UNITY CHRISTIAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL

Subject: Sociology Class 12

UNIT 3: INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE

1. Very short answer questions.

Q1. What is Marriage?
Ans: Marriage is the social institution that sanctions the relationship of a man and a woman as husband and
wife.

Q2. What is levirate?

Ans: Levirate is the form of marriage in which a woman marries the younger brother of her dead husband.

Q3. What is Sororate?

Ans: Sororate is the form of marriage in which a man marries his dead wife’s sister.

Q4. How is marriage understood among Hindus?

Ans: Marriage among the Hindus is not merely a union between a male and female but it is a sacrament or
religious bond.

Q5. What is Endogamy?

Ans: Endogamy prescribes whom a Hindu can marry. The rule of endogamy also lays down that a Hindu
must marry within his or her caste.

Q6. What is Exogamy?

Ans: Rules of Exogamy prescribes whom a Hindu cannot marry. Hindu cannot marry with a person of the
same gotra or panda.

Q7. What is inter-caste marriage?

Ans: The process/ practice of Hindus marrying outside their caste is known as inter-caste marriage.

Q8. What is hypergamy or anulom?

Ans: Hypergamy or anulom is that form of marriage in which the ritual status of a man is higher than that
of his prospective wife.

Q9. What is Hypogamy or pratilom?

Ans. Hypogamy or pratilom is that form of marriage in which the ritual status of a woman is higher than
that of his prospective husband.

Q10. What is Nikah?

Ans: Among Muslims, Marriage is known as Nikah. It is a social and civil contract. However, the procedure
involves religious rituals. Since it is a contract divorce is possible, through specified procedures.

Q11. What is Nikahnama?

Ans: When the bride and the groom are asked by the Kazi, in the presence of the witness, about their
voluntary consent to the marriage. This is called Nikahnama.

Q12. What is Mehr?

Ans: Mehr is the bride-wealth which the groom gives to the bride at the time of marriage or later on.

Q13. What are the two types of Muslims marriage?

Ans: The types of Muslims marriage are:
i) Regular (Sahi) and
ii) Irregular (Fasid).

Q14. Define Joint family?

Ans: The joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, share a kitchen, hold property
in common, participate in common family worship and is related to each other in some kind of kindred.

Q15. Define Kinship?

Ans: Duncan Mitchell defined kinship as, ‘when we use the term kinship we are referring to people who are
related by consanguinity or affinity. Thus, kinship means connection by blood or marriage. E.g., family ties
and so on.

Q16. What is consanguinity?

Ans: Consanguinity is the relationship based on common blood. E.g. The relationship between parents and
siblings.

Q17. What is affinity?

Ans: Affinity is the relationship based on marriage. It can be seen in the close relationship between a
husband and a wife.

Q18. What is lineage?

Ans: A lineage is a group whose members trace common descent from an ancestor through known links.

Q19. What is a clan?

Ans: A clan is usually composed of general lineages that claim descent from a common ancestor but cannot
trace the links.

Q20. What is descent?

Ans: Descent is the tracing of relationships through succeeding generations.

Q21. What is unilineal descent?

Ans: Unilineal descent groups generally take the form of lineages and clans.

Q22. What is double or duo lineal or bilineal descent?

Ans: Double or duo lineal or bilineal descent is traced through both the male and female lines.

Q23. How is marriage understood among tribal communities?

Ans: Tribal communities understand marriage as a social control for several pleasures, production of
children and mutual cooperation.

2. Short Answer Questions.

Q1. Differentiate between hypergamy and hypogamy.
Ans: Hypergamy or Anulom is that form of marriage in which the ritual status of a man is higher than that
of his prospective wife.
Hypogamy or Pratilom is that form of marriage in which the ritual status of a woman is higher
than that of her prospective husband.

Q2. Name the defining features of Nikah?

