CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Bread is the most popular bakery product in Nigeria and most parts of the world. The
consumption rate of bread has seen a continuous increase in the past decades mainly due to fact
that it provide a convenient food option for many in our sophisticated society (Seibel, 2016).
However, the wheat flour needed for making bread had to be imported, since the local climatic
and soil conditions in many tropical countries are unfavorable for growth of bread wheat
(Abdelghafor et al., 2020). Due to the drop in production bread of wheat worldwide and the
current production also being channeled for animal food and bio fuels, the future pricing of
wheat flour-remain uncertain and increasing trends in prices have been forecasted.
Consequently, Nigeria government has initiated programs to discourage the consumption of
wheat based products while promoting rice flour in an attempt to save enormous foreign
exchange used for importing wheat grains and flour (Mahalingam et al., 2014).
Rice varieties are well adapted to the local climatic conditions and demonstrate considerable
resistance to diseases, pest attacks, water stress and high salinity. Rice flour obtained from
traditional varieties is found to be highly nutritious and contain higher amounts of glutamic acids
and vitamins than commercial varieties (Wickramasinghe and Noda, 2018). Thus rice flour
obtained from traditional varieties could provide an alternative for imported and expensive wheat
flour in bakery industry.
Composite flours are very distinctive from the ready-mixed flours recognizable to mill operators
and dough punchers. Though ready-mixed flours contain all the non-perishable constituents of
the formula for a certain heated item, composite flours are as it were a blend of diverse vegetable
1
flours wealthy in starch or protein, with9 or without wheat flour, for certain bunches of pastry
kitchen items (Chatelanat, 2021). This gives rise to the taking after definition: “Composite flours
are a blend of flours from tubers wealthy in starch (e.g. cassava, yam, potato) and /or protein-rich
flours (e.g. soy, shelled nut) and /or cereals (e.g. maize, rice, millet, buckwheat), with or without
wheat flour.”
Wheat flour is one of the vital ingredients in bread production due to the gluten it contains.
(Mepba, et al., 2017) reported that this gluten (in wheat flour) accounts for the elasticity of the
dough which aids in trapping the carbon dioxide generated by yeast during fermentation.
Nevertheless, wheat is a temperate crop and will not thrive under tropical conditions
(Abdelghafor et al., 2020). Nigeria and many other developing nations (who are majorly in the
tropics) therefore have to import wheat or wheat flour to meet their confectionary needs
1.2 Statement of Problem
The problem faced and encountered in making rice based bread are lack of elasticity,
stretchability and gas retention capacity of the dough during fermentation. Since these three
quality characteristics are very important in order to make high quality bread particularly with
quality bread crumb and bread crust. As rice flour lacks in gluten protein compared to wheat
flour, it is incapable to form a loaf of bread for better consumer acceptance especially during the
process of fermentation. Therefore, the lack of inherited features in rice bread need to be
improved with a view of making a loaf of bread which overall quality characteristics in par with
the wheat bread. The perception towards the finish product is very important when the product is
kept for marketing. In order to improve the areas lacking in rice flour incorporated bread; under
mentioned processing steps are considered important in producing rice flour, compatible with the
rice bread making process. Also, ignorance seems from the facts that some people are not
2
knowledgeable due to poor orientation in the start of life. People have been so used to wheat
flour and introducing flour gotten from cereal a tuber crops, will be a great surprise because they
always think that flour used for bread can only be gotten from wheat and no other crop. Thereby
purchasing of the rice flour will be minimized, because people will not know the proper way to
use it, the proportion to use, to acquire a good output, in other words, ignorance make them think
no other flour can be good as that of wheat flour. Time constraint people feel if we use our local
product, processing will have to be considered, using our locally produced rice, stone will have
to be removed first, then wash thoroughly to remove the remaining stones. It will then be dried in
the sun, after which will be taken to grinding machine that will grind it in to fine flour, and this
will take a lot of time..
1.3. Research Questions
i. How to produce rice and wheat composite flour?
ii. How to produce bread using varying ratio of rice-wheat composite flour?
iii. What are the sensory evaluation of the products in order to ascertain their level of
acceptability?
1.4 Aim and Objectives of the study
1.4.1 Aim
The aim of this study is to analyse the utilization of rice-wheat composite flour for the
production of bread
1.4.2 Objectives
i. To produce rice-wheat composite flour.
ii. To produce bread using varying ratio of wheat-rice composite flour
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iii. To carryout sensory evaluation of the products in order to ascertain their level of
acceptability.
