Online Journal of Biological Sciences

Review

Vegetable Beans: Comprehensive Insights into Diversity,

Production, Nutritional Benefits, Sustainable Cultivation and
Future Prospects
Sayed Shahidul Islam, Shanta Adhikary, Mahabuba Mostafa and Md. Motaher Hossain

Department of Plant Pathology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh

Article history Abstract: Vegetable beans, members of the Fabaceae family, have a
Received: 31-01-2024 rich historical significance as a source of plant-based proteins and
Revised: 21-02-2024 nutrients. They have been cultivated worldwide for centuries, enriching
Accepted: 27-02-2024 the nutritional landscape and constituting a crucial component of human
Corresponding Author:
nutrition. The wide array of beans, including common bean, lima bean,
Md. Motaher Hossain tepary bean, mung bean, yard long bean, moth bean, adzuki bean,
Department of Plant Pathology, garbanzo bean, broad bean, soybean, velvet bean, carob bean, sword
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur bean and jack bean, offers a plethora of health benefits, including the
Rahman Agricultural University, prevention of chronic diseases. However, the production and utilization
Gazipur, Bangladesh of these vegetable beans face significant challenges, such as poor soil
Email: [email protected] fertility, pest infestation and diseases. In response, innovative
approaches like molecular breeding, precision agriculture and UAV-
based phenotyping have been explored. These methods aim to mitigate
the reliance on chemical treatments and promote sustainable farming
practices. Furthermore, a range of disease control strategies,
encompassing biological, chemical and cultural controls, have been
adopted to combat the challenges posed by pests and diseases. This
study offers a comprehensive review of vegetable beans, covering
various aspects such as their nutritional composition, global production
and consumption trends, advancements in cultivation techniques and
strategies for managing diseases. Drawing upon a meticulous analysis
of pertinent literature and scholarly resources, this review serves as a
valuable resource for researchers and growers alike who are interested
in optimizing vegetable bean production through sustainable
agricultural practices.

Keywords: Production, Consumption, Nutritional Profile, Health

benefits, Constraints, Breeding, Biological Control

Introduction plants have flat blooms that grow into seeds of different
sizes, shapes and colors inside a single elongated pod.
Vegetables are a broad category of plant or plant-derived They also have herbaceous stems with trifoliate leaves.
products essential to human nutrition and health (Ryder, The Fabaceae family has a wide range of plant sizes, from
2011). Vegetables are second only to cereals in terms of big tropical trees to small wild vetches found in temperate
carbohydrate content and they are rich in dietary fiber and regions. According to more modern nomenclature, the
have a high-water content of 70-95%. Additionally, family is divided into three sub-families, with the
certain vegetables are excellent sources of phosphorus, subfamilies Papilionoideae, tribe Phaseoleae and
iron, calcium, potassium, vitamins and antioxidants. subtribe Phaseolinae accounting for around two-thirds of
Among these, beans and legume vegetables are all species (Gepts, 2001). Vegetable beans have a wide
commonly consumed worldwide. Regarding botany, one range of culinary applications; the fresh pods and green
of the three biggest groups of flowering plants is the seeds are frequently cooked or used in curries. Mature
Fabaceae family (previously known as Leguminosae), seeds can be sun-dried and kept as vegetables, while ripe
which includes beans (Jin et al., 2019). These annual seeds are used for pulses (Sultana, 2001). In the

© 2024 Said Shahidul Islam, Shanta Adhikary, Mahabuba Mostafa and Motaher Hossain. This open-access article is
distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
Sayed Shahidul Islam et al. / OnLine Journal of Biological Sciences 2024, 24 (3): 477.494
DOI: 10.3844/ojbsci.2024.477.494

