THIAGARAJAR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, SALEM

| Govt. Aided | Autonomous | NBA Accredited: Civil, Mech, EEE, Prodn.Textile, ECE & Comp Programmes |

Department of Textile Technology

A Textbook of

FIBER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

24O – 053402
 THIAGARAJAR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, SALEM
| Govt. Aided | Autonomous | NBA Accredited: Civil, Mech, EEE, Prodn.Textile, ECE & Comp Programmes |

Programme : Textile Technology

Semester : III
Course Code : 21O - 053402
Course Name : Fibre Science and Technology
Course Type : Programe Core

TEACHING AND SCHEME OF EXAMINATION

No of weeks per semester: 15 weeks

Examinations
Instructions
Max. Marks
Name of
Semester - End
the Course Periods Periods/ Continuous Duration
Examination Total
/ Week Semester Assessment
(Theory)
Fibre
Science and 3 45 40 100* 100 3 Hours
Technology
* Semester - End Examinations will be conducted for 100 marks and converted to 60 marks

TOPICS AND ALLOCATION OF PERIODS

Unit Topics No. of Periods

No
1 Introduction 9
2 Vegetable Fibres 9
3 Animal Fibres 6
4 Regenerated and Synthetic Fibres 12
5 Texturisation 9
TOTAL 45
Continuous Assessment and Revision 15*
Note: *Allotted from common pool of 60 periods

INTRODUCTION:
The fabric structure is basically given an idea of interlacements of warp and weft floats in the
fabric surface. Warp threads are run longitudinally along the length of the fabric and weft
threads are run transversely across the fabric. The technology provides end users a variety of
aesthetic free-form building designs.
COURSE OBJECTIVES:

• To understand the natural and manmade fibers and spinning methods for man-
made fibers.
• To outline the cultivation, properties and uses of vegetable fibres.
 •To outline the production process, properties and uses of animal fibres.
•To understand the manufacturing process, properties and uses of regenerated
fibers and synthetic fibers
• To understand the texturization process
COURSE OUTCOMES:
24O – 053402 Fibre Science and Technology
On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to
C301.1 : Classify textile fibres, principle of spinning methods and define the terminologies
related to polymers, fibres and filament yarns.
C301.2 : Explain the cultivation, properties and uses of vegetable fibres.
C301.3 : Describe the production process, properties and uses of animal fibres.
C301.4 : Discuss the manufacturing processes, properties and uses of regenerated and
synthetic fibres.
C301.5 : Describe the manufacturing process of textured yarn

CO-PO & PSOs MAPPING MATRIX

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PSO1 PSO2

C301.1 2 2 2 2 - 1 - 3 3
C301.2 2 - 2 - 2 1 1 3 3
C301.3 2 2 2 - 2 1 1 3 3
C301.4 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 3 3
C301.5 2 - - 3 2 1 - 3 3
Correlation Level 2 2 2 2.3 2 1 1 3 3

Correlation Level: 3-High Correlation, 2-Medium Correlation, 1-Low Correlation

Instructional Strategy

 It is advised that teachers take steps to attract student‟s attention and boost their
learning confidence.
 To help students learn and appreciate numerous concepts and principles in each area,
teachers should provide examples like daily life, realistic situations, and real-world
engineering and technological applications.
 The demonstration can make the subject exciting and foster involvement the students a
scientific mindset. Student activities should be observed and planned on all the topics.
 Throughout the course, a theory-demonstrate-practice-activity strategy may be used to
ensure that learning is outcome- and employability-based.
 All demonstrations/Hand-on practices are under a simulated environment (may be
followed by a real environment as far as possible).
 DETAILED SYLLABUS

No.of
Unit Name of the Topic(s)
Periods

1 Introduction 9

1.1 Textile Fibre - Definition, Classification of fibres- natural

and manmade fibres.
Natural fibres -cotton, silk, wool, jute, linen, hemp, sisal, kapok, coir.
Manmade fibres – cellulosic polymers, non cellulosic polymers, 5
rubber, metallic, mineral fibres.
Cellulosic fibres – Viscose Rayon, Acetate and Triacetate.
Non cellulosic polymers - Nylon, Polyester, acrylic, spandex, olefin.
Mineral fibres – glass, ceramic, graphite.

1.2 Manmade Fibre production- polymerization - Addition and

condensation polymerization. Definition of monomer, polymer, 4
repeat unit, Degree of polymerization, Staple fibre, filament, mono
filament, multifilament. Spinning methods of man-made fibres,
principle of melt, dry and wet spinning techniques. Essential and
desirable properties of textile fibre
Dope dyed and Delustered fibres, Application of Spin Finish, Brief
study of bi-component fibres

2 Vegetable Fibres 9

2.1 Cotton - Cotton producing countries and states in India. Cotton

cultivation, Stages in the growth and development of cotton fibre, 3
Cotton maturity, Effect of maturity in spinning and further processes
Physical and chemical structure, Physical and chemical properties,
uses. Brief study of Organic Cotton & Hybrid cotton

2.2 Linen - Linen producing countries - Physical and chemical properties – 2

uses.
Cultivation,harvesting and fibre extaction of flax, Extraction of Hemp
and Banana fibre

2.3 Jute - Jute producing countries and states in India – Fiber extraction 4
process - Retting process - Physical and chemical properties – Uses.
End uses - Bamboo, soya, sisal, Banana, Pineapple fibers. Casein,
Kapok and Ramie

3 Animal Fibres 6
3.1 Wool - Wool producing countries - Production of Clean wool from 3
Raw wool – Physical and chemical structure - Physical and chemical
properties - uses. Felting of wool. Differences in characteristics of
woollen and worsted yarn and fabric. Brief study on Virgin wool and
remanufactured wool. Importance of wool marks.

3.2 Silk - Silk producing countries - Types of silk (Mulberry, Eri, Muga) - 3
Sericulture-life cycle of silk worm - Reeling, Throwing and Doubling -
Degumming of silk - Weighting of silk, Differences between raw and
degummed silk .Waste silk – noils, dupion silk; Chemical composition
of silk. Physical and chemical properties of silk. Physical structure –
uses of silk - Outline spun silk manufacture.

4 Regenerated and Synthetic Fibres 12

4.1 Viscose Rayon - Raw material – manufacturing Process with flow chart 2
- Properties and uses.

4.2 Polynosic Rayon - manufacturing process with flow chart- properties 2

and uses. Properties and uses of high wet modulus Rayon, uses of HT
rayon. Triacetate – Properties and uses, Outline of Lyocell production;
properties of Lyocell (in comparison with regular / HT viscose and other
rayon).Uses of Lyocell.

4.3 Nylon 6,6 - Raw material – manufacturing Process with flow chart - 2
properties – uses.

4.4 Polyester - Raw material – manufacturing Process with flow chart - 2

properties - uses.

4.5 Acrylic - Raw material - manufacturing Process with flow chart, 4

properties, uses. Properties and uses of - Glass, Carbon, Nomex, Kevlar,
Polyurethane (Spandex). Polyethylene, LDPE,HDPE, Polypropylene,
mod acrylic, hi – bulk acrylic, asbestos and metal fibres

5 Texturisation 9

5.1 Texturisation – Definition – objectives – Classification – Type of 4

Textured Yarns – Properties of Textured yarns with their longitudinal
view.

5.2 Types of Texturisation –process of False twist texturing – knit de 5

knit texturing – Air jet texturing – Advantages of textured yarns.

Total 45
 FIBRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1.0 FIBRE CLASSIFICATION & FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1.1. INTRODUCTION:
Textile fibres satisfy one of the basic needs of man, viz, clothing. Textile fibres were used
merely for clothing, but today they find a wide variety of uses. The present day applications
include apparel, household textiles, industrial textiles, high- performance textiles, textiles in the
medical field, geotextiles, reinforcement textiles, optic-fibres tele communications and so on. Such
wide uses are due to the efforts of man to invent newer fibre with newer properties.

1.2. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS USED IN FIBRE CLASSIFICATION

i. Textile fibre: Fibres may be defined as units of matter characterized by fineness, flexibility
and a high ratio of length to thickness. For use as textiles, the fibres must have sufficiently
high temperature stability and a certain minimum strength, extensibility, elasticity and moisture
content. The length to thickness ratio should be at least 500:1.

ii. Natural fibre: A fibre that occurs naturally or is produced by nature is called a natural fibre.
Natural fibres may be animal, vegetable or mineral origin, e.g. cotton, wool, silk, etc.,

iii. Man-made fibre: A fibre manufactured by man, is a man-made fibre, e.g. rayon, nylon,
polyester, acrylic, acetate, spandex fibres, etc.

iv. Natural polymer fibre: A fibre manufactured by man from naturally occurring fibre- forming
polymer, e.g. the rayon’s, cellulose – ester fibres, the azlon fibres, etc.

v. Regenerated fibre: A man made fibre produced from a naturally occurring fibre- forming
polymer by a process that includes regeneration of the original polymer structure, e.g. the
rayon and azlon fibres. Natural polymer by chemical process of the purification /modification of
the polymer, bring back the original (natural) polymer structure during fibre formation (or
regeneration).

vi. Synthetic fibre: A man-made fibre produced from polymer built up by man from chemical
elements or compounds. E.g. polyester, polyamide, polyolefin, polyurethane fibres etc.

vii. Refractory fibre: A fibre, natural or man- made, which can withstand without degradation,
heat at temperature at or below which other fibres would normally char, melt and / or degrade,
e.g. carbon (graphite), glass, ceramic, metal fibres, etc.

viii. Organic fibre: A fibre, natural or man- made, composed essentially of carbon and
hydrogen often also with oxygen and nitrogen. Almost all the commonly used textile fibres are
organic. In the case of natural fibres, all the fibres derived from “ living” matter, such as plants
and animals, are organic. All the natural animal and vegetable fibres and the natural –
polymer and synthetic polymer fibres are organic fibres.
ix. Inorganic fibre: A fibre, natural or man- made, composed of one or more types of atoms in
which carbon and hydrogen do not occur together. In the case of the natural fibres, those of
mineral or non-living origin are inorganic fibres; an example is asbestos, obtained from certain
naturally occurring rocks. Among the man- made fibres, glass, carbon, ceramic and metal are
examples of inorganic fibres.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRES

Textile fibres in today’s use are of different types. Textiles fibres are classified with regard
to their origin and chemical structure. It may be seen that textile fibres have been broadly divided
into two classes, namely natural and man-made. The natural fibres have been classified with
respect to their source and chemical composition, while most of the man- made fibres are
classified with regard to their source or chemical structure.
Examples
Natural Fibres :
a. Hair Fibres : Fine hair - Alpaca, Llama, Vicuna, Guanaco, Camel, Rabbit, Angora, etc.,
Coarse hair Fibres - Cattle, Horse, Goat, etc.,
b. Vegetable fibres :
i. Seed Fibres - Cotton and Kapok
ii. Bast FIbres - Jute, Flax, Ramie, hemp, Kenaf, etc.,
iii. Lead FIbres - Sisal, Manila, Pina etc.,
iv. Fruit Fibres - Coir ( Coconut fibre)
c. Mineral Fibre - asbestos ( obtained from certain natural rocks)

Natural Polymer Fibres

a. Regenerated Protein FIbres : i) Animal Protein fibre : Casein fibre

ii) Vegetable Protein fibres - Ardil, Vicara, Soybean etc.,

b. Regenerated Cellulosic fibres : The rayons. e.g. Viscose, Lyocell, Cuprammonium

and Polynosic rayon(Modal) fibres

c. Cellulose esters : Cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate fibres

Synthetic Polymer Fibres

i. Polyurethane Fibre : Spandex or Elastic which possess rubber like elasticity. This
type of fibre consists of chemical segmented polyurethane
ii. Polyamide fibre : The nylons, e.g. nylon 66, nylon 6 10, nylon 11 etc.,
iii. Polyester Fibre : Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) fibre
iv. Polymerized Hydrocarbons : Polyethylene and Polypropylene fibre
v. Synthetic rubbers: Polyisoprene fibre, Poly chloroprene fibre, etc.,
vi. Polyvinyl derivatives :
i. Fluro Substituted :e.g ., Polytetrafluroethylene fibre(PTFE or Teflon)
ii. Chlorine substituted: Mono chloro substituted: e.g.Polyvinylchloride(PVC)fibre
Di-Chloro substituted : e.g., Polyvinylidene chloride fibre
iii. Cyano substituted : Mono- cyano substituted: e.g.acrylic and Modacrylic fibres
Di – cyano substituted: e.g.Polyvinylidene dinitrile fibre

iv. Hydroxyl substituted : e.g. Polyvinyl alcohol fibre

Refractory and related fibres : Glass fibre , Carbon (or graphite) fibre, metal fibre,
ceramic fibre, etc.,
1.3. Important characteristics of a textile fibre
Among many textile fibres natural, man made fibres cannot be used for textile purposes.
Unless they have desirable fibre properties. The fibre properties vary from fibre to fibre within
limits. The important properties of a textile fibre are listed below.

1. Fibre Length:
All textile fibres must have a minimum length: This length is essential for setting the roller
drafting system in the spinning machines. The staple length of the cotton ranges between ½” to
1¾”. The longer fibres can be utilized for spinning finer counts and produces a stronger yarn due
to high interfibre friction. The shorter fibres require more twist for binding the fibres together during
spinning than longer staple fibres. All staple fibres produced for required length (36mm, 40mm,
44mm etc) can be processed and spun into a spun yarn.

2. Tensile Strength:
The textile fibre is processed through several opening and cleaning machines during
spinning. The yarn passes through healds and reeds and are subjected to severe stresses and
strain during weaving and knitting. The fibre and the yarn made out of it has to withstand these
strains during conversion to yarn and fabric. A stronger yarn will withstand, whereas a weaker
yarn will break and the fabric produced will be too weak for normal use. Thus strength is an
essential characteristic for all textile fibres.

3. Fineness :
This is a very essential quality required for a textile fibre. The finer the fibre the better the
product will be. The fineness of a fibre results in softness of the product made. A given fibre may
vary widely in fineness or diameter (e.g. cotton). A finer fibre can be spun into a fine yarn. The
fineness of cotton is expressed in micrograms/inch (Micronaire value). Artificial fibres can be
manufactured uniformly fine e.g. polyester nylon etc

4. Flexibility :
The fibre must be pliable or flexible enough so that it will easily bend without any damage
to itself. There are many fibres available which have both length and strength, but do not posses
the desired flexibility (e.g. glass fibre). Such fibres are difficult to bend and are it is stiff so that it
may break during spinning. Flexibility is derived from fineness. Even very fine glass fibres will
have the desired flexibility. A pliable fibre will spin and weave well and makes the product smooth
and soft.

5. Durability :
The fibre that is to be used in the textile industry must be durable i.e, have a sufficiently
long useful life, so that its valuable qualities are not lost in a very short time. Textile materials
must be durable for some reasonable years for normal wearing purposes and also for reasons of
economy.

6. Availability :
The fibre must be available in abundance at a reasonable price and very near the site of
the textile industry, so that it can be used as a useful raw material. A fibre with all essential
properties, but rarely available cannot be used for manufacturing purposes in a textile industry.
The Desirable Properties:
7. Fibre Uniformity : A more uniform fibre always produces a uniform yarn. The natural fibres
show wide variability in properties in general. This variability is with reference to the length,
strength and fineness of the fibre. Length and fineness are characteristics that affect the final
product and so these must be as uniform as possible. Hence, sampling must be done very
carefully, so that the results are representative of the fibre being evaluated. Man-made fibres are
generally more uniform with regard to these characteristics.

8. Lustre : The luster or shine improves the appearance of a fibre. Of all the natural fibres, silk
has the maximum luster. The natural fibres except silk are generally regarded as ‘dull’. The man-
made fibres are usually ‘lustrous’ and can be made to be ‘dull’ if required. The luster of cotton can
be improved by a chemical process called ‘mercerisation’, if required.

9. Elongation
When a fibre is pulled or stretched it shows an increase in length until it breaks. This
increase in length is called elongation. Fibre elongation is an important property because the fibre
is expected to withstand loads and pulls during its normal every day life which may increase its
length. Elongation varies considerably from fibre to fibre. A fibre that shows poor elongation will
be brittle (or will break easily). Elasticity refers to the ability of a fibre to recover its original
dimensions or shape form and elongated position when the load applied to it is removed.

For a product whose end use is in making bagging material, a fibre with the least amount
of elongation should be preferred, e.g. jute bags, rice bags. For a product, which is to be used for
making elastic bands, rubber fibre, which has the maximum elongation and elasticity should be
preferred.

10. Hygroscoplicity
Hygrosocopicity is the capacity of a fibre to absorb moisture. Natural fibres in general are
hygroscopic. They have chemical groups capable of attracting and retaining (holding) water
molecules. This property is not found in most of the synthetic fibres. The presence of a certain
amount of moisture in a fibre increases its comfort properties and reduces problems during its
mechanical processing (conversion to yarn). Hygroscopicity varies considerably from fibre to fibre
and is a desirable property.

11. Absorbency
Absorbency is the characteristic by which a fibre takes in and holds water, chemicals or
other liquids. Almost all fibres, in the raw (as produced) state, have poor absorbency, but when
cleaned chemically and purified, shows good absorbency. This property is essential if substances
like dyes and finishing agents have to be applied to the fibre or if the end use requires rapid
absorption of water or other liquids (e.g. towels, napkins etc). The natural fibres such as cotton,
flax, wool and silk are generally more absorbent than the synthetic fibres such as nylon and
polyester.

12. Crimp
Some of the natural fibres, particularly cotton and wool fibres can easily be spun into yarn
as the fibres are able to adhere to one another effectively. This is because they have natural
crimp or a non-linear shape or wavy shape. Artificial fibres are given crimp by mechanical
processes particularly when used as short staple fibres. These staple fibres are usually mixed
with natural fibres like cotton or wool, as crimp is essential for better cohesion and grip during
spinning. Thus crimp is a desirable property that can be expected of a fibre.

1.4. Terminology Related to the Common Forms of a Textile Fibre:

Textile fibres may be found in various forms in everyday life. Some of these are listed below:

a) Staple Fibres: Fibres, natural or man-made, which are of limited length are called staple
fibres. The natural staple fibres are variable in length. The man-made fibres have variable
“cut-length of 36, 38, 40mm etc, e.g., natural fibres - cotton, wool, jute, coir etc.; man-made
fibres-rayon staple fibre, polyester staple fibre, acrylic staple fibre etc.
b) Filament : A fibre of indefinite length is called a filament, e.g., continuous filament silk and all
continuous filament man-made fibres.
c) Yarn: A product of substantial length and relatively small cross-section consisting of fibres or
filaments and with or without twist.
d) Continuous Filament Yarn: An assembly of one or more filaments that run the whole length
of the yarn, e.g., silk and man-made filaments yarns.
e) Monofilament years: A yarn that consists of only one filament. It is normally thicker than an
individual filament in a multifilament yarn, e.g., nylon bristles (as used in tooth-brushes), nylon
sewing yarn, fishing line etc.
f) Multifilament yarn: A continuous filament yarn consisting of more than one filament, e.g., silk
and man made yarns containing many filaments.
g) Tow: An assembly of continuous filaments of man-made fibre, usually very much larger than
that required for a yarn. A tow is usually converted to staple fibre or to a strand containing
relatively short fibres arranged parallel to the strand axis (top or sliver).
h) Thermoplastic Fibre: A fibre which can be deformed by the application of heat and pressure
without the occurrence of chemical change. The deformation is reversible, e.g. nylon,
polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.
i) Flat Yarn: A flat yarn is a fully drawn continuous filament yarn substantially without twist and
untextured, e.g. nylon, polyester, polyolefin continuous filament yarn that has been fully drawn
but not textured.
j) Textured Yarn: A continuous filament or other type of yarn that has been treated to introduce
durable crimps, coils, loops and any other fine distortions along the length of the filaments of
yarn, e.g. false-twist textured yarns, air-textured yarns, etc.
k) Spun yarn: A spun yarn is an assembly of parallelised staple fibres which has been given a
twist in order to hold the fibres compactly and to give strength to the spun yarn.
l) Single yarn: A thread produced by one unit of a spinning machine or of a silk reel is called
single yarn, e.g. ring-frame yarn, yarn from a draw-twist machine, etc.
m) Folded Yarn or Doubled Yarn or Piled Yarn: A yarn in which two or more single yarns are
plied and twisted together in one operation, e.g. a two-fold yarn, or a two-ply yarn, a three-fold
yarn or a three-ply yarn, etc.
n) Cabled Yarn: Two or more folded yarns twisted together in one or more operations is called a
cabled yarn.
o) Fabric (Textile): A manufactured assembly of fibres and/or yarn which has substantial
surface area in relation to its thickness and sufficient mechanical strength to give the
assembly inherent cohesion, e.g. woven fabric, knitted fabric, and non woven fabric.
p) Woven fabric: A fabric consisting of yarns interlacing each other generally t right angles to
each other. The interlacing yarns are known as warp and weft.
q) Warp: i) Threads lengthways in a fabric as woven, (ii) A number of threads of long length
and approximately parallel, in various forms and intended for weaving knitting, sizing, dyeing,
etc.
r) Weft (Us-filling: UK-woof, Shute, Shoot): (i) Threads width ways in a fabric as non woven.
(ii) Yarn intended for use as in (i).
s) Weave: The pattern of interlacing of warp and weft in a woven fabric, e.g.: plain weave, twill
weave, satin weave, etc.
t) Knitted Fabrics: A fabric made up of loops of one or more threads, the loops enmeshing with
each other.
u) Non-Woven Fabric: In general, non-woven fabrics are normally made from flat webs or balls
of fibres. The fibres are bonded together by the use of adhesives or by mechanical, thermal or
stitch bonding and so on.

1.5. TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO FIBRE MOLECULES

a) Polymer: The fibre forming substance of organic fibres is called POLYMER. A polymer may be
defined as a chemical compound of large size and molecular weight, which consists of small
molecules linked together by covalent (strong chemical) bonds. Other names for polymer are
macromolecule, glant molecules, long-chain molecule etc., e.g., cellulose, proteins, polyamide,
polyester, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile and so on. Polymers may be linear branched or cross
0linked (Net-work). Fibre –forming polymers are linear polymers. Linear means ‘like a line’. If a
fibre must have a high length to thickness (L.T) ratio, the molecules making it up most also have a
high L:T ratio, or they must be ‘linear’ i.e., long and thin.

b) Monomer: A monomer may be defined as a chemical compound, which is a single molecule of

relatively low molecular weight or small size. A monomer is generally capable of reacting with
itself or with other monomers chemically to form polymers.
Example of Monomers
Ethylene: CH2 = CH2 Adipic Acid: HOOC(CH2)4 COOH
Hexamethylene Diamine : H2N(CH2)6 NH2 Propylene : CH2 = CH – CH3
Terephthalic Acid : HOOC (C6H4) COOH Ethylene glycol: HO(CH2)2 OH

c) Copolymer: A copolymer is a polymer which consists of two or more chemically different kinds
of monomers.

Examples: Nylon 6 6, Polyethylene terephthalate, commercial acrylic fibre, etc.

d) Repeat Unit : The chemical unit that repeats continuously along the polymer chain is known as
‘repeat unit’. the chemical formulae and repeat units of some common polymers are given in the
following table:

Polymer Chemical Formula Repeat Unit Mer Weight

Polyethylene (PE) (CH2 – CH2) n (CH2 – CH2) 28
Polypropylene (PP) (CH2-CH-CH3) n (CH2-CH-CH3) 42
Nylon 6 [HN (CH2)5 CO]n [HN (CH2) 5 CO] 113
Polyester (PET) [OC (C6H4) COO (CH2)2O]n [OC (C6H4) COO (CH2)2O] 192
Polyacrylonitrile
(CH2-CH-CN)n (CH2-CH-CN) 53
(PAN)

e) Mer Weight : The molecular weight of the repeat unit of a polymer is called ‘mer weight’. The
table above gives the mer weights of the polymers mentioned.

f) Polymerisation: Polymerisation may be defined as the chemical process of conversion of

monomer to polymer. Two common types of polymerization are addition polymerization and
condensation polymerization.

(I) Additional Polymerisation: When one or more monomers react together under specific
conditions to form a polymer without the liberation of a byproducts, the polymerization is called as
addition polymerisation. Examples:
Addition
Polymerisation of Vinyl Chloride : n(CH2 = CHCI) -------------------------- (CH2 – CHCI)n
Polymerisation (AP) Polyvinyl Chloride

AP
Polymerisation of Ethylene : n(CH2 = CH2) -------------------------- (CH2 – CH2)n
Polyethylene

ii) Condensation Polymerisation: When one or more monomers react together under specific
conditions to form a polymer with the liberation of a byproduct (usually a small molecule such as
H2O, HCl, CH3 OH etc) the polymerisation is called as condensation polymerisation. Examples:
 Condensation
1) n[H2N (CH2)5 COOH ------------------> [HN (CH2)5 CO]n + (n-1) H20
amino-caproic acid Polymerisation Nylong 6 + Water

CP
2) n[HOOC(C6H4) COOH] + n[HO (CH2)2 OH] ----> [OC(C6H4)COO(CH2)2O]n+ (2n-1) H20
Terephthalic acid (TPA) + Ethylene glycol (EG) Polyethylene Terephthalate+ Water
(PET)

g) Average degree of polymertisation: This is usually expressed as a number. This indicates

the average number of repeat units in a polymer molecule, e.g., cotton cellulose has a DP of
about 5000 cellobiose units; regular nylon 6 has a DP of about 200 etc.

h) Polymer molecular weight (M) : The average molecular weight can be calculated as the
product of the mer weright of the polymer and its average degree of polymerization.

Thus, M = DP x mer weight, where M is the average molecular weight of the polymer and DP is
the average degree of polymerization.

e.g.: Calculate M for Polyethylene (if DP = 2000) ; M = 28 x 2000 = 56,000

Similarly for Polypropyle (if DP = 1800) ; M = 42 x 1800 = 75,600
for Nylon (if DP = 200) ; M = 113 x 200 = 22,600
and for Nylon 66 (if DP = 70) ; M = 226 x 70 = 15,820

i) Main Monomer : A monomer which occurs as a large percentage in a copolymer is called the
main monomer.

j) Comonomer : A monomer which occurs in a small proportion in a copolymer is called the

comonomer. e.g.: A commercial acrylic fibre may consist of at least 85% acrylonitrile and 15%
vinyl acetate. So acrylonitrile is the main monomer and vinyl acetate is the comonomer.

k) Oilgomer : An oligomer is a molecule of low DP of up to about 10 monomeric units. Oligos

means ‘some’ and mer means unit. Thus, a dimer is a molecule consisting of two monomeric
units; a trimer is one consisting of three units; a tetramer is one consisting of four units and an
oligomer is one consisting of some (up to about 10) monomer units.

Examples of Oligomers:
i. The ‘grafts’ in graft copolymers are usually oligomers of a monomer other than the one
making up the main polymer chain. In zefran fibre the grafts are oligomers of polyvinyl
pyrrolidone.
ii. The manufacture of polyester is normally done in two steps: First the esterification and then
the polycondensation. The first step consists of oligomers of diglycol terephthalate, which is a
product of the initial chemical reaction between terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.

1.6. TYPES OF FIBRE FORMING POLYMERS

Fibre forming polymers can be classified into two types. (i) Homopolymer (ii) Copolymer
i. A homopolymer is a polymer consisting of only one type of monomer, that is, monomers of the
same chemical structure. Homopolymers can be represented schematically as below:
-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A
where ‘A’ stands for a monomer molecule. A few examples of homopolymers and their chemical
formulae are given in the following table. In each of them the repeat unit is that of only one
monomer type.

Homopolymer Chemical Formula Homopolymer Chemical Formula

Polyethylene (CH2 - CH2)n 100% Polyacrylonitrile (CH2 - CHCN)n
Polypropylene (CH2-CH-CH3)n 100% Polyvinylchloride (CH2-CHCI)n
Nylon 6 [HN (CH2)5CO]n 100% Polyvinylidenechloride (CH2-CCI2)n
Cellulose (C6H10O5)n Polytetrafluoroethylene (CF2-CF2)n

II) A Copolymer is a polymer which consists of two or more different types of monomers, that is,
monomers of different chemical structures. There are basically four types of fibre forming
copolymers: 1) Alternating copolymer, 2) Random copolymer 3) Block copolymer, 4) Graft
copolymer

a) Alternating Copolymer: A polymer in which two or more chemically different types of

monomers occur in the polymer chain in an alternating manner is called an alternating copolymer.
If A and B are two chemically different types of monomers, then the alternating copolymer made
from them can be represented schematically as:
-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-
Some examples of alternating copolymers are included in the table below:

COPOLYMER CHEMICAL FORMULA REMARKS

The terephthalic acid (TPA) or the

-[-OC-(C6H4)-CO- O(CH2)2O-]n
Polyethylene dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) unit
Terephthalate and the ethylene glycol (EG) unit
(PET) occur throughout the polymer
TPA (or DMT) Unit EG Unit
molecule in an alternating manner.

The hexemethylene diamine

-[-HN(CH2)6NH-CO(CH2)4CO-]n-
(HMDA) and adipic acid (AA). Units
Nylon 66
occur throughout the polymer
molecule in an alternating manner.
HMDA unit AA unit

b) Random copolymer: A polymer in which two or more chemically different types of

monomers occur in the polymer chain in a random manner is called a random copolymer. A
schematic diagram of a random copolymer is given below:

-A-B-A-A-B-B-B-A-A-B-B-A-B-A-B-A-A-A-B-A-B-A-A-

A commercial acrylic fibre is a good example of a random copolymer. It consists of at least

85% by mass of acrylonitrile units and not more than 15% of one or more comonomers. If A is
acrylonitile and B and C are comonomers, a molecule of this acrylic fibre may be shows as:
-A-A-A--A-A-B-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-B-A-A-A-C-A-A-A-B-A-A-A-A-C-A-A-A.
C) Block Copolymer: A block copolymer may be defined as a polymer in which ‘blocks’ or
chains of one type of monomer are linked to ‘blocks’ or chains of another type of monomer. If A is
one type of monomer, and B is another type of monomer, the graft copolymer may be represented
as: -(A-A-A-A)-(B-B-B-B-B)-(A-A-A-A)-(B-B-B-B) Eg. Segmented polyurethane fibres (Spandex).

d) Graft Copolymer: A graft copolymer is a polymer which consists of a main backbone chain of
one type of monomer and grafts of oligomers of another type of monomer attached to the main
chain. This can schematically be represented as:

Zefran acrylic fibre is an example of a graft copolymer and it consists of polyacrylonitrile as

the main back bone chain and grafts of oligomers of vinyl pyrrolidone (of DP up to 10).

1.7. TECHNIQUES OF SPINNING MAN-MADE FIBRES

The conversion of polymer to fibre is normally achieved by three different techniques;
(1) Wet Spinning, (2) Dry Spinning, (3) Melt Spinning.

1.7.1 Wet Spinning

The polymer, obtained from nature, is dissolved in a suitable solvent and extruded through
a spinnerette (a metal disc containing fine holes of uniform diameter) into an aqueous bath
containing specific chemicals. The choice of these chemicals depend upon the type of fibre
required, the solvent used etc. The bath is called coagulating or regenerating bath as the
filaments get coagulated (or precipitated) when they come in contact with the chemicals in the
bath. Fibre formation in this case is solidification by coagualtion. The principle of wet spinning is
as follows:

POLYMER + DOPE EXTRUSION (in FIBRE FORMATION TAKE-UP (after

SOLVENT (Spinning a coagulating (Solidification by stretching and/
Solution) bath) Coagulation) or other processes)

The equipment required for wet-spinning consists of a supply tank, a metering pump, filter,
spinnerette and coagulating bath. A typical wet-spinning system is shown in the figure.
 WET SPINNING

The viscose rayon is spun in the greatest quantity by this method. High-tenacity rayon and
polynosic rayon are also produced by this method. With different formulae of the coagulating bath.
Other fibres produced by this method include cuprammonium rayon, regenerated proteins,
alginate fibre, modacrylic fibre DYNEL, many commercial acrylic fibres, polyvinylchloride fibre,
polyvinyl alcohol fibre and segmented polyurethane (Spandex) fibres. The rate of production by
this method of spinning is of the order of 80m/min. Higher speeds have been used for some
fibres.
After coagulation, the filaments are collected and stretched continuously outside the
coagulation bath. This process of stretching or drawing is done for all man-made fibre during
manufacture as it gives the desired strength to the continuous filament yarn. The degree of stretch
or ‘draw ratio’ will depend on the type of fibre and the end use requirements. In some cases, (e.g.
polynosic rayon) the stretching is done in the coagulating bath itself.

1.7.2. Dry Spinning

In this process, the polymer, either natural or man-made is dissolved in a suitable solvent.
The solution (called ‘dope’) is filtered and pumped through a small nozzle or spinnerette into a
hot-air chamber. The hot air solidifies the endless stream of filaments by evaporating the
dissolved solvent. The filament coming out of the chamber is drawn and wound up on a spool. It
may be taken for stretching or drawing to a draw-twisting machine. Fibre formation in dry spinning
is solidification by solvent evaporation. The principle of dry spinning can be represented as
follows:

POLYMER + DOPE EXTRUSION (in FIBRE FORMATION TAKE-UP (after

SOLVENT (Spinning a hot air (Solidification by stretching and/
Solution) chamber) solvent evaporation) or other processes)

The polymer solution or dope is filtered between the metering pump and spinnerette. The
hot air enters the drying chamber at a temperature higher than the boiling point of the solvent, so
that the solvent is removed leaving solidified filaments. The fibres usually produced by this
method of spinning are cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate and acrylic fibres. The rate of
production is about 300 m/min.
 DRY SPINNING MELT SPINNING

1.7.3. Melt Spinning:

Some of the more recent synthetic fibre forming polymers are thermoplastic and have
relatively high melting points. When heat is applied to these polymers, they become soft. Further
application of heat causes them to melt. Polymers which soften when heated are therefore called
“thermoplastic”. In the softened state they can easily be deformed, or changed in their shape.
Thermoplastic polymers are usually prepared in granule or “chip” form. The granules are
melted and the molten polymer is forced through the holes of a spinnerette. The liquid jets are
cooled by a stream of cold air and solidify. This is the principle of melt spinning and fibre formation
in this case is solidification by cooling. The principle of melt spinning is as follows:

POLYMER + POLYMER EXTRUSION FIBRE FORMATION TAKE-UP (after

HEAT MELT stretching and/
or other processes)

The polymer chips consist of small granules or thin flakes; the small size is necessary,
since thermal conductivity of the material is low and large places would create melting difficulties.
They are fed from a “hopper” into a heating grid and drops of molten polymer fall through into a
heated sump or molten polymer pool. The filaments are extruded, solidify and pass through a
cooling chamber in which they are cooled by a current of cold air. The cooled filaments are
combined at the haul-off roller and led to the take-up device for package.

In the case of nylon, the process takes place in an atmosphere of nitrogen, since the effect
of oxygen on the melt is to discolour and finally degrade the polymer. Nylon, polyester,
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylidene chloride fibre, Saran and glass fibres are melt spun.
Melt spinning has the advantage of needing no chemical baths or solvent recovery systems. It
also achieves the highest spinning speeds of about 900 - 1200 m/min. As with the other two
methods of spinning, the extruded yarn on spools is taken to draw-twisting machines for
stretching to the desired degree.

1.8. Dope dyed fibre

Man-made fibre may be produced as ‘dope-dyed’ fibre. It is a coloured fibre produced by
extruding dope or polymer melts into which finely-ground pigment of the required colour is
uniformly dispersed (mixed). Fibres which cannot be dyed in fibre form can be ‘dope-dyed’ to give
coloured fibre. The term ‘mass-coloured’ fibre is sometimes used to describe coloured fibre
produced by the melt spinning technique as the whole ‘mass’ of melt is coloured before fibre
extrusion.

1.8.1 Delustred fibre

Man-made fibre produced normally is lustrous in appearance and is known as bright fibre.
For most purposes man-made fibre is produced so as not to appear bright. This is achieved by
uniformly mixing titanium dioxide in the dope or melt and then extruding the mixture. The resulting
delustred fibre may be ‘fully-dull’ or ‘semi-dull’ fibre depending upon the titanium dioxide content in
the dope or melt. The greater the TiO2 content in a fibre the more dull it is. That is delustred.

1.8.2 The drawing operation

All man-made fibres, whether wet-spun, dry-spun or melt-spun are subjected to the
drawing or stretching operation. Immediately after the extrusion of the polymer dope or melt, the
filaments are formed either by coagulation (wet spinning) or by solidification (dry and melt
spinning). In this just-spun state, the linear molecules in the filaments are randomly arranged and
the yarn is useless for textile purposes as it is too weak to withstand the tensions of normal textile
processes such as warping, weaving, knitting, etc. The just-spun yarn is called as an ‘undrawn
yarn’ (UDY) or low-oriented yarn (LOY).

In order to make the yarn suitable for normal use, it has to be stretched or drawn. Drawing
causes the linear molecules in the fibre to be arranged more or less parallel to the fibre axis and
closer to each other. This arrangement allows forces of attraction to take place between adjacent
molecules (intermolecular forces). The drawn yarn is thus much stronger and capable of
withstanding further textile processes. The arrangement of molecules in an undrawn fibre and a
drawn fibre and the reduction in the filament diameter as a result of the drawing are shown in the
following figure:

Random arrangement of molecules Molecules are more or less parallel to the

in an undrawn fibre fibres axis in a drawn fibre

This reduction in diameter in a fibre occurs abruptly at a ‘neck’, during drawing. This is
shown in another figure. A stationary pin or guide called draw pin may be used to stabilize the
position of the neck in the drawing processes used for synthetic fibres such as nylon and
polyester. The changes that take place in a fibre during drawing can be as follows:
 i.) The molecules are arranged so that they are more or less parallel to the fibre axis.
ii.) The molecules are much closer to each other so that intermolecular forces of attraction
can readily take effect. The more the intermolecular forces of attraction the stronger is the
fibre and vice - versa.
iii.) The diameter of the fibre is reduced. This means that the count (denier) of the fibre also
decreases:

1.9. Drawing in fibre manufacture: The different stages and the different ways of drawing
The drawing operation may be carried out at any one or more of the following stages
during manufacture of fibre depending on the polymer and the end use of the fibre:

a) Drawdown immediately following the extrusion

This is achieved by increasing the speed of the haul-off roller and the yarn take-up device.
Stretching by means of drawdown soon after extrusion is carried out in the following cases:
i. In the spinning of acetate or triacetate fibres by the dry spinning process, the distance
between the spinnerette and the haul-off roller is 2 – 5 metre to accommodate the
processes of solidification and drawdown.
ii. Drawdown soon after extrusion is also used in the stretch-spinning of cuprammonium
rayon (by wet-spinning).
iii. In the high-speed melt-spinning of polyester, the take-up speed is increased to about 3000
metres / minute and the product is called partially oriented yarn (POY). This POY is meant
for texturising by the draw-texturising process, in which a drawing operation is carried out
along with the operation of texturising in one machine.