1.5 Justification of the study
The research work is intended to improve self-reliance on our locally produced products
and minimize if possible, the use of imported flour. E.g. wheat, barley oat etc. the proper
incorporation of ingredient to produce quality and acceptable snacks that will increase
sale while the cost of production automatically will reduce
4
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Bread
Bread or in Greek “artos” was considered in the past as the most important human good after
health and water. The origin of the term “artos” is ancient Greek: it comes from the verb
“ararisko” which means connect, match, put together or “artio” which means brew, and prepare.
The modern term “bread” derived from the ancient verb “psoo” meaning rub and it is diminutive
of the word “psomys” (→ bread = little bit, bite). Its history begins thousands years ago and
unfolds in the depths of centuries (Major Greek Dictionary 2017).
It belongs to the traditional diet, especially that of the poor. It believed to be the most complete
and cheap food and basic auxiliary food in times of extreme food poverty. It is the main food in
Europe but also in the cultures of America, Middle East and North Africa, unlike East Asia,,
where the main food is rice (McGee 2014).
The bread, therefore, a food with awesome variety of flavors and nutrients remains the basis of
our daily diet. However, it is accused of contributing to weight gain etc. (Tannahil, 2013)
Bread is the most common among all baked products of wheat. It is consumed and enjoyed by
both children and adults from different socio economic status in Nigeria, therefore leading to its
high daily demand (Inyang and Asuquo, 2016; Nwanekezi, 2013). It contains a rich source of
energy, protein, vitamins especially the B vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre, making it highly
nutritive. Recent developments for over 20 years has focused on healthy eating, enhancing the
utilization of indigenous produce such as whole wheat, local cereals and legumes in baking
industries (Therdthai and Zhou, 2014). In very few developing countries, wheat which is
distinctive among other cereals usually employed to make bread and other aerated baked
products is produced in low yields (Ayele et al., 2017). Exceptions include temperate areas
5
induced by high latitude or high altitude or both (examples are Mexico, Northern India, Eastern
Africa). Nigeria, due to her unfavourable climatic condition is unable to grow wheat in large
quantity (Nwanekezi, 2013). Bread is an essential staple food prepared from the baking of
dough obtained from the mixture of flour, salt, yeast, fat, milk, eggs, anti-oxidant and water
(Abdelghafor et al., 2020). Bread consumption is regular and increasing in Nigeria (Abdelghafor
et al., 2020). It is relatively expensive because it is made from wheat flour which is imported
(Edema et al., 2004). In Nigeria, bread has become the second most widely consumed non-
indigenous food after rice (Shittu et al., 2007). It is consumed by people in every socio-
economic class and acceptable to both adults and children. In the last few years, there has been
need to improve the nutrient content of bread and also increase the use of other locally grown
crops that can be partially or totally substituted for wheat (Igbabul et al., 2013).
2.2 Nutritional Value of Bread
Since bread is a basic food of the daily human nutrition, various attempts have been made to
prepare various types of it. Wheat flour is the main ingredient of bakery. Hard wheat has high
protein content and the corresponding flour is used to make bread and other goods, such as
croissants, donuts etc. Soft wheat has low protein content and the corresponding flour is used for
pastry preparations such as cakes, biscuits, etc. (Psaltakis, 2012) Some types of bread, such as
the whole grain bread, have high fiber content, which enhances the digestive system’s action.
Rye has the largest amount of dietary fiber and as a result its products have a lower glycemic
index compared to wheat products, making them suitable for diabetics (Bushuk, 2021).
From a nutritional point of view, the barley seed is low in fat, high in dietary fiber and contains
essential amino acids in an amount equal to or greater than other cereals. As such, barley flour is
6
a beneficial food for health. In particular, barley b-glucans are proven to reduce blood
cholesterol and glycemic load (Pareyt and Delcour, 2018).
B-glucan, which, as mentioned above, has a positive effect on health, is contained exclusively in
barley and no in other cereals. In addition, barley is a source of tocoles (tocopherols and
tocotrienols) that they have antioxidant activity (Cavarello, et al., 2021).
Whole wheat flour also contains a significant percentage (up to 75%) of higher amounts of
vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, fiber and other nutrients than that of commonly processed
wheat flour, as these components are concentrated in the outer parts of the fruit (Weaver, 2021).