manufacturing chain, proper seed storage is crucial since present analysis offers valuable insights for researchers and
improper storage temperatures, packing and time spent in growers seeking to improve bean production and nutritional
storage can all cause seed degradation. Because transparent value, serving as a contemporary source of information.
seeds are more prone to breakage, they may have the
"hard-to-cook" effect, which lowers their market value Diversity of Cultivated Beans
and acceptability by consumers (Ganascini et al., 2019). In the face of prevalent global challenges, including
Vegetable beans are widely accepted in society, food insecurity, extreme weather and rising living costs,
particularly among low-income populations in developing beans emerge as a straightforward and viable solution.
nations, as they provide an affordable supply of plant- With 600 million people expected to be undernourished
based proteins and meat substitutes. In addition to protein, by 2030 and 9.2% of the world's population suffering
beans offer nutritional fiber, carbohydrates, minerals and from hunger, eating various beans can significantly
vitamins, which help these populations' chronic protein increase access to vital proteins, fiber, carbs, vitamins and
deficiencies (Kutoš et al., 2003; Hayat et al., 2014; minerals globally (Newnham, 2023). Cultivated on a
Kamboj and Nanda, 2018). A diet rich in beans has global scale, various types of beans, such as common
several physiological advantages, including managing bean, lima beans, tepary bean, mung bean, yard-long
and preventing metabolic disorders such as diabetes bean, moth bean, adzuki beans, garbanzo beans, broad
mellitus, coronary heart disease and colon cancer. beans, soybean, velvet bean, carob bean, sword bean and
Moreover, vegetable beans, such as common beans and jack beans contribute to this nutritional diversity.
chickpeas, have various uses across industries (Fig. 1). Members of the legume family, such as pole, snap, string
Chickpeas, for instance, contain compounds beneficial for and bush beans, are only a few of the many variants of the
skin health and are employed in cosmetics. In agriculture, common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). These versatile
beans, known by different names in various countries,
beans aid soil fertility as nitrogen-fixing plants, serve as
have been a dietary staple for centuries and were
natural barriers and provide high-protein feed for animals
domesticated around 8000 years ago in South America
like cows (Alfaro-Diaz et al., 2023; Affrifah et al., 2023;
and central Mexico, resulting in distinct genetic pools
Schmidt et al., 2023). covering Mesoamerican and Andean regions (Britannica,
2020; Rodriguez et al., 2016). Annually cultivated for
their young green pods, runner beans (Phaseolus
coccineus L.) are a climbing perennial. Found in Central
and South America, Africa, the USA and Europe, this
bean offers culinary diversity and adaptability (Kalloo
and Bergh, 2012). Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus), also
called butter beans, sieva beans, or Madagascar beans, are
grown for their tasty seeds. The Andean and
Mesoamerican lima bean originated from two separate
domestication processes, expanding their distribution
across neotropical lowlands and the western Andes
(Serrano‐Serrano et al., 2012). Vigna, a genus in the
legume family, includes well-known cultivated species
like mung bean (Vigna radiata) and adzuki bean (Vigna
angularis). Adzuki beans, native to East Asia, are widely
grown in various countries, while mung beans find
Fig. 1: Diversified uses of vegetable bean popularity in Asia, the Caribbean and parts of Africa
(Parwez et al., 2022; Petruzzello, 2023). Fava beans, or
Several obstacles must be overcome to produce and broad beans (Vicia faba L.), are native to tropical and
use beans, including choosing the suitable cultivar, temperate parts of the world. Grown for its succulent
cropping conditions and susceptibility to viral, bacterial immature seeds, this legume contributes to nutritional
and fungal diseases. Breeding programs have recently diversity in regions spanning North and South America,
concentrated on improving resistance to heat, drought, Europe, Africa and China (Allen, 2013). Pigeon pea
diseases and low soil fertility to strengthen biotic and (Cajanus cajan), originating in the northern Indian
abiotic stress tolerance. Beans have been studied from subcontinent over 4000 years BCE, has spread to East
various perspectives, but comprehensive reviews are Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America, West Africa and
lacking regarding their diversity, production, nutritional the Caribbean. Pigeon peas, an important source of vital
benefits, sustainable cultivation and prospects. nutrients, are an integral part of the diets of small and
Therefore, this review aims to explore the significance marginal farmers who grow for subsistence farming
of vegetable beans in human nutrition, covering aspects (Khoury et al., 2015). The practice of cultivating a diverse
of production, nutrition, breeding and challenges. The selection of beans not only satisfies nutritional

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requirements but also showcases the adaptability of these other nations worldwide (FAO, 2024). These statistics
legumes to varying climates. This may ultimately aid in underscore the global appeal of bean vegetables as a vital
global food security during these challenging times of dietary component, with varying consumption patterns
climate change and population growth. across continents and nations.
Production and Consumption of Beans Nutritional Profile and Health Benefits
Bean vegetables are prevalent across regions where Vegetable beans offer a rich array of essential
they are extensively grown and eaten. Their popularity is nutrients, including vitamin A, thiamin, vitamin C,
notable in various areas, spanning Europe, East Africa, riboflavin, niacin and various minerals such as
South Africa, West Africa, West Asia/Middle East, North magnesium, iron, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium,
America, South America, Central America and the sodium and zinc (Ahmed et al., 2015; Buruchara et al.,
Caribbean, East Asia and South Asia. In the year 2019, 2011). Additionally, beans provide carbohydrates,
regional bean production figures were as follows- Asia proteins and essential elements (Table 1), making them a
accounted for 14,369,312 metric tons, Africa produced highly nutritious food source (Sultana, 2001). Both green
pods and developed unripe seeds of vegetable beans are
7,000,000
Table 1: Nutritional composition of different bean
5,846,622
6,000,000 vegetables together
5,310,000
No Compound Amount Unit
5,000,000
1 Water 11.55 g
4,000,000 2 Energy 340.5 kcal
3 Energy 1 424 KJ
2,906,508
3,000,000 4 Protein 18.42 g
5 Lipid (fat) 1.30 g
2,000,000
1,297,867
1,197,489 6 Carbohydrate 61.74 g
979,789932,220879,404
1,000,000 747,000619,151 7 Fiber, dietary 15.38 g
8 Sugars 2.55 g
0
9 Calcium 115.2 mg
10 Iron 5.57 mg
11 Magnesium 165 mg
Production (MT) 12 Phosphorus 394 mg
13 Potassium 1365 mg
14 Sodium 8.5 mg
Fig. 2: Some leading bean-producing countries and their 15 Zinc 3.09 mg
production (source: FAO, 2024) 16 Vitamin C11 15.27 mg
17 Thiamin 0.62 mg
7,052,612 metric tons, America contributed 7,039,866 metric 18 Riboflavin 0.17 mg
tons, Europe produced 367,412 metric tons and Oceania 19 Niacin 1.63 mg
yielded 73,470 metric tons, where Myanmar emerged as 20 Vitamin B-6 0.40 mg
the leading bean-producing country, with a production of 21 Folate, DFE2 431.75 µg
approximately 5.85 million metric tons followed by India 22 Vitamin A 3.88 mg
producing around 5.31 million metric tons. Brazil and 23 Vitamin E3 0.16 mg
China trailed behind the top two, producing roughly 2.9 24 Vitamin K4 4.24 µg
1total ascorbic acid, 2dietary folate equivalents, 3α-tocopherol,
and 1.2 million metric tons. Other notable producers
4phylloquinone (source: Siddiq et al., 2022; Khan et al., 2020)
included Tanzania, Uganda, the USA, Mexico, Kenya and
Burundi. However, their production figures were
considerably lower (Fig. 2). The combined global cultivated not only delicious but also serves as an excellent protein
area for beans in the same year was 33.1 million hectares, source. Vegetable beans are rich in antifungal proteins and
resulting in a total production of 28.9 metric tons (FAO, have a low glycemic index, making them a great choice
2024). African countries emerged as significant for various dietary needs (Wortman et al., 2004; Ye et al.,
consumers of bean vegetables and bean products, with 2000). The protein content in green pods is
Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania leading the pack. These approximately 4.5%, while it rises significantly to 25%
nations recorded per capita consumption rates of 34.80 kg in dry seeds. Moreover, consuming beans has numerous
(76.56 lbs.), 24.80 kg (54.56 lbs.) and 15.30 kg (33.66 lbs.), health benefits (Bennink and Rondini, 2003). These
respectively (Siddiq et al., 2022). In contrast, certain benefits include lower cholesterol levels and preventive
industrialized economies, such as the United States and and curative properties against advanced diseases like
Europe, showed lower per capita bean consumption than cancer. Specific species of Phaseolus beans contain