1.10. Application of spin-finish

Man-made fibres are usually given a ‘spin-finish’ treatment at a convenient stage during
their manufacture. The thin layer of ‘spin-finish’ oil applied to the yarn contains different chemicals
that make the yarn more flexible and prevent it from developing static electric charges due to the
friction between the fibre and the machine parts. The yarn is thus prepared for further process so
that it runs smoothly without any problem. Spin-finish is applied to continuous filament yarn
normally just before the take-up point or at a convenient point. Anti-static emulsion is also sprayed
on the synthetic fibre or staple-fibre to facilitate trouble-free conversion during spinning.

1.11. Modern melt spinning methods

i. High-speed melt spinning
In this technique, the conventional melt - extrusion operation is modified to have much
higher take up speed. While the conventional process has a take-up speed of about 1000 m/min.,
the high speed spinning technique has take-up speeds of 2,500 m/min. The result of increased
take-up speed, causes a ‘drawdown’ of the filaments after extrusion. The linear molecules of the
fibres are arranged more nearly parallel to the fibre-axis than in a conventionally produced
undrawn yarn (UDY) and the resulting yarn is referred to as Moderately Oriented Yarn (MOY) or
Partially Oriented Yarn (POY), depending on the speed of take up. The products that are usually
produced are shown in the table below:
 Process Conventional Melt High-speed melt spinning
spinning
Product Undrawn yarn (UDY or Moderately oriented Partially oriented
LOY) yarn (MOY) yarn( POY)
Take-up speed, 1,000 2,500 3,500
m/min.
Machine to which yarn Draw-twisting m/c Draw-texturing Draw-texturing
is taken next machine machine
Final product and its Flat yarn ready for Textured yarn ready for fabric
application general use in weaving, manufacture e.g. weaving, knitting.
knitting or in
conventional FT
texturising etc.

The high-speed machine, due to the modifications involved is an expensive (costly)

machine. It is used mainly for polyester and polypropylene POY manufacture in India. These POY
yarns are taken to a draw-texturising machine for conversion to textured yarn without the need for
a separate draw-twisting machine, the investment is thus saved.

2) Spin-drawing process
Further developments in the melt spinning have led to the process known as spin drawing.
In this process a standard drawing arrangement consisting of a feed roll and a draw roll, is
introduced between the haul-off roller and take-up operation. The take-up speed in spin drawing
can reach values of about 6,000 m/min and the final product is a flat, fully oriented yarn (FOY),
suitable for further textile use, e.g. weaving, knitting etc. The fibres used in spin-drawing
machinery are nylon, polyester, polypropylene and so on.
A typical spin-drawing machine is shown separately in a figure. The extruded filament are
cooled as usual, collected, oiled (i.e. spin finish is applied) and led around the haul-off roller to a
feed-Godet rotating at x rpm and then to a draw-Godet, rotating at y rpm (y is greater than x). The
yarn is generally given four or five wraps around the pair of
Godet rollers to prevent slippage during the drawing process. The yarn is stretched to its natural
draw-ratio to give a fully-oriented yarn (FOY). It is conditioned by passing it through a steam
chamber and finally taken up as a large package.

Though spin-drawing is an expensive process involving investment in special machinery, it

is a time, space and labour saving process as it avoids investment in draw-twisting machines. The
resulting flat yarn is also more uniform and very large packages of 10-40 kg. may be produced.

1.12. Fibre Structure

All organic fibres, whether natural or man-made, are made up of long-chain molecules or
polymers. The physical and chemical characteristics of a fibre and the fibre behaviour are mainly
due to the following factors.

a) Chemical structure of the polymer composing the fibre.

b) The characteristics of the linear molecules such as DP, presence of polar and/or other
special chemical groups.
c) The arrangement of the molecules in the fibre or fibre structure (orientation and
crystallinity).

For natural fibres, these factors are controlled entirely by nature, and their behaviour
during use. For man-made fibres, the factors that control fibre behaviour are mostly controlled by
man. This is particularly true for synthetic fibres, which include a very wide range of fibres types
and their properties.

Arrangement of molecules in fibres

The arrangement of molecules in most textile fibres is described by the terms “Orientation”
and “Crystallinity”.

Orientation in textile fibres: The term “orientation” of molecules in fibre may be defined as the
arrangement or alignment of the molecules with respect to the fibre-axis. A perfectly oriented fibre
would have all its molecules aligned or arranged exactly parallel to the fibre axis. A very poorly
oriented fibre will have its molecules arranged randomly with respect to the fibre axis. The textile
fibres are highly oriented, moderately oriented and poorly oriented.

In the highly oriented fibres the molecules are aligned more or less parallel to the fibre
axis. This arrangement allows the formation of a great number of inter-molecular bonds and thus
results in a strong fibre. Examples of highly oriented fibres are flax, ramie, high-tenacity synthetic
fibres etc.

In the poorly oriented fibres, the molecules are arranged in a nearly random manner and
there would be few inter-molecular bonds. The result is a weak fibre, probably just above the
borderline of the acceptable strength range for normal textile use. Examples of poorly oriented
fibres are wool, acetate and the azlon fibres (regenerated protein).

All the three types of orientation are found commonly in textile fibres and a perfectly
oriented fibre is shown separately in a figure.

Crystallinity in textile fibres: Crystallinity may be defined as the extent to which molecules
within a fibre are arranged in an orderly manner with respect to each other. As fibre molecules are
linear in shape it is possible for them to be organized in perfect three-dimensional order. However,
orderly arrangement is not possible throughout the length of the molecules and only different
portions of them are arranged in such a manner. It is thus possible for a given molecule to
successively pass through regions of orderly and disorderly arrangement of the fibre molecules.
The regions of orderly molecular arrangement are called ‘crystalline regions’. The extent to which
this arrangement occurs in a given fibre is called as the degree of crystallinity. The regions of
disorderly arrangement are called the ‘amorphous regions’ in the fibre structure.

The crystalline regions of a fibre contribute to properties such as strength, chemical and
thermal resistance of a fibre. The amorphous regions in a fibre contribute to properties like
moisture absorption, dye absorption etc.

For natural fibres, the process adopted by nature for arranging the molecules in a fibres, is
not clearly understood. For man-made fibres, the crystallization starts immediately after fibre
formation (by regeneration or solidification during spinning) and increases during further
operations such as drawing or heat-setting etc.
Crystalline/Amorphous content in common textile fibres:
The degree of crystallinity of textile fibres depends on the chemical structure and
molecular characteristics of the fibre-forming polymer. The table below gives an idea of the
crystallinity in some important textile fibres.

Estimated content
S.No. Fibre General fibre Structure
Crystalline Amorphous
1 Cotton Crystalline 65-70 35-30
2 Flax Very Crystalline More than 75 Less than 25
3 Silk Crystalline 65-70 35-30
4 Wool Very amorphous 25-30 75-70
5 Viscose Amorphous 35-40 65-60
6 Acetate Amorphous 40 60
7 Nylon Very Crystalline 65-85 35-15
8 Polyester Very Crystalline 65-85 30-15
9 Acrylic Very Crystalline 70-80 30-20
Very amorphous in the relaxed state, very crystalline in the
10 Spandex
extended (stretched) state

The figure shows the perfect three-dimensional arrangement of molecules that may occur
within a given crystalline region. Regular inter-molecular bonds (forces of attraction) occur in such
arrangements. The crystalline regions or ‘crystallities’ therefore contribute to the strength,
chemical and thermal resistance of the fibre. In general, the greater the degree of crystallinity, the
better are these properties. A highly crystalline fibre may not be well-oriented unless subjected to
drawing. The drawing and heat-setting of man-made fibres, in general, induce the formation of a
larger number of crystalline regions or the existing crystallites to grow in size, where as the
sudden cooling (or quenching) of an melt-extruded fibre prevents the growth of crystals. This is
the technique practiced for the melt-spun fibres so that the drawing operation is smooth and the
resulting yarn is more uniform.

1.13. Differentiation between orientation and crystallinity

S.NO. ORIENTATION CRYSTALLINITY
Crystallinity is the orderly arrangement
Orientation is the arrangement of
1 of molecules with respect to each
molecules with respect to the fibre axis
other.
The degree of orientation affects fibre Crystallinity affects fibre properties like
2 properties like elongation, moisture fibre strength, chemical resistance &
absorption, dye takeup & luster etc. thermal resistance of the fibre.
For manmades (melt spun yarns) heat
For synthetic fibres the drawing
3 setting permits existing crystals to grow
operation improves orientation in general
& allows new crystallites to form.
Crystallanity can be controlled during
The required degree of orientation is the stage of manufacture. Considering,
4 determined by end use requirements. its end use requirements like high
Whether for normal use or special use performance applications, high tenacity
yarns etc.
 In the manufacture of regular staple- fibre polyester, the amount of stretch given is such
that its strength and modulus are comparable with those of the fibre to which it is to be blended.
The draw ratio for polyester staple fibre is in the range 1:3 to 1:4. In the production of continuous
filament yarn for ordinary apparel and household use, the degree of stretch is usually higher, as
the yarn may be required to withstand the tensions during warping and weaving. The draw-ration
in this case is higher at around 1:5.

Continuous filament yarn for ‘high-performance’ applications like reinforcement yarn in

transmission and conveyor belting, tyres, etc need to be stretched during manufacture to a much
greater extent. These yarns are expected to have much higher strength modulus, resistance to
wear and durability. High-tenacity (HT) nylon, polyester, polypropylene, etc. meant for industrial
applications are therefore stretched to the extent of around 1:8. The polymer chips meant for high
tenacity yarn always require a higher DP than the chips meant for the production of regular staple
fibres.
1.14. End-use applications of textile fibres
The textile fibres cover a wide range of application as listed below.

1. Apparel textiles – textile material that is used for the production of dress wear.
2. Household textiles – all types of textiles, other than apparel textiles, that are used at
home. This includes bedsheets, mattresses, pillows and their protective covers, quilts,
textile mats, carpets, door and window curtains (screens), table cloths, textiles used in
household cleaning, etc.,
3. Industrial textiles – textiles used in industry and for all non-household or apparel
purposes. The range is very extensive, and few examples are listed below.
a) Geotextiles – The textiles used in civil engineering constructions such as roads,
railways, canals, etc.
b) Safety and protective textiles – The textiles used in weatherproof, winter
clothing, protective work clothing, textiles for protection from heat and fire, from
impact, pressure and harmful radiations, space shuttle uniforms, textile packaging,
etc.
c) Textile in transportation – Automotive upholstery, seat belts, canvas, tarpaulins,
tyrecord, etc.
d) Filtration textiles – The textiles used in the filtration of all kinds of chemicals in
gaseous or liquid form.
e) Medical textiles – The textiles used for medical purposes such as bandage
material, sutures, operation and emergency room textiles, hospital bed linen and
blankets, synthetic skin etc.
f) Military and defence textiles – All types of textiles used in the armed forces such
as parachutes, uniforms, belts, ropes, ballistic protection (fabric for bullet-proof
vests), military tents, covers, helmets etc.
g) Textile in sports and recreation – Textiles used for active sportswear covers for
domes and stadium, textile material in sports and games equipment (e.g. raquets,
nets, court curtains), race car drivers uniforms, fabric for hot air balloons, fabric for
sport shoes, fishing nets and sleeping bags etc.
2.0. NATURAL CELLULOSIC FIBRES
Cotton has been in use for over 5000 years and is therefore one of the earliest fibres
known to man. Even today, it is widely used which accounts for about 45 percent of the world’s
total fibre consumption. Cotton is a fibre obtained form a plant variety known as “Gossypium”. It is
a hair attached to the seed of the plant. Cotton is a natural, cellulosic, unicellular fibre. There are
many varieties of cotton grown in different parts of the world.

2.1. Cotton Producing Countries

Cotton is well grown in 80 different countries. The important cotton producing countries are
USA, China, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Brazil, Turkey, Australia, Turkmenistan and Eqypt.
Cotton is also cultivated in Argentina, Spain, Peru, Mexico and Sudan.
Geographical area of cotton cultivation: The tropical and sub-tropical regions on earth that lie
in between 45 North and 35 South of the equator are quite suitable for the growth of cotton.
Cotton Cultivation
Conditions necessary for growth of the cotton plant:
a) Soil: Cotton does not require as highly saturated a soil as for paddy. It grows well in black
soil, red soil and alluvial sand.
b) Climate: Cotton requires six to seven months of warm weather with plenty of sunshine and an
appreciable amount of moisture. An average of 3 to 5 inches of rainfall is necessary during the
stages of active growth, is most suitable.
2.2. Stages in the cultivation of cotton:
a) Planting of seeds: The land must be thoroughly ploughed. Ridges are then formed with a
spacing of 1.5 to 2 feet between them. The planting season varies from place to place and
depends upon the location. In India the planting begins in the month of April or May and it
normally takes one full year for cultivating good quality cotton. But nowadays the crop is not an
annual one because of recent developments in new varieties of cotton with shorter growth cycles.
After ploughing, carefully selected seeds are sown about 2 to 4” deep into the soil at the ridges.
b) Growth of the plant: After eight to ten days of sowing, young plants push up through the
surface of the soil. When the plants appear on the ground they should be thinned out leaving only
the strongest plants. This is done by a hand hoe, known as chopping. The leaves of the plant are
initially very tender and of flesh colour. The colour then changes to olive green and the plant
grows rapidly. During this growth time, the plant is protected from weeds, insects and diseases by
suitable preventive measures.
The plant reaches its full height after 40 days of the first appearance of the plant on the
ground. However, before reaching its full height the plant begins to flower. Flowering continues for
another 30 days. The flowers grow and finally bloom. On the first day of blooming (flowering) the
petals are yellowish white in colour, on the second day they turn pink and on the third day they fall
down. When the petals have fallen, small triangular pods or bolls appear in place of the flowers.
The first appearance of seeds then occurs in each boll. There are about 30 seeds in each
boll. The seeds grow rapidly inside the boll and during this period they are surrounded by a soft
fibrous substance the fibrous substance grows rapidly on each seed inside the boll. The number
of fibres in each seed ranges from 1000 to more than 10,000 depending on the variety. The boll
therefore increases in size and the pressure inside increases till it finally bursts open. The fully
grown, soft fibrous substance is a white fluffy mass of seed-cotton which is now exposed to
sunlight. As soon as the pod or boll bursts open, the cotton should be picked.

c) Harvesting: This is the process of picking the pods or bolls from the plant. Since all the cotton
bolls do not open at the same time, only those that have burst open are ready for picking. Picking
is done by hand or by mechanical pickers. In India, picking is mostly done by hand. Mechanical
pickers have not been successful because of the following reasons:
1) All the bolls in the crop do not mature at the same time. They are left on the plant until all
of them are open. During this time the fibres in the open bolls become discoloured and
dirty due to long exposure to sun and the weather. Also many fibres may be lost due to
their flying away from the boll.
2) Mechanical pickers will collect a large amount of trash such as leaves and stem.
3) The capital investment is high.

Yield in cotton cultivation

Cotton cultivation requires skilled labour. In order to get a better yield per acre of land the
following factors should be kept in mind: (The yield per acre in India is approx 200-450 kg).
i. Timely planting of seeds.
ii. Addition of fresh soil and fertilizers to the land
iii. Utilisation of healthy seeds.
iv. Regular weed control (removal of unnecessary plants around the cotton plant)
v. Timely picking.

2.3. Development of the cotton fibre during plant growth.

Cotton fibres grow on the surface of the seed. The outside layer of the seed is composed
of epidermal cells. These are single cells which grow outward by lengthening to a thin-walled
tubular structure. This stage of growth proceeds for a number of days. After the cells attain their
full length, the fibre wall is thickened by daily growth –layers of cellulose deposited successively
inside the tubular structure, i.e. one growth-layer (or growth-ring in cross sectional view) is
deposited per day. This growth reduces the space inside the tubular structure and continues until
the boll bursts open when the fibres are exposed as a white fluffy mass.

The outer layer that appears first consists of the cutcle and a thin wall below it called the
primary wall. The main body of the fibre consisting of the daily growth layers called the secondary
wall. The central hollow space is called the lumen. The successive deposits of the daily growth-
layers of the secondary cell-wall can be seen in cross-section as the daily growth-rings, as shown
in the figure. As each cotton fibre is a result of the development of individual cells on the surface
of the seed , the fibre is described as unicellular.

2.3.1. Convolutions in cotton fibre:

When the cotton bolls burst open, a soft mass of fibres is exposed to the atmosphere.
As a result, the fibres begin to dry and the cell-sap (or the plant fluid responsible for the growth of
fibre) present inside the tubular structure partly goes into the seed and the rest dries up. Due to
this, the pressure inside the fibre is lowered (in comparison with the atmospheric pressure outside
the fibre). This causes the fibre to collapse inwards resulting in the characteristic flat, ribbon-like,
convoluted (twisted) longitudinal appearance and the kidney-shaped cross-section of the cotton
fibre. This is like the behaviour of an air-filled thin, flexible rubber tube. When the tube is full, it has
a solid cyclindrical form. But if the air is suddenly released from it, the tube flattens and tends to
develop twist along its length.
The number of convolutions varies form one cotton variety to another and usually lies in
the range 40-60/cm. The presence of convolutions in cotton can be seen under a microscope.
Convolutions give cotton an uneven fibre surface and therefore increases inter-fibre friction. This
enables the spinning of fine cotton yarns of adequate strength. The direction of twist of the
convolutions is usually random, some being left-handed and others right-handed.

2.3.2. Mature and Immature fibres

During development of the cotton fibre, the thin-walled tubular structure formed initially is
thickened by daily growth-layers which are deposited one after the other inside the wall. For any
reasons the development stops, the result will be a poorly developed firbes. Cotton fibres may
therefore be mature, immature or half-mature depending on the growth conditions.

Mature fibre
If the soil conditions and the environment are good during the cultivation of cotton and
there is no hindrance to the growth of the plant, a large number of growth layers are deposited
inside the secondary wall. The secondary wall will be well-developed and thick. As a result the
lumen will be very thin. This fibre is called a mature fibre. Thus, a mature fibre has a well-
developed thick cell wall and a very thin central canal or lumen.

Immature Fibre
If the deposition of daily growth-layers is stopped due to attack by insects, pests or plant
disease, the result is an immature fibre. In this case, the cell wall is very thin and the central
hollow space is very wide (see figure). Immature cotton is also called dead cotton.

Half –mature
Cotton fibres that falls in between those of mature and immature fibres are described as
half-mature. i.e. partially developed fibre.

Mercerised mature fibre

When mature cotton fibre is mercerized, the secondary wall swells. The swelling is mostly
inwards due to the restricting effect of the net-like primary wall and as a result the lumen closes
up. The fibre cross-section changes to a nearly circular shape. (Mercerisation is a chemical
process involving treatment of cotton fibres with 20% caustic soda solution. This process
increases the strength, dye-absorption capacity and luster of cotton). The figure showers the
characteristic microscopic appearances of mature, Immature and mercerized mature cotton fibre.

2.3.3. Importance of fibre maturity

The degree of maturity/Immaturity of cotton determines the extent to which it is easy to
process the fibre during spinning of yarn. It also affects yarn quality and the fabric produced from
such yarn. The important effects are discussed below.

a) Spinning: The main trouble caused by the presence of Immature fibres during spinning is the
formation of neps. Immature fibres are very weak, flexible and during the process of ginning,
blow-room and carding, these immature fibres tend to tangle with and bend over each other to
form minute (very small) balls of tightly entangled fibres celled neps. Neps once formed cannot
be removed during the further processes during spinning and results in a poor yarn, poor
uniformity and a bad appearance on yarn surface.

b) Dyeing: Fibre immaturity also affects the shade in dyed yarn and cloth, which show whitish or
light-coloured specks (dots) at the neps. As the neps consist of immature fibres with a very thin
cell wall, no dyeing can occur at the neppy portions. A dyed fabric having too many neppy specks
will look very bad in appearance.

Thus, the cotton used for spinning must preferably contain a very small percentage of
immature fibre. Whatever the variety of cotton and good conditions of growth of the plant, cotton
as a natural fibre, will always contain some small quantity of immature fibres. It is the normal
practice to test the cotton for immature fibre content before purchasing the cotton.

2.4. Physical structure (or morphology or parts) of a cotton fibre

The cotton fibre is a single plant cell growing outside the seed. The tip end of the fibre
tapers to a point while the root end is attached to the seed. After ginning the seed end of the fibre
is irregular as it is torn away from the seed during the ginning process. The physical structure of a
cotton fibre has four clear parts:
(a) Cuticle, (b) Primary wall, (c) Secondary wall, (d) Lumen

a) Cuticle
The cuticle is the outermost layer of the fibre. It consists of wax, pectic material and
mineral matter. The waxy nature of the cuticle enables it to adhere well to the primary wall. The
inert nature of this waxy layer protects the fibre from chemical and other degrading agents. Raw
cotton, i.e cotton that has not been given any chemical treatment, is therefore difficult to wet. To
allow easy wetting of the fibre and make it suitable for bleaching, dyeing and finishing treatments,
its cuticle layer is removed by scouring process.

b) Primary wall
The layer immediately below the cuticle is called the primary wall. This wall is composed of
very fine threads of cellulose, called fibrils. A fibril is a very tiny fibre and consists of a bundle of
cellulose molecules (see figure). Two sets of fibrils are present in the primary wall layer and these
are arranged in a criss-cross pattern. Each set spiralling the fibre at about 70. This spiraling
network imparts strength to the wall and protects the fibre from the action of alkalies and
chemicals.

c) Secondary wall:
This wall is situated below the primary wall. It is the main bulk of the fibre composed of
cellulose. The wall consists of concentric layers of spiraling cellulosic fibrils and divided into three
zones, the S1 layer, the S2 layer and the S3 layer.

i) The S1 layer: This is also called the ‘transition layer’ or ‘winding layer’ and lies just below the
primary wall. This layer is about 0.5m thick. It consists of bundles of fibrils, which spiral the fibre
axis at angles of 40 to 70
ii) The S2 layer: This is the main part of the cell wall and is about 5m thick. It consists of several
layers, each composed of fibrils which spiral the axis at 25 to 40 angle. The mean spiral angle of
the fibrils in the S2 layer is about 30.
iii) The S3 layer: This layer is seen clearly only in very mature cotton fibres and is about .5 
thick. The mean spiral angle of the fibrils is much below 30. This layer is located as the last layer
of the secondary wall but just before the lumen.
Much of the strength and stability of the cotton fibre, yarn and fabrics made out of it is mainly due
to the secondary wall of the fibre. The secondary wall also contributes to the dyeing ability of the
fibre, a mature fibre dyeing much deeper than an immature fibre.

Reversals: The direction of the fibrils in the secondary wall of the cotton fibre follows a helical
path around the fibre axis. Sometimes given layer of fibrils may suddenly change direction form
‘S’ to the ‘Z’ helix. The point at which this occurs is called a reversal. Reversals occur in cotton
with a frequency of 10 to 15 per centimeter of fibre length.

iv) Lumen:
The hollow canal (the empty space) running the length of the fibre center is called lumen.
It is the innermost part of the fibre. During fibre growth, the lumen is filled with cell sap. The cell
sap is composed of solutions or proteins, sugar, mineral and waste products. When the boll bursts
open, the fibre begins to dry. The cell sap evaporates and leaves a hollow space. In a fully
developed structure the cell sap will be completely utilized and a solid fibre with a very narrow
lumen is formed. This may appear as a discontinuous line under the microscope due to the
collapsing of the fibre.

2.5. Classification of Cottons:

The different varieties of cotton can be classified on the basis of; (a) Botanical variety and,
(b) Commercial variety.

(a) Botanical classification

Cotton is obtained from a variety of plant known as “Gossypium”. This belongs to four sub-
varieties and they are,
(1) Gossypium Barbadense, (2) Gossypium Peruvianum, (3) Gossypium Hirsutum,
(4) Gossypium Herbeceum

(b) Commercial classification

i) Sea Island Cotton:
This cotton was first grown in Sea Island, off the coast of Georgia, USA. This is a very high
quality cotton and is the most valuable commercially. This cotton is also grown in other islands off
the southern coast of USA. The staple length of this fibre varies form 1 ½” to 2 ½”. It is the finest,
strongest and most uniform variety in the world. It is highly lustrous, soft, and can be used to spin
counts upto 200s quite easily. Its fineness is about 100 militex.

ii) Egyptian Cotton:

This cotton was first grown in Egypt. The staple length varies form 1 ¼” to 1 ¾”. The fibres
are fine, soft, silky in nature. There are two varieties of this cotton. One is of brown colour and can
be used to spin counts up to 150s and the other one white in colour which can be used to spin
yarn count up to 100s. Its fineness will range from 115-150 millitex.
iii) American cotton:
This cotton is grown in America. South-American cottons have a staple length of 1 to 1½”
and are highly suitably for mixing with regenerated man-made fibres for the production of blended
material. The American upland variety is grown in USA. The staple length varies form ¾” to 1¼”. It
can be used to spin yarn up to 705 count. The fineness is 190-230 millitex.
iv) Indian Cotton:
This cotton had its origin in India. The staple length of this cotton is short and varies from
5/8” to 7/8”. These are used for spinning coarse counts up to about 20s only.
v) Chinese Cotton:
This class of cotton is available in China. This is the shortest and coarsest cotton. The
staple length of this cotton varies from ½” to ¾” and used for spinning very coarse yarn.

The above classification is based on the first geographical origins of the different classes
of cotton. However, today many of the cotton producing countries are cultivating most of the
above varieties.

Cotton varieties in India

India is one of the largest cotton producers in the world. Different varieties have been
developed here by means of new cultivation techniques. One of the major developments is the
production of hybrid cottons. These are the result of cross-cultivation of one traditional variety with
another. Many new hybrid varieties have been developed over the previous years. Research work
is always on to cultivate cotton of good staple length. These newly developed cottons are used to
spin yarns of good strength and finer count up to 150s. Some of the important varieties of cotton
grown in India are listed separately in a table that includes details of the SITRA grading of Indian
cottons. The physical properties, spinnable count are also indicated in the table.

Grading of Cotton
The different cotton varieties available in the world vary widely in quality. This is due to: (a)
Differences in the soil quality, (b) Differences in climatic conditions and, (c) Differences in
cultivation practices in different countries.

The wide variation in quality of cotton makes it necessary to be graded into specific
categories or groups. Such grading will help the spinner to quickly decide whether a given cotton
is suitable or not, with respect to both quality and cost, for spinning a given count. Cotton grading
is thus very important for practical and commercial purposes. There are two methods based on:
(1) Staple length, (2) Quality characteristics.

1) Method based on staple length (American)

Cotton is classified into five grades on the basis of staple length as follows;
Staple class (Grade) Staple length
Very short staple less than ¾”
Short staple 13/16” to 15/16”
Medium staple 16/16” to 1-1/8”
Ordinary long staple 1-1/8”to 1-3/8”
Extra long staple 1-3/8” to 2-1/2”

2) Method based on characteristics (American)

Grading on the basis of: i) colour ii) trash content and iii) quality of ginning is also
practiced.

a) Colour: The colour of cotton is governed by (1) The variety, (2) The soil used for its cultivation,
(3) The extent of exposure to sunlight during cultivation, (4) The weather conditions during its
growth and so on. The best cotton is extra white in colour. The colours referred in this method of
grading are given below in decreasing order of merit.
 Colour Notation
Extra white Ex. White (the best grade)
Extra white White
Ligth Spotted Lt.Sp.
Spotted Sp.
Tinged Tg.
Yellow stained Ys.
Light Grey Lt. Grey
Grey Grey (the worst grade)

b) Trash content:
The trash contains materials like bits of leaves, stem, hull, bark, broken seeds, oil and
dust. The cotton can be graded on the basis of ifs trash content: as follows:

Main Grades Trash content (%)

Middling Fair (MF) 1.0% (Best)
Strict Good Middling (SGM) 1.3%
Good Middling (GM) 1.8%
Strict Middling (SM) 2.4%
Middling (M) 3.1%
Stict Low Middling (SLM) 4.2%
Low Middling (LM) 5.5%
Strict Good Ordinary (SGO) 7.4%
Good Ordinary (GO) 9.85 (Worst)

c) Quality of Ginning:
During ginning, there are chances of production of neps and naps in cotton. These are
mainly due to immature cotton and lack of process control during ginning. Neps are small tangled
knots of fibres that are visible as specks in loose fibre, yarn and fabric. Naps are large clumps or
matted masses of fibres that contribute to a rough appearance. If there are too many neps in
cotton, it is called neppy cotton. Generally cotton is graded on the basis of both colour and trash,
e.g., LMTg, GMLt Grey, etc.

Fibre characteristics of some INDIAN cottons (SITRA)

South India Textile Research Association (SITRA), the premier textile research
organization in South India and located in coimbatore, have done extensive surveys, tests and
analysis on a large number of Indian cottons. They have classified Indian cottons into five main
grades on the basis of length characteristic in common use by the spinning mills industry, The
SITRA grading and characteristics of some of the cottons are given below.

SITRA Grade 2.5% Span Length

Short Staple - B 20mm and below
Short staple - A 20.5 to 24.5 mm
Medium Staple 25.0 to 29.0 mm
Long Staple 29.5 to 32.5 mm
Extra Long Staple Above 33mm
 Tenacity
2.5% Spinnin
Uniformi Micronair (3 mm Tras
S.No Cotton span g limit
ty e value gauge h
. Variety length (count
ratio (%) (fineness) Stelometer) (%)
(mm) in Ne
( g f / tex )
SHORT STAPLE –B (20 mm and below)
1 Bengal Desi 17.5 49 7.0 19.0 7.0 Below
10s
SHORT STAPLE –A (20.5- 24.5mm)
2 Georani 23.5 47 5.0 24.5 6.0 17s K
(G6)
3 Jayadhar 23.5 47 5.0 23.0 6.0 17s K
4 Y-1 24.5 48 4.7 26.0 6.0 20s K
5 Digvijay 24.5 49 4.3 27.5 6.0 20s K
6 J-34 24.5 47 4.2 24.0 9.0 20s K
7 Jyothi 24.5 47 4.4 25.5 6.0 20s K
MEDIUM STAPLE (25 - 29 mm)
8 Ira 5166 27.0 48 3.8 25.0 7.0 30s K
9 MCU 7 28.0 48 4.2 25.5 6.0 30s K
Hybrid 4
10 28.5 48 4.1 25.0 6.0 30s K
(H.A.)
40s K
11 Mech.11 29.0 48 3.8 27.5 5.0
40s C
LONG STAPLE (29.5 – 32.5 mm)
60s K
12 MCU5 32.5 46 3.5 26.5 5.0
60s C
EXTR LONG STAPLE (33mm and above)
80s K
13 MCU5 33.5 46 3.7 26.0 5.0
80s C
100s K
14 Varalakshmi 35.0 46 3.4 29.0 6.0
100s C
100s K
15 DCH 32 36.0 45 3.4 30.0 6.0
100s C
Above
16 Suvin 37.5 48 3.1 38.0 3.0
100s
NOTE:
a) 2.5% span length is an important length characteristic of cotton obtained by means
of an instrument called the digital fibrograph. This length is very important as it is
used in setting the drafting rollers.
b) Uniformity ratio is a value related to the variability in cotton fibre length.
c) The micronaire value is a quantitative measure of the fineness of cotton fibres.
Micronaire values are usually given in terms of micrograms per inch (  g / inch = 10-
6
grams per inch ).
d) Tenacity is related to the fibre strength. It is used for comparing tensile strength of
different cotton fibres. The Stelometer is an instrument to find out the bundle
strength of cotton fibres in gram force per tex ( g f / tex ).
2.8. Chemical composition of Raw Cotton

Cotton is of vegetable origin and consists mainly of cellulose. Other constituents are
protein, wax, ash and minor substances. The composition of dry cotton is as follows.

Cellulose - 94.0% Oil and wax - 0.6%

Protein - 1.3% Sugar and Pigments - 0.3%
Ash - 1.2% Other substances - 2.6%

a) Cellulose: This is the main component of cotton fibre. It is a carbohydrate containing

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The empirical chemical formula of cellulose is
(C6H10O5)n . It is hygroscopic in nature and is insoluble in water, alkai solutions and organic
solvents. It dissolves in cold concentrated sulphuric acid.
b) Protein: This is vegetable protein and consists of polypeptides.
c) Oil and wax: The oil is due to seed oil, which comes out of the broken seeds during
ginning. The wax consists mainly of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, alcohols and
other organic compounds.
d) Sugar and pigments: The sugar consists of polysaccharides and pigments that includes
coloring matter. The natural colouring matter, which is present in traces, is mainly due to
the colour in the cotton flowers.
e) Other substances: These include mineral matters and pectinious material, such as
pottassium calcium and magnesium salts, pectates, chlorides, carbonates and sulphates.
Nitrogenous compounds are also present in cotton.

2.10. Chemical Damage to Cellulose: Oxycellulose and Hydrocellulose

The chemical structure of cellulose is affected by treatment with chemicals such as
oxidizing agents, mineral acids, strong alkalis, etc. under improper or uncontrolled conditions.
Chemical treatment of cellulosic fibres without sufficient control results in changes in their physical
and chemical properties. Extreme or excessive conditions of treatment cause severe chemical
damage to the fibres and a steep fall in their strength. In order to avoid any degree of chemical
damage to fibres it is necessary to control the following within allowable limits.

i) Concentration of the chemicals used ii) The pH of the treatment liquor

iii) Its temperature and iv) The time of treatment.

The chemical damage to cellulose can convert it to either oxycellulose or hydrocellulose

depending upon the chemicals and the treatment conditions being used.

Oxycellulose
The products resulting from the reaction of cellulose with oxidizing agents such as
hypochlorite solutions are called oxycellulose. Various types of oxycelluloses are formed when
cellulose reacts with different oxidizing agents and under varying conditions of reactions;
i) Cellulose + alkaline hypochlorite solution Oxycellulose with acidic properties and
low reducing power.
ii) Cellulose + acidic hypochlorite solution Oxycellulose with high reducing power.

The chemical structures and properties of some types of oxycellulose are given in the
table below.
Hydrocellulose
When cellulose is treated with mineral acids (hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc.) under
certain conditions a partial hydrolysis of the cellulose molecule takes place, breaking the
glycosidic links (the oxygen bridges) at many places. The product is called hydrocellulose and
consists of cellulose with a reduced DP. Hydrocellulose has high reducing power.

Partial hydrolysis of cellulose lowers its DP and hence reduces the strength of fibre. The
extent of breakdown (or damage) of cellulose depends on the pH, concentration, time and
temperature of treatment of the acid causing the hydrolysis. Cellulosic textiles should therefore be
neutralized property and washed after any treatment with mineral acids, or else hydrocellulose will
develop gradually on storage and cause tendering (weakening) of the material. To minimize the
chemical damage during processing of cellulosic textiles, greatest care in use of chemical and
process control is essential.

2.11. Biological damage to cotton: Insects and diseases affecting the cotton plant
To get a good yield in cotton cultivation, it is necessary to have good control over the
insects and diseases that affect the cotton plant during its growth.

a) Damages by insects: The cotton plant is attacked by a number of insects. Out of these, the
serious damage causes to the plant are (1) pink-boll worm, (2) spotted boll worm and
(3) cotton boll weevil.

i) Pink boll worm: This insect causes a lot of loss to cotton crop. It feeds on cotton seeds and
prevents their development. The only remedy is the removal of the affected portions and their
burial deep into the soil. Some times carbon disulphide is used to destroy the worm.
ii) Spotted worm: This worm is usually found in the stem of the cotton plant. It eats away the
leaves of the plant and prevents normal growth of the plant.
iii) Cotton boll weevil: This is a small beetle that eats away the buds and bolls of the plant. It is
also called boll weevil.

To control the above pests and their destructive action, insecticides like DDT, Benzene
hexachloride, carbon disulphide etc. are used.

b) Diseases: Diseases attacking the plant are less problamatic than insects and are more likely to
occur when the climate is unfavourable. The general types of disease are:

i) Seeding disease: Young plants are damaged and killed due to diseases affected seeds. This
can be controlled by using disease-free seeds.

ii) Root diseases: The roots may be spoiled due to unfavourable soil and can cause a complete
destruction of the plant. These diseases are also caused by small worms. This can be controlled
by the use of chemicals like sulphur, formaldehyde and carbon disulphide in the soil.

iii) Leaf and stem diseases: These are caused by improper soil conditions, lack of potash and
improper drainage. The affected plants show spots on the leaves and stems. To control this
disease, it is necessary to use disease-free seed and fresh, healthy soil.
iv) Boll rot: When undried mature fibre is unduly exposed to the atmosphere before picking,
biological and chemical deterioration may affect the quality of the fibres.

2.12. Properties of cotton (Physical properties)

1. Length: Length of cotton fibre varies from ½” to 2-1/2” and depends on the variety.
2. Lustre: Due to the wax present in the raw cotton, it has little or no luster. Bleached cotton is
slightly more lustrous, while mercerized cotton is quite lustrous, especially when stretch
mercerised.

3. Strength: Cotton is a moderately strong fibre. Its strength is due to the presence of crystalline
regions(65-70%), a fibrillar structure and a moderate degree of orientation. The dry tenacity is 20
to 44 gf / tex (9 gf / tex = 1gf / d). The wet tenacity is 30 gf / tex. Cotton thus shows a 10%
increase in tenacity when wet. This is an advantage as no special care in fibre handling is
required during wet-treatment.

4. Elastic - Plastic Nature (Visco-elastic behaviour): It is inelastic (poorly elastic) due to its
crystalline polymer system; cotton fabric thus wrinkles and shrinks easily unless specially finished
to overcome this tendency.

5. Elongation: Cotton has an elongation-at-break of about 7%. The elongation increases by

about 10% when the fibre is wet.

6. Hygroscopic nature: Cotton fibre is very absorbent. This is due to the presence of polar-OH
groups which attract water molecules.

