ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN'S ORGANIZATION

Women form an important social category. Social empowerment is meaningless if half of the
population of country remains in grips of malnourishment, selective sex abortion etc. The basis
of woman as a social group is not limited to biological but also the socio-cultural entity. Social
status and roles of women are defined not only in terms of the gender dimension but also in
terms of the norms, values, beliefs, traditions and customs of the society.
Women as a social category cut across the boundary of caste, class, race, estate etc.
social groupings. Women as a social group have diversified socio-economic groups and are
also divided in terms of spatial considerations like rural and urban. However, women are
frequently an oppressed group within each unit of socio-economic stratification.
However, we cannot simplify women’s issue as a conflict between men and women, or
the women’s movements as a crusade against men. Indeed, these issues are an outcome of the
prevailing social system. The norms, values, customs and old socialisation processes govern
each member of society, over generations to form his/her attitudes and behavioural patterns.
Similarly, these also formulate expectations of each member of society. The structural
arrangement of the society provides women low position. They are economically exploited and
discriminated, socially subjugated and politically rendered a powerless group in the society.
Women’s issues are thus perceived to be linked to social issues. These issues are
especially focussed on women’s unequal access to productive resources, decision-making
bodies, health care facilities, education, employment opportunities and social justice. In this
respect, the study of women’s issues needs to be incorporated within the discussion of wider
social issues, concerning the rights of underprivileged sections of society. The life-cycle
approach adopted in the section relating to women issues delineates women issues specific to
various categories including some emerging issues in contemporary India.
Structure
 Status of Women: A timeline
 Status of Women in History
 Role of Women in Freedom Movement
 Socio Cultural Context of Women in India today
 Gender Stereotyping
 Reflections of Gender Stereotyping: Individual, Family and Societal level
 Stereotype behind the very notion of gender: Transgender Rights
 Introduction to women’s Issues: A Structural Problem
 Women Issues in India: A life-cycle approach
 Unborns, Infants and Girl Child
 Missing Millions: A National Shame
 Child marriage: Depriving childhood of girl child
 Adolescent girls
 High dropout rate
 Issues around Menstruation in India
 Violence against Women
 A gendered phenomena
  Forms and manifestations
 Domestic violence, bride burning
 Sexual Violence in India
 Nirbhaya and aftermath
 Criminilisation of Marital Rape: A distant dream in India
 Child Sex Abuse and POCSO
 Child Sex abuse and death penalty
 Honour Crimes: Intersection gender-based and caste-based violence
 Issues concerning working women
 Declining female labour force participation rate
 Gender pay gap
 Unpaid, unrecognized work
 Harassment at workplace
 Issues concerning other categories
 Elderly women
 Differently-abled women
 Dalits and tribals
 Sex workers
 Contemporary Issues
 Sale of Womb in India: Issues around surrogacy
 Issues related to Assistive Reproductive Technologies (ART)
 Harassment in cyberspace
 Debate around abortion
 Religious rights of women
 Women’s movement in India
 Evolution and new women’s movement

