Sub code: 22ESC141/241 Internal Marks: 50

Hrs. /week: 2+2+0 Exam Marks: 50

Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

What is civil engineering?
❖ It is the oldest branch of engineering from ancient age civilizations.

❖ Engineering is a profession that puts scientific knowledge to practical use.

❖ Civil Engineering is called general Engineering because it uses the information &
principles provided by the other branches while erecting Civil Engineering structures.

Scope of different fields of civil engineering

1. Surveying

2. Building Materials
3. Construction Technology
4. Structural Engineering
5. Geotechnical Engineering
6. Hydraulics
7. Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering
8. Transportation engineering

9. Environmental Engineering

1. Surveying
❖ It is the art & science of determining the relative positions of points on, above, or beneath
the earth's surface using direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction, and
elevation.
❖ The process of finding the vertical distance is known as leveling.

❖ It is the art of map making.

Classification of surveying:

Major classifications are:

1. Plane surveying: in which the curvature earth's surface is not considered. This type of
surveyis carried out only for smaller areas.
2. Geodetic surveying: This type of surveying curvature of the earth's surface is considered.
This type of survey is carried out for larger areas.

Based on the purpose of the survey

1. Topographical survey:
2. City survey
3. Mine survey

4. Cadastral survey
Based on instruments used:
1. Chain survey
2. Compass survey.
3. Chain and compass survey.
4. Tacheometric survey.
5. Plane table survey.
6. Electronic distance meter survey.
7. Theodolite survey.
2. Structural engineering
❖ The load acting on a structure is ultimately transferred to t h e ground. In doing so,
various system components are subjected to internal stresses.
❖ Assessing the internal stresses in the components of a structure is known as structural
analysis
❖ Finding out the suitable size of structure component is known as design of structures.

❖ Structural engineering can be defined as "Determination of reactions at the support,

member force moments, deformation due to the applied loads & environmental effects."
❖ Civil engineer has not only to give a safe structure, but he must give economical sections.
❖ Designing earthquake resistant structures is attracting lot of research.

All these aspects fall under structural engineering field.

3. Geotechnical Engineering

❖ The geotechnical engineering can be defined as "The study of soil, its behavior on the
application of load"
❖ Soil property may vary season to season due to variation in moisture content
❖ The load taking capacity is to be safely transferred to soil. For this, SBC (Safe Bearing
Capacity) of soil is properly assessed. The strength taking capacity of soil without any
 deformation is known as safe bearing capacity of soil.
❖ This field includes:

✓ Design of Underground buildings &drainage works.

✓ Ground improvement technique
✓ Design of pavements

✓ Design of tunnel
✓ Design of earthen dams, canals & earth retaining structures

4. Hydraulics & Water resource Engineering

❖ "The study of mechanics of water & its flow characteristics is known as HYDRAULICS"

❖ The study of liquid, i.e. water at rest and motion is done

❖ It helps to solve the problems in design of water supply distribution systems.
❖ Machines which work on the water are used for the generation of electricity are termed as
HYDRAULIC MACHINES.

❖ "The science which deals with the subject of tapping water either from the surface &
subsurface sources"
❖ A water resource is such a vast subject it includes hydrology, irrigation, hydraulics and
water supply.
❖ "Identifying, Planning & Building water retaining structures like tanks & dams & carrying
stored water to fields"
❖ The groundwater is obtainable all the year round and its use along with the surface water
keeps the subsoil water level within reasonable limits. Engineers have learnt to tame the
water resources by construction of dams, bore wells & hydraulics plants for the benefit of
mankind.
❖ ADVANTAGES:

➢ Increase in food production

➢ Optimum benefits from the cultivable land
➢ Elimination of mixed cropping

5. Environmental engineering:
❖ It deals with the measures to use and protect the components of environment.
❖ This very important field of civil engineering which covers both water supply and sanitary
engineering
❖ The environmental engineering encompasses the subject of treatment of wastes which
originates from different sources and deals with the removal of harmful substances in these
wastes by different process.
❖ In general, environmental engineering means:

➢ Water supply & sewerage treatment in urban and rural areas.