7. Moisture regain: Cotton has a moisture regain of 7 - 8.5% in standard atmosphere (65%
relative humidity and 200 C.)
8. Heat conductivity: Cotton is a good conductor of heat. It therefore feels cool to the touch and
is ideally suited for summer wear.
9. Specific gravity: Cotton has a specific gravity of 1.5 –1.54
10.Colour: Its colour varies from white to cream, depending on the variety and cultivation
conditions.

11. Diameter: The fiber diameter (ribbon width) various from 11m to 22 m. The finer cottons
are generally longer and the coarse cottons are shorter.
12. Microscope appearance:
a) Longitudinal view: Mature cotton looks like a flat, twisted, ribbon or a collapsed twisted tube.
A large number of convolutions are usually found. Immature cotton also looks like a flat
twisted ribbon but has lower number of convolutions. Mercerized mature cotton is almost
cylindrical in shape and has very few convolutions.
b) Cross-sectional view : Mature cotton has a bean or kidney-shaped cross section, and a
small lumen. Immature cotton also has a bean-shaped cross section but a larger lumen.
Mercerized cotton looks almost round to oval. a small point at or near the center representing
the lumen.
13. Length to breadth ratio: Cotton has a length to breadth ratio ranging from 1000:1 to 6000:1

14. Porosity: Cotton is a porous fiber

15. Special Property: Cotton fiber consists of characteristic convolutions or twist along its length
that are randomly left-handed or right handed and ranges between 40 - 65/cm.

2.13. Chemical Properties of cotton:

1. Chemical composition of raw cotton: Cellulose – 94% protein, wax and others –6%
2. Polymer (or) Fiber forming substance: Linear cellulose polymer – (C6H10O5)n=10000

2a. Fine structure: Crystalline region 65 to 70%

Amorphous region 35 to 30%

2b. Average degree of polymerization of cotton cellulose: about 5000 cellobiose units

3) Effect of Acids: Cotton fibers are weakened and destroyed by acids. This is due to the
hydrolysis of cotton polymer at glucoside oxygen atoms and the formation of hydrocellulose. The
DP is lowered by such hydrolysis and this results in lower strength.

a. Concentrated acids like HNO3, H2SO4 and HCI destroy fiber easily.
b. Cold dilute acids like HNO3, H2SO4 and HCI do not harm cotton if washed immediately and
thoroughly.
c. Organic acids have little effect on cotton.

4) Effect of Alkalis: Cotton fibres are much more resistant to alkalis.

a. Concentrated alkalis do not normally harm cotton. Concentrated sodium hydroxide in

particular causes the cotton fiber to swell. The fiber increases in thickness and contracts
in length. This Process is known as mercerization and may be effected with or without
tension to the material. A better alignment of molecules in the polymer system and in
increased formation of hydrogen bonds due to the mercerization leads to better properties
in general. Mercerization under tension makes the fibre to become smoother, more regular
and nearly cylindrical. The cross sectional shape of mercerized cotton is round to oval and
the lumen is almost absent. The longitudinal view appears cylindrical and has only a few
convolutions.

5. Effect of Sunlight: cotton loses its strength and has a tendency to become yellow with
prolonged exposure to sunlight.
6. Affinity for dyestuffs: Cotton is a fibre easy to dye and print. This is due to the presence of
polar chemical groups in the polymer. Direct, napthol, vat, reactive and sulphur dyes can be
applied to cotton.
7. Resistance of Microbiological attack: Cotton is readily attacked by mildew and bacteria if
stored in hot humid conditions. Sized cotton is readily attacked. Mildew affected cotton shows
yellowish stains, reduced strength and uneven dyeability.
8. Effect of bleaching agents: If bleaching agents are used with care and control with regard to
concentration, pH, temperature and time, cotton is not damaged. If any of these variables
goes out of control, chemical damage occurs, oxycellulose is formed and the fibre weakens.
Cotton is readily bleached by solutions of sodium and calcium hypochlorite, hydrogen
peroxide and sodium chlorite.
9. Effect of Water: Cotton is not affected by water even under boiling condition. It can thus
withstand normal washing and laundering treatments repeatedly.
10. Effect of metallic salts: cotton is affected by metallic salts.
11. Effect of heat: Cotton can withstand dry heat up to 1400 C. At 2450 C it scorches and bums.
Cotton textiles can thus withstand domestic ironing without yellowing provided that their
contact with the hot iron is kept to the required minimum.

2.14. Uses of cotton

Cotton is used extensively throughout the world in the form of fibre, yarn and fabric, its
uses in various forms are given below:

1) Fibre Form:
a) Surgical cotton used in the medical filed: wadding (fibre-fill) used in pillows and
mattresses.
b) Cotton Linters: cotton linters are the very short fibre bits removed from the seed during
the second ginning process. The linters are too short to be spun into yarn, but are useful in
the manufacturing of writing paper, gun-cotton, varnishing celluloid, photographic films,
regenerated cellulosic fibres and cellulose-ester fibres.

2) Yarn Form: Used as sewing threads, cords, tapes and twines.

3) Fabric form:
a) Apparel Field: Dress wear and inner garments.
b) Household: Bed sheets, towels, carpet and bags.
c) Industrial: Used in the manufacture of tyre-cord fabric canvas sheeting, book binding
cloth, hand gloves, tarpaulins, tent cloth, conveyor belts, non-woven etc,

2.15. Cotton the King of Fibres”. Even through there are a number of man - made fibres
available in the world, cotton finds a unique place in the textile filed. It is still the most-widely used
fibre due to the following reasons and hence it is called as the “King of Fibres”.
Some of the reasons for this are:
1. Cotton is considered as nature’s most economical fibre. Due to its relatively low price, cotton
is still the cheapest fibre for clothing purpose.
2. Cotton fibres can withstand moderately rough handling and water at boiling temperature. It
can therefore be laundered and ironed repeatedly.
3. Though cotton textiles tend to soil easily due to the presence of fine protruding fibres, they can
also be easily washed and cleaned. Cotton-is thus a very hygienic fibre.
4. Cotton has good moisture absorption, particularly when bleached and/or dyed and this makes
it a very comfortable fibre when used as dress wear;
5. Cotton is increasingly preferred psychologically to man - made fibres for dress wear; a natural
fibre feels better and ‘safer’ next to the skin than an “artificial’ fibre.
Therefore it seems that cotton will continue to be the “King of Fibres” for a long time to comel

2.16. KAPOK
Kapok is a silky fibre obtained from the seed- pods of the kapok tree. It is thus a seed
fibre, the tree grows principally in java. It is also found in small quantities in India. The fibre is also
called Ceba, silk-cotton, java-cotton, silk floss etc. The pods are oblong in shape, from 4 to 6” in
length and 1 to 1 ½ “ in diameter. The fibres are contained inside the outer shell. When the pod
bursts, the fibre surrounding the seeds is freed from the shell. The pods are harvested by hand as
soon as they are ripe. The fibres are separated by hand. As these fibres are very short (less
than1”) and weak they are not used for spinning yarn.
Properties and uses:
Kapok fibre is white and silky. Like cotton, it is unicellular fibre. It is composed of ligno-
cellulose, which is a composition of lignin and cellulose. The fibers consists of air filled spaces in
cells. These cells act as an air cushion. The fibre is thus mainly used where insulation or
absorption of vibration is desired. It is also used as stuffing material (fibre-fill) for mattresses,
pillows and cushions. Due to the above fact that in the compressed state it can support about 36
times its own weight in water. It is of good value for the padding of life belts.

FRUIT FIBRE
Coir: Coir is a natural fibre obtained from the husk of coconut which after full development, is
removed from the fruit. After this the husk is retted in water for few days. This is mainly to loosen
the fibres from the outer shell. After retting, the fibres are separated by simply hitting the husk with
wooden paddles. Then the fibres are dried.

Coir is a stiff and inelastic fibre. It is mainly used for cordage. The cords are manufactured
by simply twisting the coarse fibres with each other. Coir is also used in sail cloth and coarse
matting. Because of its resemblance to horse hair, it is used as stuffing material in upholstered
furniture

2.17. BAST FIBRES

Fibres such as jute, flax, hemp, ramie and other fibres that are removed from the stem of
certain plants are called bast fibres. These occur in the stem between the outer and the central
woody cylinder. Each fibre consists of cells that overlap each other. The bast fibres are thus
multicellular fibres.

JUTE
Jute producing countries: India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute. China and
Brazil are the next important producers. Other countries producing jute are Nepal, Burma,
Vietnam, Taiwan and Thailand.

Conditions necessary for the growth of jute

a. Soil: The plants grow well in low lying, slightly acidic and rich alluvial soil in river complexes.
b. Climatic conditions:
i. A hot and moist climate is favourable.
ii. The temperature should preferably be above 60°F. but below 100° F. This temperature
range promotes good growth of the jute plant
iii. During plant growth, an average of 2 to 4” of rain per month is required.

Cultivation
Jute is obtained from the stem (bast layer) of the plants botanically known as ‘Corchorus
Capsularis’ and ‘Corchorus Olltorius’. Commercially, jute is divided into 1) White jute, (First
botanical variety) and 2) dark jute (Second botanical variety).
a. Sowing of seeds: The land is prepared by ploughing. The seeds are sown during February to
June, the time being chosen according to the climatic conditions. The seeds germinate within
2 to 3 days of sowing. Close planting of the seeds at intervals of about four inches gives the
best yield.
b. Growth of the plant: The plant grows like any other plant and normally reaches a height of
two to five meters. It has a single stalk. During its growth, any weeds that appear are removed
immediately. The plants are ready for harvesting in about 120 days after the seeds are sown.
There are three stages in the growth of the plant before harvesting. These are:

i. When the plants are in bloom.

ii. When the fruits have just begun to form.
iii. When the fruits have fully developed.

Harvesting during the first stage gives fibre that is fine and light in colour, but the yield is low.
Harvesting during the second stage gives fibre that is nearly as fine and medium dark in colour.
But the yield is higher. Harvesting during the third stage gives coarse and dark coloured fibre and
the highest yield. Generally, harvesting begins at the end of the first stage and ends at the
end of the second stage. It is easier to remove the fibres from the stalks when harvesting is done
during the second stage. The flowers appear as small buds with a peculiar sweet smell. They are
normally yellow in colour. When the flowering stage is over, the harvesting is carried out.

Harvesting: Harvesting is the process of cutting the stalks from the ground as close as possible.
This is done by hand. The top and root ends of the plants are cut off and the stalks are left for few
days till the leaves dry and fall away. The stalks are then bundled and taken for fibre extraction.

Fibre Extraction
In the living plant, the jute fibres lie below the outer bark, and surrounded by gummy
substances. These gummy substances must be softened, dissolved and washed away for easy
fibre extraction. The sequence of operations in fibre extraction are 1. Retting, 2.Stripping,
3.Purification

a) Retting: Retting is the process by which the fibres under the bark are loosened by
softening the gummy substances surrounding them. This is carried out by exposing the
stalks to the combined effects of water, light and heat. The outer bark and the gummy
substances are decomposed due to the fermentation (bacterial action) that occurs during
retting. There are four different methods of retting. They are:

I. Dew retting
II. Stagnant-water retting (or tank retting)
III. Running- water retting (or stream retting)
IV. Chemical retting

i) Dew retting: In this method, the stalks are simply spread out on the grass in the field for
about 20 to 25 days. The stalks are thus directly exposed to sunlight during the day and to
moisture (dew) during the night. The outer bark becomes soft and the fibres can be
removed from the top ends of the stalks by hand.
ii) Stagnant- water retting (or) Tank retting: in this method, the stalks are immersed in
stagnant water in a tank or in a pond. The water must be clean and free from minerals.
The stalks are kept in the water for abut 10 to 20 days. After a few days of immersion, the
stalks float near the surface of the water due to evolution of carbon dioxide during the
fermentation that takes place. After a few days the colour of the stalks change from green
to yellowish-green to yellow. The bundles are then taken out and dried.
 iii) Running-water retting (or) stream retting: In this method, the stalks are kept under a
stream of cool, gently running water for three to four weeks. When they are fully retted, the
stalks are removed from the water and dried.
iv) Chemical retting: In this method, the stalks are softened by boiling with 1% NaoH or
0.5% of H2SO4 for about six to eight hours. The gummy substances are hydrolysed and
degraded. The fibres are then washed by fresh water.

b) Stripping: After retting, the stalks are dried and the fibres are stripped (removed) from the
stalks. There are many ways of stripping the stalks. They are:
1. The central woody portion of each is first broken manually. The fibres are then pulled out
gently by hand, stalk by stalk.
2. By using a wooden paddle, the bottom end of the stalks are beaten. the fibres are then
freed and removed manually. This method is very slow and costly but yields best quality
fibre.
3. By passing the stalks in between pieces of bamboo or wood fixed in a frame, until the
fibres are free to be removed manually. This method is very slow and costly but yields best
quality fibre.
4. The stalks are hit against the surface of the water or a pole secured vertically in the tank of
water used for retting until the fibres are freed. This method produces a poor quality of
fibre.

c) Purification: Immediately after the fibres are freed from the stalk, the fibres are washed
repeatedly in clean water. The fibres are freed from fragments of gum, bark and wood sticking to
them. After purification, the fibres are dried by spreading them on the ground or by hanging the
fibres over poles.

2.18. Chemical Composition of jute

The chemical composition of jute is different from that of cotton. It is composed of a
modified form of cellulose called lingo-cellulose, which is composed of lignin and cellulose. The
chemical composition of jute is as follows:

1 Cellulose 64.4%
2 Hemicellulose 12.0%
3 Lignin 11.8%
4 Moisture 10.0%
5 Water solubles 1.1%
6 Fats and Waxes 0.5%
7 Pectin 0.2%

Chemically, the main difference between jute and cotton is that the jute contains much larger
quantities of lignin and hemicellulose. Cotton is thus a purer form of cellulose that can be purified
to almost 100 percent by normal scouring and bleaching processes. Due to this reason the cotton
linters are considered as a useful source of raw material for the manufacture of regenerated and
cellulose ester fibres.
2.19. PROPERTIES OF JUTE
Physical Properties:
1. Length: The length of jute strands vary from 50” to 150”. A single jute fibre cell has a mean
length of 2-3 mm and a mean diameter of 12m (micrometer).
2. Luster: the fibre, when properly cultivated, retted and washed is fairly lustrous.
3. Strength: Jute has moderate strength. It’s tenacity is 27 to 52 gf / tex (3 to 5.8 gf / den)
4. Elastic plastic nature: it is an inelastic fibre, i.e.it shows little elastic recovery.
5. Elongation: Under normal conditions, the breaking elongation is 1 to 1.5%
6. Hygroscopic nature: Jute is a highly hygroscopic fibre.
7. Moisture regain: At 65% R.H. (standard atmosphere) jute has a moisture regain of 11 – 13%
8. Heat Conductivity: Jute is a good insulator of heat. Cotton, On the other hand, is a good
conductor of heat and therefore a cool fibre.
9. Specific Gravity: Jute has a specific gravity in the range of 1.48 – 1.52.
10. Colour: The Colour of jute varies from yellow brown to dirty – grey depending upon the plant
11. Diameter of fibre: The thickness of the single fibre which will be much thicker and varies.
12. Microscopic appearance:
a. Longitudinal view: The fibre appears cylindrical and shows an irregularly thick cell wall
and a lumen of varying width. Nodes or cross-markings may be seen across the fibre.
These are the borders where cells overlap and merge into one another during growth.
b. Cross-sectional view: The fibre appears more or less polygonal with sharply defined
angles in cross – sectional view. The lumen is round or oval and rather big.

13. Length –to-width ratio: The single fibre has a length-to-width ratio of about 2000:1.

MOLECULAR AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

1. Chemical Composition: Jute is composed of cellulose (64.4%), Hemicellulose (12%), Lignin

(11.8%), moisture (10%), and fats, waxes, pectins (11.8%).
2. Polymer or fibre-forming substance: Jute is made up of a polymer known as anel-
cellulose. As the major constituent is cellulose, the chemical structure of jute is represented to
that of cellulose, viz (C6H10O5)n. the Chemical structure is thus the same as that of cotton.
3. Effect of acids:
i. Cold dilute acids have no action on jute, if proper washing is done after the treatment
ii. Hot concentrated acids hydrolyse the fibre. Hyrocellulose is formed and the fibre weakens.
4. Effect of alkalis:
i. Strong alkalis degrade the fibre and reduces its strength.
ii. Jute loses weight when it is boiled with caustic soda solution. This is due to the removal of
hemi-cellulose from the fibre. Mercerisation causes the fibre to swell and form many
crimps. This treatment and the physical modification it causes help jute to be blended with
wool in the production of cheap fabrics such as blankets.
5. Effect of sunlight:
i. When jute is exposed to sunlight, it generally assumes a yellowish tinge and shows a loss
in strength.
6. Affinity for dyes: Jute has good affinity for dyes. The classes of dyes that may be used are:
direct, naphthol, vat, sulphur and basic.
7. Effect of mildew: jute is more resistant to mildew than cotton.
8. Effect of bleaching agents: During bleaching some of the lignin and hemicellulose is
removed without appreciable loss in weight and strength.
9. Effect of metallic salts: Jute is not affected by metallic salts.
10. Effect of water: Jute is not affected by water.
11. Effect of heat: Prolonged heating degrades the fibre.

Uses of jute:
1. Jute is used mainly in sacks and bagging material due to its low elasticity and strength.
2. Another major use is in the manufacture of ropes and twines.
3. Jute is also used as stuffing material in household and automotive upholstery.
4. Jute is used in woven carpet manufacture as carpet backing cloth. Jute also serves as
backing cloth in linoleum (PVC carpets).
5. Jute finds some use in the manufacture of decorative wall coverings and aneling.
6. Jute yarns are used as packing for telephone and electrical power cables.
7. Garment interlinings are made from fine jute fibre.
8. Jute fibre in admixture with wool is used in bed pillow linings.
9. Fine jute has been used in blends with cotton and polyester in the production of apparel and
household textiles. This is a result of research in new applications of jute by SITRA and the
Textile Department of PSG college of Technology
10. Fine jute has been used in blends with cotton and polyester in the production of apparel and
with the Government of India providing all the assistance and support. The organizations
closely involved in the development and promotion of jute are:

Jute and the development of products from it has assumed importance during the last
decade or so with the Government of India providing all the assistance closely involved in the
development amount promotion of jut are:
 Jute Manufactural Development Corporation (JMDC) Calcutta.
 Indian jute industries research Association (IJIRA), Calcutta.
 South Indian Textile Research Association (SITRA), Calcutta.
 PSG College of Technology (PSG Tech), Coimbatore.

2.20. Flax or Linen

Flax fibre is obtained from the stem of the slender flax. Flax is classified as a natural,
cellulosic, bast, multi-cellular fibre.

Flax producing countries

The production of flax fibre has been almost constant for the last 25 years. There are
about 20 countries producing flax. The major producers are China, Russia Ukraine, France,
Belarus, Netherlands, Egypt, Belgium, Czech Republic and Lithuania. Other countries producing
flax are Germany, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Poland, Austria, U.S.A., and
Canada.

Conditions necessary for the growth of flax

a. Soil: flax requires deep, rich, well-ploughed soil that must be enriched for six years before
it yields a good harvest. So only one crop for every seven years can be raised on a given
piece of land. Level and with a plentiful supply of soft, fresh water is necessary.
b. Climatic conditions: A cool and damp climate is necessary. Warm weather affects the
growth and quality of the fibre.
Cultivation of flax:
Sowing of seeds and growth of the plant:
A selected portion of land is used once in six years. During the remaining periods, the land
is enriched with rich soil and then levelled flat. Flax seeds are sown by hand in April to May. When
the plants are few inches high, the weeds must be carefully removed. This is done by pulling them
out, with extreme care to avoid injury to the flax plants. In three months, the plants have straight,
slender stalks from two to four feet in height. The plants have tapering leaves and small flowers,
which may be blue, purple or white in colour, depending on the variety of the plant. The plant with
the blue flower yields a fine quality of flax. The others produce a coarse but strong fibre. By the
end of August the flower turns a brownish colour, which indicates that the plant is ready for
harvesting.

Harvesting : Harvesting is the process of pulling the slender stalks from the ground. Harvesting
should be carried out immediately after the flowers turn brownish, otherwise the fibre will loose its
luster, soft texture and price. The plants are pulled out of the ground by hand. They are then cut
with care, ensuring that the stalks are intact. The tapered end of the fibres must be preserved so
that a smooth yarn may be spun.

2.21. Flax Fibre Extraction

The cross-section of a flax stalk is composed of several layers which have to be removed
in order to release the fibre bundles. The fibre bundles extend all the way to the plant roots. They
are made up of individual fibres (ultimate) of about 25 to 40mm length, which are cemented
together by a mixture of lignin, pectins and hemicellulose. The cement composes about 30% of
the dry weight of flax, with the remainder being mainly cellulose. The typical properties of flax are
a result of this composition. The flax fibre is extracted from the stalks by the following sequence of
processes:

(1) Rippling (2) Retting (3) Drying

(4) Breaking (5) Scutching (6) Hacking

1. Rippling : Rippling is the process of removing the leaves and seeds from the stalks. This is
done by passing the heads of the stalks through a coarse comb or between two wide pulleys held
together by springs. After the seeds, leaves are removed, the stalks are bundled together for the
next process, called retting.

2. Retting: Retting is the process by which the fibres under the bark are loosened by softening
the gummy substance surrounding them. This is carried out by exposing wet stalks to the effects
of sunlight and the weather. The outer bark is thereby decomposed by the fermentation that takes
place. The following methods of retting are normally used.

a. Dew retting b. Pool or dam retting c. Stream retting

d. Vat or Mechanical retting e. Chemical retting.

a) Dew retting: In this method, the stalks are simply spread out on the grass in the field for
about 20 to 25 days. The stalks are exposed to the actions of sunlight by day and moisture by
night. The outer bark thus becomes soft as a result of which the fibres can be removed from
the stalk by hand.
b) Stagnant-water retting or dam or Tank retting: In this method the stalks are immersed in
stagnant water that may be a tank or pool of water. The water must clean and it should be free
 from minerals. The stalks are kept immersed in the water for 10 to 15days. The bacterial
action or fermentation causes the decomposition of the outer portion or bark and the fibres are
loosened.
c) Stream retting or running-water retting: In this method, the stalks are kept in a stream of
cool, slow running water for about 10 to 15 days. When they have been fully retted the stalks
are taken out and dried. This method produces superior, strong fibres of pale yellow colour.
d) Vat or mechanical retting: This method shortens the retting process. The stalks are
immersed in wooden vats of warm water at temperatures ranging from 25-30°C. This
treatment quickens the decomposition of the woody bark.
e) Chemical retting: In this method, the stalks are immersed in a bath containing dilute
sulphuric acid at fairly high temperature. The bark is softened and the gummy substances are
hydrolysed and degraded. The fibres are then washed with fresh water. This method shortens
the retting time, but affects the strength and colour of the fibre. Extreme care is required in the
washing step to prevent the formation of hydrocellulose.

The retting process should be carried out carefully and optimally due to the following
reasons:
1. If retting is insufficient, the fibre may be injured during removal from the stem.
2. If over-retting is done, the fibre will be weakened.

3. Drying: After retting, the stalks are washed with fresh water and then dried. During drying the
stalks get partially separated from the fibre.

4. Breaking: In this process the dried stalks are passed through a breaking machine consisting of
a series of pairs of fluted rollers, when the woody core is broken and the bark is reduced to small
pieces called “shives”.

5. Scutching: The broken woody core and the shives are removed by the scutching process. In
this process, the stalks are passed through a rotating beater consisting of wooden paddles, which
beat down the woody core and bark and release the fibre from within. The scutching operation
can also be done by hand. This method is practiced where the production of flax is carried out on
a small scale.

6. Hackling: After scutching, the fibres are straightened by the hackling process. This is a simple
combing process, which separates the short fibres from the long fibres. The long fibres are left in
parallel form, while the short fibres are removed.

The long fibres are known as “line” and the short fibres are known as “tow” the yarns and
fabric produced entirely from flax fibres are also referred to as linen yarn or fabric respectively.
After hackling, the fibres are put together to form small bunches called “Stricks” The stricks are
then bundled together. The unwanted woody matter called ‘Shives’ which are separated during
the breaking and sctuching processes are used as fuel. Cottonisation of flax is, when the fibre
bundles broken down to their ultimate by mechanical or chemical means. The product, called
cottonised flax, can be blended with cotton, ie., small fibres, fluff etc

2.22. Chemical composition of flax

Like cotton, the flax is composed mainly of cellulose. The composition of flax is given
below:
 Components Flax Jute
Cellulose 64.1% 64.4%
Hemicellulose 16.7% 12.0%
Moisture 10.0% 10.0%
Water Solubles 3.9% 1.1%
Lignin 2.0% 11.8%
Pectin 1.8% 0.2%
Fats and waxes 1.5% 0.5%
It may be seen that the main difference between jute and flax is that jute has a
comparatively high lignin content, which is why its polymer composition is regarded as lingo-
cellulose.

2.23. Properties of Flax:

It may be noted that commercial raw flax fibre consists of a strand ort group of individual
fibres cemented together and each individual fibre or the flax ultimate consists of overlapping
cells. A figure showing a flax bundle and the fibre ultimate is given separately.

Physical Properties of Flax:

1. Length : The length of flax fibre varies from 4” to 40. The long fibres are called line flax and
the short ones tow flax.
2. Lustre : Flax is lustrous at all time because of its natural wax content. The lustre generally
appears subdued and is much less compared with silk or bright man made fibres.
3. Strength: It is a very strong fibre, because of its very crystalline polymer system.
a) Dry tenacity - 60 gf / tex (6-7gf/den)
b) Wet tenacity - 65 gf / tex (7-8 gf/ den)
4. Elastic-plastic nature: It is a very inelastic fibre. It has little elastic recovery.
5. Elongation: This is low for flax. It is only 1 to 3% during break
6. Hygroscopic nature: Flax is very absorbent like cotton, because of the presence of polar
hydroxyl groups in the fibre.
7. Moisture regain : At 65% R.H, the regain is about 10%
8. Heat conductivity : Flax is the best conductor of heat among the natural cellulosic fibres. It
will thus feel cool when used as dress wear.
9. Specific gravity : This is in the range 1.52- 1.54
10. Colour: Its colour varies from creamy white to Grey and depends on the agricultural, climatic
conditions of growth and the quality of retting.
11. Diameter : The fibre thickness varies from 40m to 80m. This range is for flax fibre normally
used. The ultimate fibre, will be much finer about 15m.
12. Microscopic Appearance:
(a) Longitudinal view: This resembles the appearances of bamboo poles. The cross
markings known as “nodes” are characteristic of the longitudinal appearance. The longitudinal
view is cylindrical, the cell-wall appears thick and the lumen is thin.
(b) Cross-sectional view: The cross-section of flax is polygonal or many-sided in shape. The
lumen can be seen as a small, uneven dot at the center of the section. The microscopic
appearance of flax is shown separately in a figure.
13. Length to breadth ratio: The longest flax has a length to width ratio of about 15,000 :1 and
the shortest one about 1,500:1.
14. Special Properties: Flax is a smooth and sleek fibre and has good lustre. It is cool,
absorbent and durable. It also dries quickly when wet. It is completely washable and can be
boiled without any harm.
Molecular and chemical properties of flax:
1. Chemical Composition : This is discussed earlier.
2. Polymer : Linear, Cellulosic, polymer. The chemical structure is like cotton.
3. DP : An average of 18,000 cellobiose units per molecule may be found in flax. Is about three
and a half times greater than that of cotton.
4. Fibre structure : Very crystalline polymer system. Because of the long cellulose in flax, the
crystalline regions constitute more than 80% of the fibre and the remaining regions are
amorphous. Like cotton, flax too has a fibrillar structure and the fibrils spiral at about 5-60 to
the fibre-axis. Flax is thus better oriented than cotton and is therefore stronger.
5. Effect of acids :
a. Under boiling conditions, the concentrated mineral acids destroy flax due to the
formation of hydrocellulose and the resulting depolymerisation.
b. Cold dilute mineral acids do not injure if it is washed or neutralized immediately after
the acid treatment.
c. Organic acids have no action on flax.
6. Effect of alkalis : Alkalis will not normally affect flax. Its resistance to alkali is similar to that of
cotton. Mercerisation improves its lustre. However flax is very rarely mercerized.
7. Effect of sunlight : Flax is more resistant to sunlight than cotton.
8. Effect of mildew : Flax is attacked by mildew under hot and damp conditions. For cotton, the
presence of size on the fibre quickly promotes mildew attack.
9. Effect of bleaching agents : Hot concentrated bleaching agents destroy the fibre. Flax can
be bleached to different grades as per requirements. Full bleached flax suffers the most
damage and the fibre becomes weak.
10. Effect of water: Water has no effect on flax.
11. Affinity for dyestuff: Flax shows less affinity for dyes than cotton as it is more crystalline.
Only pale shades are dyed. Dark shades may be dyed, if required, by first bleaching flax to
quarter-bleach and then dyed to required shades.
12. Effect of oxidising agents: Oxidising agents affect flax the same way as they do for cotton.
Improper treatment leads to the formation of oxycellulose.

Uses of Flax or Linen

1. Because of its high strength and tear resistance, flax is used in the manufacture of :
a) Paper currency b) Cigarette paper and c) fine writing paper
2. The flax is excellent conductor of heat so it is most suitable for:
a) summer suiting b) Garments for tropical wear c) Fire hoses.
3. As Flax is very strong and inextensible, it is used in the manufacture of :
a) Shoe-threads and twines b) Sewing threads c) Tent fabric
d) Book binder’s threads e) Fishing lines. F) Sail cloth
4. Flax absorbs water quickly and also dries quickly when wet and thus used as:
a) Face towels b) Bed Sheets c) Bath towels d) Napkins
e) Pillow covers and f) Hand Kerchiefs. G) Table Cloths.

2.25. Minor Bast Fibres

1. Ramie
This is a fibre resembling flax and is obtained from the stem of a plant belonging to the
nettle family. It is grown in China, Egypt, India, France Italy and Spain. It is known as ‘Rhea’ and
‘China grass’. The plant grows to a height of 5’ to 7 feet. When small buds begin to form, the
stalks are cut off and the fibre is extracted by means of the followings processes:
1. Retting (degumming) : The gummy substance present in the stalks is removed by first
immersing them in soda lye and then in a hydrochloric acid bath. This is similar to the retting of
jute or flax. The treatment is repeated until the gum is fully removed. Retting of ramie is a costly
process, and makes the fibre unprofitable for general use.
2. Oiling and softening: the extracted strands of fibres are sprinkled with oil and then softened
by passing them through rollers.
3. Combing: This process helps to parallelise fibre. This is done by means of a roller covered
with a series of spikes. The short fibres are thus removed.
Ramie is a silky, white and permanently lustrous fibre. It absorbs water readily and it dries
quickly. It is a very strong and durable fibre. Ramie yarns have a hairy feel due to the stiffness
and harshness of the fibre. It can be bleached to extreme whiteness. It has good affinity for dyes.
Ramie is used in the manufacture of incandescent gas mantles. It is also used as twines,
ropes, heavy industrial fabrics, canvas and nets. Ramie is used as weft yarn in mixed woollen
fabrics, as adulteration with fibres and as a substitute for flax.

2. Hemp
Hemp is a bast fibre obtained from a plant belonging to the nettle family. It is produced in
Russia, Italy, Japan, France, India and Central America. The hemp plant is a robust and tough
plant. Its stalks reach a height of more than 10 feet. When it reaches its full height, the stalks
turns’ yellow and the leaves in the lower part of the stalk fall off. This is the right time for
harvesting, when the stalks are cut off. The fibre is freed from stalks by the processes of retting,
breaking and scutching just like flax.

Hemp is a coarse fibre. It has very good lustre and is hygroscopic, strong and durable
fibre. It greatly lacks in flexibility and extensibility and thus cannot be wonven into fine fabrics.
Hemp is mainly used in the manufacture of ropes, twines., sail cloth, rugs and carpets. It is
especially suitable for ship cordage, as it is not weakened or rotted by sea water.

3.0. NATURAL PROTEIN FIBRES

(The Protein Fibres or the Natural Polyamide Fibres)
3.0. Animal fibres can be classified into two main categories:
ii. The hair of certain animals and
iii. The continuous filament produced by certain insects.
Fibres such as wool, rabbit hair, camel hair, etc., come under the first type. As the main
constituent in this type of fibres is the protein Kertain, and they are called as “ Keratinous’ fibres.
The fibres such as silk (from silkworm) and spider silk (from the spider) belong to the second
category and are called as ‘non-keratin fibres as they are composed of protein other than keratin.
The keratinous fibre ‘wool’ is available only in staple fibre form. The most important
commercial fibre in filament form is the well-known ‘silk’. The animal fibres are made up of protein
from natural origin, and are called as ‘natural protein fibres’.

3.2. THE SILK

The origin of silk appears to be China. It is believed that almost 5000 years ago the
Chinese Queen Si Lang Shi observed a silkworm spinning itself into a cocoon. She removed the
filaments carefully from the cocoon and made a fabric. The production of silk spread to Japan and
other Asian Countries in later years. It is also believed that the Romans paid one pound of gold for
a pound of silk fabric. Silkworm eggs were first smuggled into Europe around 555AD. During 13 th
century it spread to the Mediterranean and other countries in Europe.

The silk fibre can be described as a continuums protein filament produced by a type of
caterpillar called Bombyx Mori. This is commonly known as mulberry silkworm. The silk worm is
not really a worm but a caterpillar having eyes and legs, which no true worm, possesses.

Silk producing countries

The world production of silk is less than 0.2% the total for all fibres. Silk can be cultivated
where the mulberry trees grows well. The major producers of silk are China, India and Japan.
Other countries producing silk are USSR, Brazil, Thailand, Turkey and France.

The Various enterprises (Divisions) in the silk industry

The silk industry is divided into a number of separate enterprises:
a) Mulberry culture - The cultivation of the mulberry trees, the mulberry leaves serve as food
for the silkworm.
b) Sericulture - The rearing of silk worms and the production of cocoons
c) Silk reeling - The silk filament is unwound from the cocoon and reeled to give the
raw silk thread.
d) Throwing - The raw silk thread is converted into silk yarn suitable for fabric
manufacture.
e) Manufacture - The thrown yarn is converted into fabric by processes such as weaving,
knitting etc. and finally finished by degumming, bleaching, dyeing,
printing and weighting etc.

Sericulture
Sericulture starts with the proper selection and care of eggs. The eggs of the silkworm are
classified as 1) Eggs used for reproduction 2) Eggs used for cocoon production.

The first one are used by the egg producers and kept as stocks. The second one is latter
hatched by cocoon farmers. Besides rearing the worms very carefully for reproductive purpose,
the producers examine the body of the mother moth microscopically after death and if any sign of
disease are discovered, her eggs are discarded. In this way the birth of healthy worms is ensured.

3.3. Life cycle of a silkworm

The Mulberry silk worm or the Bombyx Mori species is the only cultivated silkworm. All
other silk worms are ‘wild’ as they cannot be cultivated by man. The life cycle of mulberry
silkworm is as follows.

1. The Egg: The female silk moths lay about 350 to 400 eggs on numbered cards before they
die. The eggs stick to the card due to the gummy substance which covers them. The dead
months are examined microscopically. The cards of eggs from moths which are infected are
burnt. By this careful, scientific regulation, Japan has not only protected and helped sericulture
but has developed as a leading producer of silk fibre in the world.
The eggs change colour rapidly to bluish brown or black. The egg sheets are placed in an
incubator where the temperature is regulated at 80°F. for about 10 days. Each healthy egg
hatches into an ant. One ounce of egg will yield 40,000 to 60,000 ants after hatching.
2. The Silkworm: The caterpillar or ant is actually a larva about 2 to 3 mm long and weighs
about 5 mg. The larva requires careful nurturing in a controlled atmosphere, for about 20 to 32
days till the spinning of the cocoon is completed. The silkworm grows and develops with
extraordinary rapidity. During this period the tiny worm has voracious appetite.

It is fed five times a day with chopped mulberry leaves. During this time the worm changes
its skin (or undergoes moulting) four times. Just before the moulting of shedding of its skin starts,
the worm stops eating for a time and becomes motionless. The worm increases in size and weight
with remarkable speed. The fully-grown worm is a smooth grayish white caterpillar measuring 5 to
9 cm in length and weighing 2 to 5 grams. When it is fully grown or when it has reached the limit
of its growth the worm ceases to eat, diminishes in weight, changes from greyish-white to a
creamy-white colour. A constant restless rearing movement of its head indicates that it is ready to
spin its cocoon. The fully developed or ripe worms are taken from their feeding trays and are
placed in spinning racks or straw mountings.

The worm turns its head around looking for a place to anchor (fix) its silk filament. When
this is done, a thick solution of protein (called fibroin) flows through two channels to a common
exit tube (or the spinnerets) located under the caterpillar’s jaws to produce the silk filament. At this
point the flow is jointed by the secretion of a gummy protein substance (called sericin or silk gum)
from two other symmetrically located glands. This gum cements the two silk filaments together.
The liquid substance hardens immediately on exposure to the air.

Each caterpillar thus builds an oral casing by extruding the viscous fluids from its glands. It
adds layer after layer of filaments by moving its head in arcs of circles crossing in the form of the
figure 8. The silkworm is hidden from view within 24 hours; In 2 to 3 days, the cocoon is
completed. It is about the size and shape of a peanut shell. The silk filament is in the form of a
double filament held together by the gum lying in between them.
 1 2 4

3 5 6 7

3. The Chrysalis: After finishing the spinning of its cocoon, the enclosed silk worm undergoes a
remarkable transformation, changing from the form of a caterpillar to a pupa or chrysalis.

4. The Moth: If the pupa is left undisturbed inside the cocoon it rapidly develops into a moth
within two weeks. To come out of the cocoon, the moth must break at one place by secreting an
alkaline liquid that dissolves the filament. Thus, to come out of the cocoon, the moth damages the
cocoon and breaks the continuity of the silk filaments. The moth is whitish grey and has a soft
body. It has no mouth and therefore does not eat. The female moths are larger than the male, but
both are unable to fly. The life a moth lasts for about 3 to 4 days. The female moth lays about 400
eggs before dying and thus completes her life cycle.