Status of Women: A timeline

Status of women in History
In the Rig Vedic civilisation women enjoyed equal status with men. Women like men received
education and observed bramhacharya and upanayana was also performed on them.
They studied the Vedas. Women like Gosha, Apala, Vishvara composed Vedic hymns.
In the age of Upanishads there were women like Gargi and Maithreyi. Women could own
property and widows could remarry. They were not secluded from men and could freely
participate in public life. They enjoyed freedom of choice in marriages and settled their own
marriages. Monogamy was a general rule. Polyandry and sati were unknown.
The position of women in Rig-Vedic period deteriorated in the later Vedic period. Daughter
came to be regarded as a curse. However women still participated in public life. They were
denied the right of inheritance and od ownership of property. They continued to have the
upanayana, received education and worked as teachers. Intermarriages between bramhanas
and kshatriyas were not unknown.
During the Buddhist period women were not denied learning. They took active part in public
life but did not enjoy the right of Vedic studies.
The position of women further deteriorated in Gupta age. Dowry as an institution emerged in
this period. Widows could not remarry again. They had to spend a life in penance and austerity.
They had no right to property. Sati became popular in 7th century AD. Some women did receive
higher education like Lilavati in arithematic and Khana in astronomy.
The period between 1206 and 1761 withnessed further deterioration in the position of women.
In this period femal infanticide, child marriage, purdah, jauhar, sati, and slavery were the main
social evils affecting the position of women. The birth of a daughter was considered bad luck.
Giving freedom to women was thought of as the predecessor of doom. Women were largely
uneducated and remained confined to their homes. Conservatism, superstition and belief in
magic, sorcery and witchcraft were part of women’s existence. A woman’s devotion to her
husband, children and home was universally accepted as a positive value.
Status of Women in British Period
Sati, infanticide, slavery, child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage and the lack of
women’s rights were some of the social problems which attracted the attention of British Raj and
social reformers alike.
The reform movements and the national movement generated social consciousness among
women. The All India Women;s Conference was established in January 1927. This
concentrated on educational and social work among women. Mahatma Gandhi brought women
out into public life. The women of the middle classes came forward to take employment in 1930s
and 1940s. On matters of inheritance, marriage and the the rights of married women the law
applied was a mix on ancient Hindu law and British law.
The second half of 19th century witnessed several reforms. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar started agitation for widow remarriage and were successful in getting The
Hindu Widow Remarriage Act passed in 1856. In 1861 a Widow Remarriage Association was
formed. Further following legislations enhanced the status of women. Hindu law of Inheritance
1929, Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act of 1937, Hindu Marriage Disability Removal Act
1946 etc.
Role of Women in Freedom Movement
Many women played a heroic role in Indian freedom movement.
Woman’s participation in India‟s freedom struggle began as early as in 1817. Bhima Bai Holkar
fought bravely against the British colonel „Malcolm and defeated him in Guerilla warfare.
Many women including Rani Channamma of Kittur, Rani Begam Hazrat Mahal of Avadh fought
against British East India Company in the 19th century; 30 years before the “First War of
Independence 1857”.
The role played by women in the War of Independence of 1857 was creditable. The leaders of
the out – break were included women, most important amongst them being Hazrat Mahal, Rani
Laksmi Bai and the Rani of Ramgarh. The Thakurain of Budri, Rani Digambar Kaur and the
Rani of Tikari also actively helped in the struggle.
Swadeshi Movement in the aftermath of Partition of Bengal in 1905 witnessed huge
participation from women.
Kumudini Mitter, daughter of Kristo Mitter, a well-known public leader, propagated the cult of
revolution through „Suprabhat‟, a Bengali magazine.
In Bombay, Mrs. Ketkar (Tilak‟s daughter) and Mrs. A.V. Joshi, were very active in propagating
the Swadeshi Movement.
In other parts of the country Sushila Devi of Sialkot, Hardevi of Lahore, Purani of Hissar, and
Agayavati of Delhi were some of the important women who played a notable role spreading the
message of extremist nationalism.
Sarla Devi, niece of Rabiindranath Tagore, opened a shop called Lakshmi Bhandar for
popularizing Swadeshi goods.
Thus the Swadeshi Movement, perhaps for the first time, drew women out from the seclusion of
their homes.
Madam Bhikaji Cama (1861-1936), , decided to work outside India to build up public opinion in
favor of India‟s freedom. She left India in 1902 to join the noted revolutionary Shyamji Krishna
Verma in London. She undertook travels in Europe and America. She established contracts with
revolutionaries in Ireland, Russia, Egypt and Germany and tried to smuggle revolvers to the
extremists in India concealed in toys as Christmas gifts. She attended the Socialist Congress at
Stuttgart in Germany in August 1907, where she, for the first time, unfurled the flag of Indian
freedom. She had to shift her centre of activities from London to Paris where she started the
Journal “Bande Mataram” to propagate her ideas. She was also a very active member of the
„Abinab Bharat Society‟ started by V. D. Savarkar in India and London.
Two women, Annie Besant (1847-1933) and Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949), had made a deep
impact on the minds of Indian women.
Annie Besant was a dynamic force in Indian Politics and rendered valuable service to the cause
of national regeneration in India both from political and cultural points of view. She founded the
Home Rule League in 1916 and edited two journals, The New India and the Commonwealth.
Further she was the first President (1917) of the Indian National Congress.
Sarojini Naidu entered into active politics and joined the Home Rule League in 1916.
Gandhijis‟ non-cooperation movement saw participation of women in an unprecedented
scale. Sarla Devi Chaudhurani, Sarojini Naidu and Kamala Devi Chattopadhya were in the
forefront of the struggle in Bengal.
Basanti Devi, wife of C. R. Das, Leela Roy, Aruna Asaf Ali, Santosh Kumari Gupta, Shanti,
Indumati Goenka, Ila Sen and Bina Das were some of the other prominent ladies who led the
young women of Bengal in the non-cooperation movement.
In the Punjab, Smt. Radha Devi, wife of Lala Lajpat Rai, was in the forefront of the struggle.
Parvati Devi, Abida Bano Begum, , mother of Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, exhorted Muslim
ladies to give up purdah and work for the freedom of the country.
In Uttar Pradesh, Swarup Rani Nehru, Kamala Nehru and Begum Abdul Qadir were in the
vanguard of the non-cooperation movement.
When Civil Disobedience Movement gathered momentum, participation of women in the
agitation everywhere was unprecedented.
Kalpana Dutta, Shanti Gosh, Bina Dass, Pritti Lata Waddedar and Sumiti Chaudhuri had played
a noteable role in the revolutionary activities.
With the passing of the Quit India Resolution in August , 1942, prominent women such as
Sucheta Kripalani, Aruna Asaf Ali and others went underground to carry on the struggle. Aruna
Asaf Ali was able to hoist the National Flag on August 9 at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay.
Usha Mehta broadcast news and gave talks in Hindustani on a secret transmitter.
A large number of women of Indian origin gave active help in rising funds and volunteered to
constitute a women‟s wing of the Indian National Army, under the leadership of Netaji
Subhas Chandra Bose.Smt. M. K. Chidambaram, Saraswati, and Dr. S. Lakshmi were the most
prominent members of the women‟s Section of the Indian Independence League. They raised a
women‟s regiment which was significantly named after the Rani of Jhansi.
Socio Cultural Context of Women in India today
The socio cultural landscape for women is a complex mixture of the new and the old. Numerous
modern institutions rest on the base of the tradition.
Industrialisation, globalisation, urbanisation and modernisation have led to some irreversible
changes for women: some positive and some problematic.
While on one hand a liberalised economy has offered better education, jobs, decision making
powers and opportunities for women, on the other, women have been targets of a strong
backlash with increased violence in and outside the home, acute wage differentials and
discrimination and continuing commodification in society. Further migration, skewed sex ratio,
environmental degradation have added to the women’s vulnerability.
India is a male dominated society in which the economic, political, religious, social and cultural
institutions are largely controlled by men. This control over women’s livelihood choices and
sexuality has existed and evolved over centuries through various discriminatory social practices
and institutions. A combination of family, caste, community, and religion reinforce and legitimise
these patriarchal values. Stereotyping of women and their roles continues in public and private
institutions.
On one hand they are worshipped as goddesses, while on the other burnt for dowry. Girls are
considered an unwanted burden yet used to support their brothers and men and suffer in
silence as atrocities such as abuse, violence, rape and early marriages. Discriminatory practices
such as child marriages, dowry, honour killing, witch hunting and gender biased sex selection
indicate profound vulnerability of and inequality towards girls and women in Indian society.

Gender stereotyping and role of woman

Introduction

Gender stereotypes are preconceived notions about males and females. It is a generalized
view that certain attributes ought to be possessed; certain roles ought to be performed by a
particular gender. These stereotypes when ascribed to an individual man or woman and
inferences drawn based on the generalized assumptions it leads to the practice of gender
stereotyping.

Many of these stereotypes are perceived and not actual differences like men are aggressive,
strong and competitive and women are weak, passive and empathetic. These beliefs have
resulted in stereotypes in roles like women are caregivers and homemakers and men are
breadwinners and heads of households. These stereotype when combined with other
stereotypes results in compounded stereotypes like older men are inefficient, women with
disability are asexual, rural women are uneducated etc.

Further stereotypes are both positive and negative. However one thing should be made clear at
the outset that they are harmful, even the positive ones.

Reflections of Gender Stereotyping

Individual level

 Identities are formed based on ones interaction with the ‘other’ and woman’s identity is
no different. Woman identities are formed on the basis of their interaction with the family,
society and other institutions of socialization often embedded with gender
stereotypes. The identities so-formed based on stereotypes often results in
discrimination of women in various walks of life. For instance gender-based violence is
largely due to wrongful stereotype that women are physically weak.

At the level of family

Gender stereotypes particularly role-based stereotypes in marriage and family relations have
resulted in wide scale discrimination.

 Marriage is considered as the ultimate destiny of a woman, and nurturing children and
caring for family members her primary role.
 Stereotypes like women are homemakers and caregivers has imposed on them extra
burden of child rearing being solely responsible. This is being reflected even in laws
that entitles 26 weeks of Maternity leave to women (Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act,
2017) as opposed to 15 days of Paternity leave for men in All India Civil Services Rules.
 The stereotypes reflected in the patriarchal mindset in India have resulted in women
being primarily confined to private sphere and men more suitable in the public sphere.
 The stereotype that the primary role of women is motherhood has curbed women’s
sexual expression and reproductive freedom including unwanted pregnancies,
deteriorating sexual and reproductive health of women.
 Further wrongful stereotyping of wives being the sexual properties of husbands has
hindered the criminalization of marital rape in India. (forced sex is a crime under
Section 375 of IPC only in case of minor wives between the ages 15-18.