➢ Pollution control engineering-water, land, air and noise pollution
➢ Waste water collection, treatment & disposal.

6. Transportation engineering
❖ "It deals with the transport of man & materials through different communications routes
such as land, water, and air."Carrying out traffic survey, design, construction and
maintenance of roads, bridges, railway, harbor and airports is known as transportation
engineering.

❖ It includes:
▪ Roadways
▪ Railways
▪ Water ways

▪ Air ways
❖ Transportation by roads is the only mode which could give max service.
❖ Design, construction and maintenance of railway lines, signal system is the part of
transportation engineering.

7. Construction Planning & Project Management:

❖ It places vital role in the development of national economy by providing infrastructure and
shelter.
❖ It deals with the analysis &8 design of substructures as well as superstructures of buildings.
❖ The stage are planning, scheduling, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling and
coordinating.
❖ The ten M's of construction management are:

Money, Materials, Machines, Manpower, Methodologies, Maintenance, Modernizing,

Monitoring, Motivation, Management.
Module-1,Unit – 2
Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although theirmost
important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable without theiruse. Also, the
building materials industry is an important contributor in our national economy as its output governs both
the rate and the quality of construction work. There are certain general factors which affect the choice of
materials for a particular scheme. Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background.
Obviously, different materials and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world
because of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The rapid
advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and
changes in the organization of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of materials.
I. Bricks
One of the oldest building material bricks continues to be a most popular and leading construction
material because of being cheap, durable, and easy to handle and work with. Clay bricks are used
for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings, and other load bearing
structures. A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one
hand. Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement concrete.
Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily available. The length, width
and height of a brick are interrelated as below:
Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar Height of brick = width of brick Size of
a standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm. When
placed in masonry the 19 × 9 × 9 cm brick with mortar becomes 20 × 10 × 10 cm. However,the
bricks available in most part of the country still are 9 inches × 4.5 inches × 3 inches and are known
as field bricks. Weight of such a brick is 3 kg. An indent called frog, 1–2 cm deep is provided for
9 cm high bricks. The size of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1 cm. The purpose of providingfrog is to form
a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks are laid with frogs on top.

Figure 1: Brick with Frog

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Characteristics of good brick:
The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing, regularity in size,
a proper suction rate, and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view.
1. Size and Shape: The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with
parallel sides and sharp straight edges.
2. Color: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry color as indicative of uniformity
in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick.
3. Texture and compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause slipping of
mortar. The brick should have pre compact and uniform texture. A fractured surface A
fractured surface should not show fissures, holes grits or lumps of lime.
4. Hardness and Soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger
nail no impression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should
be produced.
5. Water absorption should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry weight when kept immersed in
water for 24 hours.
6. Crushing strength should not be less than 10 N/mm2.
7. Brick earth should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter, saltpetre, etc.
Classification of bricks:
Clay bricks are classified as first class, second class, third class and fourth class based on their
physical and mechanical properties.
1. First Class Brick
i. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry, or copper colour.
ii. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp, and straight edges and
square corners.
iii. These should be free from flaws, cracks, and stones.
iv. These should have uniform texture.
v. No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a fingernail.
vi. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.
vii. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
viii. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24
hours.
ix. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies with
different Government organizations around the country. Uses: First class bricks are
recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry structures, flooring, and
reinforced brick work.
2. Second class bricks are supposed to have the same requirements as the first-class ones except
that
i. Small cracks and distortions are permitted.

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 ii. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.
iii. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.
Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry
works and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures.
3. Third Class Bricks are under burnt. They are soft and light-colored producing a dull sound
when struck against each other. Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry weight.
Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.
4. Fourth class bricks are overburnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature.
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road metal.