3.4. The production of reeled silk

The silk filaments have to be removed carefully and converted to single or doubled yarn.
This is achieved through a series of operations, using mechanised machinery to give ‘filature silk’,
or by manual means to give’ charkha silk’. In India both methods of silk yarn production are
practiced. A typical sequence of processes involved in the conversion of cocoon-silk to yarn
suitable for fabric production is described below.

a) Stoving of Stifling: When the moth cuts and damages the cocoon in order to come out, the
filament cannot be unwound in one long thread. To prevent damage to the cocoon and to get a
continuous silk thread, the life cycle of the silkworm is terminated at the chrysalis stage by a
process known as stoving. The cocoons are boiled in hot water or hot air to suffocate the
chrysalis. The delicate silk filament is not harmed.

b) Filature Operations: The cocoons that are raised by silk farmers are delivered to a factory,
called a filature, where the silk is unwound from the cocoons and the strands are collected into
hanks or skeins. Filature operations consist of the following steps.

(i) Sorting cocoons : The cocoons are sorted according to colour, size, shape and texture, as
all these affect the final quality of the silk. Cocoons may range from white or yellow to greyish,
depending on the source and type of food eaten during the worm stage. Cocoons from china
are white; Japanese and Indian cocoons are creamy white and yellow; Italian cocoons are
yellow.
(ii) Softening the Sericin: After the cocoons have been sorted, they are past through a series of
hot and cold immersions, as the sericin must be softened to permit the unwinding of the
filament as one continuous thread. Raw silk consists of about 80 percent fibroin and 20
percent sericin. At this time, only one percent of the sericin is removed, because this silk gum
is a needed protection during the further handling of the delicate filament.
(iii) Reeling the Filament : The process of unwinding the filament from the cocoon is called
reeling. As the filament of a single cocoon is too fine for commercial use, three to ten strands
are usually reeled at a time to produce the desired thickness of raw silk thread. The cocoons
are placed in a trough of hot water to soften them. They float in water, moving up and down,
as the filaments are drawn upward through procelain guides and wound on revolving wheels
or drums. The operator looks for any defects the thread as it is being reeled.
In between the porcelein guides and the revolving frame is a device known as the
‘croissure’ around which the filaments are passed in order to ensure that any excess water in the
wet filament drips off and also that a rounded yarn is formed (refer figure). As the reeling of the
filament from each cocoon nears completion, the operator attaches a new filament to the moving
thread. The sericin acts as an adhesive during this piecing operation.
The filaments vary in length from cocoon to cocoon. Usually, the filament on the outside of
the cocoon is coarser and rough compared to that in the inner part of the cocoon. Only about 16%
of the weight of the cocoon is silk fiber, about half of which can be reeled. The term ‘reeled silk’ is
applied to the assembly (or strand) of raw silk filament is from separate cocoons. The usable
length of the reeled filament is from 300 to 800 meters. The diameter of the silk fibre is so fine that
1000 cocoons are required to produce about four ounces of useful thread and about 3000
cocoons are required to make one metre of silk fabric.
 The silk filaments are reeled into ’skeins’ which are packed in small bundles called ‘books’
each weighing about 60 kg. This is the form in which the raw skill is shipped to all parts of the
world.

Charkha Silk: Silk reeling is practiced as a cottage industry in India. The reeling is done by hand-
operated ‘charkha’, and the silk yarn reeled is called ‘charkha silk’.

c). Manufacture of silk yarns:

The ‘books’, of reeled silk undergoes the following processes.

Thrown silk: Reeled silk is a single yarn and is not suitable for weaving or knitting. It must be
converted to silk thread suitable for weaving purpose. This is done by a process known as
“throwing” or “twisting”. The people engaged in this work are called throwsters. The silk throwing
process is similar to the doubling and twisting process in cotton yarn manufacture.

The raw silk is stored according to the size, colour, length and quantity and then soaked in
an oil or soap emulsion in water to soften the silk thread. This softens the sericin and helps in
handling the silk thread. After mechanical drying, the silk hanks are placed on light reels (or
swifts) and wound on bobbins.

Several ‘singles’ may be doubled and twisted to give folded yarns of desired size. Different
sizes of threads are produced to meet the requirement of knitting or weaving to produce various
kinds of silk fabric. Silk throwing requires special skill and knowledge and expensive machinery.
The final product is then inspected and packaged and is ready for delivery to the producers of silk
fabric.

3.5. Kinds of thrown silk yarns: Several kinds of silk yarn or threads are used in the
manufacture of silk goods. The type of yarn and twist depends on the weavers choice.

 Singles : Usually 3 to 8 silk filaments are twisted together in one direction to form a yarn
called a single. Loose twisted singles (2-3 tpi) are used for weft yarn in many silk fabrics.
Hard twisted single are used in the production of fine fabrics.
 Tram: Tram is used only as weft yarn. Usually 2 to 4 untwisted singles are combined with
a slight twist of about 3 to 5 tpi. When tram is used in the production of taffeta, it is twisted
to about 30 tpi.
 Voile: This yarn used for sheer crepe fabric such as voile. A voile yarn consists of three
untwisted single yarns twisted to 35 to 40 tpi.
 Georgette: A georgette yarn is made up of two untwisted singles with a hard twist of 70 to
75 tpi. These yarns are very fine, strong and elastic and are used as warp in fabrics such
as georgette or crepe.
 Organzine : This type of thread is used primarily for warp yarns. It is made up of two or
more singles, each of which has 16 Z turns per inch. These singles are then doubled and
twisted in the S direction to 12 to 20 tpi. Organzine yarns interlock more tightly and results
in a firmer and stronger yarn.

In addition to the above there are other types of silk threads such as Grenadine, Two-by-
two. Compense-S and Crepe, etc.
3.6.Types of silk
The silk can broadly be divided into 1: Domesticated silk, 2. The wild silks
Some examples of major wild silks are

The major wild silks The minor wild silks

 Tussar (or Tussah) silk  Yamamai silk
 Muga silk  Fagara silk
 Eri silk  Mussel silk ( or sea silk)
 Spider silk

Tussur silk: This is the most important of the wild silks. It is obtained from a silkworm, which is
very different from the domestic mulberry silkworm. It will feed only out of doors on the leaves of
oak tree of shrub type. The worm is five to six inches when mature, soft green in colour and is
covered with tufts of reddish brown hair. The tussar silk worm makes a compact cocoon, which
has less lustre, is brownish in colour and the silk is uneven and stiff.

Spinning tends to be discontinuous, and the filament is more broken than the mulberry silk
worm. For this reason tussar silk is more suitable for spun yarns. There are two crops of cocoons
produced annually, the spring and the autumn crops. The Tussur silk contain more gum and also
calcium compounds, which makes it necessary to treat them chemically in the boiling-off
operations, so that the filament may be unwound easily.

Eri silk: This is similar to tussar silk but has a lighter natural colour. The Eri silk worm feeds on
the leaves of the castor oil plant. It gives a very high quality of white silk. It is not possible to reel
the silk from the cocoons. Therefore, it is necessary to spin it into yarn by the methods used for
spinning silk yarn from waste. It is harder and less lustrous than cultivated silk.

Muga silk: The muga silk worm is found in Assam and in importance it is next to tussar silk worm.
It is either white or light brown in colour. The other types of wild silk, namely Fagara, Mussel,
Yamamai and spider silks are of lesser importance.

Spun silk: Spun silk, also called ‘Schappe silk’ is produced from a mass of short, fine fibre that
form a waste. Waste silk is mainly obtained from the cut cocoons after the silk moth has come out
and from the reeling and throwing operations. There are several sources of waste silk:

i) Pierced cocoons, the result of breeding moths that have come out of their cocoons.
ii) Double cocoons, the result of two cocoons having been spun by two silk worms too close
together. Double cocoons are also called doupion silk or douppioni silk.
iii) Floss, brushed from cocoons before reeling. Floss is the loose tangle of silk fibre that holds
the cocoon within the straw mounting arranged for cocoon spinning.
iv) Frison, the coarse and uneven silk fibre at the beginning and end of each cocoon.
v) Scrap or silk noil, the machine waste left from reeling, throwing, etc.

The waste silk is degummed and carded and combed to remove the very short fibres and
spun into yarn just like cotton spinning. The waste silk strands (slivers) may be drawn several
times before spinning to give a thorough distribution of fibres. Spun silk yarns are soft, but they
are less lustrous than reeled silk and are not as strong or elastic. Spun silk fabric tends to become
fuzzy after wearing because the yarn is made of short staple fibre.
 Spun silk is less expensive than reeled silk. Although it has less strength and elasticity, it
possesses all the general characteristics of reeled silk. It has great demand for producing fabrics
with soft, pliable finish and for its spreading qualities in pile. Spun silk is used for shantung and
pile fabrics; for dress trimmings, linings and sewing silk, for velvets, umbrella fabrics and
insulative materials.

Further processing of silk goods

Thrown silk yarn is converted into woven or knitted fabric according to the requirement.
Silk goods at this stage will contain a good proportion of sericin, which has to be removed before
any further chemical processing is undertaken.

3.7. Degumming of silk: This process is called ‘boiling-off. In this process raw silk goods are
treated in alkaline soap solutions to dissolve the silk gum. The concentration of the alkaline soap
solution is in the range 6-10 grams per litre for dense or heavy fabrics. The liquor ratio is usually
40:1 and the temperature of the degumming solution is kept close to the boiling point (95°C) for a
treatment period of 1 to 1½ hours.

Degumming may take place after the silk yarn is thrown in order to prepare it for yarn
dyeing. Complete degumming brings out the natural lustre and the soft feel of silk. As much as 25
percent of the weight is lost by the gumming process. When the gum has been removed, the silk
fibre or fabric is in creamy white colour, beautifully lustrous and luxuriantly soft. Sometimes silk is
partially degummed in order to give the finished product added strength or a dull finish. Ecru silk is
an example of silk fabric from which sericin has been partially removed.

Weighting of silk : The silk fabric may be given a wide variety of finishes like bleaching, dyeing,
calendering, embossing etc. There is one finish, that is unique to silk and this is called ‘weighing
of silk’. Silk loses a lot of weight in the degumming process and this is an important factor in
production cost, because the manufacture buys silk by weight. In order to make up this loss in
weight, silk goods are ‘weighted’ with metallic substances so as to lower the cost of silk to the
consumer.

The weighting process involves treatment of silk goods with solutions of heavy metal salts,
such as stannic chloride, such that the fabric absorbs and retains a portion of the metal salt.
Weighting gives silk fabric crispness, lustre and a firm feel. Silk fabric which has been weighted to
exactly make up the loss in weight due to degumming is said to be ‘weighting to par’. Weighting of
fabrics to values lower or higher is considered respectively as ‘weighting below par’ and
‘weighting above par’. Too much weighting can lead to ‘tendering’, of silk fabric and a resulting
loss in strength.
Pure-dye silk: Silk fabric that has only been dyed or dyed and finished with the usual chemicals
such as starch etc., but not been weighted using metal salts is called ‘pure-dye’ silk.

Physical properties of silk

1. Tenacity : Silk is a strong fibre due to its high crystalline content. The tenacity is 3.3 to 4.5
grams per denier in the dry state and 2.6 to 3.5 in the wet state. The wet to dry tenacity ratio is
thus about 78 percent.
2. Elongation-at-break : The silk filament shows a considerable elongation of 20%.
3. Elastic-plastic nature : Silk is little more plastic than it is elastic. In other words, its elastic
recovery is moderate. Wrinkles may be produced in silk garments during wear unless used
with care, but if sufficient time is given recovery is complete.
4. Moisture regain: The moisture regain of silk is 10-11 percent in standard atmosphere. Silk is
quite hygroscopic and under favourable circumstances will absorb as much as 30% of its
weight of moisture and still appear dry.
5. Diameter : The diameter of the raw filament varies from 8 to 13 m. it decreases after
deguming.
6. Density : Raw silk has a density of 1.34 g/cc. Degummed silk has a density of 1.25 g/cc.
7. Microscopic appearance:
Longitudinal view: When raw silk is examined under the microscope, the longitudinal view
shows a somewhat irregular, smooth, structure less, translucent filament. Frequently the two
filaments are distinctly separated from one another for considerable distances, the space in
between being filled in with sericin.
Cross sectional view: The cross-sectional view of silk shows irregular, triangular shapes. It is
this triangular shape that is responsible for the high lustre of silk.

Microscopic Appearance of Silk

Raw silk Degummed Silk

8. Lustre : As stated above, the characteristic triangular cross-sectional shape of silk provides a
very large fibre surface area for the reflection of light. Therefore, silk has a very attractive and
bright lustre. Some synthetic fibres are made to have a ‘tribal’ (round triangular shape) cross-
section so as to give them a ‘silk-like’ lustre. Silk is among the most lustrous of all fibres.
Degummed silk is more lustrous than raw silk.
9. Resistance to heat: Silk is quite sensitive to heat. It will begin to decompose at 165°c. Silk
should therefore be ironed while damp with a warm iron.
10. Thermal conductivity: Being a protein fibre silk will not conduct heat and is therefore a warm
fibre ideally suited for use in cold weather.
11. Handle and drape: The natural fineness of silk makes it a soft and flexible fibre with a
pleasant handle. Its pliability and suppleness give it excellency drapability.
12. The ‘scroop’ characteristic in silk textiles : When silk material is treated with dilute
solutions of organic acids, particularly acetic acid, and dried, it emits crackling sound when
squeezed or pressed. This is referred to as the scroop characteristic in silk.

3.9. Chemical Properties of Silk

H H H H H H

15. Chemical Structure: HOOC-N-CH-C-N-CH-C-N-CH-C-N-CH-C-N--------C-N-CH-

NH2

R1 O R2 O R3 O R4 O O Rn
The chemical structure given above is a general chemical structure of the long chain molecule of
any animal (protein) fibre, such as silk, wool or hair. R1,R2……. Rn represent the specific side
groups that tell the difference between the amino acids that make up the protein fibre. The basic
building chemical in a protein fibre, the amino acid, is represented by the
H
general chemical structure shown in the figure at the left, where ‘R’
represents the side group, which is specific to a given amino acid. For
HOOC – C – NH2 example, if ‘R’ is “H’, the amino acid is Glycine, and so on. It may be seen
R that the molecular structure of silk (and wool), as shown above contains
amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups as end groups as well as the
amide (-NHCO-) groups linking amino acids together. These three types
of groups are ‘polar’ groups and will contribute to properties such as
moisture absorption and dyeability.

The presence of a large number of amide linkages in the protein fibres has led to their
being called ‘natural polyamide fibres’. The amide linkage in the molecules of animal fibres is also
referred to as the ‘peptide’ linkage. The protein molecules are therefore also referred to as
‘polypeptide’ chains. (However it must be noted that this term is not used in practice for the
synthetic polyamides, which also have a large number of the amide linkages in their molecules).

2. Polymer: Raw silk consist of a pair of filaments which are held together by the silk gum. The
filaments are made up of the protein or polymer called fibroin while the gum is a different protein
or polymer called sericin. Silk fibroin is believed to consist of 16 different amino acids. Of these,
Glycine, Alanine, Serine and Tyrosine are the major amino acids which make up about 95 per
cent of the silk fibroin. The remaining 12 amino acids in fibroin are minor amino acids, making up
the balance of about five percent. Silk fibroin is believed to be a block copolymer of the four major
amino acids. Silks does not contain any sulphur containing amino acid as does the wool polymer.
The sericin in raw silk is removed before chemical finishing by the degumming process.

3. The fibrillar structure of silk: The silk filament is fibrillar in strcutre. Several long- chain fibroin
molecules are arranged as a small bundle called a ‘microfibril’. Many microfibrils form a ‘fibrillar
bundle’ or tiny fibres and finally many fibrillar bundles make up the silk fibroin filament.

4.Degree of polymerization: This has not been assessed with certainty.

5.Crystalline/Amorphous content: The fibre structure of silk is well oriented and highly
crystalline. The cystallinity is 65 to 70 percent, thus giving an amorphous content of 35 to 30
percent. Silk is therefore a fairly strong and resilient fibre.

6.Chemical composition: The composition of raw silk is as given below.

Sl.No. Component Content (Percent)
1 Fibroin 62-67
2 Sericin 22-25
3 Moisture 10-11
4 Other matter (traces of fat and mineral matter) 1-2

7. Action of acids: Silk is readily soluble in cold concentrated mineral acids, e.g. hydrochloric
acid. The solubility in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid is used to determine the percentage of
silk in a mixture of silk and wool. Even traces of mineral acids, if dried into silk material, causes
‘tendering’ and reduction of the material to powder. When organic acids such as acetic acid are
dried into silk they give it a particular handle called ‘scroop’. (discussed earlier).

8. Action of alkalies: Cold concentrated solutions of caustic alkalies appear to have little effect
on silk, with little time allowed and the rinsing followed immediately. Thus, mixtures of cotton and
silk may be mercerized. Prolonged action of cold concentrated sodium hydroxide causes the fibre
to dissolve.

9. Reaction to bleaches: Silk will get badly affected if treated with highly alkaline bleaching
agents such as sodium hypochlorite. Hydrogen peroxide under mildly alkaline conditions may be
safely used to bleach silk provided the normal precautions applicable to silk are followed.

10. Solvents for silk: Silk is soluble in mineral acids, e.g. concentrated hydrochloric acid, at room
temperature. It is also soluble in 5% sodium hydroxide solution at boil.

11.Action of salts: Concentrated solutions of salts such as zinc chloride will dissolve silk. Many
others, such as sodium chloride for example, have no effect in wet condition, but can produce
tendering during prolonged storage when the salt is dried into the fibre.

12. Action of microorganisms and insects: Silk will not be affected by mildew, unless it is left
for some time in a damp state. Silk may be attacked by insects (larvae of clothes moths or carpet
beetles) and it may be destroyed when blended with wool, which is attacked by these insects.

13. Effect of light: Continuous exposure to light weakens silk faster than either cotton or wool.
Raw silk is more resistant to light than degummed silk, and weighted silk has the least light
resistance.

14. Affinity for dyes: Silk has a good a affinity for basic, acid, metal complex and direct dyes.
The colour- fastness of dyed silk is generally good. However the light fastness is not so good,
especially dyed silk that has also been weighted.

16. Reaction to perspiration: Silk is damaged by perspiration (sweat) and there is

visible loss of colour at the perspiration – affected portions. For this reason,
garments worn next to the skin must be washed after each wearing.

Uses of Silk
In spite of its high cost, silk has been one of the most popular fabrics because of its unique
properties. Being soft, strong and lighter in weight than any other natural fibre, silk is prized for its lightness
with warmth, Sheerness with strength and delicacy with resilience. The uses of silk are therefore for special
fabric.

The applications / uses of silk

Apparel fabrics: Dresses, saris, blouses, dhotis, high class inner wears and formal dresses. Silk
is sometimes blended with either cotton or wool for reasons of cost or for special purposes.

Dress accessories: shawls, scarves, gloves, ties, hats, handbags, umbrellas and artificial
flowers.

House textiles: Curtains, wall coverings, carpets, lampshade and bedclothes.

Industrial: Sewing threads, embroidery threads, typewriter ribbons, textile printing screens, etc,

The Silk industry in Tamilnadu

The Indian silk industry, being an agro-based industry, has a good potential for
employment, particularly self-employment, throughout the year. India’s annual requirement of raw
silk is about 25,000 tonnes. Of this, about 15,000 tonnes is produced in the country, while the
remaining 10,000 tonnes is imported from China.

Tamilnadu produces about 1,000 tonnes of raw silk per year. This is produced in nearly
5,000 villages in the state and about three lakh persons are involved in the activities, which
include mulberry crop raising, Silkworm rearing and post-cocoon activities. More than 60 percent
of the work force involved in these activities are women.

One hectare of mulberry crop provides employment for 13 persons throughout the year.
Similarly, the production of three kilograms of fabric can generate employment for one person.
The mulberry cultivation in the state has increased from 300 to 25,000 acres in the past fifty
years. This expansion taking place mostly in the western and northern parts of the state.
Tamilnadu aims to produce 18,000 tonnes of raw silk in the Tenth five – year Plan period.

3.11. Wool

Wool and hair fibres are the natural hair growing on the bodies of certain animals and are
composed of protein called ‘keratin’. Wool and hair can be described as natural, animal,
multicelluar protein fibres. As explained earlier, wool and hair fibres are also referred to as natural
polyamide fibres. Wool felts were known 7000 years ago in China, Babylon and in Egypt. The
Merino sheep, which has the finest wool, was bred in the 14th century, in Spain, Sheep breeding
began in Australia at the end of the 18th century.

Wool producing countries:

The production of wool worldwide has roughly doubled since the turn of the century. The
major wool producing countries are Australia and former USSR. Other countries also producing
wool include New Zealand, China, Argentina, South Africa, Uruguay, turkey, Great Britain,
Pakistan, Germany, USA, etc. The production of wool in these countries are as below.

Country Production Production

Country
(% of the world total) (% of the world total)
Australia Uruguay, South Africa and
33.0 3.0% each
Turkey
Former USSR 15.0 Great Britain 2.0
New Zealand 9.0 Pakistan 2.0
China 7.0 Germany 0.2
Argentina 5.0 Others 21.0

3.12. Classification of wool

There are many types of sheep in the world. All of them do not give wool of the same
characteristics. They differ chiefly in length and diameter of fibre, size and number of epithelial
scales, felting power, natural crimp, softness, luster and colour. All sheep produce a mixture of
both long and short fibres. A healthy well-bred sheep tends to give fibres of uniform length over
certain areas of its body, but the average staple length varies from one part of the sheep’s body to
another. The quality of wool is also determined by the breeding climate, food, general care and
health of the sheep. Wool may be classified according to the breed of sheep or according to the
quality of fleece.

3.12.1. Classification by sheep:

There are about forty breeds of sheep, including the crossbreeds totaling around 200
distinct grades of sheep. The wool may be classified into four groups according to the quality of
the wool produced.

a) ‘Merino’ wool (or ‘fine wool’): Merino sheep produce the finest and best wool in the world.
This variety of sheep was first bred in Spain. The fibre is relatively short, its length ranging from 1
to 5 inches (25-125mm), the fibre is strong, fine and elastic. It has good working properties and is
spinnable to counts between 60-100s. Merino wool has the greatest amount of crimp of all wool
fibres (118 per mm). These two characteristics of this fibre contribute to its superior warmth and
spinning qualities. Merino is used in the best types of wool clothing. Today, the Marino sheeps are
found in Spain, USA, Austria, France, Australia, New Zealand, South America and South Africa.

b) ‘Class-Two’ Wools (or ‘medium wools’): This class of sheep was first bred in the United
Kingdom. UK produced fine wool fabric from this class of wool. Today this type of wool is raised in
many parts of the world. Though it is not comparable with merino wool this variety is nevertheless
very good quality wool. It is 2 to 8 inches (50-200mm) in length, has a large number of scales per
inch and has good crimp. The fibres are comparatively strong, fine and elastic and have good
working properties. This class of wool is spinnable to counts in the range 40s to 60s.

c)’Class-Three’ Wools (or ‘long wools’): This class of sheep originated in the United Kingdom.
The fibres are about 4 to 18 inches long (100-455 mm), are coarser and have fewer scales and
less crimp than Merino wool and the Class-two wools. As a result, they are smoother and
therefore have more luster. Wools of this class are less elastic and resilient. They are of good
enough quality to be used for clothing and have spinnability in the count range 44 s to 50s. In fact
some of these sheep, such as Leicester, Cotswold, Harris, Lewis, have given their names to wool
fabrics.

d) ‘Class-Flour’ Wools (or ‘crossbred wools’ or ‘carpet wools’): This class is actually a group
of mongrel (mixed –breed) sheep sometimes referred to as half-breeds. Sheep, which grow in
primitive conditions, also come under this class. The fibres are from 1 to 16 inches (25-400
mm) long, are coarse and hair-like, have relatively few scales and little crimp, and are therefore
smoother and more lustrous. This wool is less desirable, with least elasticity and strength. It is
used mainly for carpets, rugs and inexpensive low-grade clothing.

Wool, hair and kemp

Wild sheep carry two distinct coats, the outer of which consists of long fibres that are
classified as ‘hair’. If these are especially coarse, brittle and strongly medulated they are known
as ‘kemp’. The under coat consists of fine, crimpy fibres called ‘wool’. In medium and long wool
type breeds, the kemp and heavy fibres are noticeable on the head and legs. In carpet wools in
general, the entire fleece is a mixture of all these fibres.
3.12.2. Classification by Fleece
Wool removed from young lambs differs in quality from that removed from older sheep.
Thus it needs for standards for the classification of fleeces. ‘Fleece’ means the complete coat of
wool that is removed from a sheep by shearing (clipping) operation.
i) Lamb’s Wool: The first fleece removed (by shearing) form a lamb about 6 to 8 months old is
known as lamb’s wool and is referred as fleece wool or first clip. This wool is of very fine
quality and the fibres are tapered because the ends have never been clipped. Lamb’s wool
have a characteristic softness of texture in fabric form. But it is immature and is therefore not
as strong as fully developed wool of the same sheep.
ii) Hogget wool: Hogget wool comes from sheep that are 12 to14 months old and that are being
sheared for the first time. The fibre is fine, soft, resilient and mature, and has tapered ends.
Hogget wool is a very desirable grade of wool, because of its strength, this is used primarily
for the warp yarns.
iii) Whether Wool: Any fleece clipped after the first shearing is called whether wool. This wool
is usually taken from sheep older than 14 months, and these fleeces contain much soil and
dirt gathered by the sheep during its moving around from place to place.
iv) Pulled wool: When sheep are killed for meat, their wool is pulled from the skin using lime or a
chemical hair-remover. Such wool fibre called pulled wool, is of inferior quality for two
reasons.
 Because sheep that are raised for meat generally do not have a good quality of wool, and
 Because the roots of the fibres are damaged by chemicals and tension applied in pulling.
v) Dead wool: The wool fibre known as ‘dead wool’ is sometimes mistaken for pulled wool.
Dead wool is obtained from sheep that have died naturally in the farm or have been killed by
accident. Dead wool fibre is inferior in grade. It is used in low-grade cloths.
vi) Cotty wool: Sheep that are exposed to severe weather conditions or lack of proper food give
a wool that is matted or felted (entangled) together and is hard and brittle. This wool is of very
poor grade which is known as cotty wool.
vii) Taglocks: All fleeces generally have damaged portions. The torn, faded (discoloured) parts of
a fleece are known as taglocks. There are very inferior grade of wool.

3.13. Grading of wool:

When wool fleece is clipped from sheep, it has to be sorted into suitable categories on the
basis of quality. This process is known as ‘grading’. Grading helps the wool spinner to decide
which ‘grade’ of wool must be selected to spin a given count of yarn. The grading of wool is
normally done during wool sorting by skilled workers who are experts in differentiating qualities by
touch and sight. As many as 20 separate grades of wool may be obtained from one fleece if the
sorting is done strictly. Each grade is determined by type, length, fineness, elasticity and strength.
There are generally two standard systems for wool grading with respect to its fineness; (1) The
United States system (2) The British system

The United States System:

In this system, the standard for wool grading is based upon the quality of wool produced
by the Merino sheep because it gives the finest quality wool in terms of diameter, scales and
crimp. For example, first-quality wool is identified as ‘Fine’ and is equivalent to the quality of wool
that could be obtained from a full blood to three-quarter-blood Merino sheep.

The second quality is equivalent to the kind of wool that could be obtained from a half-
blood Merino sheep. Similarly there are three other grades: three-eights-blood, quarter-blood and
low quarter blood in descending order of quality. The poorest qualities are identified as common
and braid. They are coarse, have little crimp, relatively few scales, and are somewhat hair-like in
appearance. The grades of wool according to United States system is given below.

Two Systems for the Grading of Wool

United States System British System
(Blood System) (Numerical system)
s s s
Fine (Full to three-quarter blood) 80 , 70 , 64
s s s
Half-blood 62 , 60 , 58
s
Three-eights blood 56
s S
Quarter-blood 50 , 48
s
Low-Quarter blood 46
s
Common 44
s s
Braid 40 , 36

The British system:

The British system of wool grading is generally used throughout the world. The US system
uses qualitative ‘terms’ (or words describing quality) to grade wool. The British worsted system
uses numbers. The numbers are yarn count based on the British worsted system of yarn
numbering (Indirect System). In worsted system the yarn count is the number of 560-yard lengths
(hanks) available in one pound of yarn. In the British system of wool grading, the ‘grades’ actually
indicate the finest yarn counts to which the wool can be spun in the ‘worsted system’.
The wool grades in this system are listed in the above table along with the US system for
comparison. The first quality or the best grade wool that is fine and capable of being spun into the
finest yarn counts of 80s, 70s and 64s. The next in quality can be spun into yarn counts of 62s, 60s,
58. The intermediate grades can be spun into yarn counts of 56s, (50s or 48s), 46s and 44s. The
poorest grade can be spun into yarn counts of 40s and 36s.
Combined system for grading wool with respect to fineness and length:
Wool grades in both the blood system and the numerical system relate to the relative
fineness or the diameter of the wool fibre. In order to describe the quality of wool more
completely, it is necessary to include the length of fibre in the grading. The following three terms
are used to describe wool of different length classes. (1) Combing wool, (2) French Combing wool
(3) Clothing wool.
If a given wool is graded merely as ‘fine wool’ or as 64s, 70s or 80s wool, only the fineness
of the wool is described and no opinion can be formed regarding its length. However, if the wool is
graded as ‘fine combing wool’ or 64s, 70s, or an 80s combing wool, it becomes clear that the wool
is not only fine but it also possesses good staple length. The wool trade commonly accepts the
following length terms stated above.

Clothing wool - Below 1½ inches

French combing wool - 1½ to 2½ inches
Strictly combing wool - above 2½ inches
3.14. Manufacturing processes involved for wool from its fleece
Preparatory steps
1. Shearing: The shearing or clipping of fleece from sheep is usually done by means of electrical
shears. This must be carried out carefully without injury to the sheep. Wool from the legs is coarse
and short. Because of its lower quality, it is separated from the fleece during shearing. The fleece
then passes through a number of operations and processes before it is made into yarn suitable for
fabric production. These are discussed below.

2. Sorting and grading: The fleece from any breed of sheep contains various quality of wool.
There are about fourteen different grades even in one fleece (see figure). Superior wool comes
from the sides and shoulders, where it grows longer, finer and softer (No.1 to 6 in the figure).
Wool from the head, chest, belly and shanks is of inferior quality.

The ‘Grader’ is a skilled person who is an expert in identifying qualities of wool by touch
and sight and classifies the wool from a fleece according to fineness, crimp, length, strength,
impurities and colour. Heavy contamination is usually found in the belly area. As many as twenty
separate grades of wool may be obtained from one fleece if the sorting is done strictly. The wool
is finally graded according to one of the systems described above.

3. Scouring: Raw wool contains a lot of dirt and grease and these must be removed in order to
prepare it for further manufacturing processes. This process is called ‘scouring’ and involves the
treatment of raw wool in a mild alkaline solution.

Scouring of loose wool: The scouring of raw wool in fibre form is done in machines, which have
a series of long scouring tanks called ‘bowls’. The scouring is achieved by treatment of the wool in
a mild solution of soda ash and soap or a non-ionic synthetic detergent at 45 to 55C. There are
automatic rakes at each bowl, which stir the wool as it passes through the series of scouring and
washing treatments. There are rollers between the bowls that squeeze out the water from the
mass of wet wool. When the wool comes out of the last wash it must be free from grease and dirt.
This method causes entanglement in the wool and gives problems during the spinning stage.
Therefore alternative methods are used nowadays to give a more gentle treatment using
detergents and this is known as ‘emulsion scouring’.

Scouring of wool in yarn or fabric form: Worsted spun yarns generally contain combing oils
and dirt acquired during processing. If the worsted yarn is to be dyed it is scoured in hand form in
a ‘wool tape-scouring machine’. The hanks are scoured in bowls and moving tapes pushes it
forward. If worsted yarn is to be package dyed, the scouring may be done in the package-dyeing
machine prior to dyeing. Wool is also scoured in fabric form and this is done in a winch type-
scouring machine called the ‘dolly scouring machine’. An endless length of wool fabric in rope
form is scoured in this machine, without tension.

4. Carbonising: The scouring process removes all the greases and much of the impurities. The
wool may still contain a lot of ‘burrs’ or dried pieces of vegetable matter sticking to it. The
vegetable matters are the leaves, twigs, etc. picked up by the sheep during its everyday life. As
wool is a protein fibre, the burrs are regarded as impurity and have to be removed. This is done
by carbonising process, in which the wool is treated with a mineral acid such as sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid mixed in water.
Batch process: The first operation is acid impregnation and is most commonly performed by
steeping the scoured wool in 5 to 7% sulphuric acid for a period of 2 to 3 hours. This is followed
by hydro extraction and drying at 85C. The wool is shaken mechanically when the hydrocellulose
falls away. The residual acid is then neutralised with dilute sodium carbonate solution or washed
out thoroughly with water. Nowadays, continuous methods are also used.

Continuous carbonizing process: The scoured wool is passed through a lead-lined bowl, where
impregnation with sulphuric acid takes place. The acid-treated wool is squeezed as it comes out
of the trough and is then passed through a two stage heating assembly. In the first stage it is dried
at 50 to 60C and in the second stage it is heated for 15 to 20 minutes at 95 to 100 C.
Next, the material is squeezed between fluted rollers to crush the hydrocellulose and is then
passed into a unit where the powdered hydrocellulose is shaken out. Finally, the residual acid in
the wool must be neutralized, washed and dried.

5. Oiling: The carbonized wool is dried to retain about 10 to 12 percent of moisture to condition
the wool for further handling. To make the wool more manageable, it is treated with various
animal and vegetable oils. Oiling of wool prevents it from becoming brittle and lubricates wool for
spinning operation. If the scoured and carbonized wool is taken for fibre - dyeing, the oiling is
done just before it is spun into yarn.

6. Dyeing: The wool is generally dyed in four different forms. They are (1) Loose-stock (fibre
form) (2) Top (sliver) (3) Yarn in hank (or skein) form (4) Fabric

a) Stock-dyeing: The wool is often stock-dyed in fibre form. This is usually done in a package-
dyeing machine. The fibre is loaded in perforated metal baskets and the dye liquor is circulated
through the fibre mass until the dyeing is complete. The advantages of stock dyeing are good
penetration of dyes and good overall quality of the dyed fibre. Mixture effects and coloured blends
can be produced if required.

b) Top-dyeing: ‘Top’ is a term used for wool in combed sliver form. Top dyeing is used in the
worsted industry. In top dyeing, the tops are wound on perorated spools or piled uniformly in
perforated cans and the dye liquor is circulated through them until the dyeing is complete.

c) Yarn-dyeing: The wool yarn is also dyed in hank or skein form. The loose arrangement of the
yarn allows for excellent dye penetration. The hanks are hung on poles and placed in a carrier
which is then immersed in a dye bath in a large container. The hanks are hung on poles and
placed in a carrier, which is then immersed in a dye bath in a large container. The dye liquor is
circulated for even dyeing. Hank dyeing is a costly method but the colour penetration is excellent
and the yarns retain a softer and loftier (bulkier) handle.

d) Fabric dyeing: The woolen and worsted fabrics are mostly buck-dyed. Long lengths of cloth
are passed in tension-free form through a dye bath in a continuous manner till the dyeing is
complete. Beck dyeing helps to keep much of the softness and fullness of the fabric.

3.15. Process sequence in spinning of wool

Wool is spun to yarn by the woolen or worsted spinning systems. The following flow-
diagram gives the steps involved in these two systems of spinning from ‘fleece to finishing’.
 FLEECE

Woollen System Worsted System

Sorting, Sorting,
Blending, Blending,
Scouring, Scouring,
Carbonising, Carbonising,
and Oiling and Oiling

LOOSE-
STOCK
DYEING
CARDING CARDING
WASHING AND
DRYING

COMBING TOP DYEING

WASHING AND
(Removes short DRYING
fibres makes
fibres parallel)

DRAWING

(Makes the
slivers i.e., tops,
thinner)

ROVING & ROVING &

SPINNING SPINNING
(Woollen spun (Worsted spun
yarns are hairy, yarns are
thick and soft) smooth, thin,
round and hard)
WEAVING WEAVING

FINISHING FINISHING

As may be seen from the flow-diagram, the woollen spinning sequence is short and quick,
but the worsted system has additional processes such as ‘combing’ and ‘drawing’. The combing
process consists of two operations, namely ‘gilling’ and ‘combing’. The gilling operation removes
the shorter staple and straightens the fibre. The combing operation continues this process and
removes the shorter fibres of 1 to 4-inch lengths (called combing noils) and places the longer
fibres(called tops) as parallel as possible, and further cleans the fibres by removing any remaining
loose impurities. All other operations in both the systems are quite similar as the manufacture of
carded and combed cotton yarns.
Fibres used for the woolen and the worsted systems of spinning: The finer and better grade
of wool or its mixture with ‘tops’ wool is usually used for the worsted yarn production. This is
because worsted yarns are manufactured as fine yarns for high quality fabric. Woollen yarns, on
the other hand, are made for the cheaper or casual kind of fabric and for this purpose the lower
grades of wool or their mixtures with ‘noil’ wool will be satisfactory.

3.16. Differences between woolen and worsted yarns:

The differences between woollen and worsted yarns are listed below.

S.No WOOLLEN YARN WORSTED YARN

1 Short and more variable staple Long and more uniform staple
2 Carded only Carded and combed
3 Loosely twisted – Less TPI Tightly twisted – more TPI
4 Weaker yarn Stronger yarn
5 Bulkier yarn Finer, smoother, even fibres in yarn cross section
6 Softer yarn Harder yarn
7 Hairy yarn Relatively low hairiness in the yarn
8 Little luster Comparatively higher luster

The differences between woollen and worsted fabrics.

Property/Aspect
S.No WOOLLEN FABRICS WORSTED FABRICS
being compared
Less expensive yarns used – (coarse
1. Yarn grade used Uses better grade of yarn – (fiber yarns)
yarn)
Soft Feel, fuzzy surface, thick warmer
2. Handle Firm, wiry or harsh, smooth or rough
than worsteds
Are dull in appearance; indistinct weave Appear more lustrous due to the higher
3. Appearance pattern; thread count generally more than twist: distinct pattern; more closely
worsteds woven than woollens
4. Strength Relatively low tensile strength Greater tensile strength
5. Crease resistance Do not hold creases well Hold creases well
6. Fabric weight Heavier and bulkier than worsteds Lighter and less bulkier than woollens
7. Dyeing Give deeper shades in dyeing Give comparatively lighter shades
Not as easy as worsteds to tailor and Easier to tailor and used primarily for
8. Apparel generally used for casual wear, such as formal wear, e.g. spring and summer
sportswear, jackets, sweaters, skirts coats and suits, tropical suits, etc.
9. Durability Not so durable More durable
Gaberdine, whipcord, serge, Bedford
10. Typical fabrics made Tweed, flannel, broadcloth, Shetland etc.
cord etc.

