Temperature Transuducers
What is a Thermistor?
• A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined
a s a t y p e o f r e s i s to r w h o s e e l e c t r i ca l
resistance varies with changes in temperature.
Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate
slightly with temperature, a thermistor is
particularly sensitive to temperature changes.
• Thermistors act as a passive component in a
circuit. They are an accurate, cheap, and
robust way to measure temperature.
Uses of Thermistors
Thermistors have a variety of applications. They are widely used
as a way to measure temperature as a thermistor thermometer
in many different liquid and ambient air environments. Some of
the most common uses of thermistors include:
• Digital thermometers (thermostats)
• Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars &
trucks)
• Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
• Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
• Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is
maintained)
• To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
• Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino
starter kit)
• Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for
effects caused by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)
• Used in wheatstone bridge circuits
Construction of Thermistor
A thermistor is made of oxides of metals such as
Nickel, Manganese, Cobalt, Copper, Uranium
etc. It is available in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Commonly used for configurations are
Disk type, Bead type and Rod type.
• The disc type thermistor and rod type thermistor
is used when greater power dissipation is
required. The rod type thermistor has high power
handling capacity.
• The smallest thermistor in these configurations is
the bead type thermistor. its diameter is low as
0.15 mm. The measurement element is typically
encapsulated in a glass probe. It is commonly
used for measuring the temperature of liquids.
Working Principle of Thermistors
Thermistors functioning is described as
• The principle obeyed by the thermistor is its dependency on-resistance values
on the change in temperature.
• The value of resistance can be measured by using an ohmmeter. These are
connected in series with the battery and the meter.
• The change in the resistance is depending upon the material chosen in the
construction of the thermistor.
• Thermistors are considered to be a special variety of resistors. Generally, the
resistor is known for limiting the amount of current in the circuit.
• But in this thermal resistors, the change in the resistance is dependent upon
the change in temperature.
• If the temperature tends to increase the resistance in the circuit decreases in
these special variants of resistors. It is decided based on the coefficient of
temperature.
Thermistor Types
There are two types of thermistors:
• Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor
• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor
NTC Thermistor
• In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases,
resistance decreases. And when temperature decreases,
resistance increases. Hence in an NTC thermistor temperature
and resistance are inversely proportional. These are the most
common type of themistor.
• The relationship between resistance and temperature in an
NTC thermistor is governed by the following expression:
Where:
• RT is the resistance at temperature T (K)
• R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (K)
• T0 is the reference temperature (normally 25oC)
• β is a constant, its value is dependant on the characteristics of
the material. The nominal value is taken as 4000.
• If the value of β is high, then the resistor–temperature relationship will be
very good. A higher value of β means a higher variation in resistance for
the same rise in temperature – hence you have increased the sensitivity
(and hence accuracy) of the thermistor.
• From the expression (1), we can obtain the resistance temperature co-
efficient. This is nothing but the expression for the sensitivity of the
thermistor.
• αT has a negative sign. This negative sign indicates the negative resistance-
temperature characteristics of the NTC thermistor.
• If β = 4000 K and T = 298 K, then the αT = –0.0045/oK. This is much higher
than the sensitivity of platinum RTD. This would be able to measure the
very small changes in the temperature.
PTC Thermistor
• A PTC thermistor has the reverse relationship between temperature and
resistance. When temperature increases, the resistance increases.
• And when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. Hence in a PTC
thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely proportional.
• Although PTC thermistors are not as common as NTC thermistors, they
are frequently used as a form of circuit protection. Similar to the function
of fuses, PTC thermistors can act as current-limiting device.
• When current passes through a device it will cause a small amount of
resistive heating. If the current is large enough to generate more heat
than the device can lose to its surroundings then the device heats up.
• In a PTC thermistor, this heating up will also cause its resistance will
increase. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance
upwards, therefore limiting the current. In this way, it acts as a current
limiting device – protecting the circuit.
Thermistor Construction
• To make a thermistor, two or more semiconductor
powders made of metallic oxides are mixed with a
binder to form a slurry.
• Small drops of this slurry are formed over the lead
wires. For drying purposes, we have to put it into
a sintering furnace.
• During this process, the slurry will shrink onto the
lead wires to make an electrical connection.
• This processed metallic oxide is sealed by putting
a glass coating on it. This glass coating gives a
waterproof property to the thermistors – helping
to improve their stability.
Thermistor Characteristics
The relationship governing the characteristics of a thermistor
is given below as:
Where:
• R1 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature
T1[oK]
• R2 = resistance of the thermistor at temperature T2 [oK]
• β = constant depending upon the material of
the transducer (e.g. an oscillator transducer)
• We can see in the equation above that the relationship
between temperature and resistance is highly nonlinear. A
standard NTC thermistor usually exhibits a negative thermal
resistance temperature coefficient of about 0.05/oC.
Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is defined as a thermal junction
that functions based on the phenomenon of the
thermoelectric effect, i.e. the direct conversion of
temperature differences to an electric voltage. It is
an electrical device or sensor used to measure
temperature.
• A thermocouple can measure a wide range of
temperatures. It is a simple, robust, and cost-
effective temperature sensor used in various
industrial applications, home, office, and
commercial applications.
• In 1821, German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck
found that a magnetic field is produced when two
different metals are connected at one end and create a
temperature difference between two ends.