II. CEMENT & MORTARS

Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement is obtained by
burning a mixture of calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at a very high
temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder. It was first produced by a
mason Joseph Aspdin in England in 1924. He patented it as Portland cement.

Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement:

Chemical properties: Portland cement consists of the following chemical compounds:
(a) Tricalcium silicate 3 CaO.SiO2 (C3S) 40%
(b) Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 (C2S) 30%
(c) Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 (C3A) 11%
(d) Tetra calcium aluminate 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (C3AF) 11%

There may be small quantities of impurifies present such as calcium oxide (CaO) and magnesium
oxide (MgO). When water is added to cement, C3A is the first to react and cause initial set. It
generates great amount of heat. C3S hydrates early and develops strength in the first 28 days. It
also generates heat. C2S is the next to hydrate. It hydrates slowly and is responsible for increase in
ultimate strength. C4AF is comparatively inactive compound.

Physical properties: The following physical properties should be checked before selecting
a Portland cement for the civil engineering works. IS 269–1967 specifies the method of testing
and prescribes the limits:

(a) Fineness
(b) Setting time
(c) Soundness
(d) Crushing strength.

(a) Fineness: It is measured in terms of percentage of weight retained after sieving the cement
(b) through 90-micron sieve or by surface area of cement in square centimeters per gramme of cement.According to
IS code specification weight retained on the sieve should not be more than 10 per cent. In terms of specific

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 surface should not be less than 2250 cm2/gm.

(c) Setting time: A period of 30 minutes as minimum setting time for initial setting and a maximum
period of 600 minutes as maximum setting time is specified by IS code, provided the tests are
conducted as per the procedure prescribed by IS 269-1967.

(d) Soundness: Once the concrete has hardened it is necessary to ensure that no volumetric
changes take place. The cement is said to be unsound if it exhibits volumetric instability after
hardening.IS code recommends test with Le Chatelier mould for testing this property. At the end
of the test, the indicator of Le Chatelier mould should not expand by more than 10 mm.

(e) Crushing strength: For this mortar cubes are made with standard sand and tested in
compression testing machine as per the specification of IS code. The minimum strength specified
is 16 N/mm2 after 3 days and 22 N/mm2 after 7 days of curing.

Uses of Cement
Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them are listed below:
• Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.
• Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
• Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges.
Water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbors etc.
• Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, piles etc.
• For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flowerpots etc. cement is
commonly used.
• It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc.

III. PLAIN CONCRETE

Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. This can be easily molded to desired shape and size before
it loses plasticity and hardens. Plain concrete is strong in compression but very weak in tension.
The tensile property is introduced in concrete by inducting different materials and this attempt has
given rise to RCC, RBC, PSC, FRC, cellular concrete and Ferro cement.

Major ingredients of concrete are:

1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
4. Water.
Depending upon the proportion of ingredient, strength of concrete varies. It is possible todetermine
the proportion of the ingredients for a particular strength by mix design procedure. In the absence
of mix designs the ingredients are proportioned as 1:1:2, 1:1.5:3,1:2:4,1:3:6 and 1:4:8which is the
ratio of weights of cement to sand to coarse aggregate. In proportioning of concrete, it is kept in
mind that voids in coarse aggregates are filled with sand and the voids in sand are filledwith cement
paste. Proportion of ingredients usually adopted for various

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works are shown in Table 3.1.

Functions of Various Ingredients

Cement is the binding material. After addition of water, it hydrates and binds aggregates and the
surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more cement) gives more
strength. Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours. Hence concrete should be laid
in its mold before 30 minutes of mixing of water and should not be subjected to any external forces
till final setting takes place.
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded, and the stones should be
of igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular, and hard. They give mass to the concrete
and prevent shrinkage of cement.
Fine aggregate consists of river sand. It prevents shrinkage of cement. When surrounded by
cement it gains mobility enters the voids in coarse aggregates and binding of ingredients takes
place. It adds density to concrete since it fills the voids. Denser the concrete higher is its strength.
Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and forms
plastic mass. As it sets completely concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives workability to
concrete which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease and place it in final
position. More the water better is the workability. However excess water reduces the strength of
concrete. Figure 3.1 shows the variation of strength of concrete with water cement ratio. To achieve
required workability and at the same time good strength a water cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45 is used,
in case of machine mixing and water cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 is used for hand mixing.