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antifungal peptides that have been shown to inhibit the nitrogen-fixing ability, leaf shedding and nutrient release
activity of reverse transcriptase (Anderson et al., 1999; positively impact subsequent crop yields (Das and Ghosh,
Bennink, 2002; Wang and Ng, 2006; Ngai and Ng, 2004), 2012). Incorporating legumes enhances sustainability and
potentially delaying the onset of symptoms in HIV- productivity in farming, offering long-term environmental
infected patients (Wong et al., 2006; Ngai and Ng, 2004). and economic benefits. Thus, legumes can promote
Furthermore, the amount of tyrosinase enzyme may sustainable agriculture by fixing nitrogen, serving as
increase to 25% in dry seeds, which may be beneficial for intercrops, trap and green manure crops, reducing
people with hypertension (Ahmed et al., 2015). Further dependence on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
research indicates that incorporating bean vegetables, promoting nutrient recycling and minimizing chemical
bean products, or legumes into the diet can prevent usage in the field (Fig. 3). Moreover, legumes contribute
colorectal cancer, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic to preserving agroecosystem integrity and biodiversity by
syndrome and obesity (Perera et al., 2020). This improving soil health and providing habitats for beneficial
highlights the substantial health advantages associated organisms. Overall, legumes foster diverse ecosystems in
with the regular consumption of vegetable beans, agricultural landscapes, ensuring enduring sustainability
promoting their inclusion in balanced and nutritious diets. and resilience.

Fig. 3: The role of legumes in sustainable agriculture

Legumes for Sustainable Agriculture Fig. 4: Biotic and abiotic constraints to bean production
Sustainable agriculture aims to increase crop yield and
revenue for small-scale farmers by improving agricultural Constraints to Bean Production
methods and technology (Livondo et al., 2015). Extension Vegetable beans are a crucial legume food consumed
agents are essential in advising farmers and telling them worldwide and play a vital role, especially for lower-income
about new agricultural legume technology and practices individuals and marginal farmers. However, several
(Davis, 2008; Aker, 2011; Anderson and Feder, 2007; biological, edaphic and climatic challenges hinder bean
Bell, 2015). Legumes are the cornerstone of sustainable production. The main difficulties impacting vegetable
agriculture since they represent the three pillars of a bean production include diseases, insect pests, extreme
healthy earth, healthy humans and healthy animals. Food weather, weed infestations and inadequate soil fertility
security and environmental quality become critical issues (Fig. 4). Diseases significantly threaten various vegetable
as the world's population grows and production costs rise. bean crops. Pathogens with pathogenic traits and varying
Because legumes and Rhizobium bacteria may coexist, virulence attack vegetable beans, with their prevalence
legumes help Biological Nitrogen Fixation, which is and importance depending on locality, cropping season,
essential to agricultural cropping systems. This process year and cultivar. Common diseases affecting bean
enhances soil fertility and reduces the need for energy and production include Cercospora leaf spot, Ascochyta leaf
nitrogen fertilizers, resulting in cost savings and spot, anthracnose, Halo blight, Web blight, common
mitigating nitrogen leaching. Additionally, legumes bacterial blight, bean rust, bean common mosaic virus and
improve soil physical conditions and promote biodiversity others (Table 2). These diseases are major culprits
(Courty et al., 2015; Peix et al., 2015). Legumes, responsible for production losses, especially in tropical
commonly grown on marginal lands, serve various roles, regions, where many vegetable bean-producing countries
such as intercrops, trap crops, green manure and alley are situated. Additionally, pathogens like bean golden
crops, aiding nutrient cycling in agriculture. Their mosaic virus, web blight and Ascochyta blight play