Ans: The defining features of Nikah are:
i) The groom
ii) The bride.
iii) The Kazi.
iv) Witnesses (two male, four female)
The bride and the groom are asked by the Kazi in the presence of the witnesses about their
voluntary consent to the marriage. This is called Nikahnama. The Muslims can have up to four wives but
they must treat them all equally.

Q3. Explain briefly the role of Kinship?

Ans: Kinship serves two important and related purposes:
i) Kinship provides a way for transmitting status and property from one generation to next. This is the area
of descent which traces relationship through succeeding generations. There are several ways of tracing
descent.
ii) Kinship regulates social behaviour. It establishes and maintains effective social groups for cooperation
and social behaviour. It regulates social behaviour relating to birth, marriage and death.

Q4. Distinguish between Consanguineous and Affinal kinship?

Ans: Consanguineous kinship is based on common blood. It can be seen in the close relationships between
parents and siblings.
Affinal kinship is based on affinity or closeness and is the relationship based on marriage. It
can be seen in a close relationship between a man and his wife.

3. Essay type Questions:

Q1. Explain the different ways of acquiring mates among the tribals communities?
Ans: The different ways of acquiring mates among the tribals communities are as follows:
i) Marriage by Negotiation: This involves the parents and elders of both the boy and girl. It involves a go
between or mediator and as regulated by customs and traditional practices.
ii) Marriage by probation: In this type of marriage a man is allowed to love with the women at her parents’
house for a certain period of time. During this period, if they adjust to each other, they marry and if not,
they separate with the man paying some money to the parents of the woman as compensation. If the woman
gets pregnant during this period of problem, the man must marry her.
iii) Marriage by capture: Here, a man marries a woman forcibly. There are two types:
a) Physical capture by which the man carries away a woman by force and marries her and
b) Ceremonial capture in which a man surprises a woman and applies vermillion or a similar mark of
marriage on her. Excessive bride-price is the root cause for this type of marriage.
iv) Marriage by trial: Here, a man is required to show his powers and courage by braving the obstacles
thrown in his way. This type of marriage is found among the Bhils.
v) Marriage by purchase: It takes place when the parents of bridegroom pay something in cash or kind to
the parents of the bride. Such payment is called bride-price. This type of marriage is found in some tribes
of Central India and Arunachal Pradesh.
vi) Marriage by service: It takes place when the bridegroom lives in the house of the bride before marriage
and renders service or works for the family of the bride. If the family of the bride is satisfied with his
services, then the marriage takes place. This is found among Gonds and Baigas.
vii) Marriage by Exchange: It takes place when two families exchange their son and daughter. This is very
common in Indian tribes as among the Maria Gonds, Baigas, Koya and Saora tribes.
viii) Marriage by elopement: It takes place when a man and woman love each other, but parents do not
approve of their marriage. They elope or run away from the village. When they return after some time, they
are recognised as husband and wife. This practice is found in many tribes.
ix) Marriage by intrusion: It takes place when a man and woman have intimate relationship, but the man
refuses to marry the woman. Then the woman takes the initiative and goes to live in the house of the man.
Initially, she may be ill treated, but later on the man accepts her as his wife. This is found among the Oraons
and HOs.

Q2. Briefly discuss marriage among the Hindus.

Ans: Marriage among the Hindus is not merely a union between a male and a female but a sacrament or
religious bond. In fact, marriage is considered as religious bond and duty. Therefore, traditional Hindu
belief considers marriage as a permanent bond. Hindus believe that marriage joins two individuals for life
in order to pursue the basic aims in life called Purusharthas, they are- Dharma (duty), Artha (possession),
Kama (physical desires) and Moksha (ultimate spiritual release). The Hindus consider marriage as the most
important sacrament.
There are various aims of Hindu marriage. They are as follows:
i) Hindus believe the concept of three religious debts which are debts to ancestors, Gods and teachers.
ii) Hindus consider marriage as a (Samskara) sacrament for purifying the body. For women, t is the only
sacrament.
iii) Marriage is necessary for fulfilling religious obligations of duty, procreation and pleasure (dharma, praja
and rati).
iv) For a Hindu householder (grihastha), marriage is necessary in order to discharge certain duties and
obligations like sacrifices to the Gods, ancestors and to offer hospitality to guests. A householder can only
discharge these duties if he has a wife with him.
The rules of mate selection among Hindus are:
i) Rules of endogamy prescribe whom a Hindu can marry within his or her own caste.
ii) Rules of exogamy prescribe whom a Hindu cannot marry. E.g.: person of the same gotra and Pinda.