3.17. Kinds of wool used in the wool industry

Wool fabrics are made up of wool from different sources. Wool is designated according to
the kind of fibre and its source. The following designations are in use in the wool industry.
i) Virgin wool: This term is used to designate ‘new wool’ from a sheep’s fleece. It must be used
for fibre sheared from a living sheep. Virgin wool is a fibre that has never been spun, woven,
felted or worn previously. The term ‘New Wool’ is also used in place of virgin wool.
ii) Recycled wool (or ‘Shoddy’): This term is used to designate wool fibre that has been
reclaimed and remanufactured from used or unused wool materials. Other terms such as
remanufactured, reworked, salvaged, reclaimed are also used, but the term ‘shoddy’ is widely
used in the industry. Wool is recycled because there has never been a sufficient supply of
new wool to take care of the steadily increasing demand for wool.

The unused materials may come from combings and wool waste obtained during the
manufacturing processes, from sample swatches or from waste places of all-wool cloth from
apparel manufacturing. The used wool fibre is the fibre recovered from all kinds of used
consumers’ goods, such as old clothing, rags etc. Three classes of waste fibre are used in the
woollen industry.
a) Soft waste: The soft waste includes sweepings from wool sorting rooms, fibres left in settling
tanks (during scouring and washing), waste fibre from combing, waste ends from the
condenser, broken laps and short lengths of sliver from drawing.
b) Hard waste: Hard waste includes yarn waste from spinning, twisting warping etc.
c) Fibre from fabric waste: When wool garments are discarded, the fibres may still be strong.
By severe mechanical processes called ‘garnetting’, which is merely a picking and shredding
action, the material may be pulled apart into fibres that can be spun on the woollen system.
New rags from tailors clippings are another source of remanufactured fibre. Soft rags,
including knitted and loosely woven, very lightly milled rags are more easily pulled than hard
rags that are closely woven or heavily milled. Soft rags produce ‘shoddy’ with average fibre
lengths between ½ and 1½ inches. Hard rags produce the short-fibred ‘mungo’.

Woolmarks:
In order that the consumer has a clear impression of the kind of fibres used in articles
meant for sale, the International Bodies for Wool have made it compulsory for manufacturers to
label their products. The labels to be used for wool garments and other articles should use
specific terms as well as specific ‘Wool marks’. The terms used in the labels are:
“Pure new wool” “new wool blend”

The term ’Pure New Wool’ is used for all textiles made from 100% pure or new wool. The
term ‘Pure Virgin Wool’ is also permitted for these textiles. The term ‘Pure Wool’ is also used for
the products made from recovered wool. The term “New Wool Blend” is used for blends
containing virgin wool up to 60% along with one other fibre making up the remaining content.
Along with these terms the labels must also include the appropriate ‘Woolmarks’.

3.18. Physical structure (or Morphology or Parts) of wool

The wool fibre consists of: (1) Epidermis or cuticle, (2) Cortex, (3) Medulla

1. Cuticle: The cuticle is the outermost layer of the fibre. It is made up of flat, irregular horny
scales, which overlap each other, with the projecting edges pointing towards the fibre tip. The
scales are also called the epithelial cells. This serrated pattern is similar to the scales on fish or
like that of a tiled roof. The cuticle protects the main part of the fibre and gives it the required
rigidity. Fibres that are greater in diameter have a larger number of scales. The scaly layer
consists of three separate fractions.
 a) Epicuticle: The epicuticle is the outermost layer. It is very thin, only few microns thick,
and is composed of a water-repellent, wax-like substance. There are countless
microscopic pores which enable the wool fibre to absorb moisture, perspiration etc.,
b) Exocuticle: The overlapping epithelial cells form the exocuticle. An epithelial cell is about
30 microns long, 36 microns wide and 0.5 to 1.0 micron thick. The epithelial cells are
largely responsible for the felting shrinkage of untreated wool textiles.
c) Endocuticle: The endocuticle is an intermediate, cementing layer bonding the epithelial
cells to the cortex of the wool fibre.
2. Cortex: The cortex forms about 90 percent of the fibre volume and is therefore the main
portion of the wool fibre. It consists of a countless number of long, slightly flattened and twisted
spindle-shaped cells; that is, the cells are thick at the middle and taper to pointed tips at each end.
These spindle-shaped, or cortical cells are approximately 100 to 200 microns in length. At the
centre they are 2 to 5 microns wide and 1 to 3 microns thick. Fine wool fibres have about 20 such
cells, whereas coarse wool fibres have about 50 cortical cells across any diameter.

The cortical cell consists of fibrils that are oriented along the length. The cells appear to
have an enclosing membrane and are joined together by a cementing tissue. The cortex of the
fibre is mainly responsible for strength, elasticity and dyeing behaviour of wool. The cortex has a
bilateral structure. One part, called the Para-cortex, has cells, which are arranged regularly. In the
other part, the ortho-cortex, the cells are arranged in a relatively disorderly manner. This bilateral
structure in wool gives rise to the characteristic crimp in the fibre.

3. Medulla: In some of the medium and coarser wools, such as those from crossbred sheep,
there is a dark, central canal or medulla that runs lengthwise through the fibre. This medulla
arises from the root and is loosely filled with many superimposed cells of various shapes, often
polygonal. The size of the medulla varies greatly and the volume of the wool fibres occupied by
the medulla may run from 10 to 80 percent. It is through the medulla the solutions of chemicals
and dyes penetrate the fibre. (See figures showing parts of wool fibre).

3.19. Chemical composition of wool:

The chemical composition of raw wool varies greatly. The most important constituent is
known as keratin. The composition of raw wool is given below.
Component %ge content in the fibre
Ketatin (protein substance) 45 to 70
Grease 7 to 20
Moisture 16 to 17
Suint 2 to 3
Sand and dirt 5 to 7

1) Ketatin: Wool keratin is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. The
composition of keratin is nearly same for different wools, but the sulphur content varies greatly. The
composition of wool is as follows:
Carbon - 50 to 53 %
Hydrogen - 6 to 7%
Nitrogen - 16 to 18%
Oxygen - 21 to 25%
Sulphur - 0.7 to 5%
ii) Grease: This is an impurity in raw wool, which is insoluble in water but can be partially
emulsified. It is soluble in organic solvent. Wool grease consists of esters of high molecular
weight, fatty acids and a monohydric alcohol. The grease is not a fat but a wax that has the power
of absorbing large quantities of water.
iii) Suint: This is water-soluble matter that can be isolated from the raw wool. It is made up of
potassium salts of fatty acids and organic amino acids. The suint is a complex mixture.
iv) Sand and dirt: The fibre in its natural state contains a considerable amount of dirt held by the
grease. If falls off during the scouring operation when the grease is removed.

3.20. The felting of wool:

Felting of wool is the irreversible shrinkage of wool fabric with regard to length, breath
and/or thickness. The shrinkage is due to the tendency of wool and hair fibres to form matted
entanglements. In a woven fabric, for example, the fibres can become so matted that the warp
and weft yarns are no longer visible. The result is a fabric, which is apparently composed entirely
of an entangled web of fibres and the fabric is referred to as a ‘ felt’. Only the natural protein
fibres, especially wool fibres, show the felting behaviour. This tendency of wool to felt is a
disadvantage for woolen articles that requires frequent laundering.

The cause of felting: Wool felts because of the serrated surface of its fibres formed by the
overlapping epithelial cells or scales (see figure). The wool fibre has a tip end and a root end. As
the scales are pointed in the direction of the fibre tip, less friction (between two fibres in
lengthwise contact) will result, if the fibre moves in a rootward direction than if it moves in tipward
direction. This difference in surface friction between the two directions is known as the directional
frictional effect (DFE).
During the normal laundering of a woollen fabric, the fibres in the constituent yarns will
tend to migrate or move. The movement of all the fibres will take place only in the respective
rootward directions of the individual fibres due to the DFE. This kind of one-way movement will
only increase the entanglement in the fibres and make the fabric more compact. The overall result
is the lengthwise and widthwise shrinkage of the fabric called felting. The chain of events during
felting is shown below;
The scales in wool The directional All fibres in a woollen The fabric shrinks
are all pointing in the frictional effect in the fabric in use can move and becomes very
tipward direction movement of fibres only toward their root ends compact, resulting in
due to the DFE
relative to each a felted fabric

Prevention of felting: As felting arises from the scales of the wool fibre, one logical way to
prevent felting is to remove or ‘smoothen’ the scales by some means, so that the directional
frictional effect cannot take place. Fibre migration will not be controlled by the scale structure. The
removal of the scales or smoothening the wool fibre surface is achieved by means of suitable
chemicals. The most successful process used is the ‘chlorination of wool’.
The process most widely adopted is the ‘wet chlorination process’, which consists in
treating the woollen fabric with acidified solutions of either sodium hypochlorite or bleaching
powder. This process is difficult to control because chlorine has a great affinity for wool and skill is
needed to see that every part of a large batch of fabric absorbs the same amount of chlorine. It
has been found that the pH of a solution containing active chlorine used in producing ‘non-
felting’ wool is of great importance, and that the best pH for effective action and least damage to
wool is between pH 8 to 9. Wool is sometimes deliberately felted in a finishing process (e.g.
‘fulling’) to give thick felted fabric.
3.21. Molecular properties of wool:
1. Chemical structure: The chemical structure given for silk, is also applicable to wool.
2. Polymer: Wool is made of the protein or polymer keratin. This protein is composed of 20
different amino acids. The major amino acids are Glutamic acid, cystine, Leucine, Serine and
 Arginine and together they constitute about 55 percent of the protein. The other 15 amino
acids occur in minor quantities and make up the remaining 45 percent or so. Cystine is a
sulphur containing amino acid and is capable of forming crosslinks between adjacent
molecules of the fibre. This is a major difference between silk and wool.
3. Microfibrillar structure: Wool has a fibrillar structure. Three molecules spiral around each
other to form a ‘protofibril’, which is about 500 nm in length and about 2nm in diameter. Ten to
eleven protofibrils spiral around each other to form a ‘microfibril’ which is about 5 nm in
diameter and of yet unknown length. Hundreds of microfibrils combine together to give a
‘macrofibril’ of diameter 100 to 200 nm. Many macrofibrils are joined together to form a cortical
cell (see figure).
4. Degree of polymerization: This has not yet been determined to give a reliable estimate.
5. Crystalline /amorphous content: The fine structure of wool is extremely amorphous. It is
about 25 to 30 percent crystalline and 75to 70 percent amorphous. The spiralling of the
individual molecules, protofibrils, microfibrils and macrofibrils gives rise to a poor aligned
structure that is predominantly amorphous.
6. Chemical composition: This has already been discussed in detail earlier.

3.21. Physical properties of wool

1. Length: The length of wool varies from about 1 to 18 inches. The finer wools are
comparatively shorter in length while the coarser wools are longer. Fine wool varies from 1
to 5 inches, medium wool from 2 to 15 inches and coarse wool from 1 to 18 inches.
2. Fineness: The fineness of wool varies very much, ranging from 10 to 70 microns. Merino
wool has a diameter in the range 10 to 30 microns, carpet wool varies from 20 to 70
microns. Finer fibres are suitable for fine wool garments.
3. Length to width ratio: This factor can be critical for wool since the coarse, short fibres
can be spun to less attractive and coarse yarns than those from the fine wools. In general,
the fibre length to width ratio for finer, shorter wools is around 2500:1 and about 7500:1 for
longer, coarse wools.
4. Crimp: Wool fibres have a natural crimp. The fine fibres may have up to 10 crimps per
centimeter, while the coarse fibres have less that 4 crimps per 10 centimetres. Thus, as
the diameter of wool fibres increases, the number of crimps per unit length decreases. The
crimp in wool is due to the bilateral structure of the fibre. The ortho-and para-cortex spiral
around one another along the length of the fibre. The para-cortex is the well organized
component and is therefore the rigid and stable component ; it therefore tends to be on the
inside of the spiral. The ortho-cortex, on the other hand, being not-so-well organized part,
is more flexible and elastic and tends to be on the outside of the spiral. (See figure
showing these parts in a crimped fibre).
5. Tenacity: Wool is a comparatively a weak fibre. The tenacity is 1 to 2 g / deiner in the dry
state and 0.8 to 1.8 g / denier in the wet state. The ratio of wet to dry tenacity is about 80
percent. The low strength is due to few hydrogen bonds that are formed. The cystine
linkages in wool compensate for this and bring the fibre within the borderline of acceptable
strength for a useful textile fibre. If there were no such linkages in wool, it might not have
been a useful fibre.
6. Elongation-at-break: Wool shows a high elongation at break of 25 to 30 percent. The
high elongation in wool is due to the helical shape of the molecules of the fibre. In the
relaxed state, wool is said to be in the alpha-keratin state and in the extended state it is
called beta-keratin.
 7. Elasticity: wool is an elastic fibre. Even at 20 percent elongation it can recover to 75
percent of its original length. The good elasticity of wool is because of the cystine
(disulphide) bonds that occur between adjacent molecules and also due to the natural
crimp in the fibres. The good elasticity of wool gives fabrics made from it a high degree of
resilience (recovery). Wool fabrics wrinkle less in general and the wrinkles can be
removed by steaming. The crimp in wool gives fabrics made from it a soft handle and good
drape. Good wool is soft and resilience while poor wool is harsh (dry and stiff).
8. Colour : Wool fibres may vary form off-white to light cream in colour. The coarse wools
appear brighter than the fine wools due to a lower number of scales present in them.
9. Moisture regain: Wool is the most hygroscopic of all natural fibres. Its moisture regain is
14 to 17% in standard atmosphere and is more than 33% in 100% R.H. Wool can absorb
about 30% of its weight in water without feeling damp. Wool also dries slowly.
10. Density: The density of wool is 1.31 g/cc. This is similar to raw silk.
11. Microscopic appearance:
Longitudinal view: Wool appears cylindrical in longitudinal view. The overlapping scales,
with their tips pointing tipward are also clearly visible. The fine wools do not have any
medulla, but coarse wool show the medullar part as dark canals at the center.
Cross-sectional view : Wool fibres are nearly circular to oval in cross-sectional view. The
epithelial cells form a distinct perimeter (the cuticle) around the fibre cross-section.
12. Action of heat:
i) Dry-heat - Wool becomes harsh at 100oC and begins to decompose at slightly higher
temperatures. It will scorch at 204oC and eventually char.
ii) Flammability - Wool does not burn easily and stops burning when removed from the
flame. Burning wool has the smell of burning feathers.
iii) Heat setting - Wool has a ‘plastic’ quality. Wool fabric can be pressed and heat-set to
retain the shape until it is wetted. This can be done repeatedly.
13. Thermal conductivity: As wool fibres are non-conductors of heat, they allow the body to
keep its normal temperature. Wool is therefore a warm fibre and is very useful in winter.
3.22. Chemical properties of wool
1. Action of acids: Wool can be damaged by hot sulphuric acid, but is not affected by other
acids, even when heated. This property allows wool to be carbonized without damage.
2. Action of alkalies: Wool is quickly damaged by strong alkalies. It is important to use mild soap
or detergent when laundering wool.
3. Action of bleaches and other oxidizing agents: Wool is quite sensitive to oxidizing agents.
Household bleaches containing sodium hypochlorite or other chlorine compounds are harmful to
wool. Strong solutions of hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate and potassium dichromate
damage wool depending on the temperature, concentration and pH. Mildly alkaline hydrogen
peroxide may be safely used instead.
4. Action of reducing agents: Wool is attacked by reducing agents.
5. Solvents: Wool is identified by its dissolution in 5% boiling sodium hydroxide solution.
6. Effect of salts: Neutral metallic salts are not very reactive. Lime and magnesium salts in hard
water cause a yellowing effect on prolonged boiling. Certain salts like MgCl2, MgSo4, ZnCl2 may
be used for the purpose of giving increased weight to the fabric.
7. Resistance to mildew: Wool is not normally affected by mildew, but if left in a damp condition,
it is attacked by mildew.
8. Resistance to insects: The larvae of moths and insects such as the carpet beetles attack wool
and damage it quickly. Woollen articles in storage must therefore be properly protected from such
insects by using suitable chemicals.
9. Effect of light: Wool is weakened by prolonged exposure to sunlight.
10. Shrinkage: All fabrics made from wool are capable of shrinking due the felting action arising
from the scaly surface of the fibres, unless they have been given a pre-shrinking treatment.
Woollens shrink more than the worsteds.
11. Affinity for dyes: Wool fabrics have a high affinity for dyes, so they dye well and evenly.
Wool may be dyed with acid, basic, chrome and metal-complex dyes. The use of chrome dyes
assures fastness of colour.
12. Resistance to perspiration: Wool is weakened by alkali perspiration. Some discolouration
will also be caused. Garments should be dry-cleaned or washed with care to avoid damage and
unnecessary odour.
13. Effect of water and steam: When boiled under pressure at 130 to 150oC with distilled water
wool will dissolve. It will increase by 10% of its size in cold or hot water. When wool is exposed to
water and steam, there will be change in its shape and affinity for dye.

Uses of Wool: Wool has several applications. Some of the uses are listed below.
1. Apparel fabrics: Suits, costumes, pullovers, waistcoats, ovetcoats, dresses, winter blouses.
2. Garment Accessories: Ties, scarves, hats, socks, stockings, etc.
3. Household textiles: Blankets, carpets, curtains, furnishings, etc.
4. Industrial textiles: Fire protection clothing, industrial felts, etc.

4.0. NATURAL POLYMER FIBRES

Rayon is a term used to describe manufactured fibres composed mainly of regenerated
cellulose. The word regenerated means brought back to the original chemical structure.
Regenerated cellulose is the cellulose that has been changed chemically during the process of
conversion of fibre and then brought back to its original chemical structure in the fibre.

Change in chemical structure Man-made fibre with original

Cellulose chemical structure of cellulose
form nature of cellulose while conversion
to fibre (regenerated cellulose)

Types of Rayon: There are different types of rayon depending on the manufacturing method
used. The main types of rayon that have been and are presently in common uses are:
a) Viscose rayon
b) Cupramonium rayon, and
c) Polynosic rayon.

4.1. Outline of Process for Viscose Rayon: Viscose is a term used to describe fibres of
regenerated cellulose obtained by the viscose process. Cross and Bevan of U.K. discovered the
viscose process in the 1890’s. The commercial manufacture started much later. Viscose rayon is
the most popular type of regenerated cellulose. The cellulose comes from wood. The outline of
the process is:

i) Cellulose is purified and treated with caustic soda, which converts it into alkali cellulose.
ii) The alkali cellulose is “aged” and then treated with carbon disulphide which converts it into
sodium cellulose xanthate.
iii) The sodium cellulose xanthate is dissolved in a dilute solution of caustic soda.
iv) This solution is then “ripened” and is then spun into an acid coagulating bath, which
regenerates the cellulose and precipitates it in the form of viscose rayon filament.
Chemical reactions in the manufacture of viscose rayon
The chemical reactions in the manufacture of viscose and polynosic rayons are same as
below.
1. Mercerisation (Conversion of cellulose into Soda-cellulose)
Purified cellulose is treated with 17.5% solution of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) which
converts it to soda cellulose, as shown by the following chemical reaction.
- (C6H10O5) n - + nNaOH - (C6H9O4ONa)n - + nH2O
(cellulose + Sodium hydroxide soda-cellulose + water)

2. Xanthation: (Conversion of Soda-cellulose of Sodium Cellulose xanthate)

The soda-cellulose is treated with carbon disulphide to give sodium cellulose xanthate.
The chemical reaction between the soda cellulose and carbon disulphide is:
- (C6H9O4ONa) n - + nCS2 - (C6H9O4O - CSS - Na) n -
(cellulose + carbon disulphide sodium cellulose xanthate)

3. Regeneration: (Conversion of Sodium cellulose xanthate back to cellulose)

When sodium cellulose xanthate is precipitated in the form of filaments in an acid solution,
it is converted back to cellulose or regenerated. The chemical reaction can be written as follows:
- (C6H9O4O – CSS - Na) n - + nH2SO4 - (C6H10O5) n - + 2nCS2 + nNa2SO4
(sodium cellulose xanthate + sulphuric regenerated + carbon + sodium
acid cellulose disulphide sulphate
The above chemical reactions have a depolymerising effect on the cellulose. This means
the long molecular chains of cellulose are chemically cut down to much shorter lengths. The wood
cellulose, used for viscose has an average DP in the range 750 - 1000. The average DP of the
molecules in viscose rayon filament is between 175 - 200. The chemical reactions in the
manufacture of polynosic rayon are the same as those for viscose rayon. But the
depolymerisation is controlled. The average DP of polynosic rayon is therefore higher and is in the
range 350-450.

4.2. Steps / process sequences in the manufacture of Viscose Rayon

1. Preparation of wood pulp:
Soft wood obtained from trees such as spruce, eucalyptus, etc. is the raw material. The
bark (the outer skin) of the wood is removed and the wood is cut into ¾ x ½ x 1/8 inch chips or
pieces. The chips are treated with calcium bisulphate (a reducing agent) in a kier in the presence
of steam under pressure for 14 hours. This process decomposes the non-cellulosic material in
wood such as lignin. After cooking, the mass is dropped into water in another vessel and the
cellulose pulp is concentrated to about 30% cellulose content. The pulp is then bleached with
hypochlorite and converted to wood pulp boards.

2. Conditioning of the wood pulp sheets

The flat, white sheets / boards of wood pulp contain about 90-94% pure cellulose. They
are conditioned at definite relative humidity and temperature to ensure that the moisture in them is
uniform. The exact required weights of wood pulp can then be taken for every batch.

3. Mercerisation of the wood pulp (Formation of soda cellulose)

The conditioned sheets are weighed and then loaded vertically in a press and then soaked
in a 17.5% solution of caustic soda for 1-4 hours. This process is called mercerizing. The boards
swell in the liquor, which turns brown. About 8% of the original wood pulp dissolves. The part that
dissolves is called hemicellulose. The cellulose part is swollen, but not dissolved. The excess
alkali is squeezed out by a hydraulic ram in the press. A moist mass of soda-cellulose is left
behind and this is taken to a shredding machine. The alkaline liquors that are pressed out are
filtered and reused for the next batch of boards after adding to it fresh caustic soda to make it up
to 17.5% concentration. When the pressed alkali has become highly contaminated after being
used many times, it is sold to soap manufacturing units.

4. Shredding (breaking down to fine pieces)

The soda cellulose is then shredded or broken into fine pieces in a shredding machine.
The machine consists of a drum inside which revolve two blades with serrated edges. The
shredders (cutting machines) are water-cooled and will take about 100kg of pressed soda
cellulose at one time. The shedding machines break up the soda cellulose into fine pieces.

5. Ageing
Ageing is a process in which the crumbs of soda cellulose are stored or kept aside for a
long time and allowed to react with atmospheric air, in a galvanized vessel with a lid. The oxygen
in the air causes oxidation of the cellulose chain molecules and this results in its depolymerisation
or a breakdown of the long chain molecules. The average DP of the cellulose falls from about
1000 to around 400 in this process. If the room temperature is 22oC this process takes about 3 - 3
½ days. Higher temperature during ageing may be used but the time must be reduced, so that too
much depolymerisation does not occur.

6. Churning (Xanthation or Sulphidising) – Forming sodium cellulose xanthate

After ageing, the soda-cellulose is transferred to airtight containers called churns. About
10% of the weight of crumbs of carbon disulphide is added and the crumbs and disulphide are
churned (mixed up) together by rotating the drums slowly at about two rpm. Churning is continued
for about three hours. Each churn is water-jacketed and holds about 100kg of crumbs. A deep
orange, thick mass of sodium cellulose xanthate is finally formed. Then the churning is complete,
the bad-smelling vapours are removed by Vaccum and the contents are transferred to the mixing
vessels.
7. Dissolution ( Preparing viscose solution)
The sodium cellulose xanthate is stirred with dilute caustic soda solution of about 3%
concentration for 4-5 hours in mixing vessels that are kept cool. The xanthate dissolves to a
brown, viscous (thick) liquid. This viscose solution contains 6.5% alkali and 7.5% cellulose. It is
transferred to a secondary mixer, which takes the viscose from eight such primary mixers. This
mixing of viscose solution will produce a uniformly dissolved solution and help to give uniform
yarn. In the secondary mixer the viscose is stirred and pumped around.

Dull or dope dyed viscose fibre: If dull or dope dyed yarn is required to be made, about 0.5% -
2% of titanium dioxide or the required pigment (colouring matter) is dispersed in to the solution.

8. Filteration and deaeration of the Xanthate solution

The solution of sodium xanthate is then filtered, first through a sheet of fibrous cotton, then
two times through cotton cloth. Filtration removes all impurities and improperty dissolved
xanthate, both of which will cause choking of the spinnerette during the wet-spinning stage. Air
bubbles in the solution will cause problems of filamentation (filament breaks) during spinning and
are therefore removed by applying vacuum in airtight tanks.

9. Ripening
The viscose solution is stored for 4-5 days at 10-18oC when it ripens. During ripening the
viscosity at first falls and then rises, so that it reaches the original viscosity. The solution is now
ready to spin. Viscose solution that is ready to spin is called dope. Further depolymerisation takes
place during ripening. Tests are done to determine when the viscose is ripe enough to be spun.

10. Wet spinning of viscose rayon

The viscose solution ready for spinning is forced by compression at 2.5-5 kg/cm2
atmospheric pressure to the spinning frames and distributed by pipes to each of the spinning
positions, where it is metered (measured) by small metering pumps, one for each spinning head.
The metering pump for viscose is usually of the gear wheel type made of stainless steel to
prevent corrosion. The metering pumps control the delivery of viscose dope to the spinning jets or
spinnerets and thus control the denier of the filaments. If the speed of the pump is increased, the
quantity of liquor being pumped proportionately increases and the filament denier is also
proportionately increased and vice versa. From the pump the dope passes to filter which may be
the candle or disc type. After filtration it is passed through a curved glass tube which carries the
spinneret at its end. The spinneret is submerged in the coagulating bath in such a way that the
filaments emerge almost at right angles to the surface of the bath.

The spinnerets or jets are made of a noble metal such as gold, tantalum or platinum as
other metals would be corroded due to continuous contact with the strong acid in the coagulating
bath. The spinning or coagulating bath is contained in a vessel of sheet lead and may be
composed of: ( Coagulating bath compositions vary from producer to producer ).
Sulphuric acid : 10 parts by weight
Sodium sulphate : 18 pats by weight
Glucose : 2 parts by weight
Zinc sulphate : 1 part by weight
Water : 69 pats by weight
The sodium sulphate precipitates the sodium cellulose xanthate into filaments and the
sulphuric acid converts it into cellulose. The glucose gives pliability and softens the yarn. The
presence of zinc sulphate gives yarn of increased strength and also filaments of serrated cross
section. The process variables that affect the quality of viscose rayon must be controlled. They
are (1) Temperature and composition of the bath, (2) Speed of coagulation, (3) Length of
immersion, (4) Speed of spinning.

Stretching
As the filaments emerge from the jet, they are led to the bottom Godet or feed Godet
roller, around which they pass three to four times for good grip. They are then passed three to
four times around the top Godet or draw Godet roller. The top Godet rotates at about two to three
times the speed of the bottom Godet roller. The yarn is thus stretched at this stage. Stretching
allows the molecules in the filaments to arrange themselves more nearly parallel to the fibre axis.
Stretching increases the orientation and therefore the strength of the filaments.

Take - up
The yarn passes from the top Godet downwards through a glass funnel to the centrifugal
spin pot known as the Topham box or Topham pot. The Topham box is a perforated cage rotating
at 7000 – 12000 rpm. A traversing arrangement moves the pot up and down and the yarn is laid
down uniformly on the sides of the pot to form a cake. The figure shows the wet spinning process.

Spinning speeds
The normal speeds range from 60-80 metres/min. Some high speed processes run at 140
to 150 metres/min. If the speed of yarn delivery is 100 m/min and the spin pot runs at 7000 rpm,
then the twist inserted into the yarn is 7000/100 = 70 turns per metre or 7000/(100 x 39.37) = 1.8
turns per inch. The spin pot may be spun clockwise or anticlockwise so that S or Z twist may be
inserted to the yarn. A Topham box can take about 1.5 kg of wet yarn (0.5kg dry yarn and 1kg of
coagulating solution).

Post-spinning processes
The cakes of viscose yarn produced in the spinning section contain sulphuric acid and
other sulphur chemicals formed during coagulation. All of these chemicals have to be completely
removed before the yarn is dried.

Purification:
Purification is usually done by forcing the purifying liquids or water through the wet cakes
mounted on perforated spindles through which the liquids pass. The purifying sequence is given
below:
a) Washing with water to remove water-soluble chemicals.
b) Desulphurishing, using sodium sulphide solution, to remove compounds of sulphur formed
during coagulation.
c) Bleaching, using alkaline hypochlorite solution to make the yarn appear white.
d) Neutralizing, using hydrochloric acid to remove the hypochlorite.
e) Washing to remove the hydrochloric acid from the yarn.
f) Drying of cakes
g) Winding on cones
 Finally the cakes of viscose rayon are dried and then wound on the bobbins. The cake
process of producing viscose rayon is a batch process that takes many days counting from the
manufacture of wood pulp.

4.3. Forms of viscose rayon fibre

Viscose rayon is manufactured in continuous filament form, as regular yarn for normal
applications and as industrial yarn for industrial applications. It is also produced in staple fibre
form for conversion to 100% viscose spun yarn for blending with other natural or man made fibres
to produce blended yarn, such as cotton: viscose, polyester: viscose spun yarns. Viscose staple
fibre is also produced in dope dyed form, particularly in black.

Production of viscose staple fibre

In the production of viscose staple fibre, a continuous, integrated process is used. The
viscose filaments from many parallel spinnerets, each containing a much larger number of holes
than those used for filament yarn production, are collected together to form a tow containing
hundreds of thousands of filaments. The tow is stretched as usual, washed free from unwanted
chemicals, dried, crimped and cut to required uniform lengths.

Staple fibres produced in India: Grasim Industries Limited, Gwalior, M.P., a leading
manufacturer, produces the following range of viscose staple fibre for blending with cotton and
synthetic fibres:
Cotton spinning: 1.2, 1.5, 2.0 denier; 27, 32, 38, 44 mm length; bright, bleached, dull / semi
(for blends) dull, spun dyed
Synthetic spinning: 1.2, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 8.0 denier; 38, 44, 51, 60 mm length; bright,
(100% staple fibre) bleached, dull / semi-dull, dope-dyed or spun-dyed. Fine fibres (0.8 & 1.0
denier) and speciality fibres are also made.

4.5. Physical properties of viscose rayon

1. Tenacity and elongation: Regular viscose rayon has a dry tenacity of 2.6 gpd (or 23.5 gf/tex)
and a wet tenacity of 1.4 gpd (or 12.6 gf/tex). The wet to dry ratio is about 55%. The
elongation –at-break is 15% (dry) and 25% (wet).
2. Moisture Content: Under standard conditions (65% RH and 27oC) the moisture content is 12-
13 percent.
3. Elastic Recovery: The elastic recovery of viscose rayon is poor. During weaving any
variation in tension in warp threads will result in the fabric defect called shiners.
4. Density: The specific gravity of viscose rayon is 1.52 (same as cotton)
5. Electric properties: Viscose rayon is not a good insulator of electricity as it has a high
moisture regain. It does not give problems of static charges for the same reason. The
moisture tends to conduct the static charges away.
6. Microscopic appearance: The longitudinal view is cylindrical and striated (lines can be seen
on the fibre surface along the fibre axis). The cross section is irregular and highly serrated (i.e.
with an irregular, zigzag edge.)
7. Thermal properties: Like cotton, the viscose rayon is a good conductor of heat, so it feels
cool when touched. Its ironing properties are satisfactory, but long contacts with the iron will
cause yellowing.

Chemical properties of viscose rayon

1. Chemical structures: As viscose rayon is a regenerated cellulose fibre, its chemical structure
is the same as that of cotton. The empirical formula is – (C6H10O5) n -
2. Fine structure: Regular viscose rayon fibre has a DP of 175 to 200. The fibre is about 40%
crystalline and 60% amorphous.
3. Resistance to light: On long exposure to light, weakening of the fibre takes place.
4. Chemical resistance: Mineral acids attack viscose rayon more quickly than they do for
cotton. Viscose rayon cannot be mercerized with caustic alkali (around 20% NaOH).
5. Biological Resistance: Moths and mildew discolour and weaken viscose rayon. Moths do not
attack viscose rayon.
6. Solvents: Dry cleaning solvents do not attack viscose rayon. It is soluble in 60 percent
sulphuric acid and concentrated hydrochloric acid.
7. Dyeing: Viscose may be dyed with all classes of dyes suitable for cotton, but extreme care
must be taken during vat dyeing and naphthol dyeing where sodium hydroxide is used. Also
as the wet tenacity of viscose rayon is low, handling of wet good should be careful.

Uses of viscose rayon

Viscose rayon has many end uses. Some applications are listed below.
1. Being a cool fibre, viscose rayon is suitable for summer wear. Dress goods, sarees, blouses,
underwear and apparel uses.
2. Linings for dress materials, gentlemen suitings, overcoats etc
3. Viscose rayon is suitable for all normal textile needs, but not suitable for ropes, fishing lines,
nets, insect netting or anti chemical fabrics.
4. Useful as a carrier fibre for spinning very short cotton fibres or asbestos. Which cannot be
spun on their own.
5. As staple fibre it may be used as 100% rayon yarns or in blends with polyester, acrylic, cotton,
polynosic, etc.
6. Viscose rayon with high covering power can also be produced. This filament viscose rayon, is
made by using sodium carbonate in the coagulating bath. As the filaments are extruded
carbon dioxide bubbles get entrapped in the filament. The resulting yarn is somewhat hollow
and very light, and therefore has high covering power.
7. Viscose rayon in film form is called cellophane and is used as packaging film, e.g. as
wrapping paper, etc.

4.6. Polynosic rayon

Regular viscose rayon is very popular and widely used fibre. But it has many
disadvantages when compared with cotton. The disadvantages are

1. It has a lower tenacity. The tenacity is reduced by about 50% when it is wet. Cotton gains in
strength when wet.
2. Its elongation is very high. In the wet state the elongation is even higher.
3. Its elastic recovery is poor and worse than that of cotton.
4. It swells too much in water itself. It does not therefore withstand the mercerization process.

The viscose rayon is not of fibrillar in structure and has a very low DP of 200 cellobiose
units. On the other hand, cotton is “microfibrillar” in structure and has an average DP of about
5000 cellobiose units. A microfibril is a small bundle of molecules, and a fibril can be regarded as
a bundle of microfibrils and so on. Thus, a fibrillar structure is strong because the molecules are
held together by weak, but a very large number of intermolecular forces.

The low DP of the molecules in viscose gives rise to very few intermolecular bonds and so
microfibrils cannot be formed. The amorphous content in the fibre is therefore high and it swells
easily in water. Strong swelling chemicals like caustic soda used in the mercerization process
damages viscose rayon. The polynosic fibre is a modified kind of viscose rayon. In polynosic
rayon manufacture, steps are taken to maintain a higher average DP of 400 to 500 and also to
obtain a microfibrillar structure.

Manufacture of polynosic fibre

A modified viscose rayon process is used in the manufacture of polynosic rayon. The
process details are listed below in comparison with those of viscose rayon.
1. Manufacture of wood pulp sheets: This is as for viscose rayon.
2. Preparation of soda cellulose: This is as for viscose rayon.
3. Shredding of soda cellulose: This is also as for viscose rayon, but the process temperature
should not exceed 20oC. The shredder is cooled to keep the temperature at or below 20oC.
4. Ageing: This is an important difference in the process for polynosic rayon. As ageing is not
done, the DP is not reduced as much as in the viscose process.
5. Xanthation: About 40% more of carbon disulphide is used than for viscose rayon.
6. Solution: The sodium cellulose xanthate is stirred with water to give a solution. This is
another major difference; in the case of viscose rayon. 3% NaOH is used to dissolve the
xanthate. By avoiding the use of NaOH, the reduction in the DP of the cellulose molecules is
thus further controlled.
7. Ripening: Is not done. This too is another major difference resulting in much less
polymerization of the molecules.
8. Spinning - Tachikawa process: There are major differences during spinning also. They are
a) The xanthate solution is extruded into a coagulating bath containing only 1% sulphuric
acid at 25oC. no salts are included.
 b) The coagulated filaments are stretched in the coagulating bath itself by passing them
around a four-stepped Godet (see figure) to about three times the spun length. (For
viscose rayon a strongly acidic solution containing salts is used and the stretching to about
three times the spun length is done outside the bath).
c) The use of the four-stepped Godet allows the stretching to be done gradually in three
steps; first 100% then 150% and finally 200%. Viscose rayon is stretched in one step.

It can be seen that the polynosic rayon process is shorter, by about two days or more, as
the stages of aging and ripening are avoided. As a result, the average DP of the resulting fibre is
much higher. The dilute spinning bath helps slower regeneration and the four-stepped godet
allows more uniform stretching. All these changes in the regular viscose process give rise to a
fibre with improved physical properties. However, the modified process is costly, especially due to
the changes that are necessary in the wet-spinning stage.

4.7. Physical properties of polynosic rayon:

1. Tenacity and Elongation: The dry tenacity of polynosic rayon fibre is about 3.5 gpd (or 31.5
gf/tex) and its wet tenacity about 2.7 gpd (or 24.3 gf/tex). The dry tenacity is comparable with
that of cotton. The ratio of wet to dry tenacity is about 70%. This ratio is only 55% for viscose
rayon and about 110% for cotton. The dry elongation is about 10% and wet elongation is
about 12%. As the wet strength is much improved and the fibre shows greater resistance to
low-degree stretches in the wet condition than does viscose rayon, polynosic fibre is often
referred to as high-wet-modulus (HWM) rayon. The generic name of regenerated cellulosic
fibres of the polynosic type is modal, a name given by ISO (Geneva, Switzerland).
2. Moisture content: of polynosic rayon is about 10%. This is about 3%less than that of viscose
rayon, but 2 to 3% higher than that of cotton.
3. Elastic recovery: The elastic recovery of the fibre is low, but better than viscose rayon.
4. Density: The fibre has a density of 1.50-1.53 g/cc, which is similar to cotton and viscose.
5. Electrical properties: This is the same as those for cotton and viscose rayon.
6. Heat resistance: This is also similar to cotton.
7. Microscopic appearance: The longitudinal appearance of the fibre is cylindrical and smooth,
while its cross sectional shape is round and smooth.