IV. REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C.)

Concrete is good in resisting compression but is very weak in resisting tension. Hence
reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. The best
reinforcement is steel, since tensile strength of steel is quite high and the bond between steel and
concrete is good. As the elastic modulus of steel is high, for the same extension the force resisted
by steel is high compared to concrete. However, in tensile zone, hair cracks in concrete are
unavoidable. Reinforcements are usually in the form of mild steel or ribbed steel bars of 6 mm to
32 mm diameter. A cage of reinforcements is prepared as per the design requirements, kept in a
form work and then green concrete is poured. After the concrete hardens, the form work is
removed. The composite material of steel and concrete now called R.C.C. acts as a structural
member and can resist tensile as well as compressive stresses very well.

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Properties of R.C.C./Requirement of Good R.C.C.

1. It should be capable of resisting expected tensile, compressive, bending and shear forces.
2. It should not show excessive deflection and spoil serviceability requirement.
3. There should be proper cover to the reinforcement, so that the corrosion is prevented.
4. The hair cracks developed should be within the permissible limit.
5. It is a good fire-resistant material.
6. When it is fresh, it can be molded to any desired shape and size.
7. Durability is very good.
8. R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any load.

Uses of R.C.C.
It is a widely used building material. Some of its important uses are listed below:
1. R.C.C. is used as a structural element, the common structural elements in a building were
R.C.C. is used are:
(a) Footings
(b) Columns
(c) Beams and lintels
(d) Chejjas, roofs and slabs.
(e) Stairs.

2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like

(a) Water tanks
(b) Dams
(c) Bins
(d) Silos and bunkers.

3. It is used for the construction of big structures like

(a) Bridges
(b) Retaining walls
(c) Docks and harbors
(d) Under water structures.

4. It is used for pre-casting

(a) Railway sleepers
(b) Electric poles

5. R.C.C. is used for constructing tall structures like

(a) Multistorey buildings
(b) Chimneys
(c) Towers.

6. It is used for paving

(a) Roads
(b) Airports.

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7. R.C.C. is used in building atomic plants to prevent danger of radiation. For this purpose
R.C.C. walls built are 1.5 m to 2.0 m thick.

V. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)

Strength of concrete in tension is very low and hence it is ignored in R.C.C. design. Concrete in
tension is acting as a cover to steel and helping to keep steel at desired distance. Thus in R.C.C. lot
of concrete is not properly utilized. Prestressing the concrete is one of the methods of utilizingentire
concrete. The principle of prestressed concrete is to introduce calculated compressive stresses in
the zones wherever tensile stresses are expected in the concrete structural elements. When such
structural element is used stresses developed due to loading must first nullify these compressive
stresses before introducing tensile stress in concrete. Thus, in prestressed concrete entire concrete
is utilized to resist the load. Another important advantage of PSC is hair cracks areavoided in the
concrete and hence durability is high. The fatigue strength of PSC is also more. Thedeflections of
PSC beam are much less and hence can be used for longer spans also. PSC is commonly used in
the construction of bridges, large column free slabs and roofs. PSC sleepers andelectric piles are
commonly used. The material used in PSC is high tensile steel and high strength steel. The
tensioning of wires may be by pretensioning or by post tensioning. Pretensioning consists in
stretching the wires before concreting and then releasing the wires. In case of post tensioning, the
ducts are made in concrete elements. After concrete of hardens, prestressing wires
are passed through ducts. After stretching wires, they are anchored to concrete elements by special
anchors.

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 XI. ALUMINIUM

It is present on the surface of earth crust in most of the rooks and clay. But to produce the metal
bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O) is ideally suited ore.