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economically important roles but are limited to specific crop rotation, limited micronutrient application and
environmental conditions in growing regions (Fig. 5). In insufficient utilization of organic matter can lead to
recent years, web blight has emerged as a new disease in decreased soil fertility, negatively impacting bean yields
Bangladesh (Kader et al., 2022). Some pathogens, such as (Margaret et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2020).
root rots, are widespread but have relatively lower Climate change is likely to alter the occurrence and
economic significance. Insect pests are another severity of disease, insect and weed infestations. The
formidable challenge affecting vegetable bean climatic changes are also expected to result in greater
production, causing significant economic damage both precipitation in equatorial places, namely the Northern
preharvest and postharvest. Such pests include bean flies, Andes and the East African highlands (Yadav et al.,
bean pod weevils, bruchids and leafhoppers and are 2011). The excessive amount of rainfall is anticipated to
widely distributed in tropical bean-producing countries worsen problems associated with several types of fungal
(Schwartz and Corrales, 1989). Weeds represent a diseases, including those that reside in the soil and impact
persistent problem for farmers throughout the history of the health of leaves, such as angular leaf spot and
agricultural production and may lead to reduced yields anthracnose (Beebe et al., 2011). Moreover, the
and substantial economic losses (Buhler et al., 1998).
simultaneous occurrence of abundant rainfall and
Common examples of economically significant and
moderate to high temperatures is expected to increase the
widespread weeds in vegetable bean fields include bathua
occurrence of web blight and angular leaf spots at
(Chenopodium album L.), smooth crabgrass (Digitaria
ischaemum), bish katali (Polygonum persicaria L.), large elevations between 50 and 1400 m above sea level
crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis L.), wild mustard (Frahm et al., 2004). Abiotic stresses such as drought
(Sinapis arvensis L.) and wild radish (Raphanus and heat may also significantly limit vegetable bean
raphanistrum) (Khan et al., 2020). Soil fertility poses a yield. Addressing these constraints is crucial for
significant constraint to vegetable bean production. sustaining and improving vegetable bean production,
Nutrient deficiencies, soil toxicities (Schwartz and ensuring food security and supporting agricultural
Corrales, 1989), imbalanced fertilizer use, inadequate livelihoods worldwide.

Table 2: Important diseases of beans, their host, causal agents and geographical distribution
Sl. No Disease Major Host Causal organism Symptoms Distribution References
1 Halo blight Kidney bean, Pseudomonas Initially, it manifests Commonly found in
lima bean, syringae pv. as a small waterlogged regions with elevations
runner bean, phaseolicola lesion that gradually ranging from moderate
yellow-eyed bean takes on a to high. Preferred by
yellowish-green temperatures ranging
hue and develops from 16-20°C as well
a surrounding halo as damp and overcast
weather conditions
2 Bean anthracnose Common bean, Colletotrichum The diseased pods Most common in rainy Buruchara et al. (2010)
country bean, lindemuthianum develop black-red areas. Destructive at
soybean sunken cankers cool to moderate
or patches temperatures
and excessive humidity Chupp (1954)
3 Ascochyta Faba bean, Ascochyta Irregularly shaped The disease is prevalent Williams (1987)
leaf spot French bean, phaseolorum brown or purple across Africa, where
garbanzo bean blotches on leaves conditions are especially
or pods cold and humid
4 Web blight Country bean, Rhizoctonia Water soaking Hot and humid Li-Juan et al. (1993)
common bean, solani symptoms, regions of McKenzie and
soybean, followed by Madagascar, Grahame (2010)
winged bean browning or necrotic D.R. Congo and
circular lesions Ethiopia are affected
5 Powdery mildew Common bean, Erysiphe Initially, appears Disease develops in East-West Seed (2023)
lima bean, poligoni as necrotic, irregular, environments characterized
broad bean, chlorotic lesions, by elevated
cluster bean which are succeeded temperatures (20-24°C),
by the characteristic reduced humidity
white, powdered and shadiness
appearance
6 White mold Common bean, Sclerotinia Appears as a Widespread and
kidney bean, sclerotiorum greyish-green occurs at intermediate
lima bean, water-soaked lesion altitudes with cool
mung bean and finally shows and moist conditions
white/cotton mold. but seasonally important
Black sclerotia formed

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Table 2: Continue
on infected tissue
7 Leaf rust Common bean, Uromyces Pustules of red-brown Wherever beans are
French bean, appendiculatus powdery spores on grown, rust occurs.
soybean the lower side of It is distributed in
the leaves cool to moderate
temperatures with
moist conditions
8 Bean root rots Faba bean, Sclerotium Plants wilt and die, Widespread in tropics
common bean, rolfsii, roots decay and and are favoured
lima bean Pythium spp. leaves turn under stress conditions,
Rhizoctonia yellow and fall such as low soil
solani, Fusarium fertility, warm to
solani f. sp. high temperature,
phaseoli high relative humidity,
drought and acid soils
9 Charcoal rot Common bean, Macrophomina Symptoms usually Distributed throughout
or ashy lima bean, phaseolina appear during or the tropics and
stem blight soybean after flowering. subtropics areas.
But seedlings can More destructive with
also be impacted. sudden rainfall and
Emerging seedling high temperatures
hypocotyls may
develop brown lesions
10 Fusarium wilt Common bean, Fusarium Yellowing of lower Distributed widely
or Fusarium mung bean, oxysporum f. leaves, which may throughout Africa
yellows soybean sp. phaseoli gradually spread to but not equally across
the upper leaves. various countries.
Discolouration of Favorable conditions
xylem and phloem include low relative
above and below humidity, high temperature
the soil line. during drought and
wounded plants
11 Sudden Death Soybean Fusarium Interveinal chlorosis SDS is among the
Syndrome (SDS) virguliforme and necrosis are most devastating
(Synonym: F. typical for SDS soil-borne diseases
solani) in the USA.
When this disease
occurs in the presence
of soybean cyst
nematode, disease
symptoms occur earlier
and are more severe
12 Cercospora Common bean, Cercospora spp. The spots initially Found throughout the
leaf spot country bean, appear as little brown hot and wet regions
French bean, specks, then grow where the bean is grown.
mung bean, into brown circular Favorable conditions
soybean, spots with grey centers. are warm to high
lima bean The affected center temperature
tissue becomes thin (21-30-35) and high
and brittle and often relative humidity
drops out,
leaving a shot-hole
appearance
13 Common Common bean, Xanthomonas Commonly water Widespread throughout
Bacterial runner bean, campestris pv. soak areas on leaves tropical regions.
Blight (CBB) country bean, phaseoli that turn into Warm to extreme
lima bean, necrotic lesions. temperatures and
mung bean, During severe infections, high relative humidity
soybean the leaves of the plant are favourable conditions
may fall off and the plant
may become floppy
and droopy
14 Bean Common Country bean, Virus Mosaic patterns on The two most
Mosaic Virus French bean, leaves between light significant viral
(BCMV) and soybean, and dark green are infections affecting
Bean Yellow Common bean typical signs of bean plants in
Mosaic Virus both diseases. Africa and Asia
(BYMV) Foliage loss and
inhibition of growth
in plants

