency of the induction motor. For better understanding, the procedure for calculation of
efficiency from no-load and blocked rotor test data is also explained with the help of the example
below.

Example: A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 230 V, 5 hp squirrel-cage induction motor gave the following test
data:

No-load test: Power input (on No load) = 275 W; No-load current= 6.3 A; No-load input
voltage= 230 V
Blocked-rotor test:Power input= 735 W; Blocked rotor full-load current = 15 A Blocked rotor
input voltage = 40 V
Determine the full-load efficiency of the motor from the above test data.

Solution:

Step 1: We will calculate the equivalent resistance of stator plus rotor referred to stator Re’ from the
Blocked rotor test data:

Neglecting the small amount of core-loss (since the applied input voltage is small under blocked-
rotor condition, the input to the motor in block rotor test can be taken as the full-load copper
(I2R) Iosses.
Power input from blocked rotor test = Full-load (IFL2Re’) losses = 735 W = 3 IFL2Re’ where
Re’ is the per phase equivalent resistance of the Stator plus rotor windings referred to stator
circuit.
Thus 3 IFL2Re’= 3 × 152 × Re’= 735
From which we get Re’ = 735/(3x152) = 1.09Ω

Step 2: Using this equivalent resistance which is same in both no load and full load condition we
will calculate no-load I2R-losses and then the constant losses (core losses plus friction
&windage losses) from the No load test data:

Input power at no-load gives the core-losses plus friction &windage losses (constant losses) in

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
addition to no-load I2R-losses.Now by using the value of Re’ obtained from Blocked rotor test
I2R-Ioss at no-load can be calculated.
I2R-loss at no-load = 3INL2Re’= 3 × (6.3)2 × 1.09 = 130 W
Constant losses (Core loss plus friction &windage loss) =Power input in no load test (PIP
NL)-I2R-loss at no-load(3INL2Re’)

= 275 –130 = 145 W

Step 3: Thus total losses at full load = Full load copper losses (Power input In Blocked rotor
test) + Constant losses obtained as above in step2.

= 735 + 145 = 880 W

Output power = 5 Hp = 5x735.5 W

Hence Efficiency @FL=[(Output power)/ ((Output power + Losses @FL)] x100

= [(5 x 735.5) / (5 x 735.5 + 880)] x 100= 80.7 %

Methods of starting and starting current &Torque calculations:

Introduction to Starting and Necessity of a Starter:

An induction motor is similar to a poly-phase transformer whose secondary is short circuited.

Thus, at normal supply voltage, like in transformers, the initial current taken by the primary is
very large for a short while. If an induction motor is directly switched on from the supply, it
takes 5 to 7 times its full load current and develops a torque which is only 1.5 to 2.5 times the
full load torque. This large starting current produces a large voltage drop in the line, which may
affect the operation of other devices connected to the same line. Further, the resulting increase in
temperature of the windings can damage the windings and their insulation. Hence, it is not
advisable to start induction motors of higher ratings (generally above 5HP) directly from the
mains supply.

The starter is basically a device to limit the high starting current since the input current is
dependent on the applied voltage as given by the following relation.
I2r = E2r / Z2r = E2r / √ R 2+ j X2r2 = s E2 / √ R 2+ (sX2)2 (@ Running condition )
2 2

But at the start, the speed of the motor is zero and the slip’s’ is maximum i.e. unity. So the
magnitude of the induced voltage at the start is very large. Since the rotor conductors are short

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
circuited, this large induced e.m.f. circulates large rotor currents at the time of ‘start’.

Hence by reducing the input voltage, the starting current can be limited to a safe value.

In addition to limiting the starting current, a starter provides protection to the motor against
fault conditions such as over load, under voltage, and single phasing. There are several types of
Starters performing these basic functions and their principle of operation is explained below.

Types of Starters:

From the above expression for current we can see that the current can be reduced by reducing
the induced voltage E2 (in turn by reducing the applied voltage V1) or by increasing the Rotor
resistance R2at start. . The second method is possible only in the case of Slip ring Induction
Motors. The various types of starters using the above two basic methods are listed below and
explained in detail subsequently.

1)Stator Resistance Starter 2)Auto Transformer Starter 3)Star-Delta Starter

4)Rotor Resistance Starter 5)Direct On Line ( DOL) Starter

Stator Resistance Starter: To apply reduced voltage to the stator, resistances are added in series
to the three phases of the Stator using Rheostats as shown in the figure below. Initially maximum
resistance is included in the stator circuit indicated in the figure as ‘START’ position. In this
position of the Rheostat reduced voltage gets applied to the stator resulting in a less starting
current. Once the motor starts picking up speed, the resistance is gradually removed from the
circuit and brought to the ‘RUN ‘Position as shown in the figure. The motor runs at the rated
speed.

Figure: Stator resistance starter

The advantage of this type of starter is, it is economical, simple and can be used with both Star
and Delta winding motors.

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
The disadvantage is large power losses due to large resistances in the stator circuit at the time of
start and lesser Starting Torques due to reduced applied voltages (T = k [s E2 2R2/ R 2+ (sX2)2]

Relation between TST and TFL:

2

We know that PAG = TIND. ωS which means that TIND = PAG /ωS or TIND α PAG since ωS,
the synchronous speed is constant.

We also know that PAG= PCL/s (where PCLTotal copper loss) = 3I2 2RR 2/s which means
that TIND α I22/Rs.

But we know that rotor current I2Rand stator current I1 are also related by their turns ratio and
so we can say that

TIND α I21/s where I1is the stator current. At

start, s=1, TIND = TST and I1 = IST

Therefore TSTα I2ST

When stator resistance starter is used, let ‘x’ be the factor by which the stator voltage is reduced
(where x<1). Then the starting current IST gets multiplied by this ‘x’. So if ISC is the normal
short circuit current drawn by the motor at start under full rated voltage condition then:

IST=xISC and TST α (xISC)2------ (1)

But TFL α I2FL /sf where sf = slip at full load ----------- (2)

Dividing (1) by (2) we have : TST/TFL= x2 [ISC/IFL]2sf

So we can see that as x<1, the starting torque reduces by x 2 times with stator resistance starter.

Auto Transformer Starter:

Connection of a Three Phase Auto Transformer Starter to reduce the applied voltage using a ‘Six
Pole Double Throw switch’ is shown in the figure (a) below. When the switch is in the ‘START’
Position reduced voltage is applied to the Stator. The reduction in applied voltage is by a
factor ‘x’ as shown in the figure
(b) below. When the Motor speed approaches the Normal speed, the switch is brought to the
‘RUN ‘Position’, thus applying full rated voltage to the Motor. Changing of switch position can
be done automatically using Contactors and Relays.

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

Figure (a): Auto Transformer starter

Figure(b): Use of Auto Transformer starter to reduce voltage at ‘start’

Figure : Showing the difference between IST (Motor) and IST (Supply)

Relation between TST and TFL :

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
In this case also the applied voltage to the motor gets reduced by the same fraction ‘x’ (x<1) but
by auto transformer action instead of by the introduction of resistance. So here also the relation
between TST and TFL is same as what we got for Resistance introduction method. i.e.

2 2
TST/ TFL= x [ISC/IFL] sf

Star Delta Starter:

This is the most commonly used starter for induction motors. It uses TPDT(Triple pole double
throw switch)in conjunction with a TPST switch to feed input power as shown in the figure
below. Initially the TPDT switch connects the three windings of the Induction motor in star
configuration and then when the motor picks up speed its position is changed so that the motor
windings get connected in delta configuration. So initially 1/√ 3 times the line voltage gets
applied to each phase of the motor and after changing the TPDT switch to the other position full
line voltage gets applied to the motor.

The operation of the bulky switch can be avoided by using contactors /relays along with push
button switches and operation can be made automatic such that the motor will never start in RUN
( Delta) position but will always start in START position(Star) only.

The advantage of this starter is it is economical and requires very little maintenance. But the
disadvantage is, it can be used for motors that operate in Delta in running conditiononly and
reduction factor of 1/√ 3 is fixed and cannot be changed.

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
Figure : Star Delta Starter
Relation between TST and TFL:

Here also the relation is same as what we obtained in the earlier methods of Resistance
Introduction and Auto-transformer except that the multiplying factor ‘x’ is of fixed value 1/√ 3.
Hence

TST/TFL = x2 [ISC/IFL]2sf = (1/√ 3 )2 [ISC/IFL]2sf = (1/3) [ISC/IFL]2sf

Where ISC= Starting phase current at rated voltage with motor in Delta Where IFL =

Fullloadphase current at rated voltage with motor in Delta

Comparison of current drawn from the lines when windings are Star Connected and Delta
connected:

In a Star - Delta Starter the current drawn by the motor from the lines is reduced to 1/3 as
compared to the current it would have drawn if connected in delta. This is shown with the help
of the figure below.

It is seen that for star-connection of windings, phase current is equal to line current, i.e.,

where IPis the phase current, ILYis the line current when windings are star- connected and ZPis
the winding impedance per phase, VPis the phase voltage and Vis the line voltage (and VP= V/√
3)
For delta-connection of windings, VP=V. And So,

The ratio of line currents drawn in star and delta-connection is therefore,

Or

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

Figure: Comparison of current drawn from the lines when windings are star Connected
and Delta connected

Thus by connecting the motor windings, first in Star and then in Delta, the line current drawn by
the motor at starting is reduced to one-third as compared to starting with the windings delta
connected.

From expression for the torque developed in an Induction motor it is known that torque
developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of the applied voltage. In star
connection of windings, the phase voltage is 1/√3 times the line voltage. So, the starting torque
will be reduced to one-third.

Rotor Resistance Starter:

To limit the supply current, Rotor current can also be limited since this in turn limits the supply
current. To limit the Rotor current, three phase star connected Resistances (Rheostats) are used as
shown in the figure below. The additional Resistances are added in the Rotor circuit through Slip
Rings and Brushes. Initially maximum resistance is included in the circuit and then once the
Motor approaches the normal speed, the resistances are cutout gradually. Since the Torque is
proportional to Rotor resistance this method increases the starting Torque also in addition to
limiting the input supply current.

The limitation of this method is that it can be used only with Slip Ring Induction Motors and not
with Squirrel Cage Induction Motors since the Rotor conductors in them are permanently short
circuited.

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

Figure: Rotor Resistance Starter

Direct On Line (DOL) Starter:

In case of small motors with rating less than 5 H.P , the starting currents are not that high to
damage the winding and so Starter is not required to reduce the voltage at the time of starting.
But for such small motors also certain protection features against over current, under voltage and
single phasing are required and they are provided by a starter known as Direct On Line (DOL)
starter. This type of starter does not reduce the applied voltage at the time of starting and applies
the line voltage directly on to the stator but has the protection features mentioned above.

The connection diagram of DOL starter is shown in the figure below. The NO (Normally Open)
contact and the NC (Normally Closed) contact are the contacts provided by two separate Push
Button switches ON and OFF respectively which will give the change over only until the push
button is kept pressed. i.e. they are not latching type of switches we notice in our homes. The
contact comes back to the original condition once the push button is released. But they are used
along with a coil (Known as latching coil) to keep the contact in the changed condition until the
other switch is operated. This operation is as follows.

When the ON switch is closed, the coil gets energized and activates the CONTACTOR which
extends the Input supply power to the motor. In addition to the three main contacts, an auxiliary
contact also gets operated which keeps the contactor in ON condition as long as supply is ON.
When the OFF switch is pressed the NC contact breaks the two phase supply to the contactor coil
and thus the coil gets deenergized. Then the main contactor contacts open up thus disconnecting
the Motor from the incoming supply.

Under over load condition current drawn by the motor increases due to which the thermal over
load relay contacts get excessively heated up and open up the line ( Bimetallic effect) thus
disconnecting the motor from the input supply. Similarly under low voltage conditions the coil

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
does not get adequate supply and it gets deactivated thus again disconnecting the motor from
the input supply and protecting it against abnormal conditions.

Figure: Direct On Line Starter

Speed control:

Introduction:

For an Induction Motor we know that : Nm= NS(1-s)

From this expression it can be seen that the speed of the Induction Motor changed either by
changing the synchronous speed NS(Since NS = 120f/P)

or the slip ’s’.

Similarly the Torque produced in a Three Phase Induction motor is given by:

T 𝖺 sE22R2/[ R2 + (sX2)2]

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

So when the parameters like R2 and E2 are changed, then to keep the Torque constant
corresponding to the constant load condition, the motor reacts by change in slip andeffectively
the speed changes. So, the speed of the Induction Motor can be controlled in two ways.

From stator side:

1. Supply frequency control to change NS(Since NS = 120f/P)

2. Supply voltage control( which in turn changes E2)
3. Controlling the number of poles P which in turn changes NS (Since NS = 120f/P)
From Rotor side :

1. Adding external resistance in the Rotor side ( Change in R2 )

2. Cascade control
3. Injecting slip frequency voltage into the Rotor circuit Let us

study these methods one by one.

Speed Control by Changing the Line Frequency:

If the electrical frequency applied to the stator of an induction motor is changed, the rate of
rotation of its magnetic fields Ns will change in direct proportion to the change in electrical
frequency, (given by NS = 120 f /P )and the no- load point on the torque-speed Characteristic
curve will change with it (see Figure “a” below ). The synchronous speed of the motor at rated
conditions is known as the base speed. By using variable frequency control, it is possible to
adjust the speed of the motor either above or below the base speed. A properly designed variable-
frequency induction motor drive can be very flexible. It can control the speed of an induction
motor over a range from as little as 5 percent of base speed up to about twice base speed.
However, it is important to maintain certain voltage and torque limits on the motor as the
frequency is varied, to ensure safe and efficient operation.

When running at speeds below the base speed of the motor, it is necessary to reduce the terminal
voltage applied to the stator for proper operation. The terminal voltage applied to the stator
should be decreased linearly with decreasing stator frequency. This process is called derating. If
it is not done, the steel in the core of the induction motor will saturate and excessive
magnetization currents will flow in the machine.

From the basic transformer voltage equation we have the expression for the air gap flux:

Φ = *1/ (4.44 K1 Tph1)] (V/f) .................. (1)

Where K1 = Stator winding constant,Tph1 = Stator turns /phase,V =Supply voltage and
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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
f = Supply frequency

From the above expression it can be seen that if the frequency is reduced the flux will increase
which results in saturation of the stator and rotor magnetic cores. This saturation in turn results in
increase in magnetization current (no load current) which is undesirable. Hence it is required to
maintain the air gap flux constant when supply frequency is changed. From the above expression
for flux Φ we can see that this can be achieved by changing the Voltage also correspondingly so
as to maintain a constant V/f ratio. Hence with V/f control method which ensures constant flux
Φ, we can get smooth speed control.

Such a constant V/f with both variable voltage and frequency can be obtained using a electronic
converter and an inverter as shown in the figure below.

Figure: Electronic V/f control scheme

The converter converts the normal input power supply into DC. The inverter then converts the
DC supply into a variable frequency supply as per the speed required and maintaining a constant
V/f.
Figure (a) below shows a family of induction motor torque-speed characteristic curves for speeds

below base speed, assuming that the magnitude of the stator voltage varies linearly with

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods
frequency.

Figure (a): Variable-frequency speed control in an induction motor: (a) The family
of torque-speed characteristic curves for speeds below base speed.
Assuming that the line voltage is derated linearly with frequency.

When the electrical frequency applied to the motor exceeds the rated frequency of the motor, the
stator voltage is held constant at the rated value. Although saturation considerations would
permit the voltage to be raised above the rated value under these circumstances, it is limited to
the rated voltage to protect the winding insulation of the motor. The higher the electrical
frequency above base speed, the larger the denominator of Equation (1) becomes. Since the
numerator

term is held constant above rated frequency, the resulting flux in the machine decreases and the
maximum torque decreases with it. Figure (b) below shows a family of induction motor torque-
speed characteristic curves for speeds above base speed, assuming that the stator voltage is held
constant.

Figure (b) : Variable-frequency speed control in an induction motor: The family of

torque speed characteristic curves for speeds above base speed assuming that the line
voltage is held constant.
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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

If the stator voltage is varied linearly with frequency below base speed and is held constant at
rated value above base speed, then the resulting family of torque- speed characteristics are as
shown in the figure (c) below.

(C) Variable-frequency speed control in an induction motor .The torque-speed

characteristic curves for all frequencies.

In the past, the principal disadvantage of electrical frequency control as a method of speed
changing was that a dedicated generator or mechanical frequency changer was required to make
it operate. This problem has disappeared with the development of modern solid-state variable-
frequency motor drives. In fact, changing the line frequency with solid-state motor drives has
now become the method of choice for induction motor speed control. Note that this method can
be used with any induction motor, unlike the pole-changing technique, which requires a motor
with special stator windings.

Speed Control by Changing the Line Voltage:

If a load has a torque-speed characteristic such as the one shown in fgure below, then the speed
of the motor may be controlled over a limited range by varying the line voltage. This method of
speed control is sometimes used on small motors driving fans.
We know that the torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of the
applied voltage. Hence speed of an induction motor can also be varied by changing the applied
stator voltage. If the voltage is reduced, torque is

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
Starting &Speed control methods

reduced as the square of the voltage. For example, if the applied voltage is reduced from V to 0.9
V, the torque will be reduced from T to0.81 T. The torque- speed characteristic at reduced stator
voltage say 0.9 V is shown in the figure below for Load with constant Torque over the given
speed range. Since the torque is reduced to 81 per cent, the rotor cannot continue to rotate
atspeedN1, and its speed will be reduced, i.e., its slip will increase until the increased rotor
current( and Increased Torque will make up for the reduced stator voltage and produce the
required load torque at a lower speed N2. This method of speed control is rarely used for
industrial three-phase motors because of the requirement of additional costly voltage changing
auxiliary equipment. It is used for small induction motors used in home appliances.

The Torque Speed Characteristics of Induction motors with stator voltage control with a load
torque increasing with speed along with the range of speed control is also shown in the figure
below.

Figure: Variation of motor speed due to variation of stator applied voltage (with Constant Load
Torque over the complete speed range)

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Figure: Variable-line-voltage speed control in an induction motor (with a load with

increasing Load Torque as speed increases)

Speed control of Slip ring Induction Motors by changing Rotor resistance:

In slip-ring type motors, slip at a particular load can be changed by changing the rotor circuit
resistance. In squirrel-cage motors, rotor circuit resistance cannot be varied. Therefore, speed of
squirrel-cage type motors cannot be varied by changing of slip. The effect of change of rotor
circuit resistance on slip when the motor is connected to a mechanical load is shown in Fig.
below . Torque-slip characteristics corresponding to rotor resistances R1 and R2 are shown
respectively by the curves A and B. Curve L shows the load characteristic. The motor runs at a
slip, S1 with R1 as its rotor circuit resistance.

Figure below Shows the change of rotor slip with change of rotor circuit resistance when the
motor is running with a particular load with rotor circuit resistance R2 which is greater than R1,
the rotor slip increases from S1 to S2. Thus the speed of the rotor decreases. If we further change
the rotor circuit resistance, the speed of the motor will change to a new value as indicated by slip
S3.

Thus, the speed of the motor can be varied by changing the rotor circuit resistance.

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Figure: Speed control of Slip ring Induction Motors by changing Rotor resistance (Shown with
load torque increasing with speed)

Disadvantages:

Decreased Efficiency Due to Power Lost in the External Rotor Circuit Resistance: At higher
values of slip, the rotor current and hence rotor I2Rloss areincreased considerably. This can be
better understood by referring back to expression,
Rotor I2R-loss = Slip × Rotor input
If slip is increased, rotor I2R-losses increase. At 50 per cent slip, for example, half of the rotor
input will be wasted as rotor I2R-loss.