The increased demand for bread products also contributed to the manufacture of its functional
products
2.3 Advantages—Disadvantages of Bread Consumption
The bread therefore represents an excellent source of complex carbohydrates, which provide the
body the energy it needs and play an important role in balancing blood glucose levels
(Psaltakis, 2012). Most types of bread contain low-value, low-fat vegetable protein. They also
contain B vitamins, vitamin E and trace elements such as iron, potassium, calcium and
selenium, that are greatly provided in the body. Vitamin B contributes significantly to the protein
metabolism and cell replacement, vitamin E is an active antioxidant, iron is essential for growth
and cell oxygenation and potassium for the balanced function of the cells. The calcium
contributes to bone density and Selenium is a powerful antioxidant (Andrikopoulos, 2010).
However, bread is implicated in various conditions that burden the human body, as in the case of
obesity. Bread contributes to obesity only when consumed in very large quantities and when it
is part of an unbalanced diet. Obesity is also associated with diabetes mellitus (Rodbotten et al.,
2015). Bread has a high glycemic index, greatly increasing sugar and insulin secretion, which in
7
turn adds to obesity. In a balanced diet, carbohydrates should be about 50% and 2 slices of
whole-wheat bread per day can be conveniently included in the daily diet (Bushuk, 2021).
2.4 Rice Flour
Addition of rice flours has also been reported to improve the bread quality and consumer
acceptability with increased nutritional value. Velluppillai et al. (2010) incorporated upto 35 per
cent of malted rice flour in regular wheat flour and reported that malted rice flour incorporated
functional benefits viz., increased gas production in the dough, improved crust colour, better
crumb moisture retention and enhanced flavor development. However addition of regular
untreated rice flours has its own disadvantages in the development of breads as rice flours are
unable to retain gas that is produced during fermentation of dough which results in a product that
is low in specific volume and does not at all resembles traditional wheat flour based bread
(Gujral and Rosell. 2004).
2.5 Nutritional Value of Rice flour
Rice is the second most widely consumed cereal in the world next to wheat. It is the staple food
for two thirds of the world’s population. Over 2 billion people in Asia alone derive 80% of their
energy needs from rice, which contains 80% carbohydrates, 7-8% protein, 3% fat, and 3% fibre
(Juliano, 2015).
2.5.1 Health benefits
Excellent source of carbohydrates: Rice is a great source of complex carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, most of which is used as energy for exercise and as
essential fuel for the brain slow starch digestion (with low glycemic index), attributed to a high
proportion of amylase and the size and structure of the starch granules. Rice eaters who are Type
II diabetics would be better off eating slowly digestible rice varieties than white rice. Brown rice,
8
for instance, has a slow starch digestibility too and some starch is never turned into sugar at all
and reaches the large intestine intact (Dolson et al., 2009). One study in 2010 (Qi et al., 2010)
showed that the replacement of white rice by brown rice or other whole grains was associated
with a lower risk of diabetes while another (Qureshi et al., 2002) found that stabilized rice bran
significantly reduced hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia in both Type I and Type II diabetics. In
any event, Type II diabetics should still avoid having too much carbohydrate in their diet (Fri
and Backer, 2004). Carbohydrate digestion and utilization rates vary with each individual,
depending on his/ her energy needs. Carbohydrate foods are important vehicles carrying proteins,
micronutrients and other food components (FAO, 2017). It should be valued for its nutritional
and medicinal properties and ought to be consumed with other food such as vegetables, fish,
meat and fruits to ensure a diverse diet, nutrition and good health.
2.5.2 Low fat, Low salt, No cholesterol: Rice is an excellent food to include in a balanced diet.
Rice has no fat, no cholesterol and is sodium free. Rice lipids, which include fatty acids, are
predominantly located in rice bran which is removed during milling. Depending on the variety,
rice bran oil can have up to 80%unsaturated fatty acids (Fri and Backer, 2004). Oleic acid and
linoleic acid constitute the unsaturated fatty acids in rice oil. These essential fatty acids, whichb
cannot be synthesized by humans, are important in maintaining the function of cell membranes
and the nervous system.
2.6 Wheat flour
Wheat flour remains the best choice of flour for baker due to the ability of its protein fractions
(glutenin and gliadin) to form gluten when hydrated; gluten determines the visco-elasticity and
gas retaining ability of dough (Ocheme et al., 2018). It contributes significantly to good loaf
9
texture and structure. Apart from the sensory attributes of wheat bread, which despite series of
research on gluten free bread has no equal, wheat bread is nutritious with appreciable quantity of
carbohydrate, protein and other micronutrients. However, little health benefit has been ascribed
to wheat bread, additionally the cost of wheat bread is increasing by the day due to the cost of the
ingredients especially wheat flour. The importation of wheat grains from which wheat flour is
produced usually cost the tropical countries huge foreign exchange and this contributes
significantly to the expensive price of wheat flour in the open market. As a result to these
shortcomings, and the fact that consumers nowadays give serious consideration to foods that
offer both nutritional and health advantages, wheat is usually combined with flours from other
sources to form composite flour, such combination of flours is generally called composite flour.