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considerable damage to the root systems of plants. One

infectious disease in vegetable beans is attributed to a
Mycoplasma-Like Organism (MLO). These organisms
exhibit characteristics similar to mycoplasmas, bacteria
without a cell wall. Understanding the types and prevalence
of infectious diseases in vegetable beans is essential for
implementing effective management strategies to protect
crop health and ensure sustainable production.
Disease Management in Bean Cultivation
Disease management in bean cultivation is vital for
sustaining crop health and productivity. It ensures the
prevention and control of harmful pathogens that can
impact bean plants, safeguarding yields and quality.
Effective disease management practices contribute to
sustainable agriculture, reducing the reliance on
chemical interventions and promoting long-term soil
health. By addressing potential threats early, farmers can
minimize economic losses and maintain a stable and
resilient bean production system. Overall, prioritizing
disease management is integral to successful and
sustainable bean cultivation.

Table 3: Effective fungicides used as a seed dressing and

protective treatment for controlling bean diseases
No Trade name Rate of doses
Fig. 5: Diseases of bean. (A) Web blight of mung bean; (B) Web Seed treatment/seed dressing
blight of country bean; (C) Cercospora leaf spot of 1 Benomyl or thiophanate methyl 5.2 g/kg of seed
country bean; (D) Bean Common Mosaic Virus 2 Cerasan 0.5 g/100 g of seed
(BCMV), (E) Soybean rust; (F) Sudden death of soybean 3 Thiram 0.5 g/100 g of seed
4 Ziram 0.5 g/100 g of seed
A comprehensive study conducted by Hall and Protective fungicide/systemic fungicide
Nasser (1996) reveals the presence of various 5 Azoxystrobin 1 mL/L of water
6 Benomyl 0.55 g/L of water
infectious diseases in vegetable beans, categorized into
7 Carbendazim 0.5 kg/ha
different groups based on the causative agents. In total, 8 Copper oxychloride 3 g/L of water
50 infectious diseases have been identified in vegetable 9 Captafol 3.5 kg/ha
beans, each with distinct characteristics and 10 Chlorothalonil 2 g/L of water
implications for crop health. Fungal pathogens 11 Dithane M45 2.20 kg/ha
12 Dicloran 2 g/L of water
contribute to the largest proportion of infectious 13 Fentin hydroxide 1.2 g/L of water
diseases in vegetable beans, with 29 identified. These 14 Mancozeb 2 g/L of water
fungi can cause significant damage to crops, impacting 15 Maneb 3.5 g/L of water
yield and quality. Viral infections pose another 16 Tryfloxystrobin 0.5 mL/L of water
significant threat to vegetable bean production, with 14 17 Zineb 3.5 g/L of water
(source: Schwartz and Corrales, 1989; PTAC, 2020)
viral diseases detected in the crop. These viruses can
spread rapidly and have varying severity on the plants. Chemical Control
Bacterial pathogens are responsible for four infectious
diseases in vegetable beans. While relatively fewer in Chemical control is a vital method employed to
number compared to fungi and viruses, these bacteria combat and restrict the proliferation of pathogens that
transmit diseases to plants. Chemical methods are
can still have detrimental effects on crop health. particularly useful for large agricultural areas due to their
Nematodes, microscopic worm-like organisms, rapid, effective action and immediate results. The ease of
contribute to two infectious diseases in vegetable application and operation makes chemical control a
beans. Despite their small size, nematodes can cause practical choice for many farmers in agrarian practices