Wider societal level

  Inequality: Social, Economic and Political
 Deep-seated attitudinal bias against women manifests itself in low status of women, poor
representation in political decision-making and exclusion from economic activities and
hence national development.
 Education
 Categorizing subjects on the basis of gender is prevalent in the education system, with
boys considered to be better off at math, science and engineering and girls being
enrolled in arts and humanities, notwithstanding exceptions and changing trends.
 Professions
 The stereotyping in professions is still more glaring with glamour being associated with a
female body and sports being still considered a ‘gentleman’s game’ (cricket)
 This discrimination is widely prevalent particularly in the so called ‘tough professions’
such as police, armed forces etc.
 The wrongful stereotyping goes to the extent of even naming professional designations
after gender like chairMAN, workMAN etc.
 Feminisation of Agriculture
 One of the reasons for ‘feminisation of agriculture labour’ is the gender stereotypes
that men are bed winners and thus migrate in search of jobs to urban and peri-urban
areas confining 75% rural women to the agriculture.
 Political decision making
 India stands 149th behind even Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan in the rank list of
the percentage of women representatives in the Parliament.
 Women represent a meager 14% with only 77 women candidates out of 543 in the 17th
Lok sabha in the aftermath of the 2019 general elections
 What is worse and reflective of gender stereotype is that less than 10% of 8000-odd
candidates were women (715) in the 2019 elections
 Son-meta preference and declining child sex ratio
 Gender stereotypes have deprived women of equal opportunities in various spheres of
employment, equal wages and made them more vulnerable to poverty.
 The lack of access to resources to women has resulted in women being treated as
second class citizens.
 This in turn has manifested in declining child sex ratio, missing girls and meta-son
preference highlighted in Economic Survey 2017-18.

Stereotype on the very notion of gender: Transgender rights

The understanding of transgender in India best represents stereotypes on the very notions of
gender. The stereotypical belief the Indian society holds on the very definition of gender has
often lead to grave violation of their fundamental rights that the constitution guarantees
irrespective of caste, creed, gender etc. The Transgender Persons Protection of Rights Bill
2018 that seeks to restore and protect the rights of transgender community in India is ridden
with the fundamental flaw of not recognizing the right to self determination of gender. This is
against the spirit of the famous NALSA decision of the Supreme Court of India in 2014,
according to which gender is an innate experience of the individual. With transgender
community representing more than 5 lakh of the citizenry it deserves freedom from the societal
stereotype and conferred the right of self-determination.

Conclusion

Office of Human Rights Commission has declared gender stereotyping as a human rights
violation and Gender Stereotyping is the root cause of discrimination against women and
transgender across the spectrum. Women face violations of a vast array of rights such as the
right to health, adequate standard of living, education, marriage and family relations, work,
freedom of expression, freedom of movement, political participation and representation, gender-
based violence etc. In this backdrop the following section is written in an attempt to understand
women issues in India.

Women Issues
Women Issues: A structural problem

Woman as a social category faces wide-spread discrimination in Indian society. The

discrimination against women should not just be seen in relation to men. Various social
structures and institutions alike, be it caste, class, religion, politics, economy, family etc are
fraught with rules that have led to exclusion of women. The deep-seated patriarchal tradition
has shaped the male-dominated binaries of public-private spheres, productive-reproductive
roles, and economic-cultural realms in India. Patriarchy has relegated women to private
domestic sphere, obligated them to play merely reproductive roles and identified them with the
‘cultural’ realm of the society. Thus by confining them to family and motherhood, a kind of
systemic subjugation of women has been in play in India. Their position in various social
structures limits their access to rights and entitlements leading to women enjoying the status of
second-class citizens in India. Thus women issue is a structural problem in India.

Women Issues in India: A life cycle approach

Unborns, Infants and Girl Child

The discrimination against girl child starts at the very womb of the mother continues through the
early childhood. Infanticide to abortion to neglect in the early life, the life cycle of a girl child is
deliberately suppressed leading to what is called as missing millions leading to Child Sex Ratio
declining to an abysmal low.

Firstly, they are breast fed for shorter period. Further, many parents show lesser concern to girl
child during illness. Finally, a female child is made responsible for household chores like
cooking, caring for younger siblings very early in life. This extra burden during childhood has
long-lasting impact throughout their lives.

Missing Millions: A National Shame

According to Niti Aayog, the sex ratio at birth in India has worsened from 906 in 2012-2014 to
900 in 2013-2015. Further the Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) was at an all time low of 914 girls to
1000 boys as per the 2011 census. This led the Economic Survey of 2017-2018 to identify 63
million ‘Missing girls’ in India until 2014.

The main reasons for the prevalence of ‘Missing Girls’ and decline Child Sex Ration are sex
selection biased in favour of male child, neglect of girl children, inadequate nutrition and
discriminatory practices. Further the son-meta preference has exasperated the national shame
of daughter deficits in India.

Female infanticide to Sex selective abortions

The daughter deficit is a structural issue in India that is consciously perpetuated first through
female infanticide and with advancement in sex-selection techniques through abortions. Today
the number of abortions has outnumbered the number of infanticides in India reiterating
prevalence of preference for male child.

Pre-1970s: Female infanticide

Till 1970s preferred way of killing the girl child was female infanticide.

Post 70s: Sex determination and Female foeticide

With emergence of technologies like amniocentesis, ultrasound tests etc, people started
adopting sex determination and abortion.

Post 90s – Sex selection at conception

Post 90s technologies for sex selection even before conception became available.

Failure of PCPNDT Act

In order to arrest the problem of sex-selection and female foeticide, the government in 1994
introduced the Prenatal Diagnostics Techniques Act. In 2003, PDT act was amended to become
the Prenatal Conception and Prenatal Determination Act (PCPNDT) which regulates sex
selection before or after conception.

However the PCPNDT Act is a failure in India with around 2300 cases of infanticide and 2000
cases of abortion registered under the act between 1994 and 2014. Today’s trend is that the
number of abortions has outnumbered infanticides.

Beti Bachao and Beti Padao

To address this issue the government in 2015 launched the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Programme. The programme is said to have produced positive results with child sex ratio
improving from 914 to 919 (NFHS-4) in the 1st phase. This has led to nation-wide scaling up of
the initiative to cover all 640 districts. Beti Bachao Beti Padao focuses specifically on prevention
of sex selective abortions through effective enforcement of PCPNDT Act. The Supreme Court in
2017 also played its part in directing the search engines such as Google and Yahoo to block
content relating to pre-natal sex determination.
Besides the government has launched the Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana, a small savings
scheme to reduce financial burden associated with marriage and education of daughters.