In this way the quantity of wheat flour needed per unit production would reduced and when mix
with flours that have potential health benefit may exert functional property on the final products.
2.6.1 Nutritional value of Wheat Flour
Globally, there is no doubt that the number of people who rely on wheat for a substantial part of
their diet amounts to several billions. Therefore, the nutritional importance of wheat proteins
should not be underestimated, particularly in less developed countries where bread, noodles and
other products (e.g. bulgar, couscous) may provide a substantial proportion of the diet. Wheat
provides nearly 55% of carbohydrate and 20% of the food calories. It contains carbohydrate
78.10%, protein 14.70%, fat 2.10%, minerals 2.10% and considerable proportions of vitamins
(thiamine and vitamin-B) and minerals (zinc, iron). Wheat is also a good source of traces
minerals like selenium and magnesium, nutrients essential to good health [3, 21, 44, 48]. Wheat
grain precisely known as caryopsis consists of the pericarp or fruit and the true seed. In the
endosperm of the seed, about 72% of the protein is stored, which forms 8-15% of total protein
10
per grain weight. Wheat grains are also rich in pantothenic acid, riboflavin and some minerals,
sugars etc. The barn, which consists of pericarp testa and aleurone, is also a dietary source for
fiber, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and niacin in small quantities.
11
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study involved experimental preparation of bread using all-purpose wheat flour and locally
produced rice flour.
It involves data generated from primary source. The primary source includes the use of
structured assessment table for Sensory evaluation of the products and specimen A used as
control.
3.1 STUDY AREA
This study was carried out in Borgu Local Government Area of New Bussa, Niger state in
Nigeria. Borugu geographical location lies between latitude 9 ⁰N and longitude 2 ⁰E and 4 ⁰E
covering a land mass of about 16,200 square kilometers in both terrestrial and aquatic materials
of attraction of tourists. It is surrounded be republic of Benin at the west, Kaima Local
Government Area of the North and Magama Local Government Area at the East (Fagbemi
2019).
3.2 SENSORY EVALUATION
Twenty panelists were randomly selected among the staffs and students of federal college of
freshwater fisheries technology which was carried out at the department of Hospitality
management. The panelists were asked to taste and evaluate these attributes: appearance, color,
texture, test, aroma, and overall acceptability using a 5- point Hedonic scale where 1- bad/ poor
and 5- excellent, and specimen A was used as control.
12
3.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis used was t-test and SPSS. Data was reported as mean= standard deviation.
Simple comparative analysis of the products was duely highlighted.
13
3.4 FLOW CHART ON PROCESSING OF RICE INTO FLOUR
Long rice grain
Sorting
Washing
Drying
Milling
Sieving
Packaging
14
Ingredients Specimen A Specimen B Specimen C Specimen D
(1:0) 100% (1:1) 50% (2:1) 75% (1:2) 25%
Wheat flour 600gms (3cups) 450gm (11/2cup) 400gms(2cups) 200gms (1cup)
Rice flour - 450gm (11/2cup) 200gms (1cup) 400gms (2cups)
Butter 10gms 10gms 10gms 10gms
Caster sugar 10gms 10gms 10gms 10gms
Egg 1 pcs 1 pcs 1 pcs 1 pcs
Yeast 2tspn 2 tspn 2 tspn 2 tspn
Powdered milk 2 tspn 2 tspn 2 tspn 2 tspn
Salt a pinch a pinch a pinch a pinch
Milk flavour 1 tspn 1 tspn 1 tspn 1 tspn
Warm water 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup
1 1 1 1
Nutmeg /2 tspn /2 tspn /2 tspn /2 tspn
3.4 METHOD OF PREPARATION
- Sieved all dry ingredients in a bowl
- Creamed yeast with look warm water and a litte sugar
- Added the creamed mixture to the sieved ingredients and knead to form dough
- Cover dough and allow proofing for 15mins
- Knock back and remove all traped air bubbles and knead to firm dough gently
- Shape into baking tin and leave for second prooofing
- Bake for 45 minutes
- Cool on a rack
15
Plate A: Wheat flour bread
Plate B: 450gm of wheat and 450g of rice flour bread
16
Plate C: 400gm of wheat and 200g of rice flour bread
Plate D: 200gm of wheat and 400g of rice flour bread
17
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULT
Table 1: Sensory evalutation of bread produced with wheat flour and Rice
Product Appearance Colour Flavour Taste Texture
Mean±S.D Mean±S.D Mean±S.D Mean±S.D Mean±S.D
Sample A 4.15±0.67a 3.90±0.72b 3.15±0.93b 3.20±1.11b 3.80±0.77b
Sample B 3.90±0.85a 3.85±0.88a 3.65±1.04a 3.85±1.14a 4.05±1.05b