VI. STRUCTURAL STEEL

Steel is an alloy of ferrous metal with 0.25 to 1.5 per cent of carbon. Higher the carbon content,
harder is the steel. Steel bars of circular cross sections are mainly used as reinforcement to
strengthen
concrete structures. There are three types of reinforcing steel:
1. Mild steel
2. High Yield Strength Deformed bars (HYSD)/TOR steel and

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3. High tensile steel.

Mild Steel
It contains carbon upto 0.23 to 0.25%. Higher value is permitted for bars of 20 mm and above
diameter. It is available in diameters of 6, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25 and 32 mm. Its yield strength is 250
N/mm2 and young's modulus 2 × 105 N/mm2. It was very commonly used reinforcement in
concrete. But nowadays TOR steel is replacing it. It is used as window bars, for grills and for
making steel gates.

HYSD Bars/TOR Steel

Two types of TOR steel bars are available. They are Fe-415 and Fe-500. The number associated
with the designation indicates the tensile strength of bar in N/mm2. These bars are provided with
ribs deformation on surface so that bond between concrete and steel improves. These bars are
available in diameters 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm. Nowadays these bars are replacing
mild steel bars as reinforcement since their strength in tension and bond is higher.

High Tensile Bars

High tensile steel bars are made with 0.8 % carbon and 0.6 % manganese apart from small
percentages of silicon, sulphur and phosphorous. The process of making these wires involve cold
drawing and tempering. They are usually available in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mm diameters. They may be
bundled with number of them to form a strand. These bars are having tensile strength as high as
1400 N/mm2 to 1900 N/mm2. The young's modulus of steels is also same as that of mild steel.
High tensile bars are used as reinforcement in prestressed concrete.

Thermo mechanically treated bars (TMT):

Thermo-mechanical treatment is the simultaneous application to steel that involves heating and
cooling. It is to develop better properties in steel by refining its microstructure. This heating
technology is referred as hot rolling in this process vast quantities of steel can be handled. For the
automation control in continuous casting segment a large quantity of steel such as 50 tonnes can
be processed. Temperature in rolling mill for sequencing is used between 1200 – 1300°C.
High Strength & Ductility comes into the steel for Thermo mechanical treatment. Steel turns into
ferrite pearlite structure that means the outer core becomes strong and inside remain soft.
Advantages:
Thermo-mechanical treatment makes it far superior for all type of construction. TMT Bars gives
some unmatched advantages those are:

• TMT Bars comes with better strength & superior Elongation than any other type of steel
bars.
• It saves up to 17% of steel.
• The cost of TMT Bar is lower than other types of steel bar.
• For better Ductility & Bendability it is easy to use for any type of construction structure
and saves time as well.
• TMT Bars are Resistant to Fire and Corrosion that is why worldwide the demand of TMT
Steel Bars are higher.

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 • The fatigue strength in TMT Bar is higher so, during the construction it can bend as per the
requirement.

High Carbon Steel: The carbon contents in this steel is 0.7% to 1.5%.

Properties of Carbon Steel:

(i) It is more tough and elastic compared to mild steel.
(ii) Welding is difficult.
(iii) It can be magnetized permanently.
(iv) It is stronger in compression than in tension.
(v) It withstands shocks and vibrations better.
Uses of High Carbon Steel:
(i) It is used for making tools such as drills, files, chisels.
(ii) Many machine parts are made with high carbon steel since it is capable of withstanding
shocks and vibrations.

VII. CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS

Chemicals that are added to concrete, mortar or grout at the time of mixing, to modify properties either in
the wet state or after mix has hardened.

Why Are They Used?