From protection to promotion: The way forward

What is needed is a radical shift in the approach moving from protection of girl child to
promotion of women as a category. This is done not just by improving the image of the girl child
but increasing the value of the girl child. A rights-based lifecycle approach with focus on
nutrition, health, education, equal entitlements in property rights, employment and income
generation is the need of the day. Finally only an over-arching gender sensitization programme
focusing at the individual level through education, at the institutional level, public and private, at
societal level through professional behavioural campaign is the only way to not add more to the
shameless inventory of ‘Missing Millions’.

Child Marriage: Depriving Childhood

A measure of Childhood deprivation, End of Childhood index, 2019 by Save the Children, a
global NGO has placed India 113 among the 176 countries. One of the major drivers of
childhood deprivation is child marriages, the other being child labour. Being a major factor in
deprivation of childhood, child marriage is a gross violation of child rights.

Though India has successfully managed to reduce the menace of child marriage by about 51%
in the last decade (2006-2016), we still account for the majority of child marriages in the world.
1.5 million girls constituting a staggering 27% still get married before they attain the legally
prescribed marriage age of 18 in India.

According to a 2018 report from UNICEF, child marriage rates are highest in Jharkhand, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh. Further it is more prevalent in rural areas (48%)
than in urban areas (29%).

Impact

Child marriage significantly hinders physical, emotional and mental and therefore all-round
development of the girl child. The impact of child marriage is socio-economic subjugation of girls
in every stage of their life cycle including

 Higher dropout from school leading to educational disparities

 Malnutrition and high infant and maternal mortality rates
 High number of teen births significantly affecting the reproductive and sexual health in
adolescent stage including high prevalence of HIV/AIDS
 Higher exposure to violence in marriage including marital rape, domestic violence and
sexual abuse
 Perpetuation of patriarchal mindset of low value of girl child
 Perpetuation of intergenerational cycles of poverty
 Over gender discrimination hindering the economic, social and political empowerment of
women as a whole.
Major reasons for prevalence of child marriage in India

A structural problem

The patriarchal mindset in India has perpetuated the low socio-economic value of girl child.
Confining women to domestic sphere, reproductive role has significantly contributed to gender
biased sex selection and child marriage alike.

 Low enrollment
The low education opportunities, inadequate infrastructure, and overall girls’ safety have
contributed to low enrollment of girls in schools leading to perpetuation of early marriage.
 Culture of Dowry
The prevalence of practice of dowry has further perpetuated child marriage in India. It is
seen in India that with increase in age and education of women, the amount spent on
dowry increases. As a result child marriage is seen as a way to escape the high burden
of dowry especially in poor families.
 Weak enforcement of the law
India has had a law targeting child marriage since 1929. The Child Marriage Restraint
Act, 1929 had put a restraint on solemnization of child marriages in India. However this
law was seen as toothless as it did not have a provision for prevention or prohibition of
child marriages. The
The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act was enacted in 2006 with provisions for prevention
of child marriages, protection of children involved and prosecution of offenders. It made
the child marriage a cognizable and non-bailable offence.
 Toothless law
Though non-bailable and voidable, child marriage is not automatically void under India’s
civil laws. Simply put, in order to make a child marriage ‘void’, the child bride has to
declare her marriage null and void within 2 years of attaining majority (20 years of age),
else the marriage stands valid. The structural position of a girl child in India makes this
law toothless. Karnataka has addressed this lacuna by inserting a provision in the Act
making every child marriage invalid ab initio. (from the beginning)

Adolescent girls
Adolescence is the transition phase from childhood to adulthood. Adolescents need special care
to ensure a smooth transition to adulthood. Adolescent girls face issues like higher dropout rate,
disparities due to menstruation, lack of menstrual health management, teen births, anemia,
multiple forms of violence and abuse in real and virtual platforms alike etc.

High dropout rate

Higher drop rate is a serious issue especially in rural areas. It increases as we move towards
higher education. Girls dropout of school for several reasons including absence of toilets in
school, distance of school form home, unavailability of reliable transport, safety concerns,
patriarchal mindset that gives preference to male education, need to supplement family income,
care of siblings etc.
Issues around Menstruation in India

There are about 355 million menstruating women and girls in India. Menstrual health is oft-
neglected in India leading to restricted mobility, lack of agency, lack of dignity, absenteeism in
school and work etc. The stigma and issues surrounding menstruation in India has severely
hindered the all-round development of adolescent girls in India.

The major barriers to effective menstrual health are.

 Lack of education on puberty and menstrual health: According to UN data, 66% of

Indian girls are unaware of menstruation before their first period.
 Lack of access to high-quality Menstrual Hygiene: Almost 88% of women and girls in
India use homemade alternatives, such as an old cloth, rags, hay, sand, or ash.
According to NFHS 4, 62% of young women in India are still using cloth which leaves
them vulnerable to health issues such as urinary and reproductive tract infections.
 Lack of access to sanitation facilities: About 63 million adolescent girls live in homes
without toilets. Despite national efforts to improve sanitation, women and girls lack
appropriate facilities and community support to manage their menstruation privately and
in a safe manner.
 Increased restrictions to their mobility and agency post-menarche: Gendered social
norms associated with menstruation severely affect the girl’s transition to adulthood.

Policies to improve Menstrual Health in India

 The Rashtriya Kishori Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK), launched in January 2014 enables
access to MHM information, support, and products through Adolescent Friendly Health
Clinics and counselors.
 The Swach Bharat Mission (SBM), prioritizes sanitation infrastructure (e.g., individual
and community toilets, solid waste management) and awareness programs for
behavioral change.
 The SABLA program (2011), has a component of awareness about MHM to adolescent
girls through Anganwadi Centers.
 In December 2015, the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation released the National
Guidelines for Menstrual Hygiene Management with support from UNICEF India,
elevating the urgency for an integrated approach to improved MHM for adolescent girls
and women in India
 Under WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) a number of NGOs are developing
curriculum and partnering with schools to deliver awareness programs.

Challenges

 Solutions often remain in silos: RKSK, SABLA, SSA consider MHM awareness as a
component of improving outcomes such as adolescent health, life-skill, or education.
However, the current emphasis on MHM is small.
 Lack of convergence and coordination: For example, RKSK and SABLA both
prioritize creating awareness about MHM among adolescent girls; however, there is
 limited clarity on how a counselor under RKSK’s Adolescent Friendly Health Clinics and
an Anganwadi worker supported by SABLA may complement each other’s efforts.
 Limited human resource capacity: Although MHM programs leverage health workers
(e.g., ASHAs, counselors) and teachers to provide MHM education, their comfort in
discussing sensitive topics, particularly when talking to boys.
 Market barriers: The MHM Guidelines recommend increasing access to MHM products
by outsourcing production and distribution of pads to self-help-groups. However, despite
efforts to leverage SHGs, they have struggled to create awareness of sanitary pads and
serve as a high volume platform for manufacturing pads.