Poor Speed Regulation when the Motor is working with Higher Rotor Circuit Resistance:
Figure below shows the torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor for two values of
rotor-circuit resistance R1 and R2. Speed regulation is expressed as the variation of speed as the
load on the motor varies. From the figure below it can be seen that for change of load from
half-load to full-load, the variation of motor speed is from N1 to N2 with R1 as the rotor-
circuit resistance. The variation speed is N3 to N4 for R2 as the rotor-circuit resistance which is
much higher in this case as compared to the variation with R1 as rotor-circuit resistance,
i.e. (N3 – N4)>(N1 – N2).
Although by changing the rotor-circuit resistance from R1 to R2at a particular load, say at half-
load, the speed can be changed from N1 to N3but the speed regulation, i.e., the variation of
speed with variation of load becomes higher with higher rotor circuit resistance.

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Figure: Speed regulation with different values of rotor circuit resistance

Change of poles and method of consequent poles:

From the basic expression for synchronous speed NS = 120 f /P we can see that the speed can
be changed by changing the number of stator poles. With this method we can get discrete speeds
in steps of 1, 2, 4 etc. but we cannot get a smooth continuous speed control. Stator poles can be
controlled by any of the following two methods.

(1) Two Separate Windings on the Stator (2) Consequent poles method

Two Separate Windings on the Stator:

An induction motor stator is wound for a definite number of poles. The speed of an induction
motor depends upon the number of poles for which the stator is wound. If instead of one stator
winding, two independent windings, for different number of poles say for four poles and for
eight poles are made on the stator, two definite rotor speeds can be obtained. The two windings
are to be insulated from one another. When any of the windings is used, the other winding should
be kept open circuited by the switch or at least left in star-connection. In the rotor, poles are
formed in accordance with the number of poles in the stator circuit. The limitation of this method
is that, only two definite speeds can be obtained. Smooth control of speed over a wide range is
not possible.

Speed Control Using Consequent-pole Technique:

An alternative method is to use only one winding wound for a particular number of poles, but the
end connections of the coils with the supply is changed such that different number different of
poles are formed. This is explained in a simplified manner in the figure below. Only one stator
phase winding of a balanced three- phase, squirrel-cage motor is shown for ease of
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understanding. In figure (a), a simplified 2-pole stator winding is shown where the supply is
given to a parallel combination of coils 11’ and 22’. In figure (b) the coils 11’ and 22’are shown
to be connected in series thus resulting in set of 4 poles.

With the combination of having two separate windings on the stator and by series
/ parallel connections of the coils across the supply, four distinct speeds of the rotor also can he
obtained.

Figure: Pole changing method of speed control (a) Parallel connection of coils (b) Series
connection of coils

Cascade connection:

This method is also called tandem operation of Induction Motors. In this method two Induction
Motors are mounted on the same shaft. One, a slip ring motor called the Main Motor and the
second one called an auxiliary motor which can be a slip ring or a squirrel cage motor. The
arrangement is shown in the figure below.

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Figure: Cascade control of two Induction Motors

The main motor is connected to the three phase supply. The supply for the auxiliary motor is
derived at slip frequency from the slip rings of the main motor. Thus the slip power of first
(main) motor is utilized by the second motor whose mechanical output is utilized by the main
motor since both are connected on the same shaft. This is called cascading of the motors. If the
torques produced by the two motors act in the same direction Cascading is ‘cumulative‘and if
they act in opposite direction cascading is ‘differential’.

Derivation of the possible speeds:

Let PA= Number of poles in Main Motor

Let PB= Number of poles in Auxiliary Motor and

f= Supply frequency

Then,NSA= 120 f /PA

Let N = Speed of the set which is same for both the motors as they are mounted on the same
shaft.

sA= (NSA – N)/NSA ( Slip of motor A)

fA= Frequency of Rotor Induced e.m.f. in motor A. ThenfA= sAf

The supply to motor B is at a frequencyoffAi.e. fB= fA

Hence,NSB=120 fB/PB = 120 fA /PB = 120sA f /PB = 120 (NSA – N) f /PB.NSA

Now on No load, the speed of the Rotor Bi.e. N is almost equal to its synchronous speed NSB
i.e.NSB = N

N = 120[ (NSA – N)/NSA] . (f /PB) = 120 (f /PB) [1 – (N/NSA)]

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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= 120 (f /PB) [1 –N/(120 f/PA)]

N = 120 (f /PB) [1 – (NPA/120f)]

Therefore: N [1+ (PA/PB)] = 120 (f /PB) and finally

N= 120 (f /PA+ PB)

Thus the speed N of the set is decided by the total number of poles equal to (PA+ PB).This is
possible in cumulatively compounded motors.

By interchanging any two terminals of Motor B, the reversal of direction of rotating magnetic
field B is achieved and then the set runs as a differentially cascaded set. In such a case the
effective number of Poles would be(PA - PB).

Thus we get four different speeds.

1. Synchronous speed of A independently with motor B disconnected.

NSA = 120 f /PA

2. Synchronous speed of B independently with motor A disconnected and Motor

B alone directly connected to the supply: NSB = 120 f /PB

3. Running the two motors A and B cumulatively:

NSABC = 120 f / (PA+ PB)

4. Running the two motors A and B differentially:

NSABD = 120 f / (PA-PB)

Disadvantages:

 Requires two motors and hence expensive.

 Smooth speed control is not possible. Only four discrete speeds are possible.
 Set cannot be operated if PA = PB
 Operation is complex and starting torque may not be adequate.

Injection of an e.m.f into rotor circuit (qualitative treatment only):

In this method a voltage is injected into the Rotor circuit. The frequency of Rotor circuit is at slip
frequency and hence the voltage to be injected must also be at a slip frequency.
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The injected voltage may oppose or assist the Rotor induced voltage. If it is in phase opposition,
effective Rotor resistance increases. If it is in phase the Rotor Resistance decreases. Thus by
controlling the magnitude of the injected e.m.f., Rotor resistance and thus effectively Motor
speed can be controlled.

Practically two methods are available which use this principle. These methods are:

1. Kramer system
2. Scherbius system
These two are basically methods of slip power recovery by cascading connections and are
effectively equivalent to Speed control by external e.m.f injection into the rotor circuit.

Kramer System:

The Kramer system is applicable for only sub synchronous speed operation. Figure below shows
a conventional Kramer system. The system consists of a3 phase rotary converter and a DC
motor. The slip power is converted into dc power by a rotary converter and fed to the armature of
the DC motor. The slip ring induction

motor is coupled to the shaft of the dc motor. The slip rings are connected to a ‘rotary converter’
which basically converts the 3 phase ac inputat slip frequency to DC . The dc output of rotary
convener is used to drive a dc motor. The rotary converter and dc motor are excited from the dc
bus bars or from an exciter.The speed of slip ring induction motor is adjusted by adjusting the
speed of dc motor with the help of a field regulator. This system is also called the
electromechanical cascade, because the slip frequency power is returned as mechanical power to
the slip ring induction motor shaft by the DC motor.

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Figure: Conventional Kramer System

If the mechanical losses in cascade system are neglected the shaft power output
Pmof the SRIM motor is given by :

Pm = (1-s) Pin

WherePin= input power to the statorand‘s’ is the slip. The slip power Ps = sPin is added to Pm
by converting it first to DC by Rotary converter and then to mechanical power by the DC motor.
This mechanical power is fed to the slip ring induction motor shaft. This method is used for large
motors of the order of 4000KW or above.

Advantages:

l. The main advantage of this method is that any speed, within the working range can be
obtained.

2. If the rotary converter is over excited, it will take a leading current which compensates for the
lagging current drawn by SRIM and hence improves the power factor of the system

The Scherbius system:

This is similar to Kramer system but the only difference is that in the Kramer system the return
power is mechanical and in the Scherbius system the return power is electrical. Conventional
Scherbius Drive is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Scherbius System

Here the rotary converter converts slip power into DC power and the DC power is fed to aDC
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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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motor. The DC motor is coupled to an Induction Generator. The induction generator converts the
mechanical power into electrical power and returns it to the supply line. The SRIM speed can be
controlled by varying the field regulator of the dc motor.

Induction generator principle of operation:

If the rotor is made to rotate at a speed more than the synchronous speed, the slip becomes
negative. A rotor current is generated in the opposite direction, due to the rotor conductors
cutting stator magnetic field in the other direction. This generated rotor current produces a
rotating magnetic field in the rotor which will now push (forces in opposite way) the stator field.
(When the machine was working at lesser than the synchronous speed, the rotor magnetic field
was trying to follow the stator magnetic field) This causes a stator voltage which pushes current
flowing out of the stator winding against the applied voltage. Thus, the machine now works as an
induction generator (asynchronous generator).

This basic concept of an Induction machine working as a motor (with a positive slip) and as a
generator (with negative slip) is illustrated in the following Torque slip characteristics.

Torque Slip Characteristics of an Induction Machine

Grid connected Induction Generator:

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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Induction generator is not a self-excited machine. Reactive power is needed for producing
rotating magnetic field. Therefore, when running as a generator, the machine takes reactive
power from the AC power grid and supplies active power back into the grid. The active power
supplied back into the line is proportional to the slip above the synchronous speed. The basic
connection diagram of a Grid connected Induction motor is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Grid connected Induction Generator

Self-Excited Induction Generator:

It is clear that, an induction machine needs reactive power for excitation, regardless of whether it
is operating as a generator or a motor. When an induction generator is connected to a grid, it
takes reactive power from the grid. But if we want to use an induction generator to supply a load
without using an external source (e.g. grid) a capacitor bank must be connected across the stator
terminals to supply reactive power to the machine as well as to the load as shown in the figure
below. When the rotor is rotated at an enough speed, a small voltage is generated across the
stator terminals due to residual magnetism. Due to this small generated voltage, capacitor
current is produced which provides further reactive power for magnetization.

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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Figure: Stand alone Induction Generator

Applications: Induction generators produce useful power even at varying rotor speeds. Hence
they are suitable for wind turbines.

Advantages: Induction or asynchronous generators are more rugged and require no commutator
and brush arrangement (as needed in case of synchronous generators.)

One of the major disadvantages of induction generators is that they take quite a large amount of
reactive power from the Grid .

Illustrative Problems:

Example 1 : A 20 kW, 400 V, 3-phase induction motor has full-load power factor of 0.86
and full-load efficiency of 0.88. With stator winding in delta, short-circuit line current at
200 V is 70 A. If this motor is fitted with a star-delta starter, find:

(a) The ratio of starting to full-load current and

(b) The starting torque in terms of full-load torque, for a full load slip of 5%.

(JNTU Jan2012)

Solution: VL = 400 V, cosØ = 0.86, ƞ = 0.88, Pout = 20 Kw

Pin = √3 VLILcosØ and Pin = Pout/ƞ
(20 ×103)/0.8 = √3 × 400 × IL × 0.86 i.e. IL = 38.14 A ……F.L. line current
short circuit line current is 70 A at 200 V hence
short circuit line current at 400 V rated voltage is (400/200) × 70 = 140 A
∴ Phase value of short circuit current = 140/√3 A
When connected in star, the current further reduces by the factor 1/√3 A
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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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∴ Ist (ph) = (1/√3) Isc(ph) = (1/√3) × (140/√3) = 46.667 A
a) As the motor is star connected at start, the line value of starting current is same as the
phase value hence Isc (line) = 46.667 A
∴ Ist(line)/IFL(line) = 46.667/38.14 = 1.2235
b) sfl= 0.05
Tst/Tfl = 1/3(Isc/IFL)2sfl= 1/3 × (1.2235)2 × 0.05 = 0.0249
∴ Tst= 2.49 % of full load torque.

Example 2 :A 15 kW, 400 V, 950 RPM , 3 phase, 50 Hz, 6 pole Cage motor with 400 V
applied takes 6 times full load current at standstill and develops 1.8 times the full load
running torque. The full load current is 32 A.

a) What voltage must be applied to produce full load torque at starting?

b) What current will this voltage produce? (JNTU April 2011)
Solution: Pout = 15 kW, N = 950 RPM , f = 50 Hz, p = 6, V = 400 V Ns =
120f/P = (120x50/6) = 1000 RPM , sf = Ns – N/Ns = 0.05 (slip)
Current at standstill Isc = 6 Ifl, Ifl = 32 A
Standstill torque = 1.8 ×Tfl
a) For Tst = 1.8 Tfl, V = 400 V and we want V for Tst = Tfl

We know that T α E22 α V2 …..as E2 α V

∴ 1.8Tfl/Tfl = (400/V)2

i.e. V = 400/ √1.8 = 298.142 V

b) Currents are proportional to applied voltage.
At start, 6Ifl α 400 and I α 298.142
∴ 6 Ifl/I = 400/298.142 and Ifl = 32 A
∴ I = (6 × 32 × 298.142)/400 = 143.108 A

Example 3: The short circuit line current of a 6 HP IM is 3.5 times its full load Current, the
stator of which is arranged for Star - ∆ starting. The supply voltage is 400 V, full load
efficiency is 82 % and full load power factor is 0.85. Calculate the line current at the instant
of starting. Neglect magnetising current. ( JNTU April/May 2009)
1
Solution: Isc = 3.5 Ifl Starter is Start-delta starter and hence x= 3
√
VL = 400V, % n = 82 %, cos𝖺 = 0.85, Pout = 6 HP

P 6 ×735.5 = 5381.7073 W
∴ P in = out =
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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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n 0.82

Pin = √3VLIL cos ∅ i. e. IL = 5381 .7073

= 9.1386 A
√3×400 ×0.85

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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∴ Ifl = IL = 9.1386 A
1 1
∴ I = x2I = × 3.5 I = × 3.5 × 9.1386 = 10.6617 A
st sc 3 fl 3
Example 4: A 110 V, 3-∅ , star connected IM takes 25 A at a line voltage of 30 V with rotor
blocked. With this line voltage, input power to motor is 440 W and core loss is 40 W. The
d.c. resistance between a pair of stator terminals is 0.1 Ω. If the ratio of a.c. to d.c.
resistance is 1.6. Find the equivalent leakage reactance per phase of motor and the stator
and rotor resistance per phase. (JNTU Jan 2009)

Solution: VSC (line) = 30 V, ISC = 25 A, Star connection

V (Ph ) (30√3)
∴ Z = SC = = 0.6928 Ω/ph
1e ISC (Ph ) 25

Stator +Rotor ] = Input – Core loss =440 – 40 = 400W

[
copperlosses

400 = 0.2133Ω/ph
∴ 3 × I2SC × Rle = 400 i. e. R1e =
3
×252
∴ Xle = √Z2 − R2 = 0.6591Ω/ph
1e 1e

D.C. resistance / ph of stator = 0. = 0.05 Ω

1
2

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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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∴ A.C. resistance /ph = 1.6 × 0.05 = 0.08 Ω

∴ R1 = 0.08 Ω,R2 = R1e – R1 = 0.2133 – 0.8 = 0.1333 Ω

Example 5: A 400 V, 50 Hz, three-phase induction motor takes a starting current of 75 A

and develops a starting torque of 1.5 times its full-load torque when full voltage is supplied
across the winding terminals connected in delta. Calculate the starting line current and
starting torque if the motor windings are connected in star and full voltage is applied across
its terminals.

Solution:
Current taken when delta connected = 75 A
We know that current taken when star connected is 1/3 times the current drawn when connected in
Delta.
Hence Current taken when star connected =75/3= 25 A
We know that Torque T is proportional to the square of voltage. We also know Voltage applied
per phase when star-connected is 1/√ 3 times the voltage applied when windings are delta-
connected. Since torque is proportional to square of the applied voltage, starting torque with
windings star-connected will be one-third of the starting torque with windings delta connected.

Starting torque with windings delta-connected = 1.5 × TFL

Starting torque with windings star-connected = (1.5 × TFL)/3 = 0.5 xTF

Important questions:

1. (a)With a clear test setup explain how No load and Blocked Rotor tests are conducted on an
Induction Motor (b) Explain how the data obtained from these experiments is used to
predetermine the efficiency of an Induction Motor at any load.
2. Explain the necessity and basic principle of operation of Starters in Induction Motors
3. Explain with the help of diagrams the operation of the following types of starters. Derive the
Relation between TST and TFL for all these starters.
a) Stator Resistance Starter b) Auto Transformer Starter c) Rotor Resistance Starter d)
Direct On Line ( DOL) Starter e) Star- Delta Starter
4. (a) Explain the basic principle of Speed control of Induction Motors from the fundamental
performance equations and outline the possible methods both from Stator side and Rotor
side.
5. Explain in detail along with Torque speed characteristics speed control of Induction Motors
with variable frequency method. Elaborate why constant V/f is required below base speed
and not required above base speed.
6. Explain Speed control of IMs with variable Stator Voltage method
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 Unit-2: Induction Motors: Testing,
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7. Explain Speed control of Slip ring Induction Motors by changing Rotor resistance
with torque speed characteristics.
8. Explain Speed control of IMs with Change of poles methods both (i) Two Separate
Windings on the Stator and (ii) Consequent-pole Technique
9. Explain Cascade control of two Induction Motors
10. Explain how speed control of IMs is achieved by Injection of an e.m.f into rotor circuit
(both Kramer and Scherbius drives ).
11. Explain how an Induction Generator works and the two methods of excitation.
12. All the above Illustrative examples

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

UNIT-III SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES

 Introduction

 Constructional Features of round rotor and salient pole machines

 Armature windings

 Integral slot and fractional slot windings

 Distributed and concentrated windings

 Distribution, pitch and winding factors

 E.M.F Equation.

 Armature reaction, leakage reactance, synchronous reactance and impedance - Experimental

determination
 Equivalent Circuit & Phasor diagrams

 Load characteristics &Voltage regulation .

 Regulation by synchronous impedance method, M.M.F. method and Z.P.F. method

 Illustrative examples
 Important questions

1
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Introduction:

The most commonly used machine for generation of electrical power for commercial applications is the
synchronous generator. Such a synchronous generator is also called an alternator since it generates
alternating voltage. A Synchronous Machine has two main parts, viz. the stator and the rotor just
like a DC Machine or an Induction Machine

Synchronous Machine Vs Induction Machine:

There are two major types of AC machines: Synchronous machines and Induction machines. In
both of them:
A three-phase system of currents supplied to a system of three coiIs spaced120 degrees apart on a
stator will produce a uniform rotating magnetic field within the stator. The direction of rotation
of the magnetic field can be reversed by simply swapping the connections to any two of the
three phases. This is the working principle of both Induction and Synchronous Motors.
Conversely, a rotating magnetic field wiII produce a three-phase set of voltages within such a set
of coils. This is the working principle of both Induction and Synchronous generators.
The principal difference between the two types is that synchronous machines require a DC field
current to be supplied to their rotors, while induction machines have the field current induced in
their rotors by transformer action.
In both Synchronous and Induction machines the speed of the rotating magnetic field &
electrical frequency and electrical phase angle & mechanical angle are related to
the number poles in the machines are related the same way as below. In stators of more than two
poles, one complete mechanical rotation of the magnetic field produces more than one complete
electrical cycle. For such a stator, one mechanical rotation produces PI2 electrical cycles.
Therefore, the electrical angle of the voltages and currents in such a machine is related to the
mechanical angle of the magnetic fields by:

Ɵe = (P/2)Ɵm

The relationship between the electrical frequency of the stator and the mechanical rate of
rotation of the magnetic fields is given by: fe = PNm /120

Synchronous Generator Vs. DC Generator:

We know that in the case of a DC Generator basically the type of induced e.m.f generated in the
armature conductors is AC only. It is converted to DC by using commutator. If they are removed
and the voltage available from the armature conductors is directly collected, then the output
would be AC only. Such a machine without commutator which provides AC output is called an
Alternator. But in the case of an alternator to draw the AC output Slip rings and Brushes are

2
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

used. Further in the case of Synchronous Generator three armature windings spatially separated
by 1200 are placed in the Stator.