Q3. Muslim marriage is a contract. Explain this statement.

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Q4. Write an essay on Muslim Marriage.
Ans: The Muslim marriage is known by the Arabic word “Nikah” Which means civil contract. But it is performed with
religious rituals. As a contract, marriage can be dissolved through a prescribed procedure. Therefore, divorce is
possible and widow marriage is made possible.
There are two major sects in India, namely the Shias and Sunnis. There are differences in rituals
between the sects. But the defining features of Nikah are the same i.e. the groom, the bride, the kazi and the witness
(two male or four female witnesses). The bride and the groom are asked by the Kazi in the presence of their Voluntary
consent to the marriage, which is called Nikahnama. A part of the contract is an agreement about Mehr which is the
bride-wealth given by the groom to the bride at the time of marriage an later on.. A Muslim man can marry up to four
wives but must treat them all equally. Hence, in practice, most Muslim marriages are monogamous. There are two
types of marriages which are regular (Sahi) and irregular ( Fasid). Irregular marriages occur in such cases as the
absence of witnesses, like the fifth marriage of a man, differences in religion in religion, marrying a woman undergoing
Iddad and marrying during pilgrimage. Irregular marriages can be made regular.

Q5. Write an essay on Christian marriage in India?

Ans: Christian marriage is also called matrimony. Christians believe that marriage is not only a social contract but also
a sacrament. But Christians do not consider marriage as a duty as the Hindus do. Though all Christians consider
marriage as sacred, some Christian’s denominations permit divorce. Monogamy is the general norm among all
Christians. Widow re-marriage is permitted among all Christians.
 As social contract and as a sacrament, some conditions must be fulfilled for a valid marriage. E.g.
marriage partners must be adults and capable to contracting marriage. The choice of partners may be done by the
parents or elders, but the consent of the boy and the girl is essential. Though there are some minor variations, the
following procedure is usually followed.
i) The first step is the production of a character certificate which is usually followed by the engagement when the boy
and the girl declare their intention to marry.
ii) Submitting an application to the church pastor or priest three weeks before the date of marriage.
iii) The priest or pastor makes an announcement about the proposed marriage and invites objections. The date of
marriage is then fixed.
iv) The ceremony takes place at church in the presence of the people and two witnesses, the pastor or priest initiates
and performs the ceremony and wedding rings are exchanged as a symbol of married status
The priest or pastor acts as the registrar of Marriage according to the provisions of Indian Christian
Marriage Act of 1872, and records the marriage in the Register of Marriages maintained in the church. After the
marriage held at church, celebrations follow.

Q6. Name any two structural features of a joint family. What are the factors that are now leading to the breakup of the
joint family system?
Ans: Two structural features of a joint family are:
i) Common residence (roof) and kitchen (hearth).
ii) Common property because the family as a whole owns the property.
The factors leading to its breakup are:
a) Structural changes in the joint family are seen in its breakup into smaller nuclear households.
This is due to various factors. Some of them are:
i) Differential earnings of brothers generating tensions in the household.
ii) Distinctions of the sons and their wives to share responsibilities.
iii) Growth of individualism.
iv) Development of secondary and tertiary sectors in the Indian economy.
b) Functional changes in the joint family are observed on the following area:
i) Wife and husband relations, with the wife playing a more active role.
ii) Parent-children relationship giving more importance to the children.
iii) Relationship between daughter-in-law and parents-in-law because of changing role and status of women.