Way forward:

 Menstrual health should not only be treated as a public health issue but with a human
right approach ensuring access to a safe, clean and private space every menstruating
girl and woman.
 Build on the existing momentum through public-private partnership to ensure a viable
model for MHM products delivery.
 A multi-sectoral response involving water, sanitation, urban planning, education, health,
and the social sector can ensure that appropriate, evidence-based, and cost-effective
interventions and policy are developed and implemented for the benefit of girls and
women.
 In 2018, the Ministry of Women and Child Development has launched the #YesIBleed
campaign. It aims to raise awareness and ensures that every girl and woman gains the
requisite knowledge on menstrual management and has greater access to hygiene
products at affordable prices.

Violence against Women

Introduction: A gendered phenomena

Violence against women is deep-rooted in the unequal power relations between man and
woman in a society. The gender-based inequalities persisting along the life cycle of a woman
manifests in the form of various forms of violence from infancy to old age. The violence against
women is a tool to reinforce and sustain the inferior status of women in society. Violence is used
as a weapon to punish those women who transgress the gender roles defined in the society. In
a society engulfed by patriarchal attitudes that assign roles of servitude, docility, domestic
sphere etc to women, any effort towards women empowerment itself unleashes violence against
women as a backlash. Therefore violence against women is an ideological threat to establishing
women’s identity and dignity. A deeper look into the reasons behind female foeticide, child
marriages, dowry deaths, marital rape, honor killings, deprivation of sexual and reproductive
rights, religious rights, differentiated access to nutrition and health etc reveals the deep-seated
gendered phenomena at play behind violence against women in India. As a result violence
against women should be understood and tackled from a gendered perspective in India.

Deprivation to Crimes: A continuum

Violence against women constitutes a continuum ranging from gender-based discrimination to
overt physical, sexual and psychological violence. While crimes against women encompassing
physical, sexual and psychological violence are significant, they do not capture the entire
spectrum. Since gender-based discrimination is covered under various headings in the
preceding and succeeding sections along the life-cycle of women, this section focuses on
violence against women as located in the legal framework of the country and reported in the
National Crime Record Bureau.

Violence against women: Forms and Manifestations

Following from the above discussion, for the purposes of this section violence against women is
defined as any act of gender based violence that results in physical, sexual or psychological
harm or suffering to women including threats of such acts of coercion and deprivation occurring
in both public and private sphere.

VAW in private sphere

The widespread socioeconomic dependency and fear of exclusion subordinates women to their
husbands and family members leaving wide scope for violence. Owing to deeply entrenched
patriarchal attitudes in the institutions of marriage, family and religion, violence against women
is manifested in the private sphere in the form of dowry, domestic violence, marital rape, female
infanticide, honor killings etc.

Domestic Violence, Dowry Deaths

According a NFHS-4 survey, nearly 1 in 3 women above the age of 15 in India face domestic
violence in one form or the other. Further about 1/3rd of the crimes against women in India were
perpetrated by husband or relatives in 2016-17, according to Nation Crime Record Bureau.
Domestic violence range from spousal violence in case of married women to violence by
fathers, step fathers, mothers, step mothers, brothers, sisters and other relatives in case of
unmarried women. They manifestations of domestic violence are varied ranging from wife
beating, torture and harassment to extreme form of violence in the form of bride burning, dowry
deaths, abetment of suicides, marital rape, honor killings etc.

Domestic violence is defined under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005
as all forms of violence including physical, emotional, verbal, sexual, and economic violence.
Besides it also includes threats of violence. The act also recognises marital rape and dowry
demands as abuse. Besides section 498 A (cruelty by husband and his relatives), section 304 B
(dowry deaths) and section 306 (abetment of suicide) of the Indian Penal Code deal with
domestic violence in India.

VAW in public sphere

Sexual violence in India

Debate around sexual violence is reinvigorated in the recent times in the aftermath of heinous
incidents in Unnao, Kathua and Surat. The sexual offences in general are covered under three
sections of the IPC namely Section 376: Rape: Sexual intercourse without consent, Section
354: Assault on a woman outraging her modesty, Section 377: Unnatural acts defined as “carnal
intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal” (anal sex,
homosexuality or bestiality). Beside child sex abuse is covered under the POCSO Act.

Rape accounts for about 12% of all crimes against women in India. According to NCRB data,
the number of rape cases reported has doubled in a decade from 20000 in 2007 to about 40000
in 2016. These numbers are shameful given the chunk of cases (about 99% according to
estimates) go un-reported. Besides the conviction rate in cases of rape has been a stagnant
25% in India. The reporting of sexual violence has increased manifold in India after the Nirbhaya
case in 2012. In addition to increase in reporting, the Nirbhaya movement of 2012 in India made
rape laws in India more stringent and definition of rape more broad.

Nirbhaya Act and the aftermath

The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 2013 or the Nirbhaya Act is considered as landmark
in the legal landscape against sexual violence in India. The act that was based on the
recommendation of Justice J.S. Verma Committee, amended the IPC to broaden the
definition of sexual violence to include voyeurism (354C), stalking (354 D), physical contact,
unwelcoming sexual behaviors, demand of sexual favour, showing pornography against will,
passing sexually coloured remark etc.
Besides the Nirbhaya Act also made stricter punishments with rigorous imprisonment of 7
years to life imprisonment in cases of rape, imprisonment upto 20 years extendable to life
imprisonment in cases of gang rape, death in cases of repeat offence, 10 year
imprisonment extendable upto life imprisonment in case of acid attacks etc. Besides, the
law also declared sexual activity of any kind with or without consent with minors under the age of 18
as rape.
In a step to strengthen the Criminal Law Amendment Act, the government in 2018 launched
the National Database on Sexual Offenders as a central database of “sexual offenders” to
be maintained by the NCRB.
Criminilisation of Marital Rape: A distant dream in India
India is one of the 36 countries in the world where marital rape is not recognized as a criminal
offence. Though Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 recognises marital
rape as abuse, it is a civil law and thus has only a civil remedy. Marital rape is not considered
rape under the IPC. Section 375 of the IPC codifies the definition of ‘rape’ in India. As an
exception, it exempts forced sex in the marriage from the definition of rape. The spirit of Section
375 is that, once married, a wife has offered perpetual consent to sex with her husband.

As a result the cases of marital rape in India are reported under Section 498 A (cruelty by
husband), Section 377 (unnatural offences). Since about 60% of the domestic violence reported
constitutes sexual abuse including forced sex and absence of specific provision for the same,
the law with respect to marital rape is considered toothless in India. The only relief is that
Section 375 considers forced sex in marriages as a crime when the wife is below age 15.
Recently the Supreme Court also criminalized forced sex with minors between 15-18 years of
age.

Denying the right to decide on matters of sexual, procreative and intimate relations to Indian
wives and right to equal protection under Section 375, marital rape and the legal provisions
relating to it violate the spirit the Article 21 and Article 14 under the Indian constitution. As a
result laws relating to marital rape needs an overhaul making it a criminal offence.