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(Budge and Whipps, 2001; Matheron and Porchas, 2004). farmer level, these microbial agents have shown
Common fungicides for controlling various bean diseases beneficial potentials that support sustainable agriculture
protect crop health and ensure optimal yields (Table 3). while reducing environmental costs (O’Brien, 2017;
One widely used group of fungicides is the triazoles, Barratt et al., 2018). Implementing biocontrol agents has
which include chemicals like tebuconazole and been observed to reduce pesticide usage by approximately
propiconazole. Triazoles exhibit efficacy against 50% in different countries (Macfadyen et al., 2014).
various fungal infections, including those responsible for Biocontrol agents work through competition for resources
diseases such as anthracnose and rust in beans. Another and the production of antagonistic chemicals that are toxic
important class is the strobilurins, represented by to pathogens (Shafique et al., 2016). They can also induce
fungicides such as azoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin. plant resistance against pathogens and other disease-
Strobilurins are known for their broad-spectrum activity causing agents. Trichoderma harzianum, Pseudomonas
and systemic nature, making them effective against foliar fluorescence and Bacillus subtilis have shown high
diseases like rust and angular leaf spot. Additionally, efficacy in combating plant diseases (Shafique et al.,
benzimidazoles, like thiophanate-methyl, are commonly 2016; Loganathan et al., 2010). Tephrosia leaf extract,
employed for their preventive and curative properties fermented cattle dung and urine, neem seed kernel
against various fungal infections in beans. Copper-based extract/suspension and aqueous extracts of chilies,
fungicides, such as copper hydroxide or copper
tobacco leaves and garlic, either individually or in
oxychloride, are popular for managing diseases like
combinations, have also shown promise as biopesticides.
common bacterial blight. Integrated disease management
Commercial products like neem extract (powder and oils)
often involves a combination of these fungicides with
and Bacillus thuringiensis are also available in the market
other control measures, emphasizing a holistic approach
to mitigate the development of resistance and promote (Buruchara et al., 2010). Sustainable and
sustainable bean cultivation practices. It is essential for environmentally friendly pest management can be
farmers to carefully select and rotate fungicides, achieved by prioritizing biological control techniques
considering factors like disease prevalence, local and incorporating them into farming practices. This
conditions and potential impacts on non-target organisms, will help farmers as well as the environment.
to ensure effective disease control and minimize Regulatory and Cultural Measures
environmental risks. Although farmers can effectively
manage plant diseases and optimize agricultural While farmers commonly use chemical control
productivity by using chemical control, it is important to methods due to their effectiveness and efficiency, certain
balance chemical use with sustainable and eco-friendly cultural practices are also employed to manage diseases.
practices to ensure the long-term health and resilience of The quarantine method prevents the long-distance
agricultural ecosystems. transmission of plant pathogens across countries, states
Biological Control and regions. This involves carefully inspecting and
controlling plant materials, containers, packing materials,
Non-chemical control measures are crucial in pursuing
seeds and soil that could potentially carry disease-causing
better, safer pest management practices with minimal
environmental impacts (Isman, 2006; Pickett and Bugg, agents (Crooks, 2005). Some practices focus on
1998; Ruberson et al., 1998). Biological control stands out preventing the spread and establishment of pathogens and
among these strategies as a host-specific and long-term promoting healthy plant growth. Crop rotation,
solution for plant diseases (Rebek et al., 2012). While intercropping and mixed cropping can gradually reduce
biological control shows promise, its history in combating the amount of pathogen impurity. Tricho compost, an
diseases has faced limitations, mainly due to laboratory-based example of organic amendments, has the ability to
experimentation (in vitro). Trichoderma is a widely enhance soil conditions and establish a biocidal
utilized biological control agent, followed by Rhizobium, environment that effectively inhibits soilborne pathogens
arbuscular mycorrhiza and various bacterial agents for (Paret et al., 2010). When applied to the soil, Tricho
experimental purposes (Bi et al., 2007; Harrison, 1999). compost generates heat under wet conditions, effectively
However, these agents are yet to be introduced to farmers controlling pathogens. Cultivating the same crop
and made available in the market. Researchers are
promotes disease persistence, making diverse cropping
currently focusing on biocontrol agents due to their
systems more favorable (Mihajlović et al., 2017; Goss et al.,
eco-friendliness and safety. Various antagonistic
biocontrol agents, including Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas 2009). To prevent the spread of infections, it is important
spp., Burkholderia spp. and Trichoderma spp., effectively to remove and dispose of plant debris, diseased plant parts
combat diseases caused by pathogens such as Erwinia and contaminated tools and equipment through soil
spp., Agrobacterium radiobacter, Phytophthora spp., sanitation. Additionally, it is helpful to control the growth
Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp. of weeds and other plants that can host diseases to aid in
(Compant et al., 2005; Pérez-García et al., 2011). At the disease prevention (Baysal-Gurel et al., 2018). Grafting