Chemical properties of polynosic rayon:

1. Chemical structure: The fibre is a regenerated cellulosic fibre, so its chemical structure is
same as that of cotton and viscose rayon. The empirical formula is – (C6 H10 O5) n -
2. Fine structure: The fibre is more crystalline than viscose rayon and its microstructure is
fibrillar. Its average DP is in the range 400-500. (Cotton has a DP of about 5000 while viscose
rayon has a DP of 175-200).
3. Resistance to light: Long exposure to sunlight weakens the fibre.
4. Resistance to chemicals: Concentrated mineral acids attack the fibre forming
hydrocellulose. Like cotton it can be mercerized.
5. Solvents: Dry cleaning solvents will have no effect on the fibre. Polynosic rayon can be
dissolved in 60% sulphuric acid (viscose rayon can also dissolved in 60% sulphuric acid.
6. Resistance to microbiological attack: Polynosic rayon is not affected by insects or moths
but it is attacked by mildew and similar microorganisms.
7. Dyeing: Polynosic fibre can be dyed with all classes of dyes that are applicable to cotton and
viscose rayon.
Uses of polynosic rayon
Polynosic rayon may be used in all applications where cotton is used though its wear
resistance is not as good as cotton. It finds applications in all sorts of dress material, curtains,
knitwear. It is also used in blend with polyester, cotton, etc.

4.8. High-tenacity viscose rayon: (HT Rayon)

These fibres are the same as regular viscose rayons chemically, but are stronger and
used for industrial purposes. Some changes are made in the regular viscose process to produce
HT-viscose. The changes in the regular viscose process are stated below.
a) A continuous process of manufacture till the production of final yarn is used. This helps in
giving complete and even treatment along the whole length of the yarn. Also, as handling
is less, the damage to filament is less. It is also possible to get large packages of the final
yarn.
b) Keeping a higher DP in the cellulose, by avoiding the de polymerising steps of ageing and
ripening.
c) Better filtration is done - the filter cloths are changed more often.
d) A greater amount of zinc salt is used in the coagulation bath. This gives slower
coagulation and therefore more time for higher and more uniform stretching. Some special
chemicals such as polyethylene oxide may be added to slow down the coagulation and
allow more time for a uniform fibre structure.
e) Lower spinning speeds are used. This also slows down the coagulation rate and gives
fibres of more uniform structure.
f) Giving a higher degree of stretch to the coagulated yarn in a separate hot-water bath.

Properties of High Tenacity viscose yarn (HT):

The tenacity of HT-viscose yarn is in the range 3-5 gpd and the elongation - at - break lies
between 10-30 percent. The wet tenacity is about 70 percent of the dry tenacity. The other
properties are similar to regular viscose rayon fibres.
Uses of HT viscose yarn
HT viscose yarns are mainly used as tyre-cord in high deniers of 1000-2000. (Tyre cord is
a thick yarn used inside tyres for strengthening them and making them durable.) Nowadays nylon,
polyester, glass and aramid fibres are replacing HT viscose fibres in this application.

4.10. Lyocell or Eco friendly Rayon or Tencel - the fibre of the future:
This fibre is a recent invention. “lyocell” is a generic name for eco-friendly cellulose fibres.
It may be defined as “a regenerated cellulosic fibre obtained by a organic-solvent spinning
process” Courtaulds Company of U.K. invented the fibre around 1980 as a modified viscose
process. The trade name of their first commercial fibre is ‘Tencel’. The traditional viscose process
uses a process that gives out harmful vapours and effluent. The vapours are not good for human
health and the liquid discharges spoil the soil and contaminate the underground water. This
process is therefore not eco-friendly. The Lyocell fibre is regarded as eco friendly because the
process of manufacture is such that no harmful vapours or effluent are produced. The process is
therefore not harmful to the health of the people working in the production units. Also, the process
does not give out harmful liquid discharges that would have a bad effect on the surrounding land.

Outline of Manufacturing Process of Lyocell:

Like viscose and polynosic rayon, the raw material is wood pulp. The wood pulp is purified
and dissolved in amine oxide. The dope is filtered and extruded to form filaments, which are
drawn, dried, crimped and cut to staple fibre. The amine oxide is completely recoverable and it
can be reused. Pollution problems, e.g. carbon disulphide in the effluent, are thus eliminated.

Properties of Tencel or Lyocell:

1. Tenacity: Tancel is a strong fibre. It has a dry tenacity of 42-44gf/tex (4.5 – 5.0 gpd). This is
about 90% more than those of viscose rayon and medium staple cotton, about 40% more than
that of polynosic rayon and in the same range as medium tenacity polyester fibre.
2. Elongation-at-break: This is in the range 14-16%.
3. Moisture content: This is about 10% and compares well with polynosic rayon.
In addition to the above properties. Tencel was good handle and drape, low shrinkage,
soft luster and washability. It can be dyed and finished by the usual processes. Lyocell is
regarded as the fibre of the future.

5.0. SYNTHETIC POLYMER FIBRES

Polyamide fibres are a class of fibres characterized by repeating amide (-NHCO-)
inter-unit linking groups in their polymeric chains. On the basis of this definition, polyamide fibres
may be classified as follows:
POLYAMIDE FIBRES

Natural polyamides Synthetic polyamides

Silk Wool Aliphatic polyamide Aromatic polyamide

fibres (nylons) fibres (Aramids)
The -NHCO- groups in the natural polyamide fibres link the adjacent amino-acid residues
in the molecular chain are amide groups which are also called the “peptide” groups. Thus the term
“polypeptide” has also been used to refer to the natural polyamide fibres, silk, wool and hair fibres.
5.1. Nylon Fibres: Two of the earliest invented allphatic polyamide fibres or nylons that are being
used widely even today are nylon 66 and nylon 6. Nylon 66 was the FIRST SYNTHETIC fibre to
be invented by man. Wallace Hume Carothers, who invented nylon 66 in the laboratories of Du
Pont in U.S.A in 1938, is regarded as the father of synthetic fibres. Paul Schalk of Germany
invented nylon 6 in 1939. Other nylons such as nylon 7, nylon 11, nylon 610, etc. have also been
manufactured and have been in use. Nowadays, nylon 612 is also being manufactured. In India,
plants have been established for the production of nylon 6, nylon 66 and nylon 612 filament yarns
Nylon 66 Fibre: Two monomers are required for the manufacture of nylon 66 fibre. The
monomers are petrochemicals obtained from crude oil. These are:
1. Hexamethylene diamine (HMDA) : H2N(CH2)6NH2 (a diamine compound)
2. Adipic Acid (AA) : HOOC(CH2)4COOH (a diacid compound)
Principle of manufacture of nylon 66 polymer: The two monomers are reacted together first to
form an intermediate product called “Nylon 66 salt” or hexamethylene diamine adipic acid (HA)
salt. In the second stage of the reaction, the nylon salt is polymerized by condensation
polymerization to give nylon 66 polymer. During both the stages, the reactions take place with the
evolution of water.
Chemical reactions
Stage 1: Preparatin of Nylon 66 Salt
H2N(CH2)6NH2 + HOOC(CH2)4COOH H2N(CH2)6NHOC(CH2)4COOH + H2O
HMDA + AA Nylon 66 Salt + Water
Stage 2: Polycondensation
nH2N (CH2)6 NHOC (CH2)4 COOH + nH2O H { NH(CH2) 6NHOC(CH2)4CO }n OH + nH2O
Nylon 66 salt Nylon66 polymer + water

5.1.2. Designation of nylons: In designating copolymer nylons it is common practice to first state
the number of carbon atoms in the diamine residue and then that in the diacid residue in the
repeat unit of the polymeric chain molecule. For example, nylon 66 is a copolymer. As each of the
two monomer-residues in its repeat unit consists of six carbon atoms, the polymer (and also the
fibre) is called nylon 6.6 or simply nylon 66. In the case of nylon 6.10 the 6 denotes the number of
carbon atoms in the hexamethylene diamine residue and the 10 denotes the number of carbon
atoms in the sebacic acid residue in the repeat unit of the polymeric chain molecule.

The homopolymer nylons, on the other hand, have only one-monomer repeat unit in the
polymeric chain molecule and the number of carbon atoms it contains is mentioned in the
designation. For example, the repeat unit of nylon 6 is that of caprolactam, which contains six
carbon atoms, hence the number 6 in the designation. Similarly, nylon 7 has a repeat unit
containing seven carbon atoms, and so on. As water comes out of the reaction between the two
monomers involved in the production of nylon 66, the reaction is said to be one of condensation
polymerization.

5.1.3. Steps in the manufacture of nylon 66 polymer

i) Preparation of nylon 66 salt: Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid are dissolved
separately in methanol (also called methyl alcohol) when the two solutions are mixed, a
neutralization reaction takes place and nylon 66 salt is formed. The salt is relatively insoluble
in methanol and crystallises out on cooling. The nylon 66 salt crystals are separated by
centrifuging, washed in methanol and dried.
ii) Polycondensation of nylon 66 salt: The nylon 66 salt is dissolved in distilled water to get a
60% solution. 0.5 – 1.0% acetic acid is then added to the solution. Acetic acid acts as a
viscosity stabilizer and controls the chain length (molecular weight) of the polymer formed. If
dull yarn is required 0.5 – 2.0% titanium diaxide is dispersed in distilled water, and it is added
to the solution of nylon 66 salt. The polycondensation is carried out in an autoclave (a reaction
vessel capable of withstanding high temperature and pressure) of 2-6 tons capacity. The
solution is heated to 260-280oC by means of dowtherm vapour (which is a modern heating
medium) or superheated steam. Before raising the temperature, the autoclave is filled with
oxygen-free nitrogen, so as to avoid degradation of the product. The effect of the high
temperature and any oxygen present will cause thermo-oxidative degradation of the polymer
formed.As heating starts and the temperature rises, water evaporates as steam into the
autoclave and a pressure of 15-20 kg/cm2 builds up. The pressure is slowly released and the
heating is continued to distill out all the water (i.e. to remove all the steam.)
The function of the viscosity stabilizer is to control the molecular weight of the resulting
polymer. The greater the quantity added, the lower would be the molecular weight of the
final polymer and vice versa.
The function of titanium dioxide (TIO2) is to make the fibres appear dull. When this
chemical is not included, bright fibres are produced. The degree of fibre dulling can be
controlled by the varying quantity of titanium dioxide added to the polymerization mixture,
 the greater the amount added, the greater being the dulling effect and vice versa, up to
three percent on the weight of the polymer is added for fully dull fibres.
iii) Production of nylon 66 chips:
In the batch process, the molten polymer, at a temperature of 285-290oC at the end of
polymerization, is extruded through a slot in the form of a ribbon on to a casting wheel
immersed in a trough of water. The ribbon is thus quenched (cooled suddenly) with cold
water as soon as it solidifies. The function of the quenching operation is to keep the
degree of crystallinity in the polymer as low as possible, so that the polymer is easy to melt
and spin and give fibres of uniform properties during melt spinning.The ribbon of nylon 66
is broken or cut into small pieces of uniform shape and size called chips. The chips are
dried in huge drying vessels to a moisture content below 0.05% and stored in silos (large
vessels) under an atmosphere of nitrogen.
Steps in the manufacture of nylon 66 fibre
There are two steps in the production of nylon 66 fibre.
 Melt –spinning and take-up as undrawn yarn(UDY), and
 Draw – twisting of the UDY to give fully-drawn yarn (FDY)
i) Melt spinning and take up
Nylon 66 is a thermoplastic polymer, so it is melt spun. The dry chips of the polymer are
fed through a Hopper into a Spinning Vessel B. In this vessel they fall on an electrically heated
Grid C, which has a mesh too small to pass the chips through it until they have melted. As the
chips melt, the molten nylon passes into the Pool D. The level of the pool of molten nylon is kept
constant by means of a electric float control which controls the electric heating of the grid. If the
level of the pool rises, the heating the grid is automatically cut off, and vice-versa.

A nitrogen atmosphere is maintained over the pool of molten polymer. The melt at around
285º C is metered (measured) by a Metering Pump F through a filter to the spinnerette E. The
filtration helps to remove impurities. The spinnerette consists of a steel plate about 6mm thick and
about 50 or 75mm in diameter, with uniformly drilled each about 0.2mm in diameter. The melt
solidifies as soon as it comes out of the spinnerette and the filaments that are formed pass
through a cooling chimney in which a cold air-current G is blown across them. The spinning
speed is about 1000 m/min. The yarn coming out of the cooling chamber is about 70ºC hot. It is
then run through a Steam chamber H. to condition it. Finally, it passes through Guide rollers K to
be taken up (at about 1000m/min) on spool L1. undrawn yarn (UDY).

ii) Draw-twisting
Undrawn nylon 66 filaments (just spun) are not very strong. They are therefore cold drawn
or stretched at room temperature to 4-5 times their length. This process gives strong filaments.
The exact degree of stretch varies with the properties of polymer produced and the type of yarn
required. The stretching operation is done on a draw-twist machine. Undrawn nylon yarn is pulled
off the Spool L2, passed around Guides M and N, and taken through a pair of feed rollers O,
which determine the yarn’s initial speed (say ‘p’ m/min). The yarn then goes over a deflector P
and then two or three times around draw roller Q. The draw roller spins faster than the feed rollers
and gives the yarn a linear speed (say ‘q’ m/min). The draw ratio is usually about 1:5. The yarn
then passes through a guide R, and is then taken up by bobbin S. Twist is inserted in the yarn as
it is taken up. The take-up speed is about 1000m/mm. The draw ratio or degree of stretch is equal
to the ratio of the linear speeds or the rpms of the rollers Q and O. If rollers Q and O rotate at ‘Y’
and ‘x’ rpm respectively, the draw ratio is given by the ratio y/x.
 Spin-finish oil is applied to the yarn just before take-up so as to make the yarn flexible enough and
suitable for further processes, such as texturising, weaving or knitting.

MELT SPINNING OF NYLON 66 DRAW TWISTING MACHINE FOR NYLON

5.1.4. Types of nylon yarn manufactured
Nylon 66 yarn is usually manufactured as 1. normal tenacity (or regular) yarn for
household applications and 2. high-tenacity (HT) yarn for industrial applications. The HT yarns
are made from special grade polymer of higher average DP. Also, a greater degree of stretch is
given to the yarn during the drawing stage.

Continuous process for the manufacture of nylon 66 fibre

Nowadays, nylon 66 fibre is manufactured by a continuous process, in which the polymer
melt is manufactured continuously and taken straight to the melt-spinning units, without the
intermediate step of converting it into chips.

5.1.5. Properties of nylon 66

Physical Properties
1. Tenacity and Elongation: The strength of nylon 66 fibre can be varied at will up to about 8
gpd. The regular yarn has a tenacity of 4-5 gpd and a breaking elongation of about 30%. The
HT yarn has tenacity in the range 7-9 gpd and an elongation-at-break of 16-20%.
2. Moisture content: Nylon 66 fibre is ‘hydrophobic’ or water disliking. In standard atmosphere
(65% RH and 27ºC), it has moisture content of 4%. This is the best among the synthetic
fibres.
3. Elastic Recovery: Nylon 66 is an elastic fibre and recover well from normal strains in everyday
use. The elastic recovery of nylon 66 fibre is better than PET polyester fibre.
4. Density: Nylon is a light fibre. Its density is 1.14g/cc (i.e. its specific gravity is 1.14.)
5. Electrical Properties: As nylon 66 fibre has low moisture content, it is a poor conductor of
electricity (i.e. it is a good insulator).
6. Microscopic Appearance: Regular nylon fibre has a smooth cylindrical appearance in
longitudinal view and a circular shape in cross-sectional view. For specific purposes, trilobal
(rounded-triangular) and other shapes of fibres are also produced.
7. Heat Resistance: The melting point of nylon 66 is 250-260ºC. Nylon 66 fibre is more resistant
to heat (e.g. ironing) than nylon 6 fibre.

Chemical Properties of Nylon 66

1. Chemical Structure: of nylon 66 polymer / fibre is: - [(NH(CH2)6NHOC(CH2)4CO]n. It is a
copolymer and its chemical name is poly (hexamethylene-diamino-adipamide).
2. Fine Structure: Regular nylon 66 fibre has an average DP of 50-80. The fibre is highly
crystalline: its crystalline content is 65-85%. (its amorphous content is therefore 35-15%).
3. Resistance to Light: ‘Nylon 66 fibre weakens on prolonged exposure to sunlight, mainly due to
the effect of the ultra violet rays, which degrade its chemical structure.
4. Chemical Resistance: Nylon is resistant to most organic chemicals. It has good resistance to
alkali, but only fair resistance to acids.
5. Biological Resistance: Nylon is highly resistant to microbiological attack. Insects, and bacteria
do not affect it.
6. Solvents: Phenol, cresol, formic acid dissolve nylon 66 fibre; It dissolves in mineral acids.
7. Dyeing: Nylon may be dyed with acid, reactive, direct, metal-complex and disperse dyes.
Lighter shades are produced on nylon 66 fibres than those on nylon 6 fibres.

5.1.6. Uses of Nylon 66

Nylon 66 fibre is versatile fibre and so it has a variety of uses. Some of the uses are:
1. Socks: Nylon yarn is used in textured form to make good, comfortable and durable socks,
stockings, hoses etc.
2. Woven fabric: Nylon continuous filament yarn is used for producing light-weight fabrics such
as 100% georgette and other dress wear. Sofa cloths, carpets, swimwear, uniform cloth, filler-
cloth, protective clothing may be made from nylon.
3. Knitted fabric: Knitted fabric and garments such as blouses, T-shirts, shirting cloth, etc. may
be made from texturised nylon.
Some uses of high-tenacity nylon 66 yarn are:
4. Tyre cord: This is yarn used as reinforcing material in motor tyres. Formerly, viscose rayon
was used, but today nylon 66 is one of the major fibres used for this purpose.
5. Fishing-lines: For this purpose only monofilaments of higher diameter nylon are used.
6. Tow rope: Nylon 66 rope is used for pulling heavy objects, like boats trucks etc. In this
respect, nylon ropes are better in performance than manila (leaf fibre) rope.

5.2. Manufacturers of nylon 66 yarn in India

Nylon 66 polymer is not currently manufactured in India. Nylon 66 chips are imported and
tyre-cord yarn is being manufactured by M/s Du Pont (South Asia) Ltd. In a plant established at
Gummidipoondi near Chennai.

Nylon 6 Fibre
Nylon 6 is homopolymer. The monomer used in its manufacture is ‘caprolactam;, which
has the ring structure given below.

HN-CH2-CH2- CH2- CH2- CH2 - CO or HN(CH2)5CO

Principle of manufacture of nylon 6 polymer

Nylon 6 is manufactured in two steps. In the first step, caprolactam is reacted with water
or hydrolysed to produce 6-amino caproic acid. In the second step, the 6-amino caproic acid,
along with caprolactam, is condensation-polymerised to produce the polymer, nylon 6 or
polycaprolactam.

Chemical Reactions in the manufacture of Nylon 6

i) Preparation of Amino-caproic acid (the hydrolysis step):
When one molecule of water is reacted with one molecule of caprolactam, 6-amino caproic
acid (ACA) is formed.

HN(CH2)5 CO + H2O (H2N(CH2)5COOH

(Caprolactam + water 6-amino caproic acid)

ii) Polycondensation of caprolactam (in the presence of ACA):

The ACA and caprolactam are reacted together to produce the Nylon 6 polymer.
H2N(CH2)5 COOH + n HN(CH2)5 CO (H2N-(-CH2)5-[-CO-CH2)5-NH-]n-COOH + H2O

(ACA + Caprolactam Nylon 6 Polymer + Water

Type of polymerization: Nylon 6 is produced by the condensation polymerization reaction.

Here water is liberated during the polycondensation step. Nylon 6 is a homopolymer as only one
type of monomeric unit (caprolactam) repeats continuously along the polymer chain molecule.
5.3. Process of Manufacture of Nylon 6 Polymer
Caprolactam, the raw material for nylon 6, is manufactured from basic chemicals like
benzene, toluene, etc. obtained during the distillation of coal tar or from petrochemicals. The
polymerization of caprolactam is carried out either by the batch process or by the continuous
process.

Batch process: There are two stages in the batch process of polymerization of caprolactam. In
the first, some caprolactam is converted to amino-caproic acid, this reaction being carried out
under higher-than-atmospheric pressure. In the second reaction, which is carried out in a
separate vessel under below-atmospheric pressure, the mixture of caprolactam and amino-
caproic acid is polymerized to nylon 6. Solid caprolactam and 2-5% of its weight of water are
charged into a vessel provided with an agitator and heating arrangement. The vessel is heated up
to 90-100º C. On completion of the melting, the required quantity of up to 1% of viscosity
stabilizer, and delustrant tio2 is added.

The function of the viscosity stabilizer is to control the molecular weight of the final
polymer. The greater the quantity of stabilizer added, the lower will be the molecular weight of the
polymer. The stabilizer may be either the acid type (e.g. acetic acid, benzoic acid, etc.) or the
basic type (e.g. benzylamine). An acid stabilizer gives the nylon 6 polymer dyeability with basic
dyes, while a basic stabilizer gives dyeability with acid dyes.

The caprolactam melt, containing the stabilizer, is fed to a pre-heated autoclave through
melt filters. The melt temperature rises to 265-280ºC with 1-3 hours. During the initial hours of the
reaction, ring opening and prepolymerisation takes place. After prepolymerisation and release of
excess pressure, which may reach 10-20 atmospheres, vacuum is applied over the melt to further
remove the water from the system and promote fast build up of polymer molecular weight. The
condensation reaction is allowed to continue for another 3-6 hours. The yield of polymer is about
90%. This means that up to about 10% of unconverted monomers and oligomers are also present
in the final product.

5.3.1. Production of polymer chips: After completion of polymerization, the clear viscous melt is
pressed by means of 2-5 kg/cm2 atmospheric pressure to the metering pumps and then to the
spinnerets. The ribbon of polymer that comes out of the spinnerete is taken to a casting vat filled
with water where it solidifies. Rollers draw the ribbon away and feed it into a chip-cutting machine.
The chips are extracted with hot water to remove unconverted monomers and unwanted
oligomers and finally dried. This is a major difference in the manufacturing process steps of
nylons 6 and 66. Nylon 66 does not leave any unconverted monomers at the end of the
polymerization that have to be extracted before spinning.

5.3.2. Continuous Process: The continuous process for the polymerization of nylon 6 is done in
a VK Tube’. The VK tube consists essentially of a 4-6 meter vertical tube into which molten
caprolactam together with stabilizer and water (which may contain delustrant if dull fibre is
required) is fed by means of metering pumps. During the passage of the melt in the VK tube,
some caprolactam rings open up to form amino-caproic acid, which initiates the polymerization
reaction. Water arising from polycondensation is removed from the reaction system in the form of
vapours that bubble out of the melt. By the time the melt reaches the bottom of the tube, it gets
fully polymerized and is withdrawn at a constant rate by means of a metering pump.
 The continuous polymerization process is widely adopted today due to its simplicity and
the uniform product quality. In 1970s the VK tube was modified such that the unconverted
monomer and oligomers are removed from the polymer melt by the application of vacuum. This
modification allows the polymer melt to be taken directly for melt spinning without the need for
washing (extraction of chips), drying and remelting of chips during melt spinning. Chips can also
be produced, if required.

5.3.3. Spinning of nylon 6 fibre

There are two steps in the production of nylon 6 fibre:
 Melt-spinning and take-up as undrawn yarn(UDY), and
 Draw-twisting of the UDY to give fully-drawn yarn(FDY)

I) Melt spinning and take-up – (If Nylon chips are used)

Being a thermoplastic material nylon 6 is also melt spun. The dry chips of the polymer are
fed through a Hopper into a Spinning Vessel B. In this they fall on an electrically heated Grid C,
which has a mesh too small to pass the chips through it until they have melted. As it melts, the
molten nylon passes into the molten polymer Pool D. The level of the pool of molten nylon is kept
constant by means of a float control the electric heating of the grid. If the level of the pool rises,
the heating of the gird is automatically reduced, and vice-versa. A nitrogen atmosphere is
maintained over the pool of molten polymer. The melt at around 250ºC is metered by a Pump F
through a filter to the Spinnerette E. The filtration helps to remove impurities.

The spinneret consists of a steel plate about 6mm thick and about 50 or 75mm in
diameter, with uniformly drilled holes each about 0.2mm in diameter. The melt solidifies as soon
as it comes out of the spinnerette and the filaments so formed pass though a cooling chimney in
which a cold air current G is blown across them. The spinning speed is about 1000 m/min. As the
yarn comes out of the cooling chamber it is at a temperature of about 70ºC. It is then passed
around two rollers H1 and H2. The first applies water and a wetting agent to remove the last traces
of residual unconverted monomer. The second roller applies spin finish oil to the yarn so as to
make it more flexible and suitable for handing in further textile processes such as texturising,
weaving, knitting, etc. The yarn is then passed through guide rollers K and taken-up on Spool L1,
as undrawn yarn (UDY).

ii) Draw-twisting
Undrawn nylon 6 filaments are not very strong. They are therefore cold drawn or stretched
at room temperature to 4 - 5 times their length. This process gives strong filaments. The exact
degree of stretch varies with the properties of polymer produced and the type of yarn required.
The stretching operation is done on draw-twist machine. Undrawn nylon yarn is pulled off the
spool and passed around guide rolls to a pair of feed rollers, which determine the yarn’s initial
speed (say ’p’ m/min). The yarn then goes to a draw roller, which rotates at a higher rate and
gives the yarn a linear speed (say ’q’ m/min) about five times that of the feed roller. The drawn
yarn then passes through a thread guide, to a take-up bobbin, twist being inserted as the yarn is
taken up. This product is called fully-drawn yarn (FDY). The draw ratio or degree of stretch is
equal to the ratio of the linear speeds of the draw rollers and the feed rollers.

Types of nylon 6 yarn usually produced: Nylon 6 yarn is usually manufactured as two types:
(1) normal tenacity (or regular) yarn for household applications and high-tenacity (HT) yarn for
industrial applications. The HT yarns are made from special grade chips of higher average DP
than for regular yarn and a greater degree of stretch is given during the drawing stage.
5.4. Physical Properties of Nylon 6:
1. Tenacity and elongation: The strength of nylon 6 can be varied at will up to around a 9 gpd.
The regular yarn has a tenacity of 4-5 gpd and a breaking elongation of about 30%. The HT
yarn has a tenacity in the range 7-9 gpd and an elongation-at-break of 16-20%.
2. Moisture content: In standard atmosphere (65% RH and 27ºC), this is only 4% for nylon 6,
the same as that for nylon 66.
3. Elastic recovery: Nylon 6 is an elastic fibre and recovers well from normal strains.
4. Density: Nylon 6 is a light fibre. Its density is 1.14 g / cc.
5. Electrical properties: Nylon 6 is regarded as a hydrophobic (water-disliking) fibre, as its
moisture content is low. Nylon is a poor conductor of electricity.
6. Microscopic appearance: Regular nylon 6 has a smooth cylindrical appearance in
longitudinal view and circular shape in cross-sectional view. For specific purposes, trilobal
(rounded - triangular) and other shapes of fibres are also produced.
7. Heat resistance: The melting point of nylon 6 is 215-220°C. Nylon 6 is less resistant to heat
than nylon 66 (e.g; ironing).

Chemical Properties of Nylon 6:

1. Chemical Structure: of nylon 6 is -[NH(CH2)5CO]n-. Its chemical name is polycaprolactam.
2. Fine Structure: Regular nylon 6 has a DP of about 200. The fibre is highly crystalline, its
crystallinity is 65-85%
3. Resistance to Light: Like nylon 66, nylon 6 too loses strength when exposed to sunlight
continuously for a long time.
4. Chemical Resistance: Nylon is resistant to most organic chemicals. It has good resistance
to alkali but only fair resistance to acids.
5. Biological resistance: Nylon is highly resistant to microbiological attack.
6. Solvents: Nylon 6 is dissolved by phenol, cresol, formic acid and by mineral acids. Nylon 6
can be differentiated from nylon 66 by its solubility in boiling 60% acetic acid and hydrochloric
acid at room temperature. Nylon 66 will not dissolve in these solvents. Silk can be
differentiated from these nylons by its insolubility in formic acid.
7. Dyeing: Nylon 6 may be dyed with acid, reactive, direct, metal-complex and disperse dyes.
Darker shades are produced on nylon 6 fibres than those on nylon 66 fibres.

Differences between nylon 6 and nylon 66: The main differences are in: (i) the monomers
used, (ii) the type of polymer, (iii) chemical structure, (iv) repeat unit, (v) mer weight, (vi) average
DP, (vii) melting point, (viii) specific solubility and (ix) the depth of shade produced with acid dyes.

Uses of Nylon 6
Nylon 6 is a versatile fibre which has variety of uses. Some of the uses of reqular nylon 6 are:
1. Socks: Nylon 6 yarn is used in textured form to make good, comfortable and durable
socks, stockings, hoses etc.
2. Woven fabric: Nylon 6 continuous filament yarn is used for producing light-weight fabrics
such as 100% georgette sarees and other dress wear. Sofa cloth, carpets, swim wear,
uniform cloth, filter-cloth, protective clothing may be made of nylon 6 yarn.
3. Knitted fabric: Knitted fabric and garments such as blouses, T-shirts, shirting cloth, etc.
may be made of textured nylon.
Some uses of high-tenacity nylon 6 are:
4. Tyre cord: This is yarn used as reinforcement in automobile tyres. Formerly, viscose
rayon was used but today nylon 6 is one of the main fibre used for this purpose.
5. Fishing-lines: For this purpose only monofilament nylon 6 of higher diameter are used.
6. Tow ropes: Nylon 6 rope is used for pulling heavy objects, like boats, trucks etc. Nylon
ropes are better in performance than manila (leaf fibre) ropes. Manila rope will wet easily
and are much heavier and can easily be attacked and weakened by micro-organisms.

Manufacturers of Nylon 6 Fibre in India

Nylon 6 fbre was first commercially manufactured in India in the early 1960s. Some of the
manufacturers of nylon6 fibres are:

1. Sriram Fibres Limited, Manali, Chennai

2. Garware Nylons Limited, Pune, Maharashtra -(Garion)
3. Nirlon Synthetic Fibre Manufacturing Co.Ltd., Mumbai -(Nirlon)
4. J. K. Synthetics Limited, Kota, Rajasthan -(Jaykaylon)
5. Modipon Limited, Modinagar, U.P.
6. Shree Synthetics Limited, Ujjain, M.P.
7. Du point India Ltd., - Gummidipoondi

5.5. ARAMID FIBRES

“Aramid” is a generic name for synthetic polyamide fibres that contain aromatic residues in
their polymer chain molecules. The name is derived from selected letters of ‘ARomatic
polyAMDes’. By definition, “an aramid fibre is a manufactured fibre, in which the fibre-forming
substance is a longchain synthetic polyamide in which at least 85% of the amide (-NHCO-),
linkages are attached directly to two aromatic rings.

Properties of Nomex
1. Tenacity and Elongation-at-break:- Nomex has a dry tenacity of 4.5 - 5.3 gpd and a wet
tenacity of 3.0 - 4.1 gpd. Its breaking elongation is 22-32% in the dry state and 20-30% in the
wet state.
2. Microscopic Appearance: The fibre is cylindrical in longitudinal view. In Cross-sectional view
it is shaped like a dumb-bell or a regular peanut-shell.
3. Density: This is 1.38 g / cc for Nomex, the same as that of PET polyester fibre.
4. Moisture Regain: Nomex shows a moisture regain of 4.5% in standard atmosphere (65%RH
and 20ºC.).
5. Melting Point: Nomex is flame retardant. It does not melt easily. It decomposes at 371ºC.
6. Chemical Resistance: The fibre is unaffected by most acids under normal conditions and has
good resistance to alkalis, bleaches and solvents.
7. Dyeing: The industrial yam is non-dyeable. Staple fibre is dyed with cationic dyes.
8. Resistance to Light: This is good for Nomex. There is a slight loss in strength on proplonged
exposure to light.
9. Resistance to Micro-organisms and Ageing: The fibre has excellent resistance to mildew
and aging.
10. Abrasion Resistance: The fibre has good abrasion resistance.

Uses of Nomex (Industrial / Protection clothing)

Nomex is used where continued resistance to high temperatures or flame retardant
qualities are required. It is therefore used In: (1) Astronauts space suits, (2) Children’s fire-proof
dresses, (3) Fire fighters’ coats, (4) Racing drivers’ overalls, (5) Foundry workers’ clothing (6)
Protective gloves and footwear (7) Covering cloth over an ironing board, (8) High temperature
filtration (9) Refinery Operators uniform, etc.,

5.5.2. Kevlar
Properties of Kevlar:
1. Tenacity and Elongation-at-break: Kevlar is very strong fibre. In fact, it is the strongest
textile fibre available today. It has a dry tenacity in the range 23 - 26.5 gpd. It’s wet to dry
tenacity is nearly 95%. Its breaking elongation is 2.5 - 4.0%. in both dry state and wet state.
2. Microscopic Appearance: It is cylindrical in longitudinal view and circular in cross-section.
3. Density: This is 1.44 - 1.47g / cc for Kevlar.
4. Moisture Regain: Kevlar shows a moisture regain of about 4.3% in standard atmosphere.
5. Effect of Heat: Kevlar is difficult to ignite. It does not propagate a flame. It does not melt. It
decomposes at about 482ºC
6. Chemical Resistance: The fibre is unaffected by most acids under normal conditions and
has good resistance to alkalis and solvents, but should not be bleached. Kevlar 149 has the
best chemical resistance.
7. Dyeing: Kevlar is non-dyable. It is spun-dyed to the required colours.
8. Resistance to Light: This is generally good for Kevlar. But prolonged exposure to sunlight
causes deterioration.
9. Resistance to Micro-organisms and Aging: It has excellent resistance to mildew and aging.
10. Abrasion Resistance: The fibre has good abrasion resistance.

Uses of Kevlar:
Kevlar is used where its high strength and modulus are required. It is therefore used in:
1. Radial tyres (as tyre cord)
2. Conveyor belts and high-power transmission belts (as the reinforcing component)
3. Composites (as the reinforcing component)
4. Aircraft parts and other high-performance products (as the reinforcing fibre / yarn)
5. Ropes & Cables
6. Ballistics (bullet proof fabrics / vests) and friction products.

5.6. POLYESTER FIBRES

Polyester fibres are a class of synthetic fibres characterized by repeating ester (-COO-)
inter-unit linking groups in their chemical structure. Whinfield and Dickson of UK invented the first
polyester fibre named terylene, in 1944. The common polyester fibres are chemically called
polyethylene terephthalate fibres or simply PET fibres.

Two monomers are required for the manufacture of the PET polymer. They are:

a) Dimethyl terephthalate (DMT): H2COOC- - COOC3, and

b) Ethylene glycol (EG): HOH2C - CH2OH, sometimes called monoethylene glycol (MEG).
OR
a) Terephthalic acid (TPA): HOOC- -C OOH,

b) Ethylene glycol (EG): HOH2C-CH2OH, (MEG).

 Thus, polyester can be manufactured from a combination of (DMT and EG) or a
combination of (TPA and EG). All the three monomers DMT, TPA and EG are obtained from
petrochemicals.

5.6.1. Steps in the manufacture of polyester (PET) polymer

In industrial practice, PET polymer is manufactured in two steps. In the first step, an ester-
interchange reaction takes place when dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) is reacted with an excess of
ethylene glycol (EG). Methanol comes out during this reaction. If terephthalic acid (TPA) is used
Instead of DMT, an esterification reaction takes place, giving out water. In both cases, the first
step give oligomers (low-DP molecules) of diglycol terephthalate (DGT).

In the second step, the low DP (oligomers) DGT is polymerized to give the polymer
polyethylene terephthalate (PET). This reaction is called ‘polycondensation’. The
polycondensation step is similar in both the cases.

Chemical Reactions in the manufacture of PET (Polyster)

Using Raw materials: TPA + EG

a) Direct Esterification (DE): reaction between TPA and EG gives ESP and water as a by
product:

HO (CH2)2 OH +HOOC- -COOH + HO(CH2)2 ]OH heat + catalyst

Ethylene Glycol + TPA + Excess of EG

HO(CH2)2 [OOC+COO(CH2)2 ]OH + H2O (where x = 1 to 4)

Esterified Product (ESP) + Water (by product)

5.6.2. Manufacture of Polyester (PET) Fibre: outline of Industrial Process

The manufacture of PET fibre consists of a) Production of PET polymer,
b) Spinning of the polymer to fibre
The TPA route: Direct Esterification (DE):
Direct esterification of TPA with MEG can be carried out at temperatures of 230-240ºC.
and under one atmosphere pressure. The high temperature is required, as TPA does not melt at
lower temperatures. The solubility of TPA in MEG is low. It is therefore an industrial practice to
keep some quantity of DGT from the previous batch in the esterification vessel to improve the
solubility of TPA. The reaction is quite fast even without the use of a catalyst and takes 3-6 hours
to finish. The water that is formed as a byproduct is allowed to come out of the reaction vessel as
steam.