Child Sex Abuse and POCSO

Until 2012, sexual offences against children were covered by the general provisions of IPC
namely Section 376, 354 and Section 377. There was are no specific law against child sex
abuse. Besides non-penetrative sexual assaults, harassment and exploitation for pornography
were not explicitly recognised as crimes in India. In this backdrop Protection of Children from
Sexual Offences Act 2012 was enacted. The POCSO Act classifies child abuse into sexual
harassment, sexual assault and aggravated sexual assault with punishments of 3 years, 5 years
and 10 years respectively. Besides, POCSO also covers wide ranging behaviours of sexual
harassment including sexting, cyber bullying, stalking etc.

Death Penalty for child sex abuse

The Kathua and Unnao incidents have triggered the debate around capital punishment for child
rape in India. In the aftermath of Kathua and Unnao incidents, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana,
Rajasthan, and Arunachal Pradesh passed stringent anti-rape laws for committing rape of minor
girls. Following this the parliament also enacted the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018 with
more stringent provisions under the anti-rape laws in India. For the 1st time death penalty has
been introduced for rape perpetrated on minors under the age of 12 years. Now the punishment
for rape of a girl child under the age of 12 is minimum 20 years, the offenders of extreme cases
can be awarded death penalty. (Section 376AB of the IPC)

Acid attack
As observed by the Supreme Court of India, Acid attacks are “uncivilised and heartless
crimes”, the perpetrators of which do not deserve any clemency. Acid attacks are driven by
a feeling of revenge against a woman who rejects a proposal of marriage or a sexual
advance. The intention of the attacker, driven by male ego, is to disfigure the victim.
Steps against acid attack
The Criminal law Amendment Act, 2013 provided for a specific provision under Section 326
for acid attacks with minimum punishment of 10 years imprisonment extendable upto life
imprisonment. Further the Supreme Court, in the Laxmi case (2015), mandated all States to
fix ₹3 lakhs as minimum compensation for victims, and also mandated private health care
providers to provide free care to victims.
Honour Killings: Intersection of caste-based and gender-based violence

Honour killings are prevalent in Indian society given the nature of institutions and attitudes that
pervade them. Caste being an endogamous group, inter-caste marriages are often seen in
Indian society as transgression of caste rules (endogamy). Honour killings are seen as a step to
restore the ‘honour’ of the family and community. To restore the ‘honour of the community’,
caste-based extra-constitutional councils like ‘Khap Panchayats’ foment honour crimes in
various parts of India including Haryana, Punjab, UP, Rajasthan, Bihar. Caste-based rules,
enforced by ‘Khap Panchayats’, prevent marriage within the same ‘gotra’ (exogamy) in order to
maintain the so-called ‘purity’ of lineage. While ‘honour crimes’ are targeted at both men and
women, it assumes a ‘gendered’ dimension as family and community ‘honour’ is associated with
chastity of women and men are seen as the protectors of the so called honour. Further the
victims of honour crimes are predominantly women and perpetrators mostly men. Thus, as the
law commission has observed, khap panchayats are a reflection of the male point of view of
what is agreeable in a society

Refusal to arranged marriage, seeking divorce, homosexuality, allegations of adultery, inter-

caste and inter-religious marriage, victims of rape are some of the reasons behind ‘honour
crimes’ in India.

In a landmark judgment in the ‘Shakti Vahini case’ of 2018, the Supreme Court recognised the
‘right to choose’ partners in marriage as indispensible part of right to life under Article 21.
Following this the apex court declared the decrees of ‘Khap Panchayat’ and similar caste-based
councils in cases of inter-caste and inter-religious marriages illegal.

Guidelines against Khap Panchayats

 The Supreme Court has also directed states to enact a law against honour killings, until
which it has provided the following guidelines in the famous Shakti Vahini case.
 Setting up of fast-track courts against honour killing cases in order to dispose off the
cases within 6 months
 It is the duty of the police officer to file FIR against Khap Panchayat.
 A provision of safe houses for the couples under the supervision of District Magistrate or
Superintendent of Police
 Prohibition on meetings of Khap Panchayat under section 144 of CrPC

Witch hunting

Witch hunting is a way to control women who do not conform to the whims of those in power,
locally. Adivasi, dalit, single and elderly women are soft targets of being branded a witch. It is
often a ploy to grab their properties under the garb of superstition and traditional practices. Bihar
was the first state to ban witch hunting under Prevention of Witch (dayan) Practices Act, 1999.
Chhattisgarh Tonhi Atyachar (Niwaran) Act was passed in 2005.

Issues concerning working women

Declining female labour force participation rate

Labour force participation rate (LFPR) of women has declined from 36% in 2005-06 to 26% in
2018. The female labour force participation in India is one of the lowest in the world with only 1
in 4 women work in the country. According to IMF, equal women’s participation in workforce can
potentially boost Indian economy by 27%. There are 149.8 million working women in India,
according to the 2011 Census. However, 95% of the women workforce are employed in
unorganized sector or unpaid labour. Only 1% of the total female workforce constitutes women
professionals in the highest ranks like legislators, senior officials, and managers. Declining
poverty level, gender pay gap, attraction for higher education, fear of harassment at workplace,
migration after marriage are some driving factors behind declining LFPR.

Gender pay gap

The NSSO, ILO collaborated employment unemployment survey (EUS) 2011-12 indicate that
women get 34% less compared to men for the same job with same qualifications. This is against
the spirit of Article 39D of the constitution which strives for equal pay for equal work for both
men and women. According to the 1st gender-based inequality report by Oxfam in 2018, low
wage rate among women prevail across categories whether casual or salaried, organised or
unorganised sector, rural or urban.

While the gender pay gap is highest in the unorganized sector, the pay gap is lesser for more
skilled workers. The recent trend of feminisation of agriculture has tended to narrow the wage
gap in rural areas among casual workers. This means that the biggest victims of low agricultural
income and consequent rural distress are rural women especially casual labours. The
increasing literacy among women and declining gender gap in education exacerbates the crisis
in jobs when it comes to women. Male outmigration has also pushed women into taking on
more responsibility of own cultivation and to perform wage labour to ensure households’ daily
survival.

Unpaid, unrecognized work

Household work is often not even considered a work. It is unrecognized and unpaid. Further,
even women engaged in formal employment are expected to perform household work after their
office hours. The patriarchal mindset prevents many male members from helping women in
household chores. Women find it difficult to balance the demands of both their home and
offices. This leads to serious physical, mental and psychological stress among women. Thus
equal sharing of household chores, payment for full time housewives and dual parenting in
which both mother and father share child care work should be the way forward.

Harassment at workplace
Sexual harassment at workplace is another form of gender-based violence. According to
feminists, it is one of the ways to prevent women from challenging male domination in economic
spheres. About 47% of working Indian women have experienced some form of sexual
harassment over the course of their work. The case of Aruna Shaunbaug is worth noting here. A
nurse in Mumbai, she went into vegetative state after sexual assault at work. She remained in
coma for 42 years, and her case sparked debates on passive euthanasia in India. The problem
is more acute in informal sector like domestic work where many cases go unreported.