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offers an alternative solution of chemical control, where and X. axonopodis pv. phaseoli var. fuscans poses a
the desired plant is joined to a rootstock that exhibits significant challenge to common bean production in
resistance to bean diseases (Core, 2005; Rivard and Ethiopia. Evaluation of diverse accessions has identified
Louws, 2006). Furthermore, cultural techniques such as genotypes with lower severity values on leaves, pods and
soil solarization, biofumigants, anaerobic soil Areas Under the Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC),
disinfestation, soil steam sterilization and soilless culture offering valuable genetic resources for future CBB
are globally implemented for the purpose of disease resistance breeding programs (Tumsa et al., 2020).
control. By implementing these cultural practices, farmers Sclerotinia sclerotiorum induces Sclerotinia stem rot in
can maintain a healthier agroecosystem, minimize disease soybeans and resistance to this necrotrophic fungal pathogen
spread and reduce the reliance on chemical control is linked to early jasmonate accumulation, increased
methods, contributing to sustainable agriculture practices. scavenging ability and reprogramming of the phenylpropanoid
Host Resistance pathway (Ranjan et al., 2019; Hossain et al., 2023). Host
resistance is not limited to pathogens, but also extends to
Plant host resistance refers to the heritable defense protection against pests. Spodoptera frugiperda damages bean
mechanisms of vegetables and beans against specific crops and certain cultivars exhibit resistance through
pests or diseases. Vegetable beans with host resistance antixenosis and antibiosis mechanisms (Alves de Paiva et al.,
exhibit reduced susceptibility to diseases like bacterial, 2018). Mung bean accessions resist major insect pests,
fungal, or viral infections. One prominent example of this including cowpea aphids, thrips, whiteflies, bruchids and
resistance is seen in the context of rust, a severe disease spotted pod borers (Nair et al., 2019). Glycine soja, a wild
caused by Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Unger. Rust relative of soybean, offers advantageous traits, including
has a significant negative impact on common bean resistance to soybean aphids (Hesler et al., 2022).
production (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) worldwide. The Additionally, host resistance can improve resistance to
resistance to bean rust is primarily governed by 14 major environmental conditions such as drought or extremely
dominant genes originating from the Andean and high temperatures. Abiotic stress in soybeans stimulates
Mesoamerican gene pools (Souza et al., 2013). the production of 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-Carboxylate
Deployment of these genes in elite bean cultivars may (ACC) and ethylene, which enhances stress resistance but
resist the rust disease. Fusarium root rot (FRR), induced may also affect soybean yield when present in excessive
by Fusarium solani, presents a notable challenge to amounts (Nahar et al., 2016).
common bean production worldwide. Screening for FRR
resistance is complex due to variations in the environment Integrated Disease Management
and the biology of the pathogen. By employing multiple Integrated disease management utilizes multiple
isolates of F. solani, a greenhouse screening assay has disease control measures to manage diseases effectively.
identified resistant varieties within the Andean and Middle Using natural products for managing illnesses, such as
American diversity panels (Zitnick-Anderson et al., 2020). botanical plant extracts and microbial antagonists, is
Resistance to anthracnose in French beans is determined by environmentally benign and safe for people and other
monogenic independent genes denoted by the Co symbol, organisms. Fungicides are also effective in disease
with additional reports of quantitative resistance loci (Kelly control, although expensive and improper use should be
and Vallejo, 2004; Oblessuc et al., 2014; González et al., avoided. Farmers should try using all available control
2015). For common beans, resistance to angular leaf strategies before adopting chemical control (Suprapta,
spot primarily relies on single dominant genes, though 2012). It is important to apply proper cultural and
recent research suggests a more quantitative aspect agronomic practices to manage diseases effectively.
(Gonçalves-Vidigal et al., 2011) involving Quantitative Biological control plays a vital role in Integrated Disease
Trait Loci (QTLs) (González et al., 2015, 2013; Management (IDM) systems, with seed priming serving
Oblessuc et al., 2013; 2012; Keller et al., 2015). Silicon as a key method for evaluating novel bacterial strains as
(Si) has been acknowledged for enhancing resistance against antagonists (Fitzsimons and Miller, 2010; Ansari and
Cercospora leaf spot in soybeans by bolstering host defenses, Mahmood, 2017; Bhuiyan et al., 2018; Kandikattu et al.,
such as increased concentrations of soluble phenolics, lignin 2017; Lau and Lennon, 2011; Van Der Heijden et al.,
and phytoalexins. Si also enhances the activity of defense 2006). Seed priming with rhizosphere-dwelling
enzymes and gene transcription levels (Nascimento et al., microorganisms (PGPRs) induces systemic resistance
2014; Fortunato et al., 2012). Common Bacterial Blight against fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens in various
(CBB), caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli plant species and positively influences plant growth and

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yield. Utilizing bioagents and botanicals and minimizing protection, reduced land usage and potential manipulation
the use of organic pesticides once diseases are present of crop physiological mechanisms, contingent on
reduces the chemical burden on the environment and thoroughly understanding crop environmental responses
stimulates soil microbial activity, directly and indirectly (Graamans, 2022). While conventional breeding methods
affecting plant communities' production, variety and have improved bean varieties, the pace of genetic progress
composition. In cases where diseases persist, resistant
cultivars become a viable option (Fitzsimons and Miller,
2010; Ansari and Mahmood, 2017; Bhuiyan et al., 2018;
Kandikattu et al., 2017; Lau and Lennon, 2011; Van Der
Heijden et al., 2006). Integrated soil management plays a
crucial role in IDM, particularly for controlling soil-borne
pathogens. However, it can be challenging to identify and
integrate alternative practices, especially in commercial
plantations. While fungicides and resistance inducer
PGPR have shown efficacy in vitro and greenhouse
conditions, field validation is necessary to assess their
short-term disease response and impact on soil,
rhizosphere organism communities and plant
microbiomes. This approach requires broad testing across
different contexts, taking into account the bean vegetable
diseases' status, cultivar diversity and cropping systems in
relevant areas.
Innovations and Improvements in Bean Cultivation Fig. 6: Innovations and improvement techniques in bean
cultivation
Innovations and improvements in bean cultivation are
crucial for ensuring efficient, productive and resilient in yield enhancement has been relatively sluggish. Das et al.
farming practices. Crop health monitoring and weed (2017) suggested the adoption of advanced molecular
removal play pivotal roles in this regard, as frequent marker technologies to accelerate cultivar development.
attacks by pests and pathogens can lead to diseases, which Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) enables the efficient
can adversely impact the crop's quality and quantity. To transfer of favorable Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) into
tackle this difficulty, a comprehensive precision active breeding populations, facilitating gene stacking and
agriculture setup has been suggested, which combines the simultaneous transfer of multiple traits (Das et al.,
Internet of Things (IoT) devices, image processing 2017; Miklas et al., 2006; Tryphone et al., 2013). The
techniques, Machine Learning/Deep Learning (ML/DL), groundbreaking CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing tool has also
gene pyramiding, marker-assisted selection and been utilized to manipulate genes in common beans,
CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing systems (Fig. 6). This system particularly targeting RFO biosynthetic genes. As
can be useful in delivering controlled water sprinkling exemplified by De Koning et al. (2021); De Koning et al.
along with real-time detection of healthy and damaged (2023), this technology enables precise gene knockout,
bean leaves and environmental data (Devi et al., 2023).
presenting opportunities for trait enhancement in crops. The
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have revolutionized
application of CRISPR/Cas9 extends beyond common
large-scale phenotyping in plant breeding, particularly for
dry bean genotypes. Singh et al. (2023) emphasize the beans; Yao et al. (2023) demonstrated its use in modifying
transformative impact of UAV-based High-Throughput soybean genes related to oil content, flowering patterns,
Phenotyping (HTP) in assessing complex traits seed characteristics, plant height and nodulation.
efficiently. Aerial imaging systems offer a valuable tool Future Prospects and Research Directions
for evaluating numerous dry bean genotypes, providing
insights into plant characteristics. Controlled It is crucial to improve bean farming, nutrition and
Environment Agriculture (CEA) is another notable disease management through cooperative research,
advancement, especially for protein-rich crops like innovation and other types of interdisciplinary
soybeans. Greenhouses and vertical farms have cooperation in order to address global issues, including
demonstrated the potential to enhance essential amino- food security, sustainability and health. The requirement
acid production and improve crop nutritional content. for increased yields, greater nutritional quality and
CEA enables optimized production, enhanced crop increased resistance to the effects of changing climates