Basic principle of operation of a Synchronous Generator:

In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding, which produces a rotor
magnetic field. The rotor of the generator is then turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating
magnetic field within the machine. This rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase set of
voltages within the stator windings of the generator.
Two terms commonly used to describe the windings on an Electric Machine are ‘field windings’
and ‘armature windings’. In general, the term "field windings" applies to the windings that
produce the main magnetic field in a machine, and the term “armature windings" applies to the
windings where the main voltage is induced.
For synchronous machines, the field windings are on the rotor, so the terms "rotor windings"
and "field windings" are used interchangeably. Similarly, the terms "stator windings" and
"armature windings" are used interchangeably.

Constructional details of a three phase Synchronous Machine:

A synchronous machine works as a generator when the rotor is rotated and as a motor when a
three-phase supply is connected across its armature. The basic construction of a synchronous
generator and a synchronous motor is the same. In a dc machine, the field system is stationary
and the-armature winding is placed on
the rotor. The same arrangement can be done in a synchronous machine also. But in a synchronous
machine, due to a number of advantages, the field system is made rotating and the armature
winding is placed in stator slots. These two possible arrangements of armature and field system
are shown in the figure below.
In synchronous machine construction, two arrangements are possible: the arrangement shown in
figure (a) below in which the field is stationary and the armature is rotating has limited
applications. In almost all commercial synchronous machines, rotating field and stationary
armature system as shown in figure (b) is used for the following reasons.

(a) Stationary field and rotating armature system as in a DC machine

3
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

(b) Rotating field and stationary armature system as in an alternator

Advantages of Rotating Field and Stationary Armature System:

The following are the main reasons why a stationary armature and rotating field
construction for three-phase synchronous machines is used in all commercial applications.
(a) Ease of Construction: For large three-phase synchronous machines, the armature winding is
more complex than the field winding. The coil and phase connections of the windings can be
done more easily and securely on a stationary structure, i.e., on the stator than on the rotor.
(b) Number of Slip-rings required: Referring to the figure (a) above it is seen that when
armature winding is made rotating, at least three slip-rings are needed to receive the generated
power for the output circuit from the synchronous generator. For large synchronous machines
rated in MVAs and voltage ratings in kilo volts (generally11 kV) transferring power through
brush and slip-ring arrangement is very difficult. It is also difficult to insulate the slip-rings from
the rotating shaft for high voltage. The distance between the slip-rings is to be kept sufficiently
large so that flash-over does not take place.
With the stationary armature and rotating field arrangement, none of these problems occur. Only
two slip-rings of much smaller size are required to supply excitation current to the rotating
windings, as power required for excitation is much less and is supplied at a low voltage.
(c) Better Insulation to Armature: Large size commercial synchronous machine armature coils
carry heavy currents at high voltage. It is easier to insulate the armature coils from the core, if the
windings are placed on the stator instead of on the rotor. It is comparatively easier to insulate the
low voltage DC winding placed on the rotor.
(d) Reduced Rotor Weight and Rotor Inertia: The weight of the field system placed on the rotor
is comparatively much lower than the armature winding placed on the stator. This is because the
field windings are made with thinner wires and are required to be insulated for a lower voltage.
The inertia of the rotor is, therefore reduced. With rotating field system, the rotor will take
comparatively less time to come up to the rated speed.
Hence all the large synchronous machines built today have stationary armature and rotating field

4
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

structure as shown in the figure (b) above.

Types of Rotor Construction:

The rotor of a synchronous generator is essentially a large electromagnet. The
magnetic poles on the rotor can be of either salient or non salient construction.
The term salient means "protruding" or "sticking out” and a “salient pole” is a magnetic pole that
sticks out from the surface of the rotor. On the other hand a non salient pole is a magnetic pole
constructed flush with the surface of the rotor. Both types of rotors are shown in the figures
below. Non salient-pole rotors are normally used for two- and four-pole rotors, while salient-pole
rotors are normally used for rotors with four or more poles. Because the rotor is subjected to
changing magnetic fields, it is constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses.

Figure (a) Salient type rotor (b) Non-salient or cylindrical type rotor

5
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Figure: A Nonsalient two-pole Rotor for a Synchronous machine

Figure: A Salient Six pole Rotor for a Synchronous Machine

Type of rotor construction also depends upon the type of prime mover used to drive the
synchronous generator and is explained in detail below. .

Salient Type Rotor for Alternators Driven at Low Speeds

Alternators driven at low speeds by prime movers like water turbines will have salient pole
rotors. This is because, to generate electricity at 50 Hz with the rotor rotate at slow speeds, the
number of rotor poles required becomes large. It is convenient to build a rotor having large
number of poles in projected pole, i.e., salient pole construction. The diameters of such rotors
become bigger than their lengths.

Nonsalient Type Rotor for Alternators Driven at High Speeds

For alternators using high-speed turbines (3000 rpm) like steam turbines as Prime movers, the
number of rotor poles required to generate electricity at 50 Hz is only two. To reduce the
centrifugal force developed on the rotor winding at high- speed, the rotor diameter is to be kept
small. Nonsalient, i.e., cylindrical type rotor construction is made for such synchronous
generators. The length of such
generators is more than their diameters. For alternators using medium-speed
prime mover, like diesel engines, the number of rotor poles is more than two and the rotor is
made salient type.
Excitation for Rotating Field System:

A DC current must be supplied to the field circuit on the rotor. Since the rotor is rotating, a
special arrangement is required to get the DC power to its field windings. There are two common

6
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

approaches to supplying this DC power:

I. Supply the DC power from an external DC source to the rotor by means of slip rings and
brushes. This is used for small size generators.
2. Supply the DC power from a special DC power source mounted directly on the shaft of the
synchronous generator thus avoiding slip rings and brushes totally. This is called Brush less
exciter and used for large size Generators.

Brushless exciter: It is a small AC generator with its Field circuit mounted on the stator and its
Armature circuit mounted on the rotor shaft as shown in the figure below.

Figure: A brush less exciter circuit. A small three-phase current is rectified and
used to supply the field circuit of the exciter which is located on the stator. The output of
the armature circuit of the exciter (on the rotor) is then rectified and used to supply the
field current of the main machine

The three-phase output of the exciter generator is rectified to direct current by a three-phase
rectifier circuit also mounted on the shaft of the generator, and is then fed into the main DC field
circuit. By controlling the small DC field current of the exciter generator (located on the stator),
it is possible to adjust the field current on the main machine without slip rings and brushes.

A Synchronous machine rotor with a brushless exciter mounted on the same shaft is shown in the
figure below. Since no mechanical contacts ever occur between the rotor and the stator, a
brushless exciter requires much less maintenance than an exciter with slip rings and brushes.

7
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Figure: Photograph of a synchronous machine rotor with a brush less exciter mounted on
the same shaft. Notice the rectifying electronics visible next to the armature of the exciter.

Brush less exciter with a Pilot exciter: To make the excitation of a generator
completely independent of any external power sources, a small pilot exciter is often included
in the system. A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with
permanent magnets mounted on the rotor shaft and a three-phase winding on

8
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

the stator as shown in the figure below. It produces the power for the field circuit of the exciter,
which in turn controls the field circuit of the main machine. If a pilot exciter is included on the
generator shaft, then no external electric power is required to run the generator.

Figure: A brushless excitation scheme that includes a pilot exciter. The permanent
magnets of the pilot exciter produce the field current of the exciter which in turn
produces the field current of the main machine.

A cutaway diagram of a complete large synchronous machine is shown in the

9
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

figure below. This figure shows an eight-pole salient-pole rotor, a stator with distributed double-
layer windings, and a brushless exciter.

Figure: A cutaway diagram of a large synchronous machine. Note the salient pole
construction and the onshaft exciter.

Armature Winding

Armature winding of alternators is different from that of DC machines. Basically, three phase
alternators carry three sets of windings arranged in the slots in such a way that there exists a
Phase difference of 120° between the induced e.m.f.s in them. In D.C machine, Winding is
closed while in alternators winding is open i.e. two ends of each set of winding is brought out. In
three phase alternators, the six terminals are brought out which are finally connected in star or
delta and then the three terminals are brought out. Each set of windings represents winding per
phase and induced e.m.f. in each set is called induced e.m.f. per phase denoted as Eph. All the
coils used for one phase must be connected in such a way that their
e.m.f.s add to each other. And overall design should be in such a way that the waveform of an
induced e.m.f. is almost sinusoidal in nature.

10
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Winding Terminology

1) Conductor: The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and
responsible for the induced e.m.f. is called a conductor and its length is called active length of
the conductor. The conductors are placed in the armature slots.
2) Turn: A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So
two conductors constitute one turn. This is shown in the figure below.

3) Coil: As there are number of turns, they are all grouped together to form a coil. Such a coil is
called multiturn coil. A coil may consist of a single turn in which case it is called a single turn
coil. Figure (b) above shows a multiturn coil.
4) Coil Side: Since coil consists of many turns part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of a
coil as shown in the figure (b) above.
5) Pole pitch: It is the centre to centre distance between the two adjacent poles measured in
terms of number of slots or electrical degrees. We have seen that for one rotation of the
conductor, 2 poles are responsible for 3600of electrical induced emf, 4 poles are responsible for
7200 and so on. So, 1 pole is responsible for 1800 electrical in induced e.m.f.
Practically how many slots are under one pole which are responsible for 1800 electrical voltage
are measured to specify the pole pitch.
e.g., Consider 2 pole, 18 slots armature of an alternator. Then under 1 pole there are 18/2 i.e., 9 slots.
So, pole pitch is 9 slots or 1800 electrical. This means 9 slots are responsible to produce a phase
difference of 1800 between the e.m.f.s. induced in different conductors.

Pole pitch = 1800 electrical

= slots per pole (no. of. Slots/P) = n

6) Slot angle (β): The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical is called slot

11
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

angle β.As the number of slots per pole which contribute to a phase of 1800 is denoted by ‘n’ ,
slot angle β = 1800/n
In the above example, n =18/2 = 9 and so slot angle β = 1800/n = 1800/9 = 200
This means that if we consider the induced e.m.f.in the conductors which are placed in the slots
which are adjacent to each other, there exists a phase difference of β0 in between them. Similarly
e.m.f. induced in the conductors which are placed in slots which are ‘n’ slots distance away, there
exists a phase difference of 1800 between them.

Types of Armature Windings:

In general armature windings are classified as:

1. Single layer and double layer winding

2. Full pitch and short pitch winding.
3. Concentrated and distributed winding.

Single Layer and Double Layer Winding

If a slot consists of only one coil side as shown in the figure (a) below thewinding is said to be
single layer. If there are two coil sides per slot, one at the bottom and one at the top as shown
in the figure (b) below, the winding is called double layer winding.

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

A lot of space gets wasted in single layer windings and hence in practice generally double layer
winding is only preferred.

Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding

As seen earlier, one pole pitch is always 180° electrical. The value of 'n', slots per pole indicates
how many slots are contributing to 180° of electrical phase difference. So, if coil side in one slot
is connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from first slot,
the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil.
For example, in a 2 pole, 18 slots alternator, the pole pitch is n = 18/2 = 9 slots. So, if coil side
in slot No. 1 is connected to coil side in slot No. 10 such that two slots No. 1 and No. 10 are one
pole pitch or n slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil is called full pitch coil. Here we can define
one more term related to a coil called coil span.

Coil Span

It is the distance on the periphery of the armature between two coil sides of a coil. It is usually
expressed in terms of number of slots or degrees electrical. So, if coil span is 'n' slots or 180 0
electrical the coil is called full pitch coil. This is shown in the figure below.

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Figure: Full pitch coil

As against this if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch i.e.,
less than 1800 electrical, the coils are called, short pitched coils or fractional pitched coils.
Generally, coils are shorted by one or two slots

So, in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator instead of connecting a coil side in slot No. 1 to slotNo.10, it is
connected to a coil side in slot No.9 or slot No. 8, coil is said to be short pitched coil and winding
is called short pitch winding. This is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Short pitch coil

Advantages of Short Pitch Coils:

In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has the following advantages:
 The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e., inactive length of winding is
less. So, less copper is required. Hence economical.
 Short pitching eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of

14
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

e.m.f. Hence waveform of induced e.m.f is more sinusoidal due to short pitching.
 As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which
depend on frequency also get minimised. This increases the efficiency.

Concentrated and Distributed Winding:

Concentrated winding: In three phase alternators, we know that there are three different sets of
windings, one for each phase. So, depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles,
we have certain slots per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as 'm'.
‘m’ = Slots per pole per phase= n/number of phases
= n/3 (since generally no. of phases is 3)
For example, in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have,n =18/2 = 9and hence
m= 9/3 = 3
So, we have 3 slots per pole per phase.
Now let ‘x’be the number of conductors per phase which are to be placed under one pole. And
we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. But if all ‘x' conductors per phase are placed in one
slot keeping remaining 2 slots per poleper phase empty then the winding is called concentrated
winding.
So in concentrated winding all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed in one slot
under every pole.

Distributed winding: But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the 'm’ slots per pole
per phase available for distribution of the winding. So, if all the ‘x’ conductors per phase are
distributed amongst the 3 slots per phase available under every pole, the winding is called
distributed winding. So, in distributed winding all the coils belonging to a phase are distributed
over all the ‘m’ slots per phase available under every pole. Distributed winding makes the
waveform of the induced e.m.f more sinusoidal in nature. Also, in concentrated winding due
to large number of conductors per slot, heat dissipation is poor.

So, in practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type of armature windings are
used in the alternators.

Integral Slot Winding

The value of ‘m’ = slots/ pole / phase decides the class of the winding. When the value of ‘m’is
an integer, then the winding is called Integral slot winding.
12
Consider a 2 pole, 12 slots alternator: n = slots / pole = =6
𝖺 6 2
Then Pole pitch = 1800 = 6 slots and ‘m’ = = = 2

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

3 3
As ‘m’ is integer, this type of winding is known as ‘Integral slot winding’. This winding can be
full pitch winding or short pitch winding.

Fractional Slot Winding

This is another class of winding which depends on the value of ‘m’. The winding in which slots
per pole per phase (m) is a fractional number is called fractional slot winding. In such a
winding, the number of slots (S) must be divisible by 3. Thus, the number of slots per phase is an
integer which is necessary to obtain symmetrical three phase winding. But slots per Pole (n) and
slots per pole per phase (m) both are fractional. As ‘n’ is a fraction, the coils cannot be full Pitch.
Thus, if there are 54 slots and 8 poles then the slots per pole n = 54/8 = 6.75 hence coil Span can
be 7 or 6. Generally short pitch coils are used. Such a fractional slot winding can be easily
achieved with double layer winding.

Advantages of Fractional Slot Winding:

1. Though appear to be complicated, easy to manufacture.

2. The number of armature slots (S) need not be integral multiple of number of poles (P).
3 The number of slots can be selected for which notching gear is available, which is economical.
4. There is saving in machine tools.
5. High frequency harmonics are considerably reduced.
6. The voltage waveform available is sinusoidal in nature.

E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator:

Let 𝖺 = Flux per pole, in Wb

P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
f = Frequency of induced e.m.f in Hz
Z = Total number of conductors
Zph= Conductors per phase connected in series
Zph=Z/3 as number of phases = 3.

Let us consider a single conductor placed in a slot. 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺

The average value of e.m.f induced in a conductor = For one Total flux cut in one revolution is ø x
revolution of a conductor, P.
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 Time taken for one revolution is
eavgper conductor =
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 (60/NS) seconds.

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

𝖺∅ 𝖺𝖺
∅ = ∅
eav per conductor = 𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 … (1)
g 60 60
(
) 𝑁
𝖺
But we know that ‘f’ = (PNS/120)
Hence (PNS/60) = 2𝖺
Substituting this in equation (1), eavg
per conductor = 2f𝖺 volts

Assuming full pitch winding for simplicity i.e., this conductor is connected to a conductor which
is 180 electrical apart. So, these two e.m.f.s will try to set up a current in the same direction i.e.,
the two e.m.f. are helping each other and hence resultant e.m.f. per turn will be twice the e.m.f.
induced in a conductor.

Then e..f. per turn = 2 × (e.m.f. per conductor) =2 × (2f𝖺)= 4 f𝖺 volts.

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Figure: One Turn of full pitch coil

Let ‘Tph’ be the total number of turns(=Zph/2) per phase connected in series. Assuming
concentrated winding, we can say that all are placed in single slot per pole per phase. So
induced e.m.f.s in all turns will be in phase as they are placed in a single slot. Hence the net
e.m.f per phase will be algebraic sum of the e.m.f. s per turn.

∴ Average Eph = Tph × (Average e.m.f. per turn)

∴ Average Eph=Tph × 4 f 𝖺

But in a.c. circuits R.M.S. value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The form
factor Kf(RMS/Average) = 1.11 for sinusoidal parameters.

∴ R.M.S. value of Eph = Kf × Average value

∴ Ephrms = 1.11 × 4 f 𝖺Tph =4.44 f 𝖺Tph volts

This is the basic e.m.f. equation for the induced e.m.f. per phase for ‘full pitch’, ‘concentrated’
type of winding

But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short pitch.
Hence e.m.f induced gets affected. Hence we have to see the effect of distributed and short pitch
type of windings on the e.m.f. equation.

Pitch factor or Coil Span Factor (Kc):

In practice short pitch coils are preferred. So,coil is formed by connecting one coil side to
another which is less than one pole pitch away. So actual coil span is less than 1800. The coil is
generally short pitched by one or two slots.

Angle by which coils are short pitched is called angle of short pitch denoted as ‘α’.
Slot angle is ß and the angle of short pitch is always a multiple of the slot angle ß.

α = β x number of slots by which the coils are short pitched

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

or α = 1800- Actual coil span of the coils

Figure: Angle of short pitch

Derivation of expression for ‘Pitch factor or Coil Span Factor ‘(Kc)’:

Now let E be the induced e.m.f. in each coil side. If the coil is a full pitch coil, the induced e.m.f.
in each coil side help each other. Coil connections are such that both will try to set up a current in
the same direction in the external circuit. Hence the resultant e.m.f. across a coil will be algebraic
sum of the two.

Figure :Full pitch coil

Hence ER = E + E = 2E

But if the coil is short pitched by an angle ‘α’, the two e.m.fs in the two coil sides no longer
remain in phase. Hence the resultant e.m.f. also no longer remains

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

algebraic sum of the two but becomes a phasor sum of the two as shown in the figure below.
Obviously, ER in such a case will be less than what it is in the case of a full pitched coil
(2E).From the geometry of the figure below we can show that the resultant e.m.f is given by:

ER = 2 E cos (α/2)

Figure: Phasor sum of the two e.m.fs with a Short pitched coil

Now the factor by which, induced e.m.f in the coil gets reduced due to short pitching is called
pitch factor or coil span factor denoted by KC. It is defined as the ratio of resultant e.m.f. when
coilis short pitched to the resultant e.m.f. when coil is full pitched. It is always less than one.

𝖺
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺
∴ = 𝖺𝖺𝖺(𝖺)
K 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
= 𝖺𝖺
C 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

= KC = cos (α/2)
Where α=Angle of short pitch

Distribution Factor (K d)

Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated winding is also rare in practice. Attempt is made to use
all the slots available under a pole for the winding which makes the nature of the induced e.m.f.
more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called a distributed winding.
Consider 18 slots, 2 pole alternator. So, slots per pole i.e. n = 9. m = Slots
per pole per phase = 3
β =1800 /9 = 200
Let E = induced e.m.f per coil and there are 3 coils per phase.

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

In concentrated type all the coil sides will be placed in one slot under a pole. So induced e.m.f. in
all the coils will achieve maxima and minima at the same time i.e., all of them will be in phase.
Hence resultant e.m.f. after connecting coils in series will be algebraic sum of all the e.m.fs as all
are in phase.