Polycondensation (PC):
The Polycondensation or PC reaction is the same for both the routes to PET manufacture.
A catalyst such as antimony trioxide or antimony triacetate is used to increase the speed of the
reaction. The temperature of the reaction is kept at 270 - 285ºC. In order to reduce thermal
degradation, a stabilizer such as triphenyl phosphate, phosphoric acid or phosphorous acid is
added at the very start of the PC reaction. Antioxidants are also used sometimes for greater
protection of the polymeric product. An increasing vacuum is applied as the reaction proceeds.
This is to ensure a sufficiently high degree of polymerization of the PET polymer and also to help
the removal of the EG vapours. An efficient removal of EG vapours increases the reaction
velocity. The PC reaction is usually completed in 3 - 6 hours.
MANUFACTURE OF POLYESTER FIBRE
Production of polymer chips:
The polymer melt is then extruded under pressure through a jet in the polycondensation
vessel (also called autoclave). The melt comes out in the form of ribbon on to a casting wheel or
drum. Chilled water is sprayed on the ribbon of polymer and it solidifies. It is then cut into “chips”
of definite size for easy handling. The chips are dried to a moisture content below 0.005 percent
before spinning.

b) Spinning of PET fibre

Two types of PET fibre are normally manufactured:
 Polyester continuous filament yarn (or PFY), and
 Polyester staple fibre (or PSF)

5.6.3. Production of Polyester filament yarn

The conventional spinning of polyester continuous filament yarn consists of two steps:
1.Melt extrusion and take- up 2. Draw-twisting

1) Melt-extrusion and take-up: PET fibres are melt-spun. The polymer chips taken for melt
spinning must be sufficiently dry. If they are not dry enough, they will be degraded during the
melting and spinning processes, due to the action of the oxygen (present in the moisture) at high
temperature. The dry chips are put into hopper reservoirs, from which they fall on to an electrically
heated grid and melt. The melt passes through the grid to a molten polymer pool. It is then
pumped by means of a metering pump through a filter and extruded through a spinneret with
circular holes. The individual filaments that come out of the spinneret solidify almost immediately
due to a blast of cold air that hits them. They are then collected together at a haul-off roller and
wound on to spools as undrawn vam by means of a take-up / winding device. The take-up speed
is 800 to 1,200 meters / min. The spin finish oil is applied to the yarn just before take up to make
it suitable for easy processing during further textile processes such as weaving, knitting, etc.

The speed of the metering pump determines the denier of the extruded filaments, the
higher the speed, the greater the denier due to the larger quantity of polymer melt coming out and
vice versa. The filter ensures that no impurities or improperly dissolved polymer particles are
passed on to the spinneret. Both of these would choke some holes in the spinneret and give rise
to a variation in the filament denier. The take-up speed determines the degree of orientation of
molecules in the filaments. Higher take up speed produces yarn of correspondingly higher degree
of orientation and vice versa. Whatever be the case, in the conventional two-step process of
manufacture, the melt-extruded yarn is regarded as undrawn yarn (UDY) or low-oriented yarn
(LOY) and is very weak and useless for normal textile applications unless it is drawn or stretched.

ii) Draw-twisting: The undrawn yarn is weak and is stretched or drawn to make it strong enough
for textile use. It is taken to a draw-twist machine; where it is hot-stretched, at a temperature of
90- 120ºC, to many time its original length. The amount of stretch given, or the draw-ratio used,
depends upon the type of yarn being produced. PET has to be hot-stretched so that uniformly
stretched yarn is produced. The drawing operation obviously increases the length of the yarn: it
also reduces the diameter and the denier of the filaments and the yarn correspondingly.
However, the number of filaments in the yarn, or the ‘filament count’ remains unchanged.
For example, a 400-denier / 40-filament UDY, stretched to a draw ratio of 1:5, will result in
an 80-denier / 40 flament FDY. The filament denier is reduced from 10 to 2. After drawing, the
yarn is given a low twist to keep all the filaments in the yarn together and wound on to a spindle
 as FDY In the figure, the passage of yarn through a draw-twist machine is shown. UDY from
Package 1 goes to the drawing arrangement consisting of the Feed Roller 2, Heater 3 and the
Draw Roller 4. The rpm of Roller 4 is 4-8 times that of Roller 2. The hot-stretched yarn (FDY) that
comes out passes first through guide 5, then the Ring-and-Traveller 6 and is finally wound on to
Bobbin 7. Thus, the two operations of ’drawing’ and ‘twisting take place in a draw-twist (DT)
machine,

Dull PFY: When PET is melt-spun normally, the yarn is bright in appearance. If dull yarn is
required a small quantity of titanium dioxide (TiO2) is included in the polymer melt before spinning
or during the polymerization. About 0.3 to 1.0 percent on the weight of fibre is used for semi-dull
yarns. For very dull yarns up to 3 percent of TiO2 may be used.

5.6.4. Kinds of PET yarn: Three kinds of PET continuous filament yarn are normally made.
a) Normal-tenacity yarn: This is regular yarns of normal strength used mainly for clothing or
other household purpose. These yarns are ‘flat yarns’ that may be produced either by the
conventional two-step melt-spinning process at take-up speeds of about 1,000 m/min as
described above, or by the modern ‘spin-draw’ process at a take-up speed of about 6,000
m/min.
b) High-tenacity (HT) yarn: Special - grade chips are extruded and drawn or stretched to a
grater extent than the normal-tenacity yarns to give high-tenacity yarn that is used mainly for
high-performance applications in industry.
c) Textured yarn: Partially - oriented yarn (POY) is first produced in a modern melt-spinning
machine called the High-speed Melt-spinning Equipment. The take-up speed is about 3,500
m/min. POY is better - oriented, stronger and more stable than UDY produced by the
conventional melt extrusion equipment, where the take-up speed is around 1,000 m/min. The
polyester POY serves as feed yarn for the draw-texturing machine, which converts it into
textured yarn.

Summary of production routes for PFY

Normal Tenacity PFY
Conventional Melt-extrusion & Draw-twisting FDY ready for use in
take -up at 1000m/min as UDY knitting / weaving

Normal Grade High-speed Melt-extrusion & Draw-texturing Textured yarn ready for
PET Chips take-up at 3500 m/min as POY use in knitting/weaving

Spin-drawing & take-up at FDY ready for use in

nearly 6000 m/min as FOY knitting/ weaving

High Tenacity Conventional Melt-extrusion & Draw-twisting HT-FDY ready for use in
PFY take -up at 1000m/min as UDY industrial applications
Special-grade
PET Chips
Spin-drawing & take-up at over HT-FDY ready for use in
6000 m/min as FOY industrial applications

Polyester Filament Yarn in India: Regular Polyester Filament Yarn is available in India in the
denier range 34 – 310, and as semi-dull, bright or dope-dyed yarn.
5.6.5. Production of Polyester Staple Fibre
The process of manufacture of PET chips meant for conversion to PSF is essentially
similar to that for PFY. The average DP of the chips for PSF will generally be lower than that
required for PFY. The spinning operation is different and is a continuous process from melt-
extrusion to the formation of staple fibre. In PSF manufacture, a great number of filaments are
spun and are brought together from a number of spinnerets, each having hundreds of holes, to
form a thick “rope” of hundreds of thousands of filaments called a ‘tow’.

The tow is drawn as usual, by means of the standard arrangement of rollers consisting of
feed rollers and draw rollers. It is then passed through a mechanical ‘crimping’ device, which also
has a heat-setting arrangement to “set” the crimp. The crimped tow is then cut to specified length.
The staple fibre is then packed into bales. As polyester fibre is commonly blended with cotton,
wool, viscose rayon oracrylic fibres, PSF is normally made in deniers and staple length, suitable
for conversion to yarn by the cotton, worsted or woolen systems of spinning.

Flow Chart for the production of PSF

PSF-Grade Melt Tow Drawing Crimping Cutting to Bailing

PET chips spinning Formation & Heat staple

Dull PSF: As for PFY, PSF of the required dullness can also be produced by mixing suitable
quantities of TiO2 in the melt before the extrusion or at the polymerization stage. Usually bright,
semidull and/or fully dull PSF fibres are produced in industry.

PSF available in India

1) Reliance Industries Limited, calls its PET fibre ‘Recron’ and manufactures the following
types of PSF:
Semi-dull fibre: mainly for apparel end uses; High-Tenacity High-Modulus fibre; Circular
cross section; Denier range 1.0 to 3.0; Cut lengths of 38 mm (for blending with cotton), 44 mm
and 51 mm (fro blending with viscose rayon fibre).
Bright fibre: Circular cross-section, 1.2 denier Super High Tenacity fibre for sewing thread
production; Trilobal cross-section, deniers 1.2, 1.5 and 2.5, cut lengths 38 mm (for blending
with cotton), 44 mm and 51 mm (for blending with viscose rayon fibre).
Dope-dyed Black fibre: Black Recron, circular or trilobal cross-section, 1.5 and 2.0 denier
circular fibre and 2.5 denier trilobal fibre; Cut length 38 mm for blending with cotton and
51mm for blending with viscose rayon fibre. 3.0 denier black Recron tow, circular or trilobal
fibres, for blending with wool in the worsted industry.
2) Indorama Synthetics Limited, Nagpur produces PSF in 1.0, 1.2, 1.4 and 1.8 deniers in cut
lengths of 32, 38, 44 and 51 mm.
3) Sanghi polyesters Ltd., Sanghi Nagar Hyderabad – polyester filament yarn, dope dyed,
textured yarns.

Continuous Process for the manufacture of PFY / PSF:

The processes described above for the production of PFY and PSF are batch processes.
Nowadays it is possible to see very large PET plants manufacturing up to 120 tonners or more of
polyester fibre per day. Big plants of these kinds achieve higher productivity and reduce the cost
of production of the fibre. These advantages are achieved by using a continuous polymerization
process in which the raw materials are fed at one end of the plant and PFY of PSF is continuously
produced at the other end, without the intermediate step of polymer chips production.
5.6.6. Physical properties of Polyester fibre (PET):
1) Tenacity and elongation: The tenacity and elongation of PET fibre can be varied at will by
using the right grade of PET chips and controlling the stretch given to the undrawn yarn.
Normal-tenacity yarns made from regular grade PET chips and intended for clothing and
household use are drawn to about five times the undrawn length. The tenacity of normal-
tenacity yarn is 5-6 grams per denier and its elongation-at-break is about 25 - 30 percent.
High-tenacity yarn for industrial uses is made from special-grade PET chips and it is given a
stretch of about seven to eight times the undrawn length. High-tenacity yarns have a tenacity
of 8-9 grams per denier and a breaking elongation of 12 - 10 percent. Staple fibre has a lower
tenacity of 3.5 - 4 grams per denier and an elongation of 40 - 30%.
2) Moisture absorption: Under standard atmosphere PET fibre has a moisture absorption of
only 0.4 percent. This is ten times lower than that of nylon. Polyester fibres are therefore
called ‘hydrophobic’ fibres (meaning “water-hating”). The absence of water-attracting polar
chemical groups in the chemical structure of the fibre and the high degree of crystallinity of the
fibre are the major reasons for the poor moisture content.
3) Elastic Recovery: PET fibres have good elastic recovery. Fabrics made from PET fibre do
not crease or wrinkle easily. Nylon fibre is more elastic than PET fibre.
4) Density: PET fibre has a density of1.38 g / cc (or specific gravity of 1.38).
5) Electrical Property: PET fibre is a poor conductor of electricity, i.e it is a good insulator.
6) Microscopic appearance: Regular PET fibre has a smooth cylindrical appearance in
longitudinal view and a circular shape in cross-sectional view. For specific non-circular of
special cross-sectional shapes such as trilobal (rounded-triangular), hollow, etc. are also
produced.
7) Thermal properties: PET fibres show poor heat conductivity, which means that they are
warm fibres. The melting point of the fibre is 250-260ºC, the same as that of nylon 66. Like
nylon, PET fibes, can be heat-set. PET fabric is heat-set at 180-200ºC and such fabric will not
shrink or loose shape when used below this temperature. (Heat-setting is a process by which
PET or nylon fabric or garment can be given a permanent shape. Because they will not
wrinkle or crease during normal use or shrink during normal washing, heal-set texfiles are said
to be ‘dimensionally stable’.)

5.6.7. Chemical Properties of polyester:

1) Chemical Structure: of PET fibre is: HO(CH2)2[OOC- -COO(CH2)2]n OH. It consists of
a copolymer and its chemical name is polyethylene terephthalate.
2) Fine Structure: Regular PET fibre has an agerage DP of 115 – 140. It is extremely
crystalline, the degree of crystallinity ranging from 65 – 85 percent.
3) Resistance to Light: Like nylon and all other textile fibres, PET fibres too lose strength when
exposed to sunlight for long periods of time due to the harmful effects of the sun’s ultraviolet
rays, which destroy the fibre’s chemical structure.
4) Chemical Resistance: The presence of ester groups in PET fibres and their high crystallinity
make the fibres very resistant to acids. PET fibre is less resistance to strong alkalis.
5) Solubility: PET fibres are dissolved by the organic chemicals hot m-cresol, hot concentrated
sulphuric acid and orthochlorophenol. A mixture of (tetrachloro acetic acid and phenol) or a
solution of trichloro acetic acid in methylene chloride also dissolves the fibre.
6) Biological Resistance: Insects and micro organisms do not attack the polyester fibres.
7) Dyeing: PET fibres have high crystallinity and an absence of chemical polar groups. They are
therefore difficult to dye. Only disperse dyes are used and the dyeing is done at high
 temperature and pressure or by the use of ‘carriers’ at 100ºC under atmospheric pressure.
Today many modified PET fibres are available. For example, one type, called ‘cationic-
dyeable fibre’ can be dyed to bright shades with cationic dyes. Another type, the ‘carrier-free
dyeable fibre’, can be dyed at 100ºC under atmospheric pressure, without carriers.

5.6.8. Modified Polyester fibres

Polyester fibres are available as a wide range of modified fibres, each one satisfying a
specific application. Some are physically modified PET fibres while others are chemically modified
fibres.

1) Physically modified PET fibres:

a) Trilobal PET fibre: This is PET fibre produced with a rounded triangular cross-section by
using spinnerets of triangular shape. Trilobal fibres are very bright in appearance. Trilobal
PET fibres are used in applications where silk-like luster is preferred.
b) Hollow PET fibre: is also produced by using special spinnerets. Being hollow, the fibre is
light and therefore has great covering power. It is used as fiberfill in pillows, mattresses,
cushions, etc.

2) Chemically modified polyester fibres:

a) Cationic dyeable polyester (CDP) fibre: This type of polyester fibre is a chemically
modified PET fibre because a third monomer, 5-sulpho-is ophthalmic acid is used in
addition to EG and DMT (or) TPA, during its manufacture. CDP fibre can be dyed with
cationic dyes to fast, bright shades.
b) Carrier-free dyeable polyeser (CFDP) fibre: In this type of PET fibre also, additional
chemical compounds are used along with EG and DMT (or) TPA, to PET fibre, also,
additional chemical compounds are used along with EG and DMT (or) TPA, to produce a
fibre that is less crystalline than regular PET fibre. This modification allows the CFDP fibre
to be dyed to fairly deep shades with disperse dyes at 100ºC under atmospheric pressure
without any carriers.

Uses of Polyester fibres (PET):

Because of the good all-round properties of this fibre. PET fibres has many uses:
a) Apparel and household applications: (in woven and knitted form)
i) Used as clothing fabric as 100% PET, blended with cotton, wool, viscose and acrylic
staple fibres.
ii) Used as a household textile in the forms of bedsheets, pillow covers, curtains, etc.
iii) Used in cold countries as fibrefill for pillows, quilts, mattresses, due to its warm qualities.
b) Industrial applications:
i) PET is used in fibre, yarn or fabric form in industrial applications. Some of these are:
ii) As insulation material in motors and as ropes, fishnets, sail cloths etc.
iii) As yarn in elastic tapes, labels, zipper fabric, braiding, etc. and as sewing thread.
iv) As fibre and/or yarn in carpets.
v) As coated fabrics for protective clothing, gloves, foot wear, etc.
vi) PET polymer is also used in film form as X-ray films, audio and videotapes, photographic
film, etc.
Manufacturers of PET fibre in India
1. Reliance industries Ltd., Patalganga, Maharastra - (Recron)
2. Indorama Synthetics Ltd., Nagpur
3. J.K. Synthetics Ltd. Kota, Rajasthan - (Jaykaylene)
4. Swadeshi Polytex Ltd., Ghaziabad, U.P. - (Jailene)
5. Sanghi Polyester Ltd., Hyderabad -
6. Indian Organic Fibres Ltd., Manali, Chennai. - (Futura)
7. Nirlon Synthetics and Fibres Ltd., Mumbai - (Nirester)
8. Indian Explosives Ltd - Fibres Division, Kolkata - (Terene)

5.7. ACRYLIC FIBRES

Acrylic fibres are a class of synthetic fibres characterized by repeating acrylonitrile (CH 2-
CHCN) groups in their chemical structure. Acrylic fibre was invented in the USA. The first
commercial acrylic fibre, called Orion, was introduced in USA around 1950. The first Orion fibre
was introduced as a homopolymer of accrylonitrile, i.e. it was made up or 100 percent
polyacrylonitrile. It was produced by the dry spinning method. Acrylic polymers are made by
addition polymerization. When a large number of acrylonitrile monomers are ‘addition
polymerised’, the resulting polymer is a homopolymer of polyacrylonitrile or 100% polyacrylonitrile.
This reaction may be written simply as:

N (CH2 = CHCN) - (CH2–CHCN)n -

‘n’ molecules of acrylonitrile 100% polyacrylonitrile
The - CN group is called ‘nitrile group’, thus the name acrylonitrile for the monomer.

5.7.1. Definition of acrylic fibre: The FTC defines an acrylic fibre as a manufactured fibre in
which the fibre forming substance is long-chain synthetic polymer consisting of at least 85% by
mass of acrylonitrile (CH2-CHCN) units.

Type of copolymer: The arrangement of the monomeric units along the polymer molecule is
such that the copolymer is a random copolymer. The comonomers that make up the non-
acrylonitrile content of up to 15% may be vinyl acetate, acrylic acid, vinyl benzene (or styrene),
vinyl pyridine, acrylamide, sodium vinyl benzene sulphonate, vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride,
etc.

Effect of the chemical nature of comonomers on fibre dyeability: The chemical nature of the
comonomer used in the manufacture of acrylic fibres determines the dyeability of the fibre.
i) Comonomer of the acidic type: These are comonomers such as acrylic acid (sodium salt),
sodium vinyl benzene sulphonate, etc. Comonomers of this type have anions (negatively
charged ions) capable of attracting the positively charged cations in the cationic dyes. Acrylic
fibre containing such comonomers shows good affinity for basic or cationic dyes.
ii) Comonomer of the basic type: If comonomers such as vinyl pyridine, acrylamide, etc, are
used the acrylic fibre shows good affinity for acid dyes. The cationic groups in these
comonomers are attracted to the anions of acid dyes.

5.7.2. Manufacture of Acrylic Polymer:

There are two methods of polymerizing acrylonitrile in commercial use. These are:
 Suspension polymerization, and
 Solution polymerization
 Emulsion and bulk polymerization techniques may also be used for the polymerization of
acrylonitrile, but both these techniques are not in wide use commercially.

Suspension Polymerisation
This is a widely used method that is also called slurry polymerization as the polymer is
obtained in the form of ‘slurry’ or mixture with water. The additives and the conditions of
polymerization are:
1. Catalyst: Water-soluble catalyst like hydrogen peroxide, thiourea, etc. is used. The catalyst
concentration is 0.1 to 1.0 percent on the weight of monomer.
2. Initiator. sodium bisulphite. (Na2S2O8- NaHSO3), is used as an ‘initiator’ to chemically ‘start
the addition polymerization; reaction
3. Temperature: The suspension polymerization is carried out at 40–70ºC.
4. pH: An acidic medium of pH 2.5–3.5 is used
5. Polymerisation medium: The polymerization of acrylonitrile and the comonomers is carried
out in water. The monomers are dispersed in water by agitation. The water-to-monomer ratio
is in the range 1:2.5 - 1:7. In a batch process, as the polymerization goes on, the size (or
length) of the molecules goes on increasing. After a certain state, the molecules are so long
that they are insoluble in water and precipitate as a solid. The time of polymerization to get a
polymer of the desired viscosity is about two hours in a batch process. The yields are 70 - 90
percent.

In a continuous process, monomer, water and initiator are fed to a continuously stirred
overflow reactor at atmospheric pressure. Polymerization of acrylonitrile starts immediately with
the medium turning milky white in colour and the polymer is obtained as slurry. The time of
reaction is only 90 minutes in a continuous process and the yield is good.

Post-polymerisation reactions: The slurry of acrylic polymer is filtered from the aqueous
reaction medium and washed to remove any unreacted monomer and other impurities generated
from the catalyst. The polymer is finally dried, powdered and stored in large containers (silos) and
used when required for the preparation of the spinning solution. The unreacted monomer
(acrylonitrile) is usually recovered and reused in the next batch of polymer manufacture. The
advantages of the post polymerisation reactions are:
 Its simplicity
 Its ease of control
 Its applicability to a variety of polymer compositions.
 The temperature of polymerization is moderate
 A high yield is obtained.

Solution Polymerisation (Wet spinning polymerization)

This method involves the polymerization of acrylonitrile in an aqueous spinning solvent.
The chemicals, conditions and yield of polymerization, its advantages / disadvantages are stated
below.
1. Catalyst: Water-soluble catalysts like persulphates are used. The catalyst concentration is
0.1 to 1.0 percent on the weight of monomer. Persulphates also act as initiators of
polymerization.
2. Temperature: Solution polymerization is carried out in the temperature range of 50-80ºC
under inert atmosphere.
3. pH: The reaction medium is kept slightly acidic at 4–6 due to the bad effect of bases on the
polymer.
4. Polymerisation medium: The polymerization of acrylonitrile and the comonomer is carried
out in inorganic solvents such as aqueous sodium thiocyanate or organic solvents such as
dimethylformamide, dimethylsulphoxide, etc. The monomers are fed into the reactor together
with solvent and the catalyst. The ratio of the solvent to the monomers may be 10:1 in the
case of inorganic solvents and 2:1 in the case of organic solvents.
5. The reaction time may vary from 3 - 15 hours depending on the solvent.
6. The yield (conversation) is 50–80 percent.

In solution polymerization, as the polymerization goes on, the molecules become longer.
But in this case they remain in solution as the polymerization medium is a solvent. The resulting
solution of acrylic polymer is distilled to separate unreacted monomers (acrylonltrile) from the
spinning dope. The distilled monomers are reused for the next batch of polymerization.

Solution polymerization has the following advantages:

 The polymer solution can directly be used for spinning.
 The steps of filtration, drying, milling and dissolution used in the case of suspension
polymerisation are avoided.
 The plant size is smaller, the equipment simpler, the cost therefore reduced.
 A fairly high yield of the spinning dope is also obtained.

However, the disadvantage is that productivity is lower and the dope concentration
obtained is not enough for dry spinning. The method is therefore more suitable for wet-spun
acrylic fibre.

5.7.4. PRODUCTION OF ACRYLIC FIBRE:

Acrylic fibre may be produced by dry spinning or by wet spinning. About two-thirds of the
acrylic fibre produced worldwide is wet spun, the remaining one-third being dry spun.

1. DRY - SPINNING
Dry spinning of acrylic fibre is usually done in two states:

Stage One: Dope preparation, spinning and tow formation.

a) Preparation of Dope: The dry polymer is mixed with dimethyl formamide or dimethyl
acetamide with vigourous stirring at a very low temperature of 0 – 5°C to obtain polymer slurry.
This is then heated to 80 – 90°C to get a clear solution. Additives are added at this stage to give
the resulting fibre some specific properties. For example, heat stabilizer to prevent discolouration,
tints and optical brightening agents to improve brightness, titanium dioxide as delustrant and
pigments to impart colour. The concentration of the spinning solution is 25 - 35%.

b) Spinning: The dope at 80-90°C is extruded through a spinneret usually containing 300-900
fine holes into a vertical chamber. Preheated inert gas (e.g. nitrogen gas) is blown into the
chamber at the bottom as the filaments come down. Due to the counter-current drying, the solvent
evaporates and the filaments solidify. The temperature of the inert gas depends on the nature of
the polymer and the solvent used and varies from 100-250°C. The removed solvent, mixed with
inert gas, comes out of the chamber at the top and is sent to a recovery plant. The solvent is
separated, stored and reused in the next batch.
c) Tow Formation: The solidified filaments come down from the spinner et at speeds of 200-500
m/min. They come out of the spinning chamber by means of a haul-off roller at the bottom of the
chamber. The filaments coming out thus from several parallel spinnerets are combined to form a
‘Tow’ consisting of thousands of filaments and collected in cans.

Stage Two: Washing, Stretching, drying, crimping and baling

d) Washing and Stretching: The tow contains about 10-15 percent residual solvent, which is
removed by washing with hot water in a separate step. The tow is also hot-stretched three to four
times its length during the washing stage. This is done by means of two sets of rollers in the
washing trough, the first of which rotates at 10-25 m/min and the second at 30-90 m/min.

e) Drying, Crimping and baling: The stretched tow then passes through many operations
including drying, crimping and heat setting. Spin finish is applied to the tow and it is either cut to
the desired length to give staple-fibre or packed as tow. The staple fibre is used for the production
of 100 percent acrylic or acrylic blended spun yarns. The tow is converted to top and used in the
production of blended yarn. The cross-sections of dry spun acrylic fibres are usually of the dog
bone or dumb-bell shape.

MANUFACTURE OF ACRYLIC FIBRE BY THE DRY-SPINNING PROCESS

2. WET – SPINNING (Second Method Widely Used)

Wet spinning of acrylic fibre is usually done as a continuous process from spinning to
staple fibre / processed for tow formation.

a) Preparation of dope: The dry polymer is mixed with dimethyl formamide or dimethyl
acetamide or an inorganic solvent with vigourous stirring at a very low temperature of 0-5°C to
obtain polymer slurry. This is then heated to 80-90°C to get a clear solution. Additives are added
at this stage to give the resulting fibre some specific properties. For example, heat stabiliser to
prevent discolouration, tints and optical optical brightening agents to improve brightness, titanium
dioxide as delustrant and pigments to impart colour. The concentration of the spinning solution
may be 20-28 percent.

b) Spinning: The dope at 80-90°C is extruded through a spinneret containing 25,000 – 75,000
fine holes into a coagulating bath consisting of 60-65 parts of the solvent mixed in water and
maintained at a pH of 2.5 - 3. The water acts as a non-solvent and coagulates (Precipitates) the
filaments coming out of the spinneret. The speed of the haul-off rollers is 10-25 m/min.

MANUFACTURE OF ACRYLIC FIBRE BY THE WET-SPINNING PROCESS

c) Tow Formation: The filaments coming out as explained above from several parallel spinnerets
are combined to form a tow consisting of hundreds of thousands of filaments.

d) Hot- Stretching: The tow is led to a hot-water bath containing a standard drawing
arrangement. The tow is hot-stretched three to four times its length by means of the two sets of
rollers in the washing trough. The first set of rollers, the feed rollers, rotates at 10-25m/min and
the second set, the draw rollers, at 30-90m/min. The draw ratio is in the range 1:3.5 to 1:10.

e) Washing: The wet tow containing residual solvent is washed with hot water in the next step to
remove the solvent.

f) Drying crimping and balling: The stretched tow then passes through many operations
including drying crimping and heat setting. 0.3 - 1% spin finish is applied to the tow and it is either
cut to the desired length to give staple-fibre or packed as tow. The staple fibre is used for the
production of 100 percent acrylic or acrylic blended spun yarns. The tow is converted to top and
used in the production of blended yarn. The cross-sections of wet spun acrylic fibres are usually
nearly circular or bean shaped.
5.7.6. High bulk acrylic yarn:
Acrylic fibre plants usually produce two kinds of acrylic staple fibre. One is a high-
shrinkable fibre and the other a normal-shrinkage fibre. Normal-shrinkage (NS) fibre is produced
as described above. High-shrinkage (HS) fibre is produced by steam-stretching the tow before
cutting and baling. The Normla Shrinkage fibre show little shrinkage in boiling water, while the
High shrinkage fibre shrink up to about 25 percent in boiling water. This difference in shrinkage
property is useful in the production of high-bulk acrylic yarn.

Spinning a mixture of 30-35% of High shrinkage fibre and 70-65 percent of Normal
shrinkage fibre by the short-staple spinning process will give a single yarn of acrylic fibre. This
yarn is made into a four-ply yarn by means of the doubling process. Treating this four-ply yarn
with boiling water or heat-setting it will shrink the High shrinkage fibres in the yarn greatly and
cause the Normal shrinkage fibre in close contact with them to bend and crimp. As a result of the
crimping of about two-thirds of the fibres, the yarn as a whole will increase in diameter and give
rise to a high-bulk yarn which appears voluminious but which is soft, warm and flexible. If is HS
fibre and is NS fibre, the following illustration shows schematically the principle of the formation of
a high-bulk yarn.

A mixture of NS and HS fibres in yarn form High-bulk yarn showing decrease in

length and increase in width

Acrylic fibre produced in India:

Both dry-spun and wet-spun fibres are produced. Fibres deniers available are 1.5, 2.0, 3.0,
5.0, 8.0 and 15.0. The fibres are available as bright / semi-dull fibres, normal-shrinkage fibres or
as high shrinkage fibres. The staple lengths available are 38mm and 51mm. Acrylic fibre is also
available as tow for conversion to tops (silvers).

5.7.8. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACRYLIC FIBRE:

[1] Tenacity: The dry tenacity of acrylic fibre is in the range 2.5-3.2 grams per denier. The fibre
loses 10 to 15 percent of its strength when wet. The wet tenacity is thus 2.3 – 2.8 gpd.
[2] Elongation at break: The breaking elongation of acrylic fibres varies from 25 – 35%.
[3] Moisture Absorption: All acrylic fibres have a moisture regain of 1-2% under standard
atmosphere. This is higher than the moisture of PET fibre. But acrylic fibres are also
considered as “Hydrophobic” fibres.
[4] Elastic Recovery: Acrylic fibres have fairly good elastic recovery, similar to that of PET fibres.
Fabrics made from acrylic fibre will therefore not crease or wrinkle easily. Nylon fibre is more
elastic than acrylic fibre.
[5] Density: Acryllc fibre has a density of 1.16 – 1.17g/cc (or specific gravity of 1.16-1.17).
[6] Electrical Property: Acrylic fibre is a poor conductor of electricity i.e., it is a good insulator.
[7] Microscopic Appearance: Acrylic fibres generally have a cylindrical appearance in
longitudinal view. The cross-sectional view is dog-bone or dumb-bell shaped for dry spun
fibres and nearly circular or kidney (bean) shaped for the wet spun fibres.
 Dry Spun Fibre Wet Spun Fibre

[8] Thermal Properties: Acrylic fibres show poor heat conductivity, which means that they are
warm fibres. The fibres do not melt easily like PET or nylon fibres, but melt with decomposition
at 280-330°C.
[9] Shrinkage: Regular (non-shrinkable) acrylic fibre has a boiling water shrinkage of 0.5-2%.
The high shrinkage fibre used for high-bulk acrylic yarn has shrinkage in the range 22-25%.

Chemical Properties of acrylic fibre:

[1] Chemical Structure: of acrylic fibre is usually written as: - (CH2-CHCN)n-. The comonomers
are not generally included in it as they appear randomly in the polymer chain and therefore
cannot be shown as a part of the repeat unit. However, as explained above, today’s
commercial acrylic fibres are copolymers of at least 85 percent acrylonitrile, the remaining
percentage consisting of one of two comonomers.
[2] Fine Structure: Regular acrylic fibre has an average DP of about 2000. It is a very crystalline
fibre, the degree of crystallinity ranging from 70-80 percent.
[3] Resistance to Light: Like nylon and all other textile fibres, acrylic fibres too lose strength
when exposed to sunlight for long periods of time due to the harmful effects of the sun’s
ultraviolet rays, which destroy the fibre’s chemical structure. But the acrylic fibres are the best
of all fibres in this respect and are least affected by sunlight.
[4] Chemical Resistance: Acrylic fibres have good chemical resistance. Common solvents do
not affect them. Resistance to acids, alkalis and oxidizing agents is fair or good.
[5] Solubility: Acrylic fibres are dissolved by highly polar organic solvents like dimethyl
formamide, dimethyl acetamide and dimethyl sulphoxide. It is also soluble in cold
concentrated nitric acid, ethylene carbonate and ammonium thiocyanate.
[6] Biological Resistance: of acrylic fibres is good, insects, moulds and microorganisms do not
attack the fibres.
[7] Dyeing: Acrylic fibres have chemical polar groups that can attract dye molecules. Fibres
containing acidic dye-sites can be dyed with cationic dyes (or synthetic basis dyes) to bright
shades with excellent fastness properties. Fibres with basic dye-sites can be dyed with acid
dyes. However, both types of fibre can be dyed with disperse dyes. Acrylic fibre produced in
India is cationic dyeable.

Uses of Acrylic Fibre: Acrylic fibres are used widely in the form of fibre, yarn and woven and
knitted fabric. Some uses are:
[1] Apparel: 100% acrylic yarns are used mainly in the production of sweaters, knitted outerwear
fabric like T-shirts, blouses, frocks, skirts, underwear, shawls, caps, athletic socks,
sweatshirts, tracksuits, etc. As hi-bulk yarn it is hand-knitted to make pullovers, cardigans,
shawls, etc.
[2] Household applications: Acrylic fibre is used in the manufacture of blankets, upholstery,
carpets, table cloth, curtains, velvets, pile fabrics, bed spreads, etc.
[3] Industrial applications: Acrylic fibre is also used in filters, sandbags, wigs, tents, footwear,
and as starting fibre (or pre-cursor fibre) for the production of carbon fire.
[4] Acrylic fibre blends: In blends with cotton it is used in work cloths where its chemical
resistance is useful. In blends with rayon, acrylic fibre gives good resistance to creasing and
for permanent pleating. With wool, acrylic fibre gives dimensional stability.

Manufacturers of acrylic fibre in India:

1. J.K. Synthetics Ltd., Kota, Rajasthan - (Jaycrylic)
2. Indian Petrochemicals Ltd., Vado dra, Gujrat - (Cashmilon)
3. Pasupathi Acrylon Ltd., Moradabad, U.P - (Acrylon)
4. Indian Acrylics Ltd. Chandigarh, Punjab - (Indlon)

5.8. MISCELLANEOUS FIBRES

Polyethylene Fibres: Extruding polyethylene polymer, which is made from ethylene, produces
polyethylene fibre. Two kinds of polyethylene fibres have been produced commercially. One is
referred to as low-density polyethyiene (or LDPE) fibres and the other as high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) fibres.

LDPE Fibres:
Melt Spinning: Polyethylene is melt-spun. It is extruded at 300°c through a spinneret into a
current of cooling air and taken up as undrawn yarn. It is then cold-drawn to about six times its
original length and packaged as fully drawn yarn.

Properties of LDPE fibres:

1. LDPE fibre has a lower tenacity, lower density and lower melting point and a higher
elongation-at-break than HDPE fibre.
2. LDPE fibres have a tenacity of 2-3 grams per denier and a breaking elongation of 40%. These
properties are unaffected in the wet condition.
3. The outstanding property of LDPE fibre is its chemical stability, which results from its inertness
to chemicals. It is resistant to strong acids and most chemicals. It is therefore used in
protective clothing.
4. Polyethylene melts at a low temperature of 110 - 120°C. It is therefore unsuitable for high
temperature applications.
5. Its specific gravity is 0.92 - 0.93. It is the second lightest of all fibres and will float in water.
6. LDPE fibre has practically no moisture regain and no absorbancy. It cannot be wetted.
7. LDPE fibre is very resistant to microbiological attack.
8. Being an inert fibre and non-wetting, it cannot be dyed in fibre form even under severe
conditions. If coloured fibre is desired, it is mass-coloured (or spun – dyed).
9. LDPE fibre has a low coefficient of friction. This means that it will be slippery. Slipping of
stacked goods packaged in LDPE material is quite common.

Uses of LDPE fibres:

LDPE fibre is not suitable for apparel textile because it has a low melting point, practically
no moisture absorption and a waxy, unpleasant handle. It has only some industrial applications.
1. LDPE fibre is used in boiler suits and clothing required for corrosive chemical plants especially
because of its excellent chemical resistance.
2. It is also used in low-temperature filtration, sewage filtration, etc.
3. LDPE fabrics made from 500 – denier monofilaments are used for car upholstery.
4. Nowadays, HDPE fibre is the one mostly used in textile applications rather than LDPE fibre.
5.8.3. HDPE (High Density Poly ethylene Fibres):
 HDPE fibre finds wider commercial applications as its properties are better than LDPE.

Chemical Reaction: The monomer in this case also is ethylene. But the polymerization reaction
is done under reduced pressure and temperature compared with those used for the production of
LDPE polymer. The chemical reaction is the same as for LDPE fibre.
A.P.
n(CH2 = CH2) - (CH2 – CH2)n-
‘n’ molecules of ethylene Polyethylene

Polymerisation
LDPE Polymer HDPE Polymer
Conditions
1,500 atmospheres 30 atmospheres
1. Pressure
( 1,500 kg/cm2) ( 30kg/cm2)
2. Temperature, °C 200°c 100°c
3. Catalyst A trace of oxygen Special Catalysts
Slightly branched molecules Linear molecules without
Close alignment of adjacent branching
4.Type of chain
molecules possible only where no Close alignment of adjacent
molecule
braches are present molecules possible for much
greater molecular lengths
CH2- CH3
5. Chemical Structure
-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2- CH2-
CH2- CH2-CH-CH2- CH2- CH2-
Lower density: Lower crystallinity; Higher density: Higher crystallinity;
6. Resulting
Lower melting point; Lower Higher melting point; Higher
Differences in
tenacity; Higher elongation-at- tenacity; Lower elongation-at-break
Properties
break (Than HDPE fibre) (Than LDPE fibre)

Manufacture of HDPE Polymer:

Ethylene gas is polymerized in an autoclave at 100°C and 30 atmospheres pressure in the
presence of special catalyst’s. A linear polymer, tougher and harder than LDPE, is formed.

Melt Spinning:
HDPE is melt-spun. It is extruded at 300°C through a spinneret into a current of cooling air
and taken up as undrawn yarn. It is then cold-drawn to about six times its original length and
packaged as fully drawn yarn. HDPE yarn is predominantly made in India in the form of highly
stretched, very strong tape yarn meant for sacking.

Properties of HDPE fibres:

HDPE fibre has a higher tenacity, higher density and melting point and a lower
elongation-at-break than LDPE fibre.

1. HDPE fibres have a tenacity of 4-6 grams per denier and a breaking elongation of 20%. These
properties are unaffected in the wet condition.
2. Like LDPE fibre, the outstanding property of HDPE fibre is its chemical stability, which results
from its inertness to chemicals. It is resistant to strong acids and most chemicals. It is
therefore used in protective clothing.
3. HDPE melts at a higher temperature of 130-135°C. This is too low for practical purposes and
the fibre is therefore unsuitable for high temperature applications.
4. Its specific gravity is 0.95 – 0.96. It is the third lightest of all fibres and will also float in water.
5. HDPE fibre has practically no moisture regain and no absorbancy. It cannot be wetted.
6. HDPE fibre is very resistant to microbiological attack.
7. Being an inert fibre and non-wetting, HDPE fibre cannot be dyed in fibre form even under
severe conditions. If coloured fibre is desired, it is mass-coloured (i.e. colouring the melt
before spinning).
8. HDPE fibre has a low coefficient of friction. This means that it will be slippery. Slipping of
stacked goods package in HDPE material is quite common.