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and new diseases and pests has given rise to a number of Conclusion
prospective areas in which to concentrate research efforts.
Vegetable beans contribute significantly to nutritional
It is essential to develop bean varieties that can adapt to
and food security across diverse climates. As the world
changing climatic conditions, particularly those resistant grapples with hunger and undernourishment, the
to drought, heat and pests (Beebe et al., 2013). Enhancing consumption of beans emerges as a practical and
crop yields and ensuring a steady supply of this essential accessible solution. The paper highlights the global
food source could be achieved through research into production and consumption patterns of beans,
developing more resilient beans to climate change's emphasizing their popularity in various regions and
effects. The fight against malnutrition and nutritional nations. Furthermore, the nutritional profile and health
deficiencies can benefit from biofortification activities. benefits of vegetable beans underscore their potential to
By raising the quantities of protein, iron, zinc and other prevent diseases, making them an invaluable component
micronutrients in legumes, innovations in bean breeding of a balanced diet. The role of beans in sustainable
may increase their nutritional value (De Moura and agriculture is crucial, particularly due to their ability to
Stoffella, 2011). Extensive research is necessary for perform Biological Nitrogen Fixation, which positively
formulating integrated pest and disease control strategies impacts soil fertility and biodiversity. However, there are
several challenges that need to be addressed when it
that can pave the way to reducing the number of chemical
comes to bean production, including issues related to soil
inputs and sustainably encouraging bean cultivation fertility, pests and diseases. To overcome these challenges,
(Dita et al., 2018). Research on biological controls, various disease management strategies, including chemical
cultural practices and resistant cultivars are all part of this and biological control, regulatory measures, cultural
approach. Agroecological farming approaches can help practices and the importance of host resistance, have been
improve soil health, biodiversity and the general discussed. Collaboration between researchers, stakeholders
sustainability of bean-growing systems (Kremen and and policymakers is crucial to developing climate-resilient
Miles, 2012). These practices can be promoted by creating bean varieties, enhancing nutritional content and adopting
awareness among academics, farmers and policymakers. integrated pest and disease management strategies.
Bean production can benefit from optimizing resource Emphasis is placed on agroecological practices,
allocation, improvements in yield prediction and technology adoption and post-harvest management to
streamlining management procedures, all of which are optimize resource allocation and streamline management
procedures. By fostering interdisciplinary collaboration
made possible by advances in remote sensing, data
and knowledge sharing, the global community can work
analytics and precision agriculture (Bhatt, 2019).
towards a more sustainable and nutritious food system,
Collaboration between researchers and stakeholders can ensuring the continued importance of beans in meeting the
result in innovations in post-harvest technologies, storage world's evolving needs.
and processing methods that increase shelf life, decrease
losses and preserve nutritional quality (Mohapatra and Acknowledgment
Sutar, 2018). Advances in post-harvest technology,
storage and processing processes can be developed due to The authors thank the reviewers for their contribution
collaboration between researchers and stakeholders. to the peer evaluation of this study.
These innovations can increase shelf life, reduce losses
and maintain nutritional quality (McCollum et al., Funding Information
2013). Accelerating advances in bean farming, The authors have received financial support from the
nutrition and disease management can be accomplished Research Management Committee (RMC) of
through collaborative platforms. These platforms Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural
should facilitate the sharing of research findings, best University, Bangladesh, for providing support for writing
practices and indigenous knowledge. In conclusion, the this manuscript.
future of vegetable bean cultivation, nutrition and
disease management rests in interdisciplinary, Author’s Contributions
institution-wide and regional collaboration. By
concentrating on climatic resilience, nutritional Sayed Shahidul Islam: Drafted, research
enhancement, integrated pest and disease management, implementation and data collection.
agroecological approaches, technological adoption, Shanta Adhikary: Research planned, data collected,
post-harvest management and knowledge exchange, drafted and data analyzed.
researchers and stakeholders may help create a more Mahabuba Mostafa: Research planned, data
sustainable and nutrient-dense global food chain. interpreted and reviewed.

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DOI: 10.3844/ojbsci.2024.477.494

Md. Motaher Hossain: Concepted, fund acquisition, Alfaro‐Diaz, A., Escobedo, A., Luna‐Vital, D. A.,
Research designed and drafted reviewed. Castillo‐Herrera, G., & Mojica, L. (2023). Common
beans as a source of food ingredients: Techno‐
Ethics functional and biological potential. Comprehensive
Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 22(4),
This article is original and contains unpublished 2910-2944.
material. The corresponding author confirms that all of the https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.13166
other authors have read and approved the manuscript and Barratt, B. I. P., Moran, V. C., Bigler, F., & Van Lenteren,
no ethical issues are involved. J. C. (2018). The status of biological control and
recommendations for improving uptake for the
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