AS against this, in distributed type, coil sides will be distributed, one each in the 3 slots per
phase available under a pole as shown in the figure (a) below .

Though the magnitude of e.m.f. in each coil will be same as ‘E’, as each slot contributes phase
difference of β0 i.e.200 in this case, there will exist a phase difference of β0 with respect to each
other as shown in the figure (b) above. Hence resultant e.m.f. will be phasor sum of all of them
as shown in the figure below. So due to distributed winding resultant e.m.f. decreases.

Figure: Phasor sum of e.m.fs in distributed (3 per phase) conductors

The factor by which there is a reduction in the e.m.f. due to distribution ofcoils is

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

called ‘distribution factor’ denoted as ‘Kd’

Derivation of expression for ‘distribution factor’‘Kd’ :

Let there be 'n’ slots per pole and 'm’ slots per pole per phase. So, there will be ‘m’ coils
distributed under a pole per phase, connected in series. Let ‘E’ be the induced e.m.f. per coil.
Then all the 'm’ e.m.f.s induced in the coils will have successive phase angle difference of β =
1800/n. While finding out the phasor sum of all of them, phasor diagram will approach a shape of
a 'm' equal sided polygon circumscribed by a semicircle of radius ‘R’.

This is shown in the figure below. AB, BC, CD etc., represent e.m.f. per coil. All the ends are
joined at 'O’ which is centre of the circumscribing semicircle of radius 'R’. We know that
‘distribution factor’ ‘Kd ’ is defined as:

𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
K =
d
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺

Figure: Phasor sum of ‘m’ e.m.fs in distributed conductors

By a careful study of the above figure and application of the relevant

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

trigonometric relations we can show that:

The resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated is given by:

ER = 2 m R sin(β/2)

And the resultant e.m.f. when the coils are distributed is given by:

ER = 2 R sin (mβ/2)

And thus finally the ‘distribution factor’ will be :

𝖺𝖺
𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺( )
Kd= 𝖺 = 𝖺𝖺
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺
(𝖺)
Detailed Proof:
Angle subtended by each phasor at the origin ’O’ is β0. This can be proved as below. All the
triangles OAB, OBC... are similar and isosceles, as AB = BC = … = E. Let the base angles be
‘X’. In the Above figure <OAB = <OBA = < OBC = … = x
And <AOB = <BOC = … = y say
In ∆ OAB, 2x + y = 1800
While in the polygon <OBA + <OBC + β = 1800
i.e. 2x + β = 1800
Comparing the above two equations y = β
So <AOB = <BOC = <COD = … = β
If ‘M’ is the last point of the last phasor, <AOM = m × β = mβ and AM = ER =
Resultant of all the e.m.f.s.
Consider the ∆ OAB separately as shown in the figure below.

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 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Let OF be the perpendicular drawn on AB bisecting the angle AOB at apex ‘O’ as β/2.
𝖺
I(AB) = E ∴ I(AF) = and let I(OA) = R.
2
(Here prefix ‘l’ represents ‘length’)
𝖺
∴ sin 𝖺𝖺 𝖺/2
( )= =
2 𝖺𝖺 𝖺
𝖺
∴ E = 2R sin ( ) ………….(3)
𝖺
Now consider ∆ OAM as shown in the above figure -1 and OG is the perpendicular drawn from ‘O’
on its base bisecting <AOM (m 𝖺)
𝖺𝖺
∴ <AOG = < GOM =
2
∴ I(AM) = ER
∴ I (AG) = 𝖺
𝖺
2
𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺
∴ sin( )= 𝖺𝖺 2
2 =
𝖺𝖺 𝖺
𝖺𝖺
∴ = 2 R sin ( ) ................................. (4)
E 𝖺
R
This is the resultant e.m.f. when coils are distributed.
If all ‘m’ coils are concentrated all would have been in phase giving ER as algebraic

25
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

sum of all the e.m.f.s.

∴ ER = m × E …. For concentrated

𝖺
From equation (3), E = 2 R sin ( )
2
𝖺
∴ ER = 2 m R sin ( )
𝖺
This is resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated.
This distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant e.m.f. when coils are

distributed to the resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated. It is always less than one.
𝖺𝖺
𝖺 𝖺ℎ𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 2 𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 ( )
∴ Kd = 𝖺 = 2
𝖺
𝖺𝖺 𝖺ℎ𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 2 𝖺 𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺 ( )
2
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
𝑚𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2
∴ 𝐾𝑑 =
𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2

Where m = Slots per pole per phase

1800
Β = Slot angle =
𝖺
N = Slots per pole.
Generalized Expression for E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator
Considering full pitch and concentrated winding we have earlier obtained the expression for
induced emf in a Generator as:
Eph = 4.44 f ∅ Tph volts

But due to short pitch& distributed winding used in practice, this Eph will reduce by factors Kc
and Kd. So generalized expression for e.m.f. equation can be written as : Eph = 4.44 KcKd f ∅
Tph volts

26
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

For full pitch coil, Kc = 1.

For concentrated winding Kd = 1.

For short pitch and distributed winding Kc and Kd are always less than unity.
Armature reaction, leakage reactance, synchronous reactance and Synchronous
Impedance - Experimental determination:

Armature resistance: Every armature winding has its own resistance which is designated
armature resistance per phase Ra Ω/Ph. It can be measured by a simple multi meter which gives
DC resistance. But due to skin effect the AC resistance at 50 Hz (Applicable to us) will be higher
by approximately 1.6.

Armature leakage resistance: When armature carries a load current it produces its own flux,
part of which does not cross the air-gap and links with itself. Such a flux is called leakage flux.
This leakage flux makes the armature winding inductive in nature. So effectively the armature
winding has an inductive reactance in addition to a resistance. If L is the value of the leakage
inductance in Henrys per phase then, the leakage reactance XL per phase is given by XL = ωL =
2πfL Ω /Ph. In Synchronous machines also like in DC machines the value of leakage reactance
is much larger than armature resistance Ra.

Armature Reaction:
When a synchronous generator is running on no-load, there will be no current flowing through
the armature windings. The flux produced in the air-gap will be due to the field ampere-turns
only. When load is connected across the armature terminals, current will flow through the
armature windings. These three-phase currents will produce a rotating magnetic field in the air-
gap. The effect of the armature flux on the main flux produced by the field ampere-turns is called
Armature Reaction. The armature flux will distort, oppose or help the field flux causing
reduction or increase in the air gap flux depending upon the power factor of the load.
When a synchronous generator is loaded, there will be a change in the terminal voltage due to a
voltage drop in armature resistance and armature leakage reactance. There will be some change
in terminal voltage due to armature reaction effect also and it can be viewed as a reactance
voltage drop. The corresponding reactance is designated as Xar.

Synchronous Reactance & Synchronous Impedance: The vector sum of Armature leakage
reactance XL and the apparent reactance due to the effect of Armature reaction Xar is called
Synchronous Reactance XS. Finally the vector sum of Ra and XS
is called Synchronous Impedance ZS.
Armature reaction explained in detail along with phase relationships between all the
important parameters in a Synchronous Generator: The change in terminal voltage due to
armature reaction effect can also be viewed as a reactance voltage drop. This can be
understood from the following explanation:

27
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

The rotor field flux φf produces an induced emf E in the armature winding. When loaded, this
emf causes an armature current, Ia to flow through the winding and the load. The armature
ampere-turns produce a flux, φa in the air gap. This flux φa produces another emf Ea in the
armature windings.

The phase relationship between the field flux φf , armature induced emf due to field flux E , the
armature current Ia the flux produced by armature current φa, and the emf induced Ea in the
armature due to armature flux at different power- factor loads are shown in the figure below.
Induced emf E will lag the field flux φf as shown in the figure.

Figure: Phase relationship between the various quantities on (a) Resistive load (unity power
factor), (b) Inductive load (zero power factor lagging) (c) Capacitive load (zero power factor
leading)

The phase relationship between the induced emf E and the current flowing
through the armature winding Ia will depend upon the power factor of the load. At unity power-
factor load Ia will be in phase with E. At zero lagging power-factor load Ia will lag E by 90°
whereas at zero leading power-factor load, Ia will lead E by

90°. Flux, φa produced by armature current Ia will be in time-phase. Emf induced Ea in the
armature windings due to φa will lag φa by 90°. A component of the generated voltage that
would be necessary to overcome this armature reaction voltage must act in the opposite
direction.
Since the armature reaction induced voltage always lags the armature current and the flux
producing it by 90°,the component of the voltage drop necessary to overcome this generated
voltage will always lead the armature current by 90°. This voltage drop is similar to the
component of applied voltage needed to overcome leakage reactance drop due to emf of self-
induction. Thus the voltage induced due to armature reaction effect can be considered as a
reactance drop in the armature winding of the synchronous generator. This fictitious reactance

28
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

due to armature flux, φa is called Xar. Reactance due to armature leakage flux, as mentioned
earlier, is called leakage reactance XL. The sum of Xar and XL is called synchronous
reactance XS.
Equivalent circuit and corresponding Phasor diagrams:

We know that in non-salient, i.e., cylindrical rotor type Synchronous generators, the air-gap
between the stator and the rotor is uniform. The synchronous reactance, XS which is the sum of
leakage reactance XL and a fictitious reactance which replaces the effect of armature reaction
XAR is the same throughout the entire air-gap between the stator and the rotor. The armature
winding resistance Ra is very small as compared to synchronous reactance XS. The equivalent
circuit of a non-salient pole synchronous generator and its phasor diagram with these parameters
are shown in the figure (a) below. Figure (b) below shows the approximate equivalent circuit and
the corresponding phasor diagram with the armature resistance Ra neglected.

Here V is the terminal voltage and Ia is load current with a phase angle of φ. The angle δ
between the induced emf E and the terminal voltage V is called the Power angle about which we
will learn in more detail in the next unit.

Figure: (a) Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

(b) Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram with Ra negelected

The phasor diagrams representing the various quantities of a synchronous generator at

different power-factor loads are also shown in the figure below.

29
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Load Characteristics & Voltage regulation of a synchronous generator:

When an alternator is loaded, there will be a voltage drop due to Ia Ra which is in phase with Ia
and due to Ia Xs, which is leading Ia by 90°. The difference between the terminal voltage V and
induced emf E is due to voltage drops in the resistance and reactance, Ia Ra and Ia Xs. The
relationship between induced emf E and the terminal voltage V is given by:

E = V + Ia Ra + Ia (XL + Xa)
or E = V + Ia Ra + Ia Xs
Or E = V + Ia(Ra + Xs)
Therefore E = V + IaZs
Or V = E - IaZs

The above expression for V is a function Ia and it’s plot is known as the Load Characteristics
and shown below for various power factor loads.

Figure: Effect of armature reaction on terminal voltage of a synchronous

Generator at various power factor loads

It has been explained that the terminal voltage of a synchronous generator changes on application
of load across its output terminals. The change is due to voltage drop in the windings (in the
armature reactance Ra and Leakage reactance

30
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

La) in addition to the effect of armature reaction. The change in terminal voltage due to armature
reaction effect depends upon the magnitude and power factor of the load.
At lagging power-factor load the armature reaction effect is just opposite to that of leading
power-factor load. Figure below shows the relationship between terminal voltage and load
current of a synchronous generator at different power- factor loads.
Let OL be the rated load on the generator. At this load, OP is the terminal voltage. If this load of
unity power factor is removed, keeping speed and excitation of the alternator constant, the
terminal voltage will rise to OB, whereas if the load is of lagging power-factor, the terminal
voltage will rise to OC. For leading power- factor load, terminal voltage however will fall to
OA. It can be noticed that the change of terminal voltage from full-load to no-load is more in
case of lagging or leading power-factor load as compared to unity power-factor load. This is
because of the demagnetizing or magnetizing effect of armature reaction on the main field flux.
The variation of terminal voltage from no-load to full-load expressed per unit or percentage of
full-load voltage is called regulation of a synchronous generator. The per unit regulation of a
Generator is expressed as:

Figure: Variation of terminal voltage of a synchronous generator at different power

factor loads
Per unit regulation:

= (Change of terminal voltage from NL to FL)/ FL terminal voltage)

= (OB – OP)/ OP = BP/OP at unity pf load

= (OC – OP)/ OP = CP/OP at lagging pf load

31
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

= (OA – OP)/ OP = AP/OP at leading pf load

It can be noticed that at leading power-factor load, the regulation is negative. Since Regulation of
an alternator depends on the load and the load power-factor, it is, therefore, necessary to mention
power factor also while expressing regulation at a particular load.

An expression for voltage regulation is derived from the phasor diagram of a loaded synchronous
generator at a lagging power-factor load shown in the figure below.

Figure: Phasor diagram of a Synchronous Generator at lagging power factor load

From the triangle OQD of figure above we can see that:

OD2 = (OQ)2 +(QD)2

= (OP+PQ)2 + (QC+CD)2
Or E2 = (V Cos φ + IaRa)2 + ( V Sin φ +IaXs)2
Or E = √*(V Cos φ + IaRa)2 + ( V Sin φ +IaXs)2]

No-load voltage, E corresponding to a particular load current Ia can be calculated

if the values of terminal voltage on load, load power-factor angle, armature

32
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

resistance Ra and synchronous reactance Xs are known.

For a leading power-factor load, the expression for E can be similarly derived and can be
expressed as:

E = √ *(V Cos φ + IaRa)2 + ( V Sin φ - IaXs)2]

Thus, in general, the expression for no-load voltage E can be written as,

E = √ *(V Cos φ + IaRa)2 + (V Sin φ +IaXs)2]

Where, + sign is for lagging power-factor load and, – sign is for leading power factor load.

Determination of Regulation of a Synchronous Generator:

Commercial generators are manufactured in ratings as high as 500 MVA. To determine voltage
regulation directly, such high capacity generators are to be loaded. Loading of such generators
to determine their regulation or efficiency in the test laboratory will be a difficult task.
Moreover, the prime mover required for driving such a generator may not be available in the
test laboratory. It is, therefore, a common practice to test such large machines indirectly by
simulating the load conditions.
Such indirect methods will consume only a small amount of power as compared to the power
consumed in direct loading method.
We will study the three important methods of determining regulation of an alternator.

Determination of Voltage Regulation by Synchronous Impedance Method:

In this method of determination of regulation, two tests are required to be per formed on the
machine, namely the open-circuit test and the short-circuit test. Open-circuit test is performed
by running the alternator on no-load and at rated speed. The terminal voltage on no-load is

33
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

measured at different values of excitation current. The relationship between no-load voltage and
excitation current gives the open-circuit characteristics (OCC).
Figure: Open circuit and Short circuit test setup for an Alternator

Short-circuit test is performed by running the alternator at rated speed. Keeping the output
terminals short-circuited through an ammeter, reduced excitation current is allowed to flow
through the field winding. The relationship between armature current, Ia and the field current
If gives the short-circuit characteristics (SCC). Test setup for conducting Open circuit and
short circuit tests are shown in the figure below.

The OCC and SCC of an alternator are shown in the figure below.

At any particular value of If the ratio of open-circuit voltage and short-circuit armature current
gives the synchronous impedance Zs. Referring to the above figure, Fig. 5.31 at a field current of
say OA, the induced emf is AB. With this excitation, if the armature terminals are short-circuited,
a current AC will flow through the armature windings. The emf induced, AB on open circuit is
regarded as being responsible for circulating a short-circuit current of AC through the synchronous
impedance of the winding. Thus the value of synchronous impedance Zs at this excitation is given
by:

Zs = OC Voltage/SC Current (at the same excitation)

= [ A B (V)/ AC (A ) + Ω
To calculate per-phase value of Zs, the values of emf and current should be taken as their per-
phase values. Because of the non-linear nature of the OCC, the ratio of open-circuit voltage and
short-circuit current at various values of excitation currents are different. If the values of Zs at
different excitation are calculated and plotted, we will get a curve for Zs as shown in the above
figure. It is seen that at lower values of excitation current, the value of Zs, is more than its value

34
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

at higher excitations. We know that:

E = √ *(V Cos φ + IaRa)2 + (V Sin φ +IaXs)2]

So to find out E we need to have the values of Ra and Xs. The dc resistance Ra of the stator
winding can be directly measured by ammeter-voltmeter method. Then AC resistance is
calculated multiplying DC resistance by a factor of 1.5. The synchronous reactance XS can be
calculated from the relation: XS =√ Z 2 - R 2.
After calculating E, % Regulation can be calculated as: S a

% Regulation = [(E-V)/V] x 100

We know that under short-circuit test, small amount of field current is necessary to circulate full
load current through the winding. The induced emf corresponding to this excitation is small. The
value of synchronous impedance calculated from open-circuit and short circuit test data is,
therefore, more than its value under actual loading condition.
The regulation calculated using this value of synchronous impedance will, therefore, be more
(poorer) than the actual value of regulation. Hence this method gives a very pessimistic result.
Example 1: In a 2000 V. single-phase synchronous generator, a full-load current of 100 A is
produced on short-circuit by a field excitation of 2.5 and an emf of 500 V is produced on open-
circuit by the same excitation. The armature resistance is 0.8
W. Determine the voltage regulation when the generator is delivering a current of 100 A at (a)
unity power factor, (b) 0.71 power factor lagging; and (c) 0.8 power factor leading.

35
Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

36
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Voltage Regulation by MMF Method:

This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere- turn method or
Rothert's M.M.F. method. This method is also based on the results of open circuit test and
short circuit test on an alternator like Synchronous impedance method.

In mmf (magneto motive force) method, the mmf required to produce an emf of E’ = V + IaRa
is obtained by adding vectorially IaRa drop to the terminal voltage V. The mmf in terms of field
current to get this voltage is found out from the OCC. From the short circuit characteristic, the
field current necessary to send rated armature current is determined. The mmf representing this
field current is assumed to be necessary to send rated current through the armature leakage
reactance and at the same time overcome armature reaction.
These mmfs or ampere-turns are produced by field currents say If1 and If2 respectively. If1 is
found out from OCC and If2 is found out from SCC as shown in the figure (a) below.

If1 produces E’ which lags behind If1 by 90°. If2 produces an emf which will be able to
circulate the rated current through the armature on short circuit. This emf is equal to the voltage
drop in the armature due to synchronous reactance and hence is drawn in phase opposition to Ia.

The phasor sum of If1 and If2 gives the total field current If required to induce an

37
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

emf E. The value of E corresponding to If is found from the OCC and voltage regulation is
calculated as: %Voltage regulation = [(E - V)/V] x 100

Figure: (a) OCC and SCC of a Synchronous Generator (b) Phasor diagram for determining
resultant field current.

Step by step procedure for calculation of voltage regulation by mmf method is given below.
1. Open-circuit & Short Circuit tests are conducted and OCC & SCC are drawn just like in EMF
method.
2. Armature resistance is measured by ammeter-voltmeter method by applying a low voltage
DC. Then AC resistance RA is calculated as 1.5 times the DC resistance.
3. The procedure basically involves reading the data from the OCC &SCC and then drawing the
Phasor diagram step by step alternately.
4. Armature rated voltage V is drawn to scale as reference phasor in the phasor diagram. Let us
assume that regulation is required to be calculated at an armature current of Ia and power factor
angle of φ . Then phasor Ia is drawn making a lag angle of φ with the V-axis. Then Ia Ra drop
is added vectorially (in phase with Ia) to V to get the no load induced voltage E’. For this
voltage E’ to be induced the required field current If1 is read from the OCC. This value of If1
is drawn to scale such that the induced emf E’ lags If1 by 90° (see phasor diagram in figure b
above).
5. The field current If2 required to circulate the rated current through the armature on short-
circuit is read from the SCC. This is the field current required to induce an emf which will
balance the synchronous reactance voltage drop, Ia Xs. Then If2 is drawn to scale in phase
opposition to Ia. Then finally the resultant of If1
and If2 is drawn to give If as shown in the phasor diagram.
6. From the phasor diagram using the field current scale factor, If is obtained in amperes. From
the OCC the value of induced emf E corresponding to this net field

38
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

current of If is read. Using this value of emf E and the rated terminal voltage V,
voltage regulation is calculated using the formula

%Voltage regulation = [ (E - V )/V ] x 100

The value of regulation found out by mmf method is lower than the actual regulation of the
alternator and hence is an Optimistic method.

Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Method:

This method is also called Potier method. In the operation of any alternator, the armature
resistance drop IaRa, and armature leakage reactance drop IaXL are actually e.m.f. quantities
while the armature reaction is basically a m.m.f. quantity. In the synchronous impedance method
all the quantities are treated as
e.m.f. quantities where as in M.M.F method all are treated as m.m.f. quantities. Hence in both the
methods, we are away from the true value.

This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance and armature reaction
effects into emf and mmf quantities respectively. The armature leakage reactance XL , is called
Potier reactance in this method, hence this method is also called Potier reactance method.

To determine armature leakage reactance and armature reaction m.m.f. separately, the following
two tests are to be performed on the given alternator.

1. Open circuit test

2. Zero power factor test
The single experimental setup to perform both these tests is shown in the figure below.

The open circuit characteristic giving the relationship between induced emf E and the field
current If on no-load at rated speed is obtained from the open circuit test exactly in the same
steps as in EMF and MMF tests and is given below for quick reference.

39
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Figure: Experimental setup for ZPF method

The switch S is kept open.

1. The alternator is driven by its prime mover at its synchronous speed and maintained
constant throughout the test
2. The excitation is varied in definite number of steps with the help of the potential divider,
from zero until rated terminal voltage is exceeded. The open circuit e.m.f. is measured
with the help of voltmeter. The readings are tabulated.
3. From this data the OCC of the alternator i.e plot of induced EMF E versus If is plotted

Zero Power Factor Test

ZPF test gives data to get a graph of terminal voltage against excitation when delivering full
load zero power factor current.

By closing the switch S a purely inductive load (with a power factor of Cos 90 0 i.e., zero PF
lagging) gets connected to the alternator through an ammeter. The machine speed is
maintained constant at its synchronous value. The load current delivered by the alternator to such a
purely inductive load is maintained constant at its rated full load value by varying excitation and by
adjusting variable inductance of the inductive load.
In this test, there is no need to obtain number of points to obtain the ZPF curve. Only two points
are enough to construct the zero power factor saturation curve as explained below.
One point for this curve is zero terminal voltage (short circuit condition) and the field current
required delivering full load short circuit armature current. This point is obtained from the SCC
(Short Circuit Characteristic which is also required to be plotted along with OCC). The other
point is the field current required to obtain rated terminal voltage while delivering the rated full
load armature current to the Inductive load. With the help of these two points the ZPF saturation

40
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

curve can be obtained and plotted along with OCC and SCC as shown in the figure below.

Figure above shows the OCC, SCC and ZPF characteristics. Important properties and the data
that can be obtained from the above characteristics are given below.
1. Distance OA represents the field current required for flow of rated armature current when the
terminal voltage is zero (obtained from Short circuit test)
2. Point b on ZPFC corresponds to the terminal voltage at a field current of If when the
alternator is supplying rated current at zero power factor inductive load.
3. The distance ab is equal to distance OA(and both are parallel). Line ac is drawn from point a
parallel to the air gap line to touch the OCC at point c. Then point c and b are joined.
Triangle abc is called the Potier triangle.
4. Drop a perpendicular from point c to ab meeting at point d. The vertical distance cd of the
Potier triangle represents the leakage reactance drop IaXL. Distance db represents the field
current required to oppose the armature reaction mmf. Distance ad represents the field
current required to overcome leakage reactance voltage drop IaXs.
5. From the Potier triangle, therefore leakage reactance of the armature is calculated as: XL=
[Voltage drop per phase (distance cd)]/[Rated armature current per phase]

It is not necessary to draw the complete ZPFC by taking several readings. If we slide the Potier

41
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

triangle abc downwards such that the point c always rests on the OCC, then the locus of point b
becomes the ZPF Characteristic.

A step by step procedure for drawing the OCC, SCC & ZPF characteristics while
simultaneously drawing the phasor diagram and then calculation of voltage regulation using
Potier triangle method (ZPF Method) is given below.

1. Draw the open circuit characteristic by choosing a suitable scale for rated terminal voltage V
and the field current If. The voltage should be the per phase value.
2. Choosing an appropriate scale factor for armature current Ia draw the SCC also on the same
plot such that both plots can be seen as in the figure above.
3. OA is marked on If axis representing the field current required on short circuit to drive the
rated armature current.
4. Another point b is located by taking the length of field current If and length of rated terminal
voltage required to drive the rated armature current into full- load zero power factor lagging
load (found from ZPF test).
5. Mark ab equal and parallel to OA. From point a draw a line parallel to the air- gap line
touching the OCC at point c.
6. Join c and b. Triangle abc is the Potier triangle. Drop a perpendicular from c to d onto the
line ab.Measure the distance cd and calculate the leakage reactance XL by considering the
voltage scale. Determine the value of Ra.
7. Calculate E’ = V + IaRa + j Ia XL (By phasor addition as shown in the Phasor diagram
below)
8. Corresponding to voltage E’ find the field current from the OCC, (which is Ifr in the figure
containing ZPF characteristics.Next draw the phasor Ifr leading E’ by 90°. Next draw Ia
lagging voltage V by the power factor angle φ. Then draw Ifar in phase opposition to Ia.
Draw the resultant field current If, by adding Ifr and Ifar vectorially.
9. From OCC find the value of E corresponding to If
10. Calculate percentage voltage regulation as:
% Voltage regulation = [(E-V)/V]x100

42
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Illustrative Examples:

Example 1: An armature of a three phase alternator has 120 slots The alternator has8 poles.
Calculate its distribution factor.

𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
Solution: n= = 120 = 15
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 8𝒏 15
m = Slots/Pole/Phase = = =5
𝖺 3
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 1800
β= 𝖺 = 15 = 120
𝖺𝖺𝖺(𝖺𝖺 5×12
sin )
∴ 𝖺) 2
= ( 12 = 𝖺. 𝖺𝖺𝖺
K =
d 𝖰
𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺( ) 5 ×sin ( )
𝖺 2

Example 2:In a 4 pole, 3 phase alternator, armature has 36 slots. It is using an armature
winding which is short pitched by one slot. Calculate its coil span factor.

𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 36
Solution: n= = =9
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 4
β= = 20 0
𝖺

43
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Now coil is shorted by 1 slot i.e. by 200 to full pitch distance.

∴ α = Angle of short pitch = 200

∴ Kc = Cos (α/2)= Cos (200/2) = 𝖺. 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺

Example 3:An Armature runs at 250 r.p.m. and generates an e.m.f. at 50 Hz. There are 216 slots
each containing 5 conductors. The winding is distributed and full pitch. All the conductors of
each phase are in series and flux per pole is 30 mWb which is sinusoidal distributed. If the
winding is star connected, determine the value of induced e.m.f. available across the terminals.

Solution:
120𝖺Ns =250 r.p.m., f = 50 Hz
120 ×50
N = i.e. 250 =
s
𝖺 𝖺
∴ Number of poles P = 24
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
∴ n = 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 24
𝖺
216
= =9
∴ m= =3
3

𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 180
∴ β= = 0
𝖺 0 = 20

9
We know that the distribution factor Kd is given by:
𝖺𝖺 3 ×20
sin ( ) sin ( )
Kd = 2
= 2 = 0.9597
𝛽 2)
𝖺 sin ( ) 3 ×sin (02
2
Kc = 1 as winding is full pitch.
Total number of conductors Z = 216 × 5 = 1080
∴ Z = 𝖺 = 1080 = 360
ph 𝖺 3
360
Tp = = = 𝖺𝖺𝖺........... (2 conductors → turn)
𝖺𝖺ℎ 2
h 2
We know that Eph= 4.44 KcKd f ∅ Tph
= 4.44 ×1 × 0.9597 × 50 ×30 × 10-3x 180
= 1150.48 V
Eline = √3 Eph

44
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

= √3 × 1150.48 = 1992.70 V.

Example 4: A 3 phase, 16 Pole, star connected alternator has 144 slots on the armature
periphery. Each slot contains 10 conductors. It is driven at 375 r.p.m. The line value of e.m.f.
available across the terminals is observed to be 2.657 KV. Find the frequency of the induced
e.m.f and flux per pole.

Solution: Number of Poles P = 16, Ns = 375 r.p.m., Slots

= 144, Conductor/Slots = 10, Eline= 2.657 Kv
120𝖺 120 ×𝖺
Ns = i.e. 375 =
𝖺 16
∴ f = 50 Hz
Assuming full pitch winding, Kc = 1
∴ n= 144
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺 = =9
𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
𝖺
16
∴ m = 3= 3
1800 1800
∴ 𝖺 0

45
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

= = = 20
𝖺 9

46
Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

𝖺𝖺

47
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

3 ×20 2 2
( ) sin ( ) sin We know that the distribution factor Kd is given by: Kd =
𝛽
= 20 3 ×sin ( ) = 0.959 sin ( ) 2
2

Total conductors = Slots × Conductors / Slot

i.e. Z = 144 × 10 = 1440

∴ Zph =𝖺 = 1440 = 480

𝖺 𝖺 3
480
T = 𝖺𝖺 = = 240
ph 22.657
𝖺 𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺𝖺
E = = = 1.534 𝖺𝖺
ph √3 √3
Using the above values in the equation for EMF we get : Eph = 4.44 KCKd f ∅ Tph
1.534 × 103 = 4.44 × 1 × 0.9597 × 50 ×∅ × 240
From which we get: ∅ = (1.534 × 103)/( 4.44 × 1 × 0.9597 × 50 ×240)
∅ = 0.03 Wb = 30 mWb

Important questions:

1. Compare and contrast the technical features of Synchronous Generators with

(i) Induction Generators and (ii) DC Generators.
2. (a) Explain the basic principle of operation and construction details of 3 φ Synchronous
Generators.
(b) What are the advantages of Stationary Armature and Rotating Field system as compared
to Stationary field and Rotating Armature System in a Synchronous Generator?
3. With the help of neat sketches explain the two types of Rotor Construction, their advantages
vs. disadvantages and applications.
4. (a)Explain with the help of a neat sketch how a Brushless exciter system works.
(b) What is a pilot exciter and how it works along with a brush less exciter.
5. With the help of simple sketches explain the following terms pertaining to Armature
windings in a Synchronous Generator :
(a) Pole pitch &Slot angle (β): (b)Single Layer and Double Layer Winding (c)Full Pitch
and Short Pitch Winding (d) Concentrated and Distributed Winding
(e) Integral & Fractional Slot Winding.

6. Derive an expression for the EMF generated in a Synchronous generator assuming full pitch
and concentrated winding.
7. Define the terms (a) Pitch or Coil Span factor &(b) Distribution factor in Synchronous
Generators and derive their expressions with relevant figures.

48
 Unit-3: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Then give the generalized EMF equation including the effects of short pitch and
distributed winding.
8. Explain in detail the terms Armature reaction, leakage reactance, synchronous reactance and
Synchronous Impedance in a Synchronous Generator.
9. Draw the equivalent circuit of a Synchronous Generator and also the phasor diagrams with
(i) Lagging Pf Load (ii) Unity Pf Load (iii) Leading Pf Load
10. Explain what are Load Characteristics & Voltage regulation of a Synchronous Generator.
11. Explain in detail the determination of Voltage regulation by the following three
important Methods:
(i) Synchronous Impedance or EMF method
(ii) MMF method
(iii) Zero Power Factor Method
12. All the above worked out illustrative problems.

49
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

UNIT-IV

PARALLEL OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

 Synchronizing Alternators with Infinite Bus bars

 Synchronizing Power / Torque
 Parallel operation and Load sharing
 Effect of change of Excitation and Mechanical power input.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

 Theory of operation- phasor diagrams

 Variation of current and power factor with excitation
 Synchronous condenser
 Hunting and its suppression
 Methods of starting

 Important Questions

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Introduction:

For a clear understanding of the parallel operation of Generators the concept of Power Angle
&Torque Angle and operation of Synchronous Generators alone is to be understood first. Hence
these topics are covered first before dealing with Parallel operation of Synchronous Generators.

Power Angle and Torque Angle in Synchronous Generators:

A synchronous generator is a synchronous machine used as a generator. It converts mechanical

power to three-phase electrical power. The source of mechanical power, the prime mover, may
be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, a water turbine, or any similar device. Whatever the source,
it must have the basic property that its speed is almost constant regardless of the power
demand. If that were not so, then the resulting power system’s frequency would vary..
All the mechanical power going into a synchronous generator does not become electrical power
out of the machine. The difference between input power and output power represents the losses
of the machine. The power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator is shown in the figure
below.

Figure: The power-flow diagram of a Synchronous Generator.

The input mechanical power which is the shaft power in the generator given by:
Pin = τapp.ωm

2
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

while the power converted from mechanical to electrical form internally is given by: Pcon =
τind. ωm = 3EaIacosγ

where 'γ’ is the phase angle between Ea and Ia. The difference between the input power to the
generator and the power converted in the generator represents the mechanical, core, and stray
losses of the machine.
The Real (Pout) and Reactive (Q) electrical output power of the synchronous generator can be
expressed in phase quantities as:
Pout = 3VφIacos Ɵ …. (1)
Qout = 3VφIasin Ɵ …. (2)
where Ɵ is the phase angle between the phase voltage Vφ and the armature current Ia.
If the armature resistance Ra is ignored (since Xs>> Ra), then a very useful relation can be
derived to approximate the output power of the generator. To derive this relation, refer the phasor
diagram shown in the figure below which shows a simplified phasor diagram of a generator with
the stator resistance ignored.
Figure: Simplified Phasor diagram with armature resistance ignored.

Notice that the vertical segment bc can be expressed as EASin δ or XSIACos Ɵ.

Therefore:
IA Cos Ɵ = EA Sin δ / XS
And substituting this in the above equation for power output Pout = 3VφIacos Ɵ we get :
P = (3Vφ EA Sin δ) / XS …… ( 3)

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Since we have assumed the resistances to be negligible there are no electrical losses in the
generator and the above equation for P stands good for both Pcon and Pout.
The above equation (3) shows that the power produced by a synchronous generator depends on
the angle δ between Vφ and EA. The angle δ is known as the Power angle of the machine. The
variation of Power and Torque as a function of δ is shown in the figure below . Notice also that
the maximum power that the generator can supply occurs when δ = 900. At δ = 90°, sin δ = I, and
Pmax = (3Vφ EA) / XS

Figure: Power/torque-angle characteristic of a cylindrical rotor type Synchronous

Generator

The maximum power indicated by this equation is called the static stability limit of the
generator. Normally, real generators never even come close to this limit. Full-load torque angles
of 15 to 20° are more typical of real machines.

Now take another look at Equations (1), (2) and (3) we find that if Vφ is assumed to be constant,
then the real power output is directly proportional to Iacos Ɵ and the reactive power output is
directly proportional to Ia sin Ɵ. These facts are useful in plotting phasor diagrams of
synchronous generators as loads change.
An alternative expression for the induced torque in a synchronous generator can be derived from
the above equation for power converted (3).
Because Pconv = τind . ωm the induced torque can be expressed as:

τind = (3Vφ EA Sin δ) / (ωm XS) -- (4)

4
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

This expression describes the induced torque in terms of electrical quantities where as the
equation: τind = k.BR.Bnet Sin δ gives the same information in terms of magnetic flux
densities. In this context we should know that the same δ which is now the phase angle between
the Rotor flux density BR and the net flux density Bnet in the stator is called Torque angle. As
can be seen in the same above figure Torque also becomes maximum when δ = 900

The synchronous generator operating alone:

The power input to an alternator is applied by a prime mover, which in most cases is a steam
turbine. This input is directly proportional to the electrical output. If output is increased, more
power must be developed by the prime mover, otherwise, speed will drop. If speed drops, there
will be a drop in output voltage and frequency. On the other hand, if by increasing the prime
mover steam supply, input power is increased without increasing the electrical output, the speed
of the set will increase. Increase in speed will cause increase in terminal voltage and frequency.
It is rare to find a synchronous generator supplying its own load independently. For emergency
power supply requirement, small synchronous generators driven by diesel engines are used.

The performance of a synchronous generator under load varies greatly depending on the power
factor of the load and on whether the generator is operating alone or in parallel with other
synchronous generators. In this section, we will study the behavior of synchronous generators
operating alone. Here the concepts are illustrated with simplified phasor diagrams ignoring the
effect of RA. Unless otherwise stated, the speed of the generators is assumed to be constant, and
all terminal characteristics are drawn assuming constant speed. Also, the rotor flux in the
generators is assumed constant unless their field current is explicitly changed.

The Effect of Load Changes on a Synchronous Generator Operating Alone:

To understand the operating characteristics of a synchronous generator operating alone, examine

a generator supplying a load. A diagram of a single generator supplying a load is shown in the
figure below.

5
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Figure: A Single Generator supplying a load.

An increase in the load is an increase in the real and/or reactive power drawn from the generator.
Such a load increase increases the load current drawn from the generator. Because the field
resistor has not been changed, the field current is constant, and therefore the flux φ is constant.
Since the prime mover also keeps a constant speed ω, the magnitude of the internal
generated voltage Ea = K φ ω is constant.
If Ea is constant, then, what does vary with a changing load? The way to find out is to construct
phasor diagrams showing an increase in the load, keeping the constraints on the generator in
mind.
First, let us examine a generator operating at a lagging power factor. If more load is added at the
same power factor, then |Ia| increases but remains at the same angle Ɵ with respect to Vφ as
before. Therefore, the armature reaction voltage jXsIa is larger than before but at the same angle.
Now since
Ea = Vφ+ jXsIa
jXsIa must stretch between Vφ at an angle of 0° and Ea, which is constrained to be of the same
magnitude as before the load increase. If these constraints are plotted on a phasor diagram, there
is one and only one point at which the armature reaction voltage can be parallel to its original
position while increasing in size. The resulting plot is shown in the figure a below.
If the constraints are observed, then it is seen that as the load increases, the voltage Vφ decreases
rather sharply.
Now suppose the generator is loaded with unity-power-factor loads. With the same constraints as
before, it can be seen that this time Vφ decreases only slightly (see figure-b).

Finally, let the generator be loaded with leading-power-factor load. If new loads are added at the
same power factor this time, the armature reaction voltage lies

6
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

outside its previous value, and Vφ actually rises (see figure c). In this last case, an increase in the
load in the generator produced an increase in the terminal voltage.

Figure: The effect of an increase in generator loads at constant power factor upon its
terminal voltage (a) Lagging power factor (b) unity power factor (c) leading power factor

General conclusions from this discussion of synchronous generator behavior are:

I. If lagging loads (+Q or inductive reactive power loads) are added to a generator,
Vφ and the terminal voltage VT decrease significantly.

2. If unity-power-factor loads (no reactive power) are added to a generator, there

7
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

is a slight decrease in Vφ and the terminal voltage.

3. If leading loads (- Q or capacitive reactive power loads) are added to a generator,

Vφ and the terminal voltage will rise.

Normally, it is desirable to keep the voltage supplied to a load constant, even though the load
itself varies. To maintain the terminal voltage constant the obvious approach is to vary the
magnitude of EA, to compensate for changes in the load. Recall that Ea = K φ ω. Since the
frequency should not be changed in a normal system, EA can be controlled by varying the flux
in the machine.
For example, suppose that a lagging load is added to a generator. Then the terminal voltage will
fall, as was previously shown. To restore it to its previous level the field current is to be
increased. An increase in If increases the flux, which in turn increases EA and an increase in EA
increases the phase and terminal voltage.