• He observed that due to the magnetic field the voltage
is induced by the thermoelectric effect. However, this
voltage is very small (in terms of mV) and depends on
the type of metal used in the thermocouple.
• According to the applications, different designed
configurations of thermocouples include
thermocouple probes, probes with connectors,
infrared thermocouples, base wire thermocouples, and
just thermocouple wire.
How does a Thermocouple Work?
• A thermocouple consists of two plates of
different metals. Both plates are connected at
one end and make a junction.
• The junction is placed on the element or
surface where we want to measure the
temperature. This junction is known as a hot
junction. And the second end of the plate is
kept at a lower temperature (room
temperature). This junction is known as a
cold junction or reference junction.
Working of Thermocouple
• According to the Seebeck effect, the temperature
difference between the two different metals
induces the potential differences between two
points of the thermocouple plates.
• If the circuit is closed, a very small amount of
current will flow through the circuit. A voltmeter
is connected to the circuit. The voltage measured
by the voltmeter is a function of a temperature
difference between two junctions.
• Hence, by measuring the voltage, we can calculate
the temperature of the hot junction.
Types of Thermocouples
• TYPE K THERMOCOUPLE
Alloy Combination: Chromel®/Alumel® Temp. Range: (0 to 1260)
°C [32 to 2300] °F
• TYPE J THERMOCOUPLE
Alloy Combination: Iron/Constantan Temp. Range: (0 to 760) °C
[32 to 1400] °F
• TYPE T THERMOCOUPLE
Alloy Combination: Copper/Constantan Temp. Range: (-200 to
370) °C [-328 to 700] °F
• TYPE E THERMOCOUPLE
Alloy Combination: Chromel®/Constantan Temp. Range: (0 to
870) °C [32 to 1600] °F
• TYPE N THERMOCOUPLE
Alloy Combination: Nicrosil®/Nisil® Temp. Range: (0 to 1260)
°C [32 to 2300] °F
• TYPE S THERMOCOUPLE & TYPE R THERMOCOUPLE
Type S Alloy Combination: Platinum/Platinum (10% Rhodium)
Type R Alloy Combination: Platinum/Platinum (13% Rhodium)
Temp. Range: (538 to 1481) °C [1000 to 2700] °F
Thermocouple Applications
• It is used to monitor the temperature in the steel and iron industries.
For, this type of application, type B, S, R, and K thermocouples are used
in the electric arc furnace.
• The principle of a thermocouple is used to measure the intensity of
incident radiation (especially visible and infrared light). This instrument
is known as a thermopile radiation sensor.
• It is used in the temperature sensors in thermostats to measure the
temperature of the office, showrooms, and homes.
• The thermocouple is used to detect the pilot flame in the appliances
that are used to generate heat from gas like a water heater.
• To test the current capacity, it is installed to monitor the temperature
while testing the thermal stability of switchgear equipment.
• The number of thermocouples is installed in the chemical production
plant and petroleum refineries to measure and monitor temperature at
different stages of the plant.
Thermistor vs Thermocouple
The main differences between a thermistor and a thermocouple are:
q Thermistors:
• A more narrow range of sensing (55 to +150oC – although this varies
depending on the brand)
• Sensing parameter = Resistance
• Nonlinear relationship between the sensing parameter (resistance) and
temperature
• NTC thermistors have a roughly exponential decrease in resistance with
increasing temperature
• Good for sensing small changes in temperature (it’s hard to use a
thermistor accurately and with high resolution over more than a 50oC
range).
• The sensing circuit is simple and doesn’t need amplification & is very
simple
• Accuracy is usually hard to get better than 1oC without calibration
q Thermocouples:
• Have a wide range of temperature sensing (Type T = -
200-350oC; Type J = 95-760°C; Type K = 95-1260°C;
other types go to even higher temperatures)
• Can be very accurate
• Sensing parameter = voltage generated by junctions at
different temperatures
• Thermocouple voltage is relatively low
• Have a linear relationship between the sensing
parameter (voltage) and temperature
Thermistor vs RTD
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (also known as RTD
sensors) are very similar to thermistors. Both RTDs and
thermistors have varying resistance dependent on the
temperature.
• The main difference between the two is the type of
material that they are made of. Thermistors are commonly
made with ceramic or polymer materials while RTDs are
made of pure metals. In terms of performance, thermistors
win in almost all aspects.
• Thermistors are more accurate, cheaper, and have faster
response times than RTDs. The only real disadvantage of a
thermistor vs an RTD is when it comes to temperature
range. RTDs can measure temperature over a wider range
than a thermistor.
RTD vs Thermocouple
• RTD (Resistance Thermometer Detectors) and Thermocouple both
devices are used to measure the temperature. And it is difficult to
conclude which is better for overall performance as a temperature
sensor.
• But if you specify some performance parameters like cost, range of
temperature, ruggedness, and speed of measurement, the thermocouple
has a better performance compared to RTD.
• The cost of a thermocouple is much less (almost 2.5 to 3 times)
compared to RTD. And also, the cost of installation is cheaper. The RTD
is designed to measure a limited range of temperatures.
• The advantage of an RTD is that it is more accurate compared to the
thermocouple. And the repeatability of measurement is more compared
to the thermocouple. Hence, RTD is preferred in the application where
the most accurate temperature is required.
• So, both devices have their advantages and disadvantages. The
thermocouple has a wide range of temperature measurements, is
cheaper, and is durable. On the other hand, RTD has better accuracy
and reliable measurement.