Uses of HDPE fibres:

HDPE fibre is unsuitable for apparel textile because it has a low melting point, practically
no moisture absorption and a waxy, unpleasant handle. It has only some industrial applications.
1. HDPE fibre is used in boiler suits and clothing required for corrosive chemical plants
especially because of its excellent chemical resistance.
2. It is also used in low-temperature filtration, sewage filtration, etc.
3. HDPE is used in great quantities for making ropes (due to its strength) and fishnets (because
it with float In water).
HDPE fibre is predominantly used in textiles. LDPE mainly has non-textile uses as plastics.

5.8.4. Polypropylene Fibres:

Polypropylene (PP) fibres were first introduced in Italy. The starting material for PP is
propylene, which is a by-product of the petroleum industry.

Melt-spinning and Drawing:

The purified polymer is melted and spun through spinnerettes to form filaments of undrawn
yarn (UDY). The UDY is stretched 6-8 times the original length. For most purposes PP fibre is
used only for industrial applications, and in such cases, the filaments are heated before drawing
to get uniformly drawn fibre. Polypropylene is also produced as partially oriented yarn (POY) and
then taken through a draw-texturing machine to get textured polypropylene yarn.

Properties of polypropylene fibre:

1. Tenacity: Medium tenacity fibre breaks at 3-5 g / denier, high-tenacity fibre at 9-13 g/denler;
Elongation-at-break is 15-30%. These values do not change when the fibre is wet.
2. Elastic recovery is good but less than that of nylon or polyester fibres.
3. Specific gravity is lower than that for polyethylene; for polypropylene it is 0.90-0.92.
Polypropylene is therefore the lightest of all commercial fibres.
4. Moisture regain is practically nil. It is less than 0.05%. Polypropylene fibre has therefore little
use as an apparel fibre.
5. The fibre has good abrasion resistance.
6. Melting point of polypropylene is 165° to 170°C. This is low for application of the fibre in the
apparel industry.
7. The chemical structure and the typical average DP of polypropylene – already discussed.
8. Chemical resistance of the fibre is excellent. Acids and alkalis have very little effect on
polypropylene. However, oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide will attack the fibre.
9. The fibre is easily washable and it dries quickly.
10. Polypropylene is sensitive to the action of light. This is due to the fibre being sensitive to
the ultra-violet and infrared rays of the sun. The average DP is lowered due to prolonged
exposure and the fibre weakens.
11. Polypropylene fibre is difficult to dye. This is because the fibre has a high degree of
crystallinity.

Uses: The applications of polypropylene fibre are mostly industrial.

1. Its great strength, abrasion resistance and negligible moisture absorption makes
polypropylene fibre a very good fibre for ropes. Manila or other bast fibre ropes swell and
become heavy when used in water. A polypropylene rope is as good as a polyester rope, and
it is much lighter and cheaper.
2. Polypropylene fibre has virtually replaced jute in materials such as bags (sacking) for packing
chemicals, fertilizers, cement, etc. HDPE fibre is also used as tape yarn.
3. Polypropylene fibre is used in fishnets. Being lighter than water, the net is visible clearly on
the surface of the water.
4. Polypropylene fibre is also used to a great extent in carpets. Its good abrasion resistance,
resilience and the ease with which it can be washed make it suitable for this purpose.
5. The fibre is used in pile fabrics and light construction fabrics in upholstery and curtains.

5.8.6. POLYURETHANE FIBRES

Polyurethane fibres are commonly called spandex fibres or snap-back fibres or

elastomeric fibres because of their high rubber-like elasticity. The fibre-forming substance is
actually segmented polyurethane.

The term spandex is used, as it is a generic name given by the Federal Trade commission
(US). Spandex is defined as a manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is a long
chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by mass of segmented polyurethane.

What is segmented Polyurethane? (SPU)

Segmented polyurethane only means that the polyurethane polymer consists of two
different segments. One segment is a hard segment and the other is a soft segment. The polymer
molecule in the soft segment contributes to the elongation and elastic characteristics while the
hard segment contributes to the strength of the fibre.

The Du Pont company (USA) invented the first spandex or segmented polyurethane fibre
in USA and named it Lycra. Now it is manufactured under their license in many countries. Petrofils
India Co. Ltd., Gujarat manufactures Lycra in India. There are several other manufacturers of
spandex fibre, each of whom give their own trade name for their fibres. Spandex fibres may be
spun as monofilaments, or as multifilament yarns in which a number of fine filaments have joined
together after spinning. Extruding sheets of the polymer and then cutting these into filaments
produces square-section spandex monofilament.

Properties of Spandex fibre:

1. An important feature of spandex fibres is that they may be spun into very fine filaments. The
finest rubber yarns are commonly of about 150 denier, but spandex fibres may be produced
as 40 denier or finer.
2. The most outstanding property of spandex fibre is its high elongation of 500-700%. (Natural
rubber fibre has an elongation-at-break ranging from 550-760%).
3. The tenacity of spandex fibre is low at 0.75 g/denier. Natural rubber fibre has a tenacity of
0.25 g/denier. Spandex is among the weakest of textile fibres, though rubber is the weakest.
4. The elastic recovery of spandex fibre is very good, but not as good as rubber.
5. Spandex fibres gave a melting point in the range 230° to 290°C.
6. The specific gravity of spandex fibres range from 1.2 to 1.25.
7. Most spandex fibres have a moisture regain of the order of 1.0 to 1.3%
8. The chemical structure of spandex fibre has been given earlier, Chemically, spandex is
segmented polyurethane. The polymer is a block copolymer, as blocks of one kind of
monomer are linked to blocks of another type of monomer to form the polymer.
9. Spandex fibres are white in colour and are readily dyeable (with acid or disperse dyes), unlike
rubber. This is a major advantage of spandex over rubber. Peroxide bleaching is preferred.
10. The fibres have good to excellent resistance to chemicals, sunlight and micro-organisms.

Uses of Spandex fibre: Spandex fibre is used extensively in all applications where its excellent
extensibility and good recovery from stretch is required. Spandex filaments are used in three
forms:

a. Bare filaments: Uncovered spandex filaments are replacing natural rubber covered yarns. The
bare filaments are used in the production of foundation garments (i.e. underwear), swimwear and
hosiery. Bare spandex filaments are used primarily as knitted structures like tricot, lace, etc.

b. Covered yarns: Spandex filaments are also used in covered form. The spandex filament forms
the core and this is cover by two layers of yarn of hard fibre such as cotton, nylon, etc. spun in
opposite directions. These kinds of yarn are used particularly in woven constructions.

c. Core-spun yarns: This kind of yarn has a spandex yarn core covered by non-elastic fibre,
such as cotton, wool, acrylic, polyester, etc. In the form of spun yarn it is made on a ring spinning
frame by feeding the spandex core into the web of drafted fibres at the nip of the last pair of the
drafting rollers. The emerging combination will thus have a spandex yarn covered by a spun yarn
of non-elastic fibre. Core-spun yarns are used for making woven and knit goods.

5.8.7. GLASS FIBRES

Glass manufacturers make several types of glass with different compositions. Each type is
suitable for specific end uses. The primary ingredients of glass are silica sand (silica) and
limestone (calcium carbonate); other ingredients such as soda ash (sodium carbonate), potash
(potassium carbonate), aluminium hydroxide or alumina (aluminium oxide), magnesia
(magnesium oxide) or (boric oxide) are often included in varying quantities. Glass fibre is
therefore defined as a fibre made of mixed silicates. Textile glass fibres are usually made from
glass of two different compositions. One type is called ‘E’ Glass and the other is called ‘C’ Glass.
E-Glass contains less silica and soda but more lime and alumina than C- Glass.

Properties of glass fibre:

[1] Fine Structure: Glass is made by melting together one or more oxides of silicon, boron or
phosphorus, with certain basic oxides, e.g. sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium and
cooling the resulting product rapidily to prevent crystallization taking place. The strength of
glass fibre is thus a result of the strong network of covalent and intermolecular bonds between
the atoms that make it up.
[2] Appearance: Glass fibres have a smooth surface and a circular cross-section. They are
transparent.
[3] Tenacity: One of the outstanding properties of glass fibres is their high strength. The dry
tenacity is 6 – 9 grams per denier. The wet tenacity is about 4 – 6 grams per denier.
[4] Elongation: Glass fibres lack resilience and stretch. The elongation-at-break is only 3-4%, for
the dry fibre and 2.5 to 3.5% for the wet fibre.
[5] Elastic Recovery: This is 100% for glass fibre.
[6] Specific Gravity: Glass fibre is the heaviest of all textile fibres. Its specific gravity is 2.54.
[7] Melting Point: The fiber softens in the range 750-850°C depending on the type of glass (E or
C) and melts at over 1200°C. Glass fibres will not burn.
[8] Moisture Content: Its moisture content is nil (i.e. 0%)
[9] Abrasion Resistance: Glass fibres have poor abrasion resistance. Fabric made of
continuous filament glass yarns develops a hairy appearance in use due to broken filament
ends.
[10] Resistance to Aging, Micro-organisms and Light: The fibres are completely resistant to all
these three.
[11] Resistance to Chemicals: Glass fibres are resistant to acids of normal strength and under
ordinary conditions. They are attacked by hydrofluoric acid, concentrated sulphuric or
hydrochloric, and hot phosphorus acids. Hot solutions of weak alkalis and cold solutions of
strong alkalis will attack glass, causing weakening. Glass fibres have very good resistance to
common chemicals, including organic solvents.
[12] Dyeing: Glass fibre is difficult to dye. If ceramic colours are mixed with the glass melt before
spinning, coloured fibre with good fastness may be obtained.

Uses of glass fibre:

Glass fibre, because of its special properties, is not suitable for traditional everyday
clothing. This is because it is stiff, has poor abrasion resistance and zero moisture content.
However, on account of its strength, non-flammability and excellent resistance to common
chemicals, light and microorganisms, aging, etc., it has several industrial applications. Some of its
applications are listed below.
[1] Fireproof fabrics for lampshades, awnings, screens, curtains and furniture fabrics, table cloths
are made of glass fibre.
[2] Staple-fibre glass, in woven form, it is used as filtration cloth for gases and liquids in many
industrial operations.
[3] Lamp wicks and ropes may be made of glass fibre.
[4] Glass fibre is used extensively as insulation material for electrical, thermal and acoustical
insulation purposes. It is used as insulation in electrical goods like motors, transformers,
switchgear, wire, cable insulation, Glasswool, insulation for steam pipes, sound insulation in
recording studios etc.
[5] The biggest single use for glass fibres is as reinforcement fibre in plastics, Glass fibre
reinforces plastics the same way as steel reinforces concrete. Applications include boat hulls,
car bodies, aircraft, radio and television cabinets, hot-air ducts (large pipes), flexible tubing,
petrol or chemicals storage tanks, building paneling, translucent steel, furniture, etc.
[6] Continuous filament glass yarns are used as reinforcement in radial tyres for automobiles and
in transmission and conveyor belting.
[7] Glass fibre fabric is used in traditional textile applications such as fire proof curtains,
tablecloths etc., in theatres, restaurants and other public buildings. Glass fibre is also used for
 making apparel fabrics in special applications such as car racing suits and suits for astronauts
due to its flameproof properties.
[8] The most recent application of special glass fibre is in optic fibre cables (OFC) for the
telephone and telecommunication industry. The special kind of glass filaments used in OFCs
is made of quartz glass and has many advantages compared with copper cables that have
been used traditionally for years.

5.8.8. Carbon fibers:

Carbon fibre was first developed in 1963 in the laboratories of the Royal Aircraft
Establishment, UK. It came into commercial production only in 1968. Carbon fibres are of great
importance today in the field of composites as reinforcement fibres.

Carbon fibre may be defined as a fibre that contains at least 90% of carbon obtained by
the controlled pyrolysis of appropriate precursor fibres. Pyrolysis means heat treatment for
extended periods of time under specific conditions. Precursor fibre means a fibre that acts as the
starting material for the production of carbon fibres. Acrylic or viscose fibres or pitch have been
used for this.

Properties of carbon fibre:

1. Appearance: Carbon fibres are black in colour and have a
smooth surface and a silky luster. They are commonly of round
cross-section, sometimes with flattened sides.
2. Fine Structure: Carbon fibres, by definition, consist of at least
90% carbon. The fine structure of carbon fibre is like that of
graphite. This means that the carbon atoms are arranged in
layers consisting of hexagonal arrays of atoms, producing a
crystalline structure. As the packing of atoms is regular, carbon
fibre is very strong and has a high modulus.
3. Tenacity: Carbon fibres are produced as high strength fibres, high-modulus fibres and ultra
modulus fibres. The dry tenacity range is 11-24 g/denier. Wet tenacity is in the same range.
4. Elongation-at-break: This ranges from 0.5 to 1.5%. Carbon fibres are thus very stiff.
5. Elastic Recovery: This is 100% for carbon fibres.
6. Specific Gravity: This is in the range 1.77 to 1.96. Carbon is thus the second heaviest textile
fibre.
7. Moisture Regain: Carbon fibres have zero percent moisture regain.
8. Effect of Heat: Carbon fibres do not melt. It oxidizes slowly at temperatures above 300°C.
9. Chemical Properties: The fibres have excellent resistance to acids and alkalis even at high
temperature. Strong oxidizing agents will degrade the fibre. They are inert to all common
solvents but sensitive to hypochlorite. They cannot be dyed.
[10] Microbiological, Light and Abrasion Resistance: The fibres have excellent resistance to
microbiological organisms, aging and sunlight. Like most stiff fibres, they have poor
resistance to abrasion.
Uses of Carbon fibres:
The applications of carbon fibre are only for industrial purposes.
1. The most important application is in composites, i.e. Fibre-reinforced plastics. Carbon fibre
composites are used in aircraft structural components and in brakes and engines. They are
also used in the construction of space vehicles.
2. Carbon fibres are used to a great extent in sports and hobby and other areas where strength
is important. Thus golf clubs, tennis and badminton racquets, fishing rods, boats and
submarines, pressure vessels in chemical and allied industries – all of these contain carbon
fibres.
3. Special grades of carbon fibres are used in protective clothing fabrics, where their inertness
and heat resistance are useful.

5.8.9. Metal (or Metallic) Fibres:

A metal fibre is defined as a fibre made from any metal. Previously, metal fibres were
made up of only the metal concerned, i.e. they consisted of one component only. Metal fibres of
today consist of more than one component i.e. they are multi-components and are also called
metallic fibres. The more suitable definition of a metal fibre is therefore as given below.
“A metallic fibre is a man-made fibre composed of metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-
coated plastic or a core completely covered by metal.”

Traditional metal fibres in India

The commonly used metallic fibres in India are called “zari” in North India and ‘jarigai’ in
Tamilnadu. Zari is available as gold zari, silver zari, or even as cheap, imitation zari using artificial
fibres, etc. Traditionally, zari has been made as a two-component continuous filament strand.

1. Gold zari: is usually a red or orange dyed continuous silk filament yarn around which gold foil
in the form of a ribbon is uniformly wound. Because both silk and gold are costly, so gold zari
is also costly. Gold is a noble metal, so it does not tarnish with use. It has excellent
resistance to chemicals that can damage textile fibres.
2. Silver zari: This is similar to gold zari except that a ribbon of silver foll is used instead of gold.
To make silver zari cheaper still, red-dyed nylon continuous fiament yarn has been used as
the core yarn instead of silk. Silver tarnishes with use due to atmospheric oxidation and
appears blackish. This is a disadvantage with silver zari, though it is available at a much
lower price. Further, its resistance to chemicals is not as good as that of gold.
3. Artificial zari: This is the cheapest or all types of zari. It consists of any common continuous
filament yarn, typically nylon, wrapped with aluminium foil (for a silvery appearance ) or with
gold-coloured aluminium foil (for a golden appearance.) This type of zari is the cheapest of all
and not as durable as the above two types.

Modern metallic fibres

Modern metallic fibres are made from metal and other materials, commonly plastics. They
are all multi-component fibres. The base materials is aluminium, which can give the shine of gold
or silver, as required. The aluminium is used in two forms, as a sheet or as fine powder coated on
plastic.Many types of metallic fibres are produced today for the textile industry. The most
common of these are listed below.

a) Aluminium foil sandwiched in plastic film: This is a continuous monofilament composed of

aluminium foil laminated on both sides by plastic film. The plastic film commonly used are PET
film (e.g. Mellinex of ICI), acetate butyrate or cellophane (viscose rayon film).
 In the production of this type of metallic fibre, a thermoplastic adhesive is applied to both
sides of a sheet of aluminium 0.01 mm thick. The adhesive may or may not be coloured. The
coated foil is heated to about 90ºC and then passed through a set of rollers along with two sheels
of plastic film in such a way that the aluminium sheet is in the middle. The laminated sheet is
taken up as usual. It is then slit (cut) into ribbons of uniform width (or 0.2 – 3 mm) for use as
metal monofilaments.If the adhesive is colourless, silver coloured filaments result. By using an
orange-yellow dyestuff or pigment, a gold coloured filament can be produced. Similarly using the
appropriate dyestuffs or pigments will produce metal filaments of any desired colour.

b) Aluminium powder coated plastic covered with plastic film: This is simply a plastic film
that has been vacuum-plated with vaporised aluminium and then laminated suitably. Polyester or
other plastic film is first coated with colourless or coloured aluminium powder. The metal-coated
side is then covered with a sheet of the same plastic. The composite sheet is then slit (cut) into
ribbons of the required width.

Properties of metallic fibres

1. Metallic fibres will normally have the properties of the core and the covering material. In
appearance they are flat.
2. Ribbon-like filaments, have a smooth surface and may be coloured or uncoloured.
3. The tenacity range is 0.3 – 1.3 g/denier and the elongation range 30-140 %.
4. Moisture is in the range 0.1 to 0.5 percent and
5. The fibre softens at temperatures between 205-235ºC.
6. Metallic fibres are resistant to ageing, common chemicals, light and micro-organisms.

Uses of metallic fibres:

The main use of metallic fibres, traditional or modern, is for decorative purpose. However,
they are strong enough to be used even as warp or weft in certain fabrics.
Draw Texturising (High Stretch yarns)
One of the important developments that have taken place in the field of texturising is the
introduction of the Draw texturing process in the early 70’s. In draw texturising, the drawing and
texturising operations are combined together. The two methods available for Draw texturing are:
a) Sequential Draw-texturising (High Stretch yarns)
In Sequential Draw-texturising a separate drawing zone is provided in the texturising machine
before the texturising zone, to do the drawing operation. Hence it is a two-zone process in which
the drawing is performed between the feed roller and a drawing godet and the texturising is
done between the drawing godet and the delivery roller.
Nylon yarns are normally textured by this process because of the high crimp rigidity values shown
by the sequential-draw texturised yarn. For drawing of polyester yarns, the yarn is heated to a
temperature above 100°C, while nylon yarn can be drawn at room temperature.
b) Simultaneous Draw Texturising (High Stretch yarns)
In this, the drawing is carried out within the texturing zone itself. Hence it is a single zone process
in which the drawing and texturing are carried out simultaneously in one zone between the feed
roll and the output roll.
FOY or POY can be texturised by Sequential and Simultaneous Draw texturising processes, while
UDY yarns are textured usually by Sequential Draw Texturising process. Primarily, undrawn yarns
because of lower Crystallinity are highly susceptible to higher temperature and therefore
threading of undrawn yarn is rather difficult when simultaneously draw-textured.
Secondly because of the larger difference in the fibre denier before and after drawing, a defect
called “Snazzy fibre” occurs. Generally polyester POY is textured by the simultaneous draw-
texturising process.
Properties of Draw-textured yarns (High Stretch yarns)
a) The Draw-textured yarns dyes deeply and more uniformly than the conventionally textured
yarns
b) The fabrics made from Draw-textured yarns have a crisper handle than the conventional yarns
c) Filaments in draw-texturising process undergoes greater cross-sectional shape deformations
which imparts a glitter to the resultant yarn and fabric.
d) There is no difference in the tensile properties of conventional and sequential draw-textured
yarns. However, Simultaneous draw-textured yarns show lower tenacity than the Sequential
draw-textured or conventional textured yarns
Air Jet Texturising (Bulk yarns)
Air-jet texturing is a unique process whereby flat man-made multi-filament yarns are given spun
like structure with a compact core and surface loops protruding frequently at irregular intervals
along its Length. This is the only process that can texture non-thermoplastic fibres.
Air-Jet Texturising involves the ‘over feed’ principle, i.e. the supply yarn is fed into the texturising
nozzle at a greater rate than it is taken away. The overfed filaments are re-arranged and formed
into a textured yarn structure by the turbulent effect of the supersonic air-stream without the
need for any heat treatment. This permits the texturising of non-thermoplastic yarns such as
glass and blends of thermoplastic materials.

Principle of Air Jet Texturising

A. Filament bundle
(Polyester, Polyamide, Poly Propylene,
Viscose, Acetate)

B. Yarn is opened by air jet

(Filament separation)

C. Formation of loops in filaments due

to
buckling and bending (yarn is overfed)

D. Yarn is out of path of the air jet.

The twist in the yarn comes back,
making loops in the yarn structure.

Properties of Air Jet Textured yarns

a) Highly insulative to heat due to large volume of entrapped air and thus have warm
handle.
b) Good moisture absorption due to the air and moisture retaining capability of the yarn.
Hence possess good comfort properties.
c) As yarn has high bulk, fabrics with good cover and pleasing handle are produced.
d) The Air Jet textured yarns gives the fabrics good dimensional stability.
e) Air Jet textured yarns have high pilling resistance that contributes to durability and good
appearance to the fabric.
f) The yarns give a more uniform fabric appearance than the fabric made of flat yarn.
 g) The tensile properties such as tenacity and elongation-at-break lie intermediate between
those of the parent flat yarn and spun yarn of same linear density.
Advantages of Textured yarns
a. Texturization improves the pilling and creasing resistance properties of yarns in the fabric.
b. Textured yarn fabrics have better dimensional stability than flat yarn fabrics.
c. Durability of the textured yarn fabrics is higher because of the improvement in the pilling
and creasing resistance properties of textured yarns.
d. Fabrics made from textured yarns have better shape retention properties.
e. Fabrics made from textured yarns are easy to wash and will dry quickly.
f. Textured yarns also have high abrasion resistance, strength and toughness properties.
 MOLECULAR, PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON TEXTILE FIBRES
S. FIBRE COTTON FLAX VISCOSE ACETATE WOOL
No. PROPERTY RAYON
1 Molecular Natural, Natural, Natural- Natural- Natural
data vegetable vegetable polym., polym., protein fibre
fibre fibre regenerated cellulose
fibre ester fibre
a) Polymer Cellulose Cellulose Cellulose Secondary Keratin
Chemical Cellulose
composition. Acetate
b) Molecular Extremely Extremely Short Short Short
Dimensions long long
(approximate
)
c) Approximate 5000 nm 18,000 nm. 180 nm 160 nm 140 nm
length
d) Approximate 0.8 nm 0.8 0.8 2.3 1
thickness
e) Average DP 5000 18,000 175 130 Not known
2 Polymer Crystalline Crystalline Very Very Extremely
system Amorphous Amorphous Amorphous
a) Estimated 35 – 30 Less than 65 – 60 60 70 – 75
amor. region, cotton
%

b) Estimated 65 – 70 More than 35 – 40 40 30 – 25

cryst. region, cotton
%
3 Tenacity Strong Very strong Fair Very weak Weak
a) Dry (gf/tex) 27 – 44 59 14 – 45 12 – 27 9 – 18
b) Wet (gf/tex) 27 – 46 64 7 – 24 8 – 24 7 – 16
c) Wet/dry 100 – 105% %108 50 – 53% 60 –70% 78 – 89%
4 Elastic-plastic Inelastic Very inelastic Plastic Plastic Elastic
nature
a) Elongation 1% (91%) 1% (90%) 2% (82%) 2% (94%) 2% (99%)
(Elastic 2% (74%) 2% (70%) 3% (52%) 5% (73%) 5% (98%)
recovery) 10% (90%)
3% (66%) 3% (60%) 10% (40%) 10% (39%)
15% (34%) 15% (82%)
5% (45%) 15% (27%)
20% (30%) 20% (75%)
20% (23%)
b) Handle Medium to Hard, very Medium to Very soft, Medium to
hand, crisp crisp soft, limp limp soft, warm
S. FIBRE COTTON FLAX VISCOSE ACETATE WOOL
No. PROPERTY RAYON
5 Hygroscopic Absorbant Absorbant Extremely Slightly Very
nature absorbant absortant absorbant
a) Moisture 7.0 – 8.5% 7.0% 12.0 – 14.0% 6.5 – 9.0% 14.0 – 16.3%
regain
at 65% RH
6 Thermal Very heat Very Heat Heat Extremely Heat
Properties resistant Resistant Sensitive heat sensitive Sensitive
a) Softening 150 C., 280 C., 130 C., 175 -190 C 100 C.
range begins to begins to begins to handle
discolour discolour yellow harshens
b) Melting point Does not melt Does not melt Does not melt 260 C Does not
melt, 130 C.
begins to
yellow.
c) Decomposi- 240 C. 310 C. 230 C Unavailable 180 C.
tion begins at
d) Ignition 390 C. Unavailable 430 C 520 C. 590 C.
temperature
7 Density (g/cc) 1.50 –1.54 1.51 – 1.54 1.50 – 1.52 1.32 – 1.35 1.33 – 1.35
 MOLECULAR, PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON TEXTILE FIBRES
S. FIBRE SILK NYLON 66 POLYESTER ACRYLIC SPANDEX
No. PROPERTY
1 Molecular Natural Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic fibre
data protein fibre polyamide fibre fibre
fibre
a) Polymer Fibroin Polyhexamethy Polyethylene At least 85% At least 85%
Chemical -lene diamino terephthalate polyacrylonitril segmented
composition. adipamide e polyurethane
b) Molecular Short Short Short Very long Long
Dimensions
(approximate
)
c) Approximate 140 nm 90 – 140 nm 120 – 150 nm 500 nm Unavailable
length
d) Approximate 0.9 nm 0.3 nm 0.6 nm 0.3 – 0.5 nm 0.7 nm
thickness
e) Average DP Not known 50 –80 115 – 140 2000 Unavailable
2 Polymer Very Very Extremely Very Extremely
system crystalline crystalline crystalline crystalline amor.
(unstretched);
highly cryst.
(fully
stretched).
a) Estimated
amorphous 35 –20 35 –15 35 –15 30 – 20 -
region, %
b) Estimated
crystalline 65 - 70 65 –85 65 –85 70 – 80 -
region, %
3 Tenacity Strong Strong to Strong to Fair to strong Very weak
very strong very strong
a) Dry (gf/tex) 30 – 40 36 - 65 29 - 50 20 – 27 5–7
b) Wet (gf/tex) 23 – 32 32 – 55 29 - 50 16 – 24 5–7
c) Wet/dry, % 77 – 78 82 - 89 100 80 – 90 100
4 Elastic-plastic More plastic Elastic More elastic Slightly more Extremely
nature than elastic than plastic plastic than elastic
elastic
a) Elongation 1%(99%) 2%(100%) 2%(97%) 2%(97%) 5%(100%)
(Elastic 2%(92%) 5%(98%) 4%(90%) 4%(84%) 10%(100%)
recovery) 4%(70%) 10%(90%) 5%(87%) 5%(81%) 20%(100%)
10%(51%) 15%(82%) 8%(89%) 8%(75%) 50%(95%)
15%(40%) 20%(75%) 10%(77%) 10%(72%)
b) Handle Medium, Medium to Medium to Soft, waxy Medium, waxy
warm hard, waxy hard, waxy
S. FIBRE SILK NYLON 66 POLYESTER ACRYLIC SPANDEX
No. PROPERTY
5 Hygroscopic Very Not Completely Hydrophobic Hydrophobic
nature absorbant absorbant hydrophobic
a) Moisture 9.0 – 10.0 4.0 – 4.5 0.3 – 0.4 1.2 – 2.0 0.4 – 1.3
regain
at 65% RH
6 Thermal Very heat Heat Heat Very heat Extremely heat
Properties sensitive sensitive sensitive sensitive sensitive
a) Softening 100 C., 220 - 230 220 - 240 C. 235 C. 110 - 120 C.
range begins to
yellow
b) Melting point Does not melt 250 - 260 C. 250 - 260 C. Does not melt 230 C.

c) Decomposi- 170 C. 315 C. Unavailable 280 - 330 C. Unavailable

tion begins
at
d) Ignition 420 C. 520 C. Unavailable 560 C. Unavailable
temperature
7 Density (g/cc) 1.34(raw silk) 1.14 1.38 1.16 – 1.17 1.0
1.25(degum-
med)
S.No. Physical Cotton Jute Flax Silk Wool Viscose rayon Cellulose
Properties acetate
1. Length 1” – 18”
About 500 metres Continuous
Fine wool – 1”-5” Continuous
½” to 2 ½” 50” – 150 “ 4 “ – 40 “ from a single filament
Medium - 2” – 15 “ filament
cocoon
Coarse - 1”- 18”
2. Lustre Normally
Little or no lustre Fairly Lustre Lustrous Highly luster No Lustre Highly lustre
b right
3. Strength
Dry - 27 - 44 gf /tex Dry- 60 gf /tex 3.3 - 4.5 g/d 1–2g/d 2.6 g / d 1.5 g/d
27 to 52 gf /tex
Wet - 30 - 48 gf /tex Wet – 64 gf /tex 2.6 - 3.5 g / d 0.8 - 1.8 g/d 1.4 g /d 1 g /d
4. Elongation at
Dry - 7 % Dry - 15 % Dry - 25 %
Break 1 to 1.5 %
Wet - 10 % 1 to 3 % 20 % 25 to 30 % Wet - 25 % Wet – 35 %
5. Moisture
7 – 8.5 % 11 – 13 % 10 % 10 – 11 % 14 – 17 % 12 – 13 % 6.5 %
Regain
6. Heat Good conductor of Good insulator Good conductor Good insulator of Good conductor Good insulator
Good insulator of heat
Conductivity heat of heat of heat heat of heat of heat
7. Density Raw silk – 1.34
g/cc
1.50 – 1.54 g/cc 1.48 – 1.52 g/cc 1.52 – 1.54 g/cc 1.31 g/cc 1.52 g/cc 1.32 g/cc
Degummed
Silk – 1.25 g/cc
8. Microscopic Irregular thick Irregular, smooth,
Flat twisted ribbon Irregular thick cell
appearance cell wall and a structureless, Cylindrical and Cylindrical and Smooth
Shaped wall and a lumen
Longitudinal lumen of varying translucent overlapping scales striated cylindrical
of varying width.
View width. filament

Cross Kidney shaped or

More or less Irregular Irregular and
sectional bean shaped and a polygonal Nearly circular or oval Lobed
polygonal traiangular shape highly serrated
view small lumen
S.No. Chemical Cotton Jute Flax Silk Wool Viscose rayon Cellulose
Properties acetate
1. Polymer Linear cellulosic Linear cellulosic Fibroin which is a
LIgno cellulose Keratin which is a Regenerated cellulose (C6H7.7O2.7
polymer polymer protein polymer
(C6H10O5) n protein polymer (C6H10O5) n (OCOCH3) 2.3)
(C6H10O5)= 10000 (C6H10O5) n (NHCO)
2. DP 18000 cellobiose
5000 cellobiose units 175 – 200 130
units
3. Effect of Cold dilute acids
Cold dilute acids
acids have no action on
have no action on
Cotton fibres jute. Hot Damaged by hot Concentrated mineral
jute. Hot Silk is readily Cold dilute
weakened and concentrated sulphuric acid and acids attack the fibre
concentrated acids soluble in hydro acids have no
destroyed by acids acids hydrolyse not affected by and form
hydrolyse and chloric acid action
like HNO3, H2SO4 and hydro- other acids hydrocellulose
hydro- cellulose is
cellulose is
formed
formed
4. Effect of Cold concentrated
Alkalis Strong alkali caustic alkalis have
Cotton fibres are Cold dilute
degrade the fibre Not affected by little effect on silk Damaged by
more resistant to alkalis have no
and reduce the alkais but prolonged strong alkalis
alkais action
strength action the fibre get
dissolved
5. Effect of sun It become yellow Wool is weakened Loses strength
It become yellow More resistant to Continuous Long exposure to
light when exposed to by prolonged on long
with prolonged sunlight than exposure to sunlight sunlight weaken the
sunlight and loss in exposure to exposure to
exposure to sunlight cotton weakens the fibre. fibre
strength sunlight sunlight
6. Affinity for Acid, basic,
Direct, napthol, vat, Direct, napthol, vat, Basic, Acid, Metal Direct, napthol, vat,
Dyestuffs Less affinity for chrome and metal
reactive and sulphur sulphue and basic complex and direct reactive and sulphur
dyes complex dyes can
dyes can be applied dyes can be applied dyes can be applied dyes can be applied
be applied
7. Resistance to Not attacked by Not affected by
Not attacked by Moulds and mildew
micro It is attacked by More resistant to Attacked by mildew . But moulds,
mildew . But discolour and weaken
biological mildew and bacteria mildew than cotton mildew attacked by mildew and
attacked by insects viscose rayon
attack insects bacteria
8. Effect of
Not affected by Not affected by Not affected by Not affected by Not affected by Not affected by
water Not affected by water
water water water water water water
Sl.No. Physical Polynosic Tencel Nylon 66 Nylon 6 Nomex Kevlar Polyester Acrylic Polyethylene Polypropylene
Properties Rayon (Lyocel) (Strongest
(High wet fibre)
modulus
rayon)Modal
1. Length Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous
filament filament filament filament filament filament filament filament filament filament
2. Strength Dry tenacity Dry – 4.5 – Regular nylon - 4 -5 g/d Dry - 4.5 – Dry - 23 - Normal - 5 Dry - 2.5 - 3.2
- 3.2 g/d 5.0 g/d HT Nylon – 7-9 g/d 5.3 g/d 26.5 g/d -6 g/d g/d
Wet – 2.7 Wet – 4.0 Wet - 3.0 – Wet to Dry HT – 8-9 Wet - 2.3 –
g/d – 4.5 g/d 4.1 g/d ratio – 95% g/d 2.8 g/d
Wet to dry : Staple
70 % fibre – 3.5
– 4.0 g/d
3. Elongation Dry – 10 % 14 - 16 % Regular Nylon 30 % Dry – 22-32 Dry – 2.5 - Normal – 25 - 35 %
at Break Wet – 12 % HT Nylon – 16-20 % % 4.0 % 25 – 30 %
Wet – 20 - HT – 12 –
30 % 10 %
Staple
fibre - 40
– 30 %
4. Moisture 10 % 10 % 4% 4.5 % 4.3 % 0.4 % 1 - 2%
Regain
5. Heat Good Good Melting Melting It does not It does not Melting Do not melt ,
Conductivity Conductor Conductor point -250 point -215 melt. melt. point -250 decomposition
of heat of heat – 260°C – 220°C Decomposes Decomposes – 260°C – 280 – 330°C
at 371°C at about Heat set -
482°C 180 –
200°C
6. Density 1.50 – 1.14 g/cc 1.38 g/cc 1.44 -1.47 1.38 g/cc 1.16 – 1.17
1.53g/cc g/cc g/cc
7. Microscopic Cylindrical Cylindrical and Smooth Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical
Appearance and Smooth
Longitunal
View
8. Cross Round and Circular and trilobal Dumb-bell Circular Circular or Dry spun –
sectional smooth or a regular trilobal dog bone or
view peanut-shell dumb bell
shape
Wet spun -
Circular or
Kidney(Bean)
shaped
Sl.No. Chemical Polynosic Rayon Nylon 66 Nylon 6 Nomex Kevlar Polyester Acrylic Polyeth Polypro
Properties (High wet ylene pylene
modulus
rayon)Modal
1. Polymer (C6H10O5) same Hexamethylene- Poly caprolactam Poly meta Poly para Polyethylene Polyacrylonitrile
as that of cotton diamino- adipamide phenylene phenylene terephthalate
and viscose isophthalamide terephthalamide
2. DP More crystalline Crystalline – Crystalline – Crystalline – 65 -85 % Crystalline - 70 – 80 %
than visocose 65 -85 % 65 -85 % Amorphous - 35 -15 % DP - 2000
rayon Amorphous – Amorphous – DP -115-140
DP -400 – 500 35 -15 % 35 -15 %
DP - 50 - 80 DP - 200
3. Effect of Conc.Mineral Unaffected Very resistant to acids Fair to good
Acids Acid affects and Fair resistance to acids
form
hydrocellulose

4. Effect of Like cotton it can Good resistance to alkalis Good Good resistance to Less resistance to Fair to good
Alkalis be mercerised resistance to alkalis but should strong alkalis
alkalis, not bleached
bleaches and
solvents
5. Resistance Long Exposure Weakens on Weakens on Good Good Loss strength when Weakens on
to light weaken the fibre prolonged exposure prolonged Slight loss in But prolonged exposed to sun light prolonged exposure to
to light.mainly UV exposure to light. strength sunlight causes for long periiods light.mainly UV rays
rays affect deterioration affect
6. Affinity for Direct, Reactive, Acid, reactive, Acid, reactive, Non-dyeable Non-dyeable Only disperse dyes Disperse dyes
Dye stuffs Azoic, Sulphur Direct, Metal Direct, Metal Staple fibre Spun dyed to Cationic dyeable
and Vat dyes complex and complex and dyed with required colours
disperse dyes disperse dyes cationic dyes
Only lighter shades Only darker
shades
7. Biological Highly resistant to Highly resistant to Excellent Excellent resisitance Good Good
Resistance insects, moulds and insects, moulds resisitance to mildew and
bacteria and bacteria ageing
8. Solvent 60 % sulphuric Phenol, Cresol, Phenol, Cresol, Hot m-cresol, Hot Dimethyl formamide
Acid Formic acid and by Formic acid and Conc. Sulphuric acid or dimethyl acetamide
mineral acids by mineral acids and Cold COnc.Nitric Acid,
Dissolved in 60 % orthochlorophenol ethyle carbonate and
acetic acid and A mixture of ammonium
4.2N HCL at room trichloroacetic acid thiocyanate
temp. and Phenol)