The process can be reversed to decrease the terminal voltage. It is possible to regulate the
terminal voltage of a generator throughout a series of load changes simply by adjusting the field
current.

Synchronous Generators connected in parallel to an Infinite Bus:

It is an established practice these days to connect a number of synchronous generators in parallel

to supply a common load. In power stations, instead of having one large capacity generator, a
number of smaller units are installed and their output terminals connected in parallel. Moreover,
for a variety of reasons, large number of stations in a country are interconnected through
transmission and distribution lines and such a system is known as a Power Grid. All the
synchronous generators of the system, therefore, work in parallel which is equivalent to a very
large synchronous machine. Similarly all the electrical loads of the consumers are connected in
parallel and form a very large variable load.

A supply system bus-bar with a large number of synchronous generators connected in parallel is
referred to as an infinite bus-bar. Any additional machine, whether to work as a generator or as a
motor is connected in parallel with the system. The characteristics of an infinite bus-bar
system are constant terminal voltage, constant bus-bar frequency and very small synchronous
impedance (since a large number of generators are in parallel).There are a number of advantages
of connecting alternators in parallel to such an infinite bus-bar system.

Synchronizing Power & Torque:

A Synchronous Generator when synchronized to an infinite bus will tend to remain in

synchronism for limited electrical and mechanical disturbances. The power angle characteristic
of a cylindrical rotor synchronous generator is governed by the expression:

8
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Assume that the generator is supplying a load of P0 with a load angle δ. Any sudden change of
load on the generator will cause a momentary retardation of the rotor thereby increasing the load
angle by Δδ. This increase in δ will cause an increase in power output by ΔP which in turn will
cause the rotor to oppose the increase in δ. The reverse will happen when δ will tend to decrease.
The rotor will settle at its original load angle δ in an oscillatory manner. Therefore, ΔP caused by
Δδ is the power that brings the machine back to its stable mode of operation.

The ratio dP/dδ is called the synchronising power coefficient or stiffness of the electromagnetic
coupling and is an indicator of the capability of the synchronous machine to stay in synchronism
i.e. the power required to correct a unit phase change is called synchronizing power and is given
by:
Synchronising Power:

Synchronising power gives rise to a synchronising torque which is the Torque required to correct a
unit phase change and given by:

Synchronising Torque:

From the expression for synchronising power, it is observed that Psyn is directly proportional to
E and inversely proportional to synchronous reactance XS. Machines with over excitation and
small value of XS will have high value of synchronizing power. Further, when value of δ is zero,
Psyn is maximum and when δ is nearly 90° there is hardly any synchronising power or restoring
action to counter the disturbances.

Machine Floats on a Bus-Bar: When synchronised, the generated emf of the incoming machine
is just equal to the bus-bar voltage. The synchronous machine will be just floating on the bus-bar,
i.e., it will neither deliver nor receive any power. The prime mover driving the machine will be
supplying the no-load losses only.
Once a synchronous machine is synchronised, it will tend to remain in step with the other
alternators. Any tendency to depart from the above condition is opposed by a synchronising
torque (as explained above) developed due to a circulating current flowing through the
alternators. The alternator, which due to some disturbances tends to speed up will develop a
circulating current and power will flow from this alternator to the others, thereby having a
loading effect on this advancing alternator. This will bring retarding action on its rotor and thus

9
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

put it back in step with the other alternators. On the other hand, if any alternator tends to retard,
power will flow from the other alternators to this alternator and the synchronising torque will
tend to keep this machine in synchronism with the others.

Parallel Connection & Synchronizing of Alternators:

Before a synchronous generator is connected to a common infinite bus bar or a Power Grid or a
Set of already running Generators to share the load it should be ensured that the following
conditions are satisfied. Achieving the compliance of these conditions and then only adding an
incoming Generator to the existing set nof Generators/Power Grid is called Synchronization of
the new Generator with the already running Generators.

Advantages of Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators:

The following are the advantages of connecting a large number of synchronous generators in
parallel to supply a common load:
(a) Repair and maintenance of individual generators can be carried out effectively maintaining
the continuity of supply by properly scheduling maintenance of generators one after the other. If
only one large generator is installed, supply is to be cut off for maintenance work.
(b) For operating an alternator at maximum efficiency it is to be run near to its full-load
capacity. It is uneconomical to operate large alternators on low loads. If several small units are
used, units can be added or put off depending upon the load requirement and thus the units can
be operated at or near to their rated capacity.
(c) Additional sets can be connected in parallel to meet the increasing demand, thereby reducing
the initial capital cost of buying larger units in anticipation of increasing demands.
(d) There is physical and economic limit to the possible capacity of alternators that can be built.
The demand of a single power station may be as high as 1200 MVA. It may not be feasible to
build a single alternator of such a high rating due to physical and economic considerations.
(e) Having many generators increases the reliability of the power system, since the failure of
anyone of them does not cause a total power loss to the load.

Conditions for Parallel Connection or Synchronization:

For satisfactory parallel connection of alternators, the following three conditions must be fulfilled:
(a) The generated voltage of the incoming alternator to be connected in parallel with a bus-bar
should be equal to the bus-bar voltage.
Generated voltage of the incoming alternator can be adjusted by adjusting the field excitation.

10
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

(b) Frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator should be equal to the bus-bar
frequency.
Frequency of the incoming alternator can be controlled and made equal to bus-bar frequency by
controlling the speed of the prime mover driving the incoming alternator.
(c) Phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of the
bus-bar.

Phase sequence of the alternator and the bus-bar can be checked by a phase sequence indicator.
Alternatively, a three lamps setup as shown in the figure below can be used for checking the
phase sequence.

Figure: Three lamp method of checking the phase sequence of an alternator

Three lamps L1, L2 and L3 are connected as shown in the figure. When the synchronous
generator is run at rated speed if all the lamps glow together and become dark together then the
phase sequence of the incoming alternator is same as that of the bus-bar. Once the three
conditions mentioned earlier are satisfied, the incoming alternator can be switched on to the bus
bar at the instant when the voltages of the incoming generator and the bus-bar are in exact
phase. For this purpose the two commonly used methods are described as follows.

1. A simple way is to observe the same three light bulb setup described above for checking the
phase sequence. When all the three light bulbs become dark , the voltage difference across them
is zero and the systems are in phase. This simple scheme works, but it is not very accurate. A
better approach is to employ a synchroscope.

11
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

2. A synchroscope is a meter that measures the difference in phase angle between the two sides
of the same Phase (R1R2, Y1Y2 or B1B2 ) of the two systems. The face of a synchroscope is
shown in the above figure. The dial shows the phase difference between any of the phase pairs
mentioned above with 00 (meaning in phase at the top and 1800 at the bottom). Since the
frequencies of the two systems are slightly different, the phase angle on the meter changes
slowly.

If the incoming generator frequency is higher than the running system (the desired situation),
then the phase angle advances and the synchroscope needle rotates clockwise. If the incoming
machine frequency is lower, the needle rotates counterclockwise. When the synchroscope needle
is in the vertical position, the voltages are in phase, and the switch can be closed to connect the
systems.

Figure: Front Panel of a Synchroscope

Notice that a synchroscope checks the relationship of phase angle on both sides of only one
phase. It gives no information about phase sequence.

Active and Reactive Load Sharing:

A Synchronous Generator after synchronisation just floats on the bus-bar as explained above. It
neither delivers power nor receives power. When a generator is connected in parallel, it just
shares a portion of the total load depending upon its kVA rating. We shall examine how load
sharing of alternators running in parallel can be achieved. We will study the effect of change of
excitation and that of prime-mover input.

Effect of Change of Excitation:

For DC generators, load sharing between a number of machines running in parallel can be
achieved by adjusting their excitations. For synchronous generators, change of excitation, i.e.,
change of field current does not change the active power shared by them. Change of excitation
only changes the reactive power supplied by each machine. This is explained with the help of a
phasor diagram shown below. In this figure, VB represents the bus-bar voltage and Ein is the
voltage induced in the incoming machine. Since the incoming machine is connected in parallel,
these two voltages are opposing each other as shown. When excitation of the incoming machine

12
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

is changed to E’in it will cause a resultant voltage, ER to appear which will cause a current Is
to flow from the machine to the bus-bar, i.e., to the load. Current Is will lag ER by about 90°,
because the synchronous reactance of the machine is much higher than its resistance. IL is the
current supplied to the load from the bus-bar and the total per phase power supplied is VB IL
cos φL.

Figure: Effect of change of excitation of a synchronous machine connected in parallel

with the bus-bar

Now the current supplied from the bus-bar is changed to IL’ since the incoming machine is
supplying a reactive current, IS. Since VB is constant, active load power is proportional to the
length OC. The active power supplied by the existing machines connected to the bus-bar has not
changed, i.e., the IL cos φL has remained equal to IL’ cos φL’. Change of excitation of the
incoming machine has only changed the reactive power delivered by the existing machines.

Effect of Change of Prime mover Input:

If the input to the prime mover of the incoming generator is increased, it will start sharing the
load while remaining in synchronism with the existing alternators connected to the bus-bar.
Control of active power shared between the alternators is achieved by changing the input to their
prime movers. Change in the input to prime movers in a thermal power station is achieved by a
change of throttle opening and thus allowing more or less steam into the turbine, whereas in a
hydel power station prime mover input is controlled by controlling the water inlet into the water
turbine.
Let the prime mover input to the incoming alternator be increased. This will move the generated
EMF phasor Ein forward as shown in the figure below.

13
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Figure: Effect of change of prime mover input to Synchronous Generator connected in

parallel with the bus-bar

Let E’ in be the new position of the generated EMF of the incoming alternator. The resultant
voltage ER will now cause a current IS which has a strong in-phase component with the
voltage. Thus the incoming machine will supply active power to the load. The IL’ will be the
new load current supplied by the existing alternators, which has an active component represented
by OC’. Thus, there is a reduction of active power load on the existing generators due to the
sharing of active load by the incoming generator achieved by changing of prime mover input.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Theory of operation:

The basic concept of a synchronous motor is explained with the help of the figure below which
shows a two-pole Synchronous Motor. The field current IF of the motor produces a steady-state
magnetic field BR. A three-phase set of voltages is applied to the stator, which produces a three-
phase current flow in the armature windings. This current flow produces a uniform rotating
magnetic field BS.

So there are now two magnetic fields present in the machine, and the rotor field will tend to line
up with the stator field. Since the stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor magnetic field (and
the rotor itself) will constantly try to catch up with the rotating stator magnetic field. The larger
the angle between the two magnetic fields (up to a certain maximum value), the greater the

14
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

torque on the rotor of the machine. The basic principle of synchronous motor operation is that
the rotor "chases" the rotating stator magnetic field around in a circle, never quite catching up
with it but with the same speed.

Figure: A two pole Synchronous Motor

Since a Synchronous Motor is the same physical machine as a Synchronous Generator, all the
basic speed, power, and torque equations of synchronous Generators apply to Synchronous
Motors also.

Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Motor

A synchronous motor is the same in all respects as a synchronous generator, except that the
direction of power flow is reversed. Since the direction of power flow in the machine is reversed,
the direction of current flow in the stator of the motor also is expected to reverse. Therefore, the
equivalent circuit of a Synchronous Motor is exactly the same as the equivalent circuit of a
Synchronous Generator, except that the reference direction of IA is reversed. The resulting per
phase equivalent circuit of a Synchronous Motor is shown in the figure below. Like in
Generator, the three phases of the equivalent circuit may be either Y- or Δ connected.
Figure: Equivalent circuit

Because of the change in direction of IA, the Kirchhoff's voltage law equation for the equivalent
circuit changes as below with just a reversal of sign on the current term.

…………. (1)

Or .......................................................................... (2)

The Synchronous Motor Phasor Diagrams:

To better understand synchronous motor operation let us once again look at a synchronous
generator connected to an infinite bus. The generator has a prime mover turning its shaft,
causing it to rotate. The direction of the applied torque

Tapp from the prime mover is in the direction of motion, because the prime mover makes the

15
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

generator rotate in the first place.

The phasor diagram of the generator operating with a large field current is shown in the figure (a)
below along with the corresponding magnetic field diagram is shown in the figure(b) . As
described before, BR corresponds to (produces) EA , Bnet corresponds to (produces) Vφ, and
BS corresponds to EStat (= -jXSIA). The direction of rotation of both the phasor diagram and
magnetic field diagram is counterclockwise in the figure, following the standard mathematical
convention of increasing angle.

(a) Phasor diagram of a Synchronous Generator operating at a lagging power factor

(b) Corresponding magnetic field diagram.

The induced torque in the generator can be found from the magnetic field diagram. From the
fundamentals of AC Machines we know that the induced torque is given by:
Tind = k BR x Bnet ….. (3)

Tind = k BR x Bnet Sin δ …..

(4)

Notice from the magnetic field diagram that the induced torque in this machine is clockwise,
opposing the direction of rotation. In other words, the induced torque in the generator is a
counter torque, opposing the rotation caused by the external applied torque Tapp.

Now, suppose that, instead of turning the shaft in the direction of motion, the prime mover
suddenly loses power and starts to drag on (follow on) the machine’s shaft. Now the rotor slows
down because of the drag on its shaft and

falls behind the net magnetic field in the machine as shown in the figure below. As the rotor, and
therefore BR, slows down and falls behind Bnet, the operation of the machine suddenly changes.
By Equation (3) above when BR is behind Bnet the induced torque's direction reverses and
becomes counter clockwise. In other words, the machine's torque is now in the direction of
motion, and the machine is acting as a motor.

(a) Phasor diagram of a Synchronous Motor. (b) Corresponding magnetic field

diagram.

16
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

The increasing torque angle δ results in a larger and larger torque in the direction of rotation,
until eventually the motor's induced torque equals the load torque on its shaft. At that point, the
machine will be operating at steady state and synchronous speed again, but now as a motor.

If we look closely at the phasor diagrams corresponding to generator operation and motor
operation shown in the above figures we find that the quantity jXsIA points from Vφ, to EA, in
the generator and from EA to Vφ in the motor. The reason is that the reference direction of IA,
was reversed in the definition of the motor equivalent circuit. The basic difference between
motor and generator operation in synchronous machines can be seen both in the magnetic field
diagram and in the phasor diagram. In a generator, EA lies ahead of Vφ and BR lies ahead of
Bnet. In a motor, EA lies behind Vφ and BR lies behind Bnet. In a motor the induced torque is
in the direction of motion and in a generator the induced torque is a counter torque opposing the
direction of motion.

Steady-State Synchronous Motor operation:

This section explores the behavior of synchronous motors under varying conditions of load and
field current as well as power-factor correction with synchronous motors. In the following
studies, armature resistance of the motors is ignored for simplicity.

The Synchronous Motor Torque-Speed Characteristic Curve:

Synchronous motors supply power to loads that are basically constant-speed devices. They are
usually connected to power systems very much larger than the individual motors, so the power
systems appear as infinite buses to the motors. This means that the terminal voltage and the
system frequency will be constant regardless of the amount of power drawn by the motor. The
speed of rotation of the motor is locked to the applied electrical frequency, so the speed of the
motor will be constant regardless of the load. The resulting torque-speed characteristic curve is
shown in the figure below.

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Figure: The Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Synchronous Motor. Since the speed of the
Motor is constant, its speed regulation is ‘0’ percent

The steady-state speed of the motor is constant from no load up to the maximum torque that the
motor can supply (called the pullout torque). Hence the speed regulation of this motor is 0
percent. The torque equation is given by:

τmax = kBRBnet

τmax = (3VφEA)/ωmXS

These equations indicate that the larger the field current (and hence) the greater will be the
maximum torque of the motor. There is therefore a stability advantage in operating the motor
with a large field current or large EA.

The Effect of Load Changes on a Synchronous Motor:

If a load is attached to the shaft of a synchronous motor, the motor will develop enough torque to
keep the motor and its load turning at a synchronous speed. But now let us see what happens
when the load is changed on a synchronous motor.
To find out, let us examine a synchronous motor operating initially with a leading power factor,
as shown in the figure (a) below.

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

(a) Phasor diagram of a motor operating at a leading power factor

If the load on the shaft of the motor is increased, the rotor will initially slow down. As it does,
the torque angle δ becomes larger, and the induced torque increases. The increase in induced
torque speeds up the rotor back and the motor again turns at synchronous speed but with a larger
torque angle δ.

Let us now see how the phasor diagram looks like during this process. To find out, let us
examine the constraints on the machine during a load change. Figure (a) above shows the motor's
phasor diagram before the load is increased. The

internal generated voltage EA is equal to Kφω and so depends only on the field current in the
machine and the speed of the machine. The speed is constrained to be constant by the input
power supply, and since no one has touched the field circuit, the field current is constant as well.
Therefore, |EA| must be constant as the load changes. The distances proportional to power (EA
Sin δ and IA Cos φ) will increase, but the magnitude of EA must remain constant. As the load
increases, EA swings down in the manner shown in the figure (b) below.

Figure (b): The effect of an increase in load on the operation of a synchronous motor.

As EA swings down further and further, the quantity jXSIA has to increase to reach from the tip
of EA to Vφ , and therefore the armature current IA also increases. Notice that the power factor
angle φ also changes, becoming lesser and lesser leading initially until it becomes 00 and then
more and more lagging.

Effect of change of excitation on current and power factor of a Synchronous Motor driving a
constant load:

When the load on a synchronous motor is constant, the input power VφIAcos φ
drawn from the bus-bar will remain constant. As the bus-bar voltage Vφ (EA Sin δ)

is constant, IAcos φ will remain constant. Under this condition the effect of change of field
excitation on the armature current IA drawn by the motor and the power factor will be as
follows:

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Figure (a) below shows the phasor relationships between all the parameters viz.
Vφ,EA,IA,φ and δ initially with a lagging power factor.

(a) A synchronous motor operating at a lagging power factor

We know that an increase in field current increases the magnitude of EA but does not affect the
real power supplied by the motor. The power supplied by the motor changes only when the shaft
load torque changes. Let us understand this point with the help of the following phasor
diagram/explanation.
Since a change in IF does not affect the shaft speed nm and since the load attached to the shaft is
unchanged, the real power supplied is unchanged. But Vφ is also constant, since it is kept
constant by the power source supplying the motor.

The distances proportional to power on the phasor diagram [EA sin δ(Vφ) and IA cos φ
must therefore be constant. When the field current is increased, EA increases, but it can only do
so by sliding out along the line of constant power. This effect is shown in the figure (b) below.

(b) The effect of an increase in field current of this motor

Notice that as the value of IF increases, EA1 increases to EA2 and IA1 changes to IA2. The
magnitude of the armature current IA first decreases and then increases again. At low EA, the
armature current is lagging and it is consuming reactive power Q. As the field current is

20
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

increased, the armature current eventually lines up with Vφ corresponding to unity power factor
and then as the field current is increased further, the armature current becomes leading, and the
motor becomes a capacitive load. Effectively the motor is supplying reactive power Q to the
system.

Figure below shows the effect of increase and decrease of excitation on the magnitude and
power factor of the current drawn by the motor in the form of a characteristic at a particular
load. It is seen that when the excitation is increased the motor draws a leading current.

In the figure below,at normal excitation, power factor is unity. The magnitude of armature
current at this excitation is the minimum and is equal to OD. For excitation higher than the
normal excitation, the magnitude of armature current will increase and the power factor will be
leading. At excitation lower than the normal excitation, the magnitude of armature current will
again increase but the power factor will be lagging as has been shown in the figure.

Figure: Effect of change of excitation on armature current and power factor of a synchronous
Motor

The shape of the IA versus If characteristic is similar to the letter V of the english alphabet and
that is why this characteristic of synchronous motor is often referred to as synchronous motor V-
curve. A series of V-curves can be obtained at various loads on the motor keeping each load
constant at a particular value and changing the excitation from from under excitation to over
excitation as shown in the figure below.

