LOGIC GATES

OR (Addition)

AND ( Multiplication)

NOT

NOR

NAND
Logic Gates from other Gates:

NOR gate from OR & NOT Gate: NOT gate from NOR Gate: AND gate from NOR gate

NAND gate from AND & NOT Gate: NOT gate from Nand Gate: AND gate from NOR gate

A logic gate is a digital circuit that follow certain logical relationship between input and output
voltages. They control the flow of information.
Basic logic gates : AND, OR and NOT gates.
1. Series combination of switches is equivalent to AND logic operation.
2. Parallel combination of switches is equivalent to OR logic operation.
3. NOT logic operation is performed on a single variable. That’s why it is called unary operation.
4. AND, OR and NOT logic operations follow closure property, i.e., input as well as output are in
either of the binary states.
5. NAND and NOR gates are universal gates.
6. NAND gate is called the building block of all digital circuits.
7. If the logic gate is changed from positive to negative or vice-versa; AND changes into OR, OR
changes into AND, NAND changes into NOR and NOR charges into NAND.
DEMORGAN THEOREMS
(i) (ii)
These theorems are self-proved.
 SEMICONDUCTORS

Energy band having just higher energy than the valence band is called conduction band. Electrons in
conduction band are commonly called the free electrons. It is also called empty band of minimum
energy.

Energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band of a solid is called the forbidden
energy gap Eg or forbidden band. Width of forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of
substance.

A semiconductor, has a completely filled valence band i.e., it resembles an insulator at zero
temperature. However, the gap between this filled valence band & next band (C.B.) is small, about 1eV
or less. Hence electrons can easily make the transitions from one band to another at room temperature
& then carry an electric current (Silicon and germanium are semiconductors).

In a semiconductors, in thermal equilibrium, nenh = ni2

Intrinsic semiconductor-pure semiconductor- low Electrical conductivity. Doping Increases
conductivity. Ex. Germanium (Eg = 0.72 eV) and silicon (Eg = 1.1 eV)

Extrinsic semiconductor- impure or doped semiconductor – two types- N type- P type.

The number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band,
where, k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = absolute temperature and A = atomic weight.

n-type Semiconductor- pentavalent impurity, e.g. P, As, Sb. Bi is used as a dopant with Si or Ge.-
called donor impurity- dopant atom provides one free electron. ne >>nh.
ne. nh= ni 2 (Law of mass action) Density of intrinsic charge carrier ni
electrically neutral and is not negatively charged. Conductivity, σ = neμee

p-type Semiconductor- a trivalent impurity, e.g. B, Al, In, Ga, etc., is used as a dopant with Si or Ge.-
acceptor impurity- each impurity atom wants to accept an electron from the crystal lattice. each
dopant atom provides a hole-. nh >>ne. nh. ne= ni 2
Electrically neutral and is not postively charged. Conductivity, σ = nhμhe
Number of free electrons in a semiconductor varies with temperature as T 3 /2

Fermi energy level:

The highest energy level which can be occupied by an electron in a valence band at 0 K is called fermi
energy level.
Fermi energy level in intrinsic semiconductor is at the middle of forbidden band.
Fermi energy level in n-type semiconductor ( donar energy level )is lies in the forbidden band very close to
conduction band.
Fermi energy level in p-type semiconductor ( acceptor energy level )is lies in the forbidden band very close to
valance band.
Superconductors-When few metals are cooled, then below a certain critical temperature, their electrical
resistance suddenly becomes zero- are called superconductors and this phenomena is called
superconductivity. Ex. Mercury become superconductor at 4.2 K, lead at 7.25 K and niobium at 9.2 K.

Semiconductor Diode- p-n junction is formed, electrons from n-region diffuse through the junction
into p-region and the holes from p-region diffuse into n-region. Layer containing immobile ions (ie
ionized donar +ve charge in n-side and ionized acceptor -ve charge in p-side) is called depletion
layer-thickness order of 10 -6 m. The width of depletion layer inversely depends upon doping.
Potential difference developed across the p-n junction due to diffusion of electrons and holes is called
the potential barrier Vb. For Ge 0.3 V, but for Si diode, 0.7 V. Barrier electric field 105vm-1. This
potential barrier value depends upon nature of the substance, doping concentration and temperature