❖ Increase slump and workability.
❖ Retard or accelerate initial setting.
❖ Reduce or prevent shrinkage.
❖ Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding.
❖ Reduce segregation.
❖ Retard or reduce heat evolution during early hardening.
❖ Increase strength (compressive, tensile, or flexural).
❖ Decrease permeability of concrete
❖ Increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement
❖ Increase bond between existing and new concrete
❖ Improve impact and abrasion resistance (hardness)
❖ Inhibit corrosion of embedded metal;
❖ Anti-washout
❖ &
❖ Produce colored concrete.

how much ?
• It is added as a single chemical or a blend.
• Amount added is less than 5% of cement (Mostly < 2%).

How is it used ?
➢ Most admixtures are supplied in a ready-to-use form and added at plant or jobsite.
➢ Pigments and pumping aids are batched by hand in VERY small amounts.

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Types of CONSTRUCTION Chemicals.

• Plasticizers.
• Superplasticizers.
• Retarders and retaining Plasticizers.
• Accelerators and Accelerating plasticizers.
• Air-entraining Admixtures.
• Pozzolanic or mineral admixtures.
• Damp-proofing and water proofing admixtures.
• Gas forming admixtures.
• Air- detraining admixtures.
• Alkali- aggregate Expansion inhibiting Admixtures.
• Workability Admixtures.
• Grouting Admixtures.
• Corrosion inhibiting Admixtures.
• Bonding Admixtures.
• Fungicidal, Germicidal, insecticidal Admixtures.
• Colouring Admixtures.

Classification based on Action

• Chemical interaction in hydration (Accelerators and Retarders).

• Adsorption on cement surface causing better particle dispersion (Plasticizers and Superplasticizers).
• Affecting surface tension of water (increased air entrainment).
• Affecting rheology of water (viscosity Modifier).
• Special chemicals acting on hardened concrete. Corrosion inhibitors and water repellant).

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Module – 1, Unit – 3
Structural Elements of a building

Foundation

Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with digging the ground
for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the building. It transfers the load of the
building to the ground.

Foundation - Its main functions and requirements

(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
(c) It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

Plinth

• The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called plinth. It is
usually of stone masonry.
• If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast to support wall above floor level.
• At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is provided.
• It is usually 75 mm thick plain concrete course.
• The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of dampness.
• Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at least 150 mm above the road
level, so that connections to underground drainage system can be made.

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Lintel

Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window openings to transfer the load
transversely so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed unduly. The width of lintels is equal
to the width of wall while thickness to be provided depends upon the opening size.

Chejja
• Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from the rain.
• They are usually made with R.C.C. In low-cost houses stone slabs are provided as Chejjas.
• The projection of Chejja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm.
• Sometimes drops are also provided to Chejjas to improve aesthetic look and to get additional
protection from sun and rain.

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Wall/Column
The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure vertically downwards to transfer it
to foundation.
Apart from this wall performs the following functions also:
(a) It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.
(b) It provides safety from burglary and insects.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.

Beam
The beam is a horizontal structural component that mainly carries vertical loads.
Types of Beams
1. Simply supported beam:
It is a beam which consists of simple supports. Such a beam can resist forces normal to the axis of the
beam.

2. Continuous beam
It is a beam which consists of three or more supports.

3. Cantilever beam
It is a beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is free.

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4. Propped cantilever beam
It is a beam whose one end is fixed, and the other end is simply supported.

5. Overhanging beam
It is a beam which extends beyond support(s). it is seen that the beam extends beyond support B up to C.
The overhang portion is BC.

Slab
• Slab is an important structural element which is constructed to create flat and useful surfaces such as
floors, roofs, and ceilings. It is a horizontal structural component, with top and bottom surfaces
parallel or near so.
• Commonly, slabs are supported by beams, columns (concrete or steel), walls, or the ground. The depth
of a concrete slab floor is very small compared to its span.
Types of Loads on a Slab
1. Dead load of the slab

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2. Live load
3. Floor finish load
4. Snow load in the case of roof slab
5. Earthquake loads
Staircase
• A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor of a building to another, typically inside the building.
The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is located is known as staircase. The opening
or space occupied by the stair is known as a stairway.

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