Originally, sexual harassment at workplace was not considered as a separate offence in the
Indian Penal Code (IPC). It was in 1997 that Supreme Court came up with a set of procedural
guidelines (Vishakha Guidelines) to deal with such cases. These guidelines led to the
enactment of Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and
Redressal) Act, 2013. The act includes the following under sexual harassment physical contact
and advances, demand or request for sexual favours, sexually coloured remarks, showing
pornography, any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature.

Steps to fight harassment at workplace

 The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and

Redressal) Act, 2013 mandates all the workplace having more than 10 workers to
constitute Internal Complaint Committee (ICC) for receiving complaints of sexual
harassment.
 SHe-Box enables women employees of both government and private sector to make
online complaints of sexual harassment at workplace.
 Unorganised Sector Social Security Act, 2008 provides for the social security and
welfare of the unorganised sector workers.
 Speed up drafting of National Policy for Domestic Workers which will benefit nearly 40
lakh domestic workers.

Issues concerning other categories

Elderly women

Vice-president of India, in one of his speeches in 2018, said that elderly people are the
conscience keepers of our society and it is everybody's responsibility to respect them.
According to Census 2011, senior citizens (60+ years of age) account for 8.6% of Indian
population. Elderly women far outnumber their male counterparts – a phenomenon called
feminization of ageing. 70% of elderly live in villages where physical, financial and healthcare
infrastructure is normally poor. This combined with changing value systems compounds the
problems of elderly women that are-

 Loneliness after their children move to a different city or abroad

 Safety concerns: murder, attack, confinement etc. to capture their property
 Attitudinal difference with future generations due to difference in world views
  Neglect and abuse due to proliferation of nuclear families and declining value system
that respected elderly people

Corrective measures:

 Vayoshreshtha Samman Awards to acknowledge the contribution of senior citizens

 National Programme for the Health Care of the Elderly to address the various health
related problems and improvement in geriatrics care
 Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana launched in 2017 for free distribution of physical aids and
devices to BPL category senior citizens
 Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007 enables elderly
parents to seek legal help against neglect by their children
 Central contribution of Rs 200 per month per beneficiary to old age pension scheme can
be reconsidered based on existing price levels.
 Reverse mortgage scheme for senior citizens ensures regular income against a
mortgaged home. They can stay in the home till the end of their lives, after which the
property is taken over by the bank or other financial institution.

Differently-abled women

Women, in themselves are unfortunately a marginalised section of population. Disability of any

kind further distances them from mainstream of society. Disabled girls are less likely to
complete their schooling, access healthcare services and earn a livelihood of their own. Sexual
abuse is quite common especially among mental challenged women.

Corrective measures:

 “Sugamya Bharat Mission” or Accessible India Campaign to achieve universal

accessibility for persons with disabilities.
 Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS): NGOs are given grants in aid by
central government for rehabilitation of persons with disabilities.

Dalits and tribals

Dalit women bear the double brunt of being a woman and being a social outcaste. The complex
intermix of these two factors relegates dalit women to the bottom most stratum of society. Since
they lack the power of retaliation, they are a soft target of violence which may include filthy
verbal abuse of a sexual nature, naked parading, rape, murder, witch hunting etc. Dalit women
account for the maximum number (90%) of manual scavengers who clean dry latrines manually.
Since most of dry latrines are located within housing premises, female manual scavengers are
preferred over their male counterparts. Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of
Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993 bans this practice, however, its implementation has been
unsatisfactory.

The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, amended
in 2015, National Database on Sexual Offenders, establishment of Exclusive Special Courts and
specification of Exclusive Special Public Prosecutors etc. aim at addressing the atrocities faced
by dalit women. Police connivance with the dominant community often leads to delays in filing of
cases and lodging of false complaints against victims, thus preventing effective implementation
of constitutional and legal safeguards these vulnerable women.

Tribal women enjoy better social status and decision-making power within their own community.
In fact some tribal societies of North-East like Khasi, Garo have matrilineal societies in which
property is passed on along female line. However, these women bear the brunt of climate
change, colonial mindset of forest officials and remote location of tribal areas. The ordeal of
Dana Majhi (Kalahandi, Odisha), who had to carry his wife’s body on shoulders after being
denied ambulance services reflects the shoddy state of healthcare services in tribal areas.

Issues common to dalit and tribal women:

 Lower literacy rate and lower representation in formal employment

 High maternal mortality rate and incidence of poverty
 Exploitation by middle men, government servants, locally dominant sections
 Exclusion from welfare schemes

Sex workers

Sex workers do not fall under any official category of ‘workers’. Most of them are victims of
human trafficking. Poor girls, mostly from rural areas, are lured in the name of employment in
cities, and pushed into prostitution. These factors, combined with social taboo associated with
prostitution, results in denial of basic rights to both sex workers and their families.

Measures taken and actions required:

 Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2018 criminalises

trafficking for the purpose of pushing a woman into prostitution; it does not punish the act
of prostitution itself.
 National Plan of Action on combating trafficking of women and children aims at
protecting the rights of sex workers, and provides for basic services like health and
education of their children.
 Ensuring smooth rehabilitation of sex workers who do not wish to continue sex work
 Creating conducive ecosystem including health care, health insurance, old age pension
etc. for willing sex workers to ensure a dignified life for them

Contemporary Issues
Sale of Womb in India: Issues around surrogacy

Surrogacy is an arrangement in which a woman (called surrogate mother) agrees to carry the
child and give birth to it for a willing person or couple (intended parents). With no law governing
surrogacy, India has emerged as a surrogacy hub for couples from different countries.
According to law commission surrogacy is a Rs. 25,000 crore industry in India. The entire
process beginning from fertilization to birth of the child is ethically sensitive. There have been
reports of intended parents abandoning the child after its birth, exploitation of surrogate mothers
by confining them in “hostels” during pregnancy etc.

Recently the Parliament has introduced Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill 2018 that seeks to ban
commercial surrogacy and regulate altruistic surrogacy in India. Important provisions include

 An Indian infertile couple, married for 5 years or more, can opt for ‘altruistic surrogacy’.
 Women within the age group of 23 years to 50 years and men aged between 26 and 55
years will be eligible to go in for surrogacy.
 Only ‘close relatives’ can be chosen to be surrogate mothers
 A woman can be a surrogate only once in her lifetime.
 The surrogate mother will not be paid any compensation except medical expenses and
insurance.
 The bill covers 18-month care expenses and insurance cover for the surrogate mother.
 Live-in partners, single parents, homosexuals, foreigners, NRIs cannot avail surrogacy.
 Foreigners, NRIs and PIOs are not allowed to commission surrogacy in the country.