Since an overexcited synchronous motor, also called a synchronous condenser, draws leading
power factor current, it can be used for power factor improvement in a power system (Power

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Grid).

Figure: Synchronous Motor ‘V’ curves

Synchronous condenser:

 An over excited synchronous motor without a shaft extension, i.e., without any load on its
shaft, used exclusively for power factor improvement in a power system, is called a
Synchronous Condenser.
 Since an overexcited synchronous motor, draws leading power factor current, it can be used
for power factor improvement in a power system (Power Grid).
 Installation of overexcited synchronous motors in parallel with the other loads will improve
the power factor of the power system.
 Since it drives no load, it develops little torque and hence has a very light frame (very small
size).
 Sometimes, an over excited Synchronous motor can be run with a small load also so that it
can provide power factor improvement to the power system and drive some essential
mechanical loads as well .
Let us refer to the ‘V’ curves of a Synchronous Motor i.e. a plot of IA versus IF
shown in the figure below to and explain how it works.

There are several ‘V’ curves drawn, corresponding to different real power levels. For each curve,
the minimum armature current occurs at unity power factor, when only real power is supplied to
the motor. For field currents less than the value giving minimum lA, the armature current is
lagging, consuming reactive power Q. For field currents greater than the value giving the
minimum lA, the armature current is leading, supplying Q to the power system just like a
capacitor.

Therefore, by controlling the field current of a synchronous motor, the reactive power supplied to
or consumed by the power system can be controlled.

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Figure: Synchronous Motor V curves

This can be better understood with reference to the phasor diagrams of a Synchronous motor shown
below with lagging and leading power factors.

(a) The phasor diagram of an under excited synchronous motor. (b) The phasor
diagram of an over excited synchronous motor.

 When the projection of the phasor EA onto Vφ (EA cos δ) is shorter than Vφ
itself, a synchronous motor has a lagging current and consumes reactive power
Q. Since the field current is small in this situation, the motor is said to be under excited.
 On the other hand, when the projection of EA onto Vφ is longer than Vφ itself, a
synchronous motor has a leading current and supplies reactive power Q to the power system.
Since the field current is large in this condition, the motor is said to be overexcited.

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Since now it is supplying reactive power to the Power system, it is working like a capacitor and
improving the power factor of the system.

Hunting and its suppression:

A synchronous motor will be subjected to oscillations in speed when it is suddenly loaded or

unloaded. The rotor speed changes momentarily until the torque angle δ adjusts itself to the new
output requirement. If the load increases, the rotor slips backwards to an increased torque angle
δ, while a load reduction causes the rotor to advance to a smaller torque angle position. But
because of the moment of inertia, the rotor overshoots the final position, slowing down or
speeding up more than the required value. Thus the rotor is subjected to periodic but momentary
speed changes while the rotor is attempting to adjust to a correct torque angle, the average speed
of the motor remaining constant. This quick forward and back ward motion of the rotor as it
rotates at the average constant speed is called “hunting”. The rotor is said to be hunting (i.e. in
search of) for the correct torque angle in response to the changing load conditions.
Such an oscillation in speed produces undesirable current and torque pulsation. However, the
squirrel cage winding made on the pole faces that provides the motor with its starting torque also
dampens the oscillation in speed. Since, the damper winding is short-circuited in itself, there
results a rotating mmf which in conjunction with the rotating field develops a damping torque,
thus minimising oscillation.
The damper winding remains ineffective as long as the speed is constant at the synchronous
speed.

Methods of Starting Synchronous Motors:

• In the earlier sections, the motor was always assumed to be initially rotating at synchronous
speed. What has not yet been considered is the question: How did the motor go to
synchronous speed in the first place?
• If three-phase supply is given to the stator phases of a stationary synchronous machine with
the rotor excited, no steady starting torque will be developed. It would be instead a
sinusoidally time-varying torque at the same frequency as that of the supply frequency, the
average value of which is zero. It is because the Rotor movement would be very small as
compared to the movement of the rotating stator magnetic field and with the result, in the
first half cycle if the torque developed is say CCW, then in the second half cycle torque
developed would be in the CW direction. Hence, the rotor vibrates violently and gets
overheated. That is the reason why a synchronous motor as such is not self-starting and needs
additional means of starting to bring the rotor speed close to that of the stator rotating
magnetic field. Once the speed of the rotor is close to that of the stator magnetic field, then
the Rotor would catch up and move at the same speed as that of the stator RMF.
A Synchronous Motor can be started from its stationary condition by any the following methods:
1. Reduce the speed of the stator mngnetic field to a low enough value that the rotor can
accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the magnetic field’s rotation. This can be
done by reducing the frequency of the applied electric power.

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

2. Use an external prime mover to accelerate the synchronous motor up to synchronous speed,
carry out the paralleling operation , and bring the machine on the line as a generator. Then,
turning off or disconnecting the prime mover wilI make the synchronous machine run as a
Synchronous machine.
3. Use damper windings or amortisseur windings: The function of damper windings and their
use in motor starting will be explained below.

Motor Starting by Reducing Electrical Frequency:

If the stator magnetic field in a synchronous motor rotates at a low enough speed, there will be no
problem for the rotor to accelerate and to lock in with the stator magnetic field. The speed of the
stator magnetic field can then be increased to the operating speed by gradually increasing
frequency up to its normal 50 Hz value.
Though this method works well, in the earlier days before the development of Solid state
electronics, getting a variable frequency source with rated voltages and power levels was very
difficult. But now a days Solid state frequency converters are readily available meeting any of
the technical requirements. With the development of such modern solid-state variable frequency
drive packages, it is possible to continuously control the electrical frequency applied to the
motor all from a fraction of a hertz up to and above the full rated frequency. If such a variable-
frequency drive unit is included in a motor-control circuit to achieve speed control, then starting
the synchronous motor is very easy- simply adjust the frequency to a very low value for starting,
and then raise it up to the desired operating frequency for normal running.
When a synchronous motor is operated at a speed lower than the rated speed, its internal
generated voltage EA = Kφω will be smaller than normal. If EA is reduced in magnitude, then
the terminal voltage applied to the motor must also be reduced to keep the stator current at a safe
level. The voltage in any variable- frequency drive or variable-frequency starter circuit must vary
roughly linearly with the applied frequency thus maintaining a constant v/f ratio.

Motor Starting with an External Prime Mover:

The second approach to starting a synchronous motor is to attach an external starting motor to it
and bring the synchronous machine up to full speed with the external motor. Then the
synchronous machine can be paralleled with its power system as a generator, and the starting
motor can be detached from the shaft of the machine. Once the starting motor is turned off, the
shaft of the machine slows down, the rotor magnetic field BR falls behind Bnet and the
synchronous machine starts to act as a motor. Once paralleling is completed and motor starts
running at synchronous frequency , the synchronous motor can be loaded as required.
Since most large synchronous motors have brushless excitation systems mounted on their shafts,
it is often possible to use these exciters as starting motors.
For many medium-size to large synchronous motors, an external starting motor or starting by
using the exciter may be the only possible solution, because the power systems they are tied to
may not be able to handle the starting currents needed to use the amortisseur winding approach
described next.

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 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

Motor Starting by Damper windings:

By far the most popular way to start a synchronous motor is to employ damper windings. They
are special bars laid into slots carved in the face of a synchronous motor's rotor and then shorted
out on each end by a large shorting ring as shown in the figure below.

Figure: Damper windings provided on pole faces of a synchronous machine

As we know with such an arrangement, sometimes the torque is counter clockwise and
sometimes it is essentially zero, but it is always unidirectional. Since there is a net torque in a
single direction, the motor's rotor speeds up. (This is entirely different from starting a
synchronous motor with its normal field current, since in that case torque is first clockwise and
then counterclockwise, averaging out to zero. In this case, torque is always in the same direction,
so there is a nonzero average torque.) On application of three-phase supply to the stator, a
synchronous motor with damper winding will start as a three-phase induction motor and rotate at
a speed near to synchronous speed. Now with the application of dc excitation to the field
windings, the rotor will be pulled into synchronous speed since the rotor poles are now rotating at
only slip-speed with respect to the stator rotating magnetic field.

In a real machine, the field windings are not open-circuited during the starting Procedure. If the
field windings were open-circuited, then very high voltages would be produced in them during
starting. If the field winding is short-circuited during starting, no dangerous voltages are
produced, and the induced field current actually contributes extra starting torque to the motor.

26
 Unit-IV: Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators & Synchronous Motors

To summarize, if a machine has damper windings, it can be started by the following

procedure:

I. Disconnect the field windings from their DC power source and short them.
2. Apply a three-phase voltage to the stator of the motor, and let the rotor accelerate up to near-
synchronous speed. The motor should have no load on its shaft, so that its speed can approach
nsync as closely as possible.
3. Connect the DC field circuit to its power source. After this is done, the motor will lock into
step at synchronous speed, and loads may then be added to its shaft.

Important Questions:

1. Explain with the help of a Phasor diagram what is Power Angle and Torque Angle in a
Synchronous Generator. Explain with the help of a plot how it varies with Power /Torque.
2. Explain the Effect of Load Changes on a Synchronous Generator Operating Alone.
3. Explain the concepts of an ‘Infinite Bus’ and ‘A Synchronous Generator Floats on the Bus’.
4. What are the Advantages of Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators?
5. (a)What are the conditions required to be fulfilled before paralleling a Generator to a Power
Grid.
(b) Explain briefly how they are checked and confirmed.
6. Explain the terms Synchronizing Power and Synchronizing Torque
7. With the help of Phasor diagrams explain clearly the effect of change of excitation and
change of Mechanical Input Power on the active and reactive load sharing of Generators
running in parallel with a Power Bus.
8. Explain the principle of operation of a Synchronous motor and draw its simple equivalent
circuit.
9. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a Synchronous Motor comparing it with that of
a Synchronous generator.
10. Draw and explain the Torque - Speed characteristic of a Synchronous Motor.
11. Explain the operation of a Synchronous motor with the help of a Phasor diagram for
a varying load.
12. Explain the effect of change of excitation of a Synchronous Motor driving a
constant load on the Armature current and power factor.
13. Explain what is a Synchronous Condenser with the help of relevant plots and background
theory.
14. Explain what is hunting in a Synchronous Motor and the methods of it’s suppression.
15. Why Synchronous Motors are not self starting? List out and explain the methods of
starting Synchronous Motors.

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

UNIT-V

SINGLE PHASE & SPECIAL PURPOSE MOTORS

 Single phase Induction Motors

 Constructional Features
 Double Revolving Field Theory
 Split-Phase Motors
 Capacitor start Capacitor run motors
 Shaded pole motor
 Equivalent Circuit
 Principles of A.C. Series Motor & Universal motor
 Reluctance motor
 Hysteresis motor
 Stepper motor
 Brushless DC motor
 Important Questions

1
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Single Phase Induction Motors:

Single-phase induction motors are similar to three-phase induction motors except that the stator
has a single-phase winding instead of a three-phase winding. Performance characteristics of
single-phase induction motors are less satisfactory than three-phase induction motors. However,
single-phase induction motors have found wide range of applications where only single-phase
supply is available. Gradual improvements in design have made these motors quite satisfactory in
fractional kilowatt ratings.

Constructional details:

A single-phase induction motor physically looks similar to a three-phase induction motor except
that its stator is provided with a single phase winding. The rotor construction is identical to
that of a three phase squirrel cage induction motor. There is no physical connection between
the rotor and the stator and there is uniform air-gap between the stator and the rotor. The stator
slots are distributed uniformly, and usually a single phase double-layer winding is used. A simple
diagram showing the constructional features of a single phase Induction motor is shown in the
figure below. A simple single-phase winding would not produce rotating magnetic field and
hence no starting torque. It is, therefore, necessary to modify or split the stator winding into two
parts, each part winding displaced in space on the stator to make the motor self-starting. Single-
phase motors are classified into split-phase type, capacitor-type, and shaded-pole type depending
upon the starting devices employed.

Figure: Construction of a single-phase induction motor.

Limitation of Single-Phase Induction Motors:

Since there is only one phase on the stator winding, the magnetic field in a single- phase
induction motor does not rotate. Instead, it pulsates, getting first larger and then smaller, but
always remains in the same direction. Because there is no rotating stator magnetic field, a single-
phase induction motor has no starting torque.
This is easily seen from a motor when its rotor is stationary. The stator flux of the machine first

2
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

increases and then decreases, but always points in the same direction. Since the stator magnetic
field does not rotate, there is no relative motion between the stator field and the conducting bars
of the rotor. But still a voltage is induced in the rotor bars by transformer action (dφ/dt), and
since the bars are short-circuited, current flows in the rotor. However, this magnetic field is lined
up with the stator magnetic field but in an opposite direction, and it does not produce any net
torque on the rotor as shown in the figure below.

τind = kBR X Bs
= kBRBS Sin y
= kBRBS Sin 1800 = 0 (1)

So effectively at stall conditions, the motor works like a transformer with a short- circuited
secondary winding (see figure below)

Figure: The single-phase induction motor at starting conditions. The stator winding
induces opposing voltages and currents into the rotor circuit resulting in a rotor
magnetic field lined up with the stator magnetic field but in opposite direction as in a
Transformer. But τind = O.

3
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

However, once the rotor begins to run, torque will be produced in it. There are two basic theories
which explain why a torque is produced in the rotor once it starts running. (i) Double-revolving-
field theory and (ii) Cross-field theory. We will study only double-revolving-field theory.

Double Revolving Field Theory:

This theory is based on the fact that the alternating field produced by the stator winding can be
represented as the sum of two oppositely rotating fields of identical strength, each equal to one-
half of the maximum field strength of the stator alternating field. The induction motor responds
to each magnetic field separately, and the net torque in the machine will be the sum of the
torques due to each of the two magnetic fields.

If these fields are represented by vectors that rotate in opposite directions as shown in the figure
below, the summation of the vectors is a stationary vector that changes in length along the
horizontal axis. In other words, as the alternating field φS oscillates between +φsm and – φsm ,
the two component fields φf and φb rotate in the opposite directions but at the same speed. This
is explained in detail as follows.

When single-phase supply is connected across the stator winding, an alternating field along the
horizontal axis as shown in the figure (a) below will be produced. This field flux changes
sinusoidally, because the stator current is sinusoidal. Stator field flux, φS can be represented by a
vector whose value changes with time from
+φsm to – φsm for each cycle of current flow through the stator winding. This alternating field
can be resolved into two component fields φf and φb whose magnitudes are one-half of φsm
but are shown rotating in opposite directions as the magnitude and direction of stator field
changes with time.

If the component vectors are drawn for one cycle, it will be observed that each of the component
flux vectors will rotate by one revolution. For a 50 Hz supply the component fields will rotate by
50 revolutions per second. In other words, it can be concluded that the component fields would
rotate at synchronous speed but in opposite directions. The field, φf which rotates in clockwise
direction can be termed as forward field and the field, φb which rotates in anticlockwise
direction can be termed as backward field.

4
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure: An alternating field is shown equivalent to two component revolving fields

The complete torque-speed curves corresponding to each of the component fields considered
independently and also the net Torques are shown in the figure below. Note that for backward
field the torque-speed curve is to be drawn in the reverse direction.

Figure: Torque-Speed Characteristic of a single-phase Induction Motor as

derived from double revolving field theory

5
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Torque developed by the two rotating fields are acting in opposite directions, each field develops
a torque that tends to rotate the rotor in the direction in which that field rotates. The resultant
torque developed on the rotor is the summation of the two torques produced by the two rotating
fields. It may be noted that torque-speed curves have been drawn for a speed range of – NS to +
NS. The resultant torque-speed curve is also shown in the figure.

Summary points observed from the resultant torque-speed curve:

(a) Average torque at standstill is zero and, therefore, the motor is not self starting (at zero
speed, torque developed by the forward and backward fields cancel each other).
(b) When the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the average torque developed
causes the rotor to continue to rotate in the direction in which it is given an initial rotation.
(c) The average torque becomes zero at some value of speed below the synchronous speed
(whereas in a three-phase induction motor, torque is zero at synchronous speed). This indicates
that a single-phase motor operates with a greater percentage of slip at full-load than a
corresponding three-phase induction motor.
(d) To make the motor self-starting, some starting device or method will have to be employed.
Single-phase induction motors are named according to the starting methods employed.

Starting of Single-Phase Induction Motors:

As we have studied, a single-phase induction motor has no intrinsic starting torque. There are
three techniques commonly used to start these motors, and they are classified accordingly. The
three major starting techniques are:

I. Split-phase windings
2. Capacitor-type windings
3. Shaded stator poles

All the three starting techniques are methods of making one of the two revolving magnetic fields
in the motor stronger than the other and so giving the motor an initial nudge in one direction or
the other.

Split-Phase Motors:

A split-phase motor is a single-phase induction motor with two stator windings, a Main stator
winding (M) and an Auxiliary starting winding (A) as shown in the figure below. These two
windings are set 90 degrees apart along the stator of the motor, and the auxiliary winding is

6
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

designed to be switched out of the circuit at some set speed by a centrifugal switch. The auxiliary
winding is designed to have a higher resistance/reactance ratio than the main winding, so that
the current in the auxiliary winding leads the current in the main winding.[This higher RIX ratio
is usually accomplished by using smaller (thinner) wire for the auxiliary winding. Thinner wire
is permissible in the auxiliary winding because it is used only for starting and therefore does not
have to take full current continuously]

Figure: (a) A split-phase induction motor. (b) The currents in the motor at starting
conditions.

To understand the function of the auxiliary winding, refer the figures (a) and (b) below. Since
the current in the auxiliary winding leads the current in the main winding, the magnetic field BA
peaks before the main magnetic field BM.

Since BA peaks first and then BM , there is a net counterclockwise rotation in the magnetic
field. In other words, the auxiliary winding makes one of the oppositely rotating stator magnetic
fields larger than the other one and provides a net starting torque to the motor.

A typical Torque-Speed Characteristic is shown in the figure (c) below.

Figure :(a) Relationship of main and auxiliary magnetic fields

Figure (b): IA peaks before IM , producing a net Counter clockwise rotation of the magnetic

7
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

fields

Figure (c): The resulting torque-speed characteristic.

Split -phase motors have a moderate starting torque with a fairly low starting current. They are
used for applications which do not require very high starting torques, such as fans, blowers, and
centrifugal pumps. They are available for sizes in the fractional-horsepower range and are quite
inexpensive.
In a split-phase induction motor, the current in the auxiliary windings always peaks before the
current in the main winding, and therefore the magnetic field from the auxiliary winding always
peaks before the magnetic field from the main winding. The direction of rotation of the motor is
determined by whether the space angle of the magnetic field from the auxiliary winding is 90°
ahead or 90° behind the angle of the main winding. Since that angle can be changed from 90°
ahead to 90° behind just by switching the connections on the auxiliary winding, the direction of
rotation of the motor can be reversed by switching the connections of the auxiliary winding
while leaving the main winding's connections unchanged.

Capacitor-Start Motors:

For some applications, the starting torque supplied by a split-phase motor is insufficient to start
the load on a motor's shaft. In such cases, capacitor-start motors are used. In a capacitor-start
motor, a capacitor is placed in series with the auxiliary winding of the motor as shown in the
figure below.

8
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure: (a): A capacitor-start Induction Motor (b) Current angles at starting

By proper selection of capacitor size, the mmf of the starting current in the auxiliary winding can
be adjusted to be equal to the mmf of the current in the main winding, and the phase angle of the
current in the auxiliary winding can be made to lead the current in the main winding by 90°.
Since the two windings are physically separated by 90°, a 90° phase difference in current will
yield a single uniform rotating stator magnetic field, and the motor performs just as a three-
phase motor. In this case, the starting torque of the motor can be more than 300 percent of its
rated value as shown in the figure below.