Sample C 3.45±1.23a 3.15±1.27a 3.00±0.97a 3.25±1.25a 3.55±1.23a
Sample D 3.65±1.09a 3.00±0.86a 3.10±1.93a 2.85±0.93b 2.95±1.32a
Mean value with the same superscripts on the same column are not significantly different
(P≤0.05)
The mean sensory scores of appearance of bread ranged from 3.45 to 4.15. In terms of colour,
the sample A had the highest mean score among the four products. The values for flavour
ranged from 3.00 to 3.65 with sample B (%50 of Rice and Wheat flour) having the highest value
(3.65) and sample C having the lowest value (3.00). The values for taste ranged from 2.85 to
3.85%, from the result there was significant (P < 0.05) difference between control and the other
samples except sample D . The values for taste ranged from 2.85 to 3.85%, from the result there
was significant (P < 0.05) difference between control and the other samples except sample D .
The values of texture were higher for sample B (4.05) and were lowest for 2.95. There was
significant (P > 0.05) difference between sample A and B
18
14
12
12
10
6
5
2
2
1
0
Product A Product B Product C Product D
Figure 1: Products in order of preference
The above figure shows the products in order of their preference. It was observed that product B
has the highest preference followed by product A, C and product D had the lowest preference.
19
4.2 DISCUSSION
The mean scores of the individual attributes of the bread produced from Rice flour and Wheat
flour are presented in Table 1.
The product was most preferred by the consumers. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was
established between the sample A and B in terms of the Appearance, colour, flavour, taste and
texture. However, no significant difference (p <0.05) was observed in the Sample C and D. This
shows that the C and D had an impact on the colour, aroma and texture of the bread samples
from the composite flours.
The mean sensory scores of appearance of bread ranged from 3.45 to 4.15 on a scale of 9-points.
The result were lower when compared to that for control (7.96), and it showed that there was
significant (p < 0.05) difference in appearance between control and all other composite bread
In terms of colour, the sample A had the highest mean score among the four products. Mohamed
et al. (2009) had reported that, the brown colour of the bread was as a result of the 100% of
wheat used in the production. Colour is a very important attribute that influences the initial
acceptability of a product by a consumer (Zuwariah et al., 2009).
. The values for flavour ranged from 3.00 to 3.65 with sample B (%50 of Rice and Wheat flour)
having the highest value (3.65) and sample C having the lowest value (3.00). The control was
significantly (p < 0.05) different from bread produced from mixture of rice and wheat flour; but
there was no significant (p < 0.05) difference among the composite bread.
The values for taste ranged from 2.85 to 3.85%, from the result there was significant (P < 0.05)
difference between control and the other samples except sample D and there was no significant
difference among the composite bread except Wheat Bread. The values decrease as the
composite flour substitution increases. The scores for taste of the bread samples substituted with
20
rice flour had a mean score above average indicating that the consumer slightly liked the sample.
The highest preferred sample was sample B (rice flour and wheat flour) with a mean score of
3.85 compared to the control sample. Previous works has shown that mixture of rice flour and
wheat flour adds sweetness to products due to its high sugar content (Egbebi et al., 2011).
The values of texture were higher for sample B (4.05) and were lowest for 2.95. There was
significant (P > 0.05) difference between sample A and B, The values decrease as the composite
flour substitution increases. The values obtained showed that most of the consumers liked the
bread with the lowest equal substitution of Rice and Wheat flour with a mean score of 4.05. this
is inline with the work of (Adubofour et al., 2016).
21
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
From the experiment carried out sample A (Wheat flour) and sample B (composite flour) were
accepted by the panelist. In terms of texture, taste, flavour, sample B (composite flour) was
prefered by the panelist.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the study, it is therefore recomended that
Further studies should becarried out to determine the shelf life of the bread.
22
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