Issues related to Assistive Reproductive Technologies (ART)

Changing life styles, pollution, genetic disorders and other health issues prevent many people
from bearing child of their own. This inability to become pregnant is called infertility. 10 to 14
percent of the Indian population is affected by infertility, according to the Indian Society of
Assisted Reproduction. This problem is more acute in urban areas where one out of six couples
is impacted. The medical procedure used to address infertility is called Assisted Reproductive
Technology (ART). It includes procedures such as in vitro fertilization, fertility medication,
cryopreservation of gametes or embryos etc. Companies like Apple and Google are offering
female employees, who want to delay their pregnancy without any adverse age-related
complications, the chance to freeze their eggs.

Ethical issues associated with ART:

 sex selection of babies, and demand for ‘designer babies’ with specific traits
 the right of the child to know his/her origins
 the right of privacy of the donors of eggs or sperms
 destruction of unwanted embryos

Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Bill, 2014 aims at regulating ART services in
India. A strong regulatory framework with strict code of ethics would help address the ethical
issues associated with this practice.

Harassment in cyberspace

With rapid penetration of internet and social media, cyber space has emerged as a new platform
for harassment of women. Though women can now overcome the traditional barriers and
participate in public life, they are also exposed to greater harassment on online portals. The
anonymity provided by cyberspace makes effective redressal of these issues difficult. Forms of
harassment on internet:

 Cyber bullying: harassing, threatening or intimidating a person through use of social

media, internet, email etc.
 Blackmailing with certain demands, stalking, making negative comments etc.
 Sending sexually explicit emails, chats, pics, videos etc.

According to a 2017 survey conducted by cybersecurity firm Norton, 41% of women have faced
sexual harassment on the web.

Corrective measures:

 Stalkers and cybercriminals can be booked under Information and Technology Act, 2000
for breach of privacy.
 Cyber Crime Reporting Portal has been formed Nirbhaya fund for addressing the cases
of online harassment of women.
 Local storage of data, and greater scrutiny of accounts by internet and social-media
giants.

Debate around abortion

Abortion means termination of pregnancy due to health risks to mother or child, unwillingness of
mother to continue with pregnancy, pregnancy resulting due to rape etc. 73% of the 15.6 million
abortions that occurred in India (The Lancet study) were sought outside health facilities. This
highlights the seriousness of unsafe abortions that are driven by stigma associated with
abortions, need for anonymity etc.

Increasing realization of reproductive rights of women and right to their bodies has led to a spurt
in demand of elective abortion where women want to abort the fetus out of choice, not due to
any medical exigency. For example, in western societies a couple may break up during
pregnancy; this leaves the expecting mother with sole responsibility of caring for the child. In
such cases women may go for abortion.

In India, abortion is not a right – it is regulated by the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act,
1971 which lays down conditions and procedures for abortion. Mandatory provision of consent
of registered medical practitioner forces many women to go for unsafe abortions, often leading
to infection related deaths.

Ethical issues with abortion include Right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness of women; right
to bodily sovereignty of women vs. rights of the unborn child etc. Supreme Court’s recognition of
right to privacy as a part of right to life and liberty guaranteed in Article 21 of the Constitution
has renewed debates around abortion in India.

Religious rights of women

Indian concept of secularism is different from the west. Unlike complete separation of state and
religion in West, Indian constitution allows state to interfere in non-religious matters of religious
institutions. Indian constitution protects an individual’s right to profess, practise and propagate a
religion. It also allows religious denominations to manage their own affairs. The issue of
gender-based discrimination in religious places has been a matter of debate due to competing
demands for rights of an individual and that of religious denominations.

Demand for ending this gender-based discrimination is the latest development in women’s
movement in India. Women of reproductive age (10-50 years) were not allowed entry in
Sabarimala temple in Kerala. Supreme Court ruled that the ban is violative of the right to
equality (Article 14) and the right to worship (Article 25) of the constitution. A similar ban was in
place on entry of women in sanctum of Shani Shinganapur temple in Maharashtra. Trupti Desai-
led women activists ended the six-decade-old tradition in 2016 after Bombay High Court
ordered Maharashtra government to ensure that women are not denied entry. These
developments have emboldened a couple from Pune, who have filed a PIL in Supreme Court
demanding the right of women to pray in mosques.

Critics of these developments are of the opinion that gender-based discrimination is not inherent
in practices of Hinduism which has numerous female deities. There are only selected temples
that prohibit entry of women due to their extraordinary nature. They argue that there are some
temples (Linga Bhairavi temple in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu) that prohibit men from entry. Hence,
according to them, such practices are not structural features of Hinduism, but only driven by
special nature of selected deities.

Conclusion
It is clear from the above discussion that the issues faced by women are multi-dimensional,
complex in nature and require structural as well as attitudinal change to mainstream them in
different aspects of life. SDG 5 which says “Achieve Gender Equality and Empower all Women
and Girls” calls for global efforts to end all forms of discrimination against all women and girls
everywhere. There is a need to redefine governance architecture from national to local level by
revisiting the overall gender architecture. India is making steady strides in this direction. 30% of
the allocated budget in all ongoing schemes is now earmarked for women beneficiaries.
National Policy for Women (NPW) aims at ensuring all-round development of women treating
them as equal partners in development in an environment free from violence and discrimination.

Sustained efforts of government, civil society, women’s organization and gradually changing
attitude are bearing positive results. Child Sex Ratio (CSR) of Jhajjar, Haryana was 782 in 2011;
it has reached 920 in 2018. 17% reservation for women in IITs has increased their
representation in higher education. INSV Tarini team completed the first ever all-women
circumnavigation of globe by India women. Women are now getting combat roles in armed
forces. Sports persons like P V Sindhu, Saina Nehwal are making India proud at international
sporting events. The list goes on and on. The need of the hour is to make these efforts reach
the lowest rungs of society in the remotest locations of India. There is now a consensus among
all quarters that restoring the dignity of women is indispensable to reclaim India’s status as a
world leader. Empowerment of women is an essential component of the vision of New India by
2022.

Women’s Movement in India

Evolution

The evolution of Women’s movement in India can be classified under 2 distinct phases.

1. Women’s movement of 19th century that coincided with socio-reform movement with its
emphasis on women issues like sati, women education.
2. Women’s movement of 20th century that coincided with national movement that gave
fillip to political participation of women, formation of women political associations.

The above two phases focussed on women issues and not so much on gender issues.
Therefore these movements were “Feminine not Feminist”.

New Women’s movement

The Women’s movement of 1960s and 1970s profoundly attacked gender inequalities prevalent
in India. This led to intertwining of gender issues into mass movements of the time. Since the
role of active negotiation for their rights was taken up by themselves, it was movement by the
women, of the women and for the women. In the background or political and economic turmoil,
new issues like sexual division of labour, violence against women, equal wage demand etc.
gained importance. The feminist consciousness that linked violence in private sphere to the
economic structure broke the public-private divide. New-women’s Movement with its emphasis
on diverse issues like dowry death, rape and marital rape broadened the realm of gendering
with its assertion of gendered rights.