Figure: Torque-Speed characteristic of a capacitor-start Induction Motor.

Permanent Split-Capacitor Motors:

With a starting capacitor, the torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor are so good that
an auxiliary winding with a smaller capacitor is sometimes left permanently in the motor circuit.
If the capacitor's value is chosen correctly, such a motor will have a perfectly uniform rotating
magnetic field at some specific load, and it will behave just like a three-phase induction motor at
that point. Such a design is called a permanent split-capacitor or capacitor-start and run motor
and is shown in the figure below. Permanent split-capacitor motors are simpler than capacitor-
start motors, since the starting switch is not needed. At normal loads, they are more efficient and
have a higher power factor and a smoother torque than ordinary single-phase induction motors.

However, permanent split-capacitor motors have a lower starting torque than capacitor-start
motors, since the capacitor must be sized to balance the currents in the main and auxiliary
windings at normal-load conditions. Since the starting current is much greater than the normal-
load current, a capacitor that balances the phases under normal loads leaves them unbalanced
under starting conditions.

9
 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure (a): A permanent split-capacitor Induction Motor

Figure (b): Torque-speed characteristic of this motor

Capacitor-Start, Capacitor-Run Motors:

If both the largest possible starting torque and the best running conditions are needed, two
capacitors can be used with the auxiliary winding as shown in the figure below. Such motors
with two capacitors are called capacitor-start, capacitor-run or two-value capacitor motors. The
larger capacitor is present in the circuit only during starting when it ensures that the currents in
the main and auxiliary windings are roughly balanced, yielding very high starting torques. When
the motor picks up the required speed, the centrifugal switch opens, and the permanent capacitor
is left as such in the auxiliary winding circuit. The permanent capacitor is just large enough to
balance the currents at normal motor loads, so

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

that the motor again operates efficiently with a sufficiently high torque and power factor.

The direction of rotation of any capacitor-type motor may be reversed by switching the
connections of its auxiliary windings.

Figure (a): A capacitor-start, Capacitor-run Induction Motor

Figure (b): Torque-speed characteristic of this motor

Shaded - Pole Motors:

A shaded-pole induction motor is an induction motor with only a main winding. Instead of
having an auxiliary winding, it has salient poles, and one portion of

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

each pole is surrounded by a short-circuited coil called a shading coil as shown in the figure
below.

Figure (a): A basic Shaded-Pole Induction Motor

A time-varying flux is induced in the poles by the main winding. When the pole flux varies, it
induces a voltage and a current in the shading coil which opposes the original change in flux.
This opposition retards the flux changes under the shaded portions of the coils and therefore
produces a slight imbalance between the two oppositely rotating stator magnetic fields. The net
rotation is in the direction from the unshaded to the shaded portion of the pole face. The Torque-
Speed characteristic of a shaded-pole motor is shown in the figure below.
Figure (b): The resulting torque-speed characteristic. of a Shaded pole motor

Shaded poles produce less starting torque than any other type of Induction Motor starting
systems. They are much less efficient and have a much higher slip than other types of single-
phase induction motors. Such poles are used only in very

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

small motors with very low starting torque requirements. Where it is possible to use them,
shaded-pole motors are the cheapest design available.
Because shaded-pole motors rely on a shading coil for their starting torque, there is no easy way
to reverse the direction of rotation of such a motor. To achieve reversal, it is necessary to install
two shading coils on each pole face and to selectively short one or the other of them.

Comparison of Single-Phase Induction Motors:

Single-phase induction motors may be ranked in terms of their Good Starting and Running
characteristics as below:

I. Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor

2. Capacitor-start motor
3. Permanent split-capacitor motor
4. Split-phase motor
S. Shaded-pole motor

Equivalent Circuit of a Single-Phase Induction Motor:

Let us develop the equivalent circuit based on the double-revolving-field theory that too only a
special case of that theory. Because developing the equivalent circuit with both main and
auxiliary windings is beyond the scope at present we will develop when the main winding alone
is operating.

Let us begin when the motor is in stalled condition. At that time, the motor appears to be just a
single-phase transformer with its secondary circuit shorted, and so its equivalent circuit is that of
a transformer. This equivalent circuit is shown in the figure below. In this figure, R1 and X1 are
the resistance and reactance of the stator winding, XM is the magnetizing reactance, and R2 and
X2 are the referred values of the rotor's resistance and reactance to the stator. The core losses of
the machine are not shown and will be lumped together with the mechanical and stray losses as a
part of the motor's rotational losses.
Now recall that the pulsating air-gap flux in the motor at stall conditions can be resolved into two
equal and opposite magnetic fields within the motor. Since these fields are of equal size, each
one contributes an equal share to the resistive and reactive voltage drops in the rotor circuit. It
is possible to split the Rotor Equivalent circuit into two sections, each one corresponding to the
effects of one of the magnetic fields. The motor equivalent circuit with the effects of the forward
and reverse magnetic fields separated is shown in the subsequent figure below.

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure (a): The equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor at standstill when its
Main Windings alone are energized.

Figure (b): The equivalent circuit with the effects of the forward and reverse magnetic
fields separated.

Now suppose that the motor’s rotor begins to run with the help of an auxiliary winding and that
the winding is switched out again after the motor comes up to speed. As we know, the effective
rotor resistance of an induction motor depends on the amount of relative motion between the
rotor and the stator magnetic fields. However, there are two magnetic fields in this motor, and the
amount of relative motion differs for each of them. For the forward magnetic field, the per- unit
difference between the rotor speed and the speed of the magnetic field is the slip ‘s’, where slip is
defined in the same manner as it was for three-phase induction motors. The rotor resistance in the
part of the circuit associated with the forward magnetic field is thus 0.5R2/s.
The forward magnetic field rotates at speed nsync and the reverse magnetic field rotates at speed
-nsync. Therefore, the total per-unit difference in speed (on a base of nsync) between the forward
and reverse magnetic fields is 2. Since the rotor is running at a speed ‘s’ slower than the forward
magnetic field, the total per-unit difference in speed between the rotor and the reverse magnetic
field is (2 – s). Therefore, the effective rotor resistance in the part of the circuit associated with
the reverse magnetic field is 0.5R2/2 - s).

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

The final induction motor equivalent circuit is shown the figure below.

Figure: The equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor in running condition with
only its main windings energized.

AC Series Motor:

In a DC series motor, the armature and the field terminals are connected in series. When a DC
series motor is connected across an ac supply, the polarity of both the armature and the field
changes every half cycle. The direction of torque developed and the direction of rotation of the
rotor, therefore, remains unaltered as shown in the figure below.
But in actual practice, following operating problems arise when a DC series motor is allowed to
work on AC supply.
(a) Because of the increase in hysteresis and eddy-current losses due to the alternating flux
created by ac supply, efficiency of the motor will be poorer.

(b) Considerable sparking at the brushes will occur because in addition to the causes of
sparking that occurs in a DC motor, transformer action on coil undergoing commutation further
intensifies commutation difficulties. The coil, short-circuited by the brushes, links part of
the constantly changing main field flux, and hence a voltage is induced in it.
(c) Power factor of the motor will be less. This is because of the inductive reactance of the field
and armature winding.

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure: No change in the direction of rotation takes place when the polarities of both
armature and field terminals of a DC motor are reversed

Design Considerations for an AC Series Motor:

To enable a DC series motor operate satisfactorily on AC supply, the following modifications in

the design are to be incorporated.
(a) The yoke and the poles should be completely laminated to minimize the eddy current losses.
(b) The field is to be wound with fewer turns than a DC motor. The field pole area is to be
increased so that the field is operated at a comparatively low flux density. This will reduce the
iron-loss and reactive voltage drop. In order to obtain the required torque with this low field flux,
the number of armature coils should be increased.
(c) Voltage induced by transformer action in a coil undergoing commutation may be minimised,
somewhat by constructing the armature coils with fewer turns. Sometimes even a single turn
armature coil may be used.

(d) Increased number of armature coils will increase the armature reaction and may cause more
commutation problems. More number of armature coils will increase the armature reactance
also. To reduce the effect of armature reaction and thereby improving commutation and to
reduce armature reactance a compensating winding may be used. The compensating winding as
shown in the figure below is placed on the stator slots at 90° electrical with the main field axis.
It may be connected in series with the armature and field winding or may be short circuited in
itself. Since the axis of the compensating winding coincides with the brush axis, the alternating
flux of the armature induces an emf in the short circuited winding. The current in the winding
due to this induced emf opposes the flux causing it and hence it opposes the armature reaction]

Figure: Single-phase Series Motor with compensating winding

Torque-speed Characteristics and Applications: The torque-speed characteristics of an AC series

motor is similar to that of a DC series motor as shown in the figure below. Because of high
starting torque developed, ac series motors are used in railway systems for electric locomotives.

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure: Torque Speed characteristics of Series Motors

Reluctance Motor:

Single-phase induction motors built with variable air-gap reluctance and with no DC supply
on the rotor are called reluctance motors. Such motors start just as single phase induction
motors but are pulled into synchronous speed due to the variation in air-gap reluctance. This
pull-in force on such motors is based on the reluctance principle as explained follow:
Let us consider a piece of magnetic material, free to rotate, placed in a magnetic field as shown
below. A torque will act on the material shown in figure (a) to bring it to the position shown in
figure (b), so as to give minimum magnetic reluctance path to the flow of flux from North Pole
to the South Pole.

Figure: Reluctance torque developed on a magnetic material placed in a magnetic field

On the same lines, a reluctance motor is pulled into synchronous speed due to the intentionally
created variation of air-gap reluctance in the Rotor placed in the stator Magnetic field. For
starting torque, the stator of such motors consists of an Auxiliary winding, in addition to the main
winding, just as in single phase Induction Motors. The rotor is a modified squirrel-cage rotor,
with bars on the rotor slots and some of the rotor teeth removed to create a variation in air-gap
reluctance. Variation of air-gap and hence variation in reluctance to flux path between the stator
and rotor is produced by shaping the rotor laminations. Two different types of rotor laminations
are shown in the figure below.

The motor starts as a single phase induction motor. The starting winding gets disconnected at a
speed of about 75 percent of the synchronous speed, with the help of a centrifugal switch or

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

over-current relay. From then onwards, the reluctance-torque developed pulls the rotor to
synchronous speed.

Figure: Different types of rotor laminations of reluctance motor

The direction of rotation of such motors can be reversed in the same manner as a single-phase
induction motor by interchanging the auxiliary winding terminals. Typical Torque Speed
characteristic of a reluctance motor is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Torque-speed Characteristic of a Reluctance Motor

Hysteresis Motor:

A hysteresis motor is a single-phase Synchronous Motor without any projected poles and without
DC excitation. Such motors start by virtue of the hysteresis losses induced in the hardened steel
rotor by the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator windings and operate at synchronous
speed due to the retentivity of the rotor core material.

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

The rotor of hysteresis motors are made with magnetic material of high hysteresis losses, i.e.,
whose hysteresis loop area is very large. A ring of cobalt or chrome steel is mounted on an arbor
(shaft) made with non magnetic materials like aluminum as shown in the figure below.

Figure: Cross-sectional view of a hysteresis motor

There are no windings or any copper bars on the rotor. The stator construction is either split-
phase type or shaded-pole type. The motor starts rotating due to eddy-current and hysteresis
torque developed by the rotor. Out of these two torques, eddy current torque gets reduced as the
rotor picks up speed. This is because the induced eddy currents in the rotor get reduced as the
relative velocity between the rotating stator magnetic field and the rotor gets reduced. Finally at
synchronous speed there is no eddy current torque. But even at synchronous speed, the torque
due to Hysteresis effect continues to exist due to residual magnetism in the rotor as explained
further below.

Since some magnetism is left on the rotor poles even when the stator poles have moved in the
clockwise direction as shown in the figure (b), the rotor continues to develop torque in the same
direction. The magnetic strength of the rotor poles after the stator poles have moved forward will
depend upon the residual magnetism (i.e., retentivity) of the magnetic material used. Higher the
retentivity, of the material, the greater is the torque developed.

Hysteresis-torque depends only on the residual magnetism of the rotor-hysteresis ring material
which is constant and is independent of the rotor speed. Because of the steady hysteresis-torque,
such motors are very quiet in operation.

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure: (a) Stator poles induce poles on the rotor (b) Torque developed on the rotor due to
residual magnetism of the rotor (c) Hysteresis loop of the rotor material

Stepper Motors:

A stepper motor is a special type of synchronous motor which is designed to rotate a by specific
angle for every electric pulse received from its control unit. A simple diagram of a stepper motor,
with its associated control unit, control pulses and their sequence of application are shown in the
figure below.

Figure: (a) A simple three-phase stepper motor and its associated control unit. The inputs
to the control unit consist of a DC Power source and a control signal consisting of a train
of pulses

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

(b) A sketch of the output voltage from the control unit as a series of control pulses are
input (c) A table showing the output voltage from the control unit as
a function of pulse number.

Operation of the stepper motor is clearly explained, with the help of the above figures and the
subsequent figures (a) , (b) and (c) shown below.

Figure (a) & (b) Operation of a stepper motor

Figure (a) above shows a ‘two-pole’ three-phase stator with a permanent magnet rotor, Stator
magnetic field BS just when a dc voltage V is applied to phase ‘a’ of the stator with no voltages
applied to the other phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ and the initial

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

position of the Rotor & its magnetic field. Immediately the interaction of BR and Bs produces a
counterclockwise torque on the rotor which causes it to line up with the stator magnetic field BS,
as shown in the figure (b) above.

Now when the voltage V to phase ‘a’ is turned off and a negative DC voltage -V is applied to
phase ‘c’ the new stator magnetic field rotates by 60° with respect to the previous magnetic field
position , and the rotor of the motor follows it as shown in figure (c) below.
(c) Operation of a stepper motor contd…

By continuing this pattern, it is possible to construct a table showing the rotor position as a
function of the voltage applied to the stator of the motor. If the voltage produced by the control
unit changes with each input pulse in the order shown in the table below, then the stepper motor
will advance by a step of 60° for one input pulse.(Corresponding to the minimum of Two poles
&Three Phases)

Table: Rotor Position as a function of input pulse number and corresponding input
voltage in a ‘two pole ‘Stepper Motor

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

[(There are two basic types of stepper motors, differing only in rotor construction: permanent-
magnet type and reluctance type. The permanent-magnet type of stepper motor has a permanent-
magnet rotor, while the reluctance-type stepper motor has a ferromagnetic rotor which is not a
permanent magnet. (Same as the type of Rotor used in Reluctance Motor studied earlier) In
general, the permanent- magnet stepper motor can produce higher torque than the Reluctance -
type since the permanent-magnet stepper motor has Torque from both the permanent magnet
rotor magnetic field and reluctance effects.

Reluctance type stepper motors are often built with a four-phase stator winding instead of the
three-phase stator winding described above. A four-phase stator winding reduces the steps
between pulses from 60 electrical degrees to 45 electrical degrees. As mentioned earlier, the
torque in a reluctance motor varies as sin 2δ, so the reluctance torque between steps will be
maximum for an angle of 45°. Therefore, a given reluctance-type stepper motor can produce
more torque with a four-phase stator winding than with a three-phase stator winding)

(It is easy to build a stepper motor with a finer step size by increasing the number of poles on the
motor. We know that the number of mechanical degrees corresponding to a given number of
electrical degrees is given by the equation:
Ɵm = (2/P) Ɵe (1)
Since each step in the above Table corresponds to 60 electrical degrees, the number of
mechanical degrees moved per step decreases with increasing numbers of poles. For example, if
the stepper motor has eight poles, then the mechanical angle of the motor's shaft will change to
15° per step)

(The speed of a stepper motor can be related to the number of pulses into its control unit per unit
time by using Equation (1). Equation (1) gives the mechanical angle of a stepper motor as a
function of the electrical angle. If both sides of this equation are differentiated with respect to
time, then we have a relationship between the electrical and mechanical rotational speeds of the
motor:

ωm = (2/P) ωe nm =
(2/P) ne

Since there are six input pulses per electrical revolution, the relationship between the speed of
the motor in revolutions per minute and the number of pulses per minute becomes :
nm = (1/3P) npulses (2)

where npulses is the number of pulses per minute)

(Equation (2) can be generalized to apply to all stepper motors, regardless of the number of
phases on their stator windings. In general, if a stator has N phases, it takes 2N pulses per
electrical revolution in that motor. Therefore, the relationship between the speed of the motor in
revolutions per minute and the number of pulses per minute becomes:
nm = (1/NP) npulses )]

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Brushless DC Motors:

DC motors have a number of disadvantages due to Brushes and commutator, the main
disadvantage being excessive sparking and brush wear. There was a dire need for a small, fast dc
motor that is highly reliable and has low noise and long life. Such motors have been developed in
the last 50 years by combining a small motor much like a permanent magnet Stepper motor with
a Rotor position sensor and a solid-state electronic switching/driving circuit. These motors are
called Brush Less DC (BLDC) motors because they run from a dc power source but do not
have commutators and brushes. A sketch of a brushless DC motor is shown in the figure below.

The rotor is similar to that of a permanent magnet stepper motor, except that it is nonsalient. The
stator can have three or more phases (there are four phases in the example shown)

The basic components of a brushless dc motor are:

I. A Permanent Magnet rotor
2. A Stator with a three, four, or more phase windings
3. A Rotor position sensor
4. An electronic circuit to control the phases of the rotor winding

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

Figure :(a) A brushless dc motor and its associated control unit. The inputs to the control
unit consist of a DC power source and a signal proportional to the current rotor position
(b) the voltages applied to the stator coils.

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 Single Phase & Special Purpose Motors:

A brushless dc motor functions by energizing one stator coil at a time with a constant DC
voltage. When a coil is turned on, it produces a stator magnetic field BS, and a torque is
produced on the rotor given by: τ = k BR x BS which tends to align the rotor with the stator
magnetic field. At the time shown in figure (a), the stator magnetic field BS points to the left
while the permanent magnet rotor magnetic field BR points upwards, producing a
counterclockwise torque on the rotor. As a result the rotor will turn to the left. If coil ‘a’
remained energized all of the time, the rotor would turn until the two magnetic fields are aligned,
and then it would stop, just like a stepper motor. The key to the operation of a brushless dc
motor is that it includes a ‘position sensor’, so that the control circuit will know when the rotor
is almost aligned with the stator magnetic field. At that time coil ‘a’ will be turned off and coil
‘b’ will be turned on, causing the rotor to again rotate CCW. This process continues with the
coils turned on in the order a, b, c, d,
- a, - b, -c, - d, etc., so that the motor turns continuously in CCW direction.
The electronics control circuit controls both the speed and direction of the motor. The advantage
of this motor is that it runs precisely and silently from a DC power source, with full control over
both the speed and the direction of rotation.

Important Questions:

1. (a)Explain the constructional features of a single phase Induction Motor (b)Explain

clearly why a single phase Induction Motor is not self starting
2. Explain the Double Field Revolving theory of Single phase Induction Motors
3. Explain with the help of neat diagrams the following methods of starting Induction Motors (i)
Split Phase (ii) Capacitor Start (iii) Permanent Split- Capacitor (iv) Capacitor Start -
Capacitor Run (v) Shaded Pole
4. Explaining clearly the steps involved, draw the Equivalent circuits of a Single Phase
Induction Motor at stand still and in running condition.
5. Explain briefly the operation of AC Series Motors.
6. Write Short notes on the constructional features and operation of the following
types of motors (i) Reluctance motors (ii) Hysteresis motors
7. With clear figures, sequence of operation and control waveforms explain the constructional
features and operation of Stepper Motors.
8. Explain the constructional features and operation of Brushless DC Motors
with clear figures, sequence of operation & control waveforms

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