Q7. What is a joint family? Explain any three functional elements of a joint family system in India?
Ans: A joint family is generally a group of people who live under a common roof, share the same kitchen, hold common
property, participate in common family worship and is related to each other in some kindred. The joint family is a
close-knit group of people who share common interests and have emotional bonds and common ancestry.
Three functional elements of a joint family system in India are as follows:
i) Common rituals and ceremonies, in accordance with caste norms and religious obligations.
ii) Mutual obligations among the members which bind them with reciprocal relationships.
iii) Social system in which rights and duties are distributed among the members.

Q8. Write a short note on changes in the joint family.

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Q11. Define joint family Explain the structural and functional changes of a joint family.
Ans: According to Irawati Karve, the joint family is a group of people who generally live under the same roof, share a
kitchen, hold a common property, participate in common family worship and is related to each other in some kindred.
In the joint family, a lot of changes has been surfaced now. These are changes in the joint which which are as follows:
a)Structure changes in the joint family are seen in its breakup into smaller nuclear household. This is due to various
factors. Some of them are:
i) Differential earning of brothers generating tensions in the households.
ii) Disinclination of the sons and their wives to share responsibilities.
iii) Growth of individualism.
iv) Development of secondary and tertiary sectors in the Indian economy.
b) Functional changes in the joint family are observed in the following areas:
i) Wife-husband relations where the wife exercises more authority.
ii) Parent-children relationships giving more importance to children.
iii) Relationships between daughter-in-law and parents-in-law because of the changing role and status of women.

Q9. Explain four factors leading to the disintegration of joint family in India?
Ans: Four factors leading to the disintegration of the joint family in India are as follows:
i) In modern times, the joint family system is being replaced by the smaller, self-sufficient nuclear families as these
units are smaller in size and are economically stable because both parents are often employed.
ii) Due to the rising status of women and their and their rising role, which is making them independent, the
relationships between parents-in-law and daughter-in-law is changing.
iii) The differential earnings of brother which generates tension in the household.
iv) Disinclination of the sons and their wives to share responsibilities.

Q10. What is kinship? Discuss the functions of kinship in Indian society.

Ans: Kinship refers to the people who are related by consanguinity or affinity. Kinship means social relationship based
on blood, marriage or adoption.
The functions of kinship in Indian society are:
i) Kinship provides a way for transmitting status and property from one generation to next. This is the area of descent
which traces relationships through succeeding generations. There are several ways of tracing descent: The unilineal
system traces descent through one line, this is either along the males or female line. If descent is traced through only
male line (from father to sons), it is called patrilineal or agnatic descent. If descent is traced through the female line
(mother to daughter), it is called matrilineal or uterine descent. Matrilineal descent is found among Khasis and Garos.
Unilineal descent group generally takes form of lineages and clan.
ii) Kinship regulates social behaviour as it establishes and maintains effective social groups for cooperation and social
behaviour. It regulates social behaviour relating to both marriage and death. It indicates the expectations, rights and
duties that kinsmen have for one another. For majority of the Indians, kinship continues to provide the framework of
social and cultural life.

Q12. Discuss the North Indian and South Indian kinship system in Indian?
Ans: In North India the basic kinship group are Kula, Gotra, and Jati. Kula and Gotra are exogamous units, while Jati is
endogamous. There is also village exogamy. As a result, there is a significant distance between the bride and the
bridegroom. Consequently the bride comes to the house of the groom as a stranger. There is also a sharp distinction
between the ‘daughters’ and the daughter-in-law of the village. A particular marriage alliance is a means for extending
kinship bonds by forging new kinship bonds.
In South India, there are both patrilineal and matrilineal communities. A well known example of a
matrilineal community is that of the Nayars in Kerala. Marriage alliances are within a known circle. There are also
preferred marriages like cross cousin marriages and uncle-niece marriages. The bride is familiar with the family into
which she is married. Thus a marriage alliance strengthens existing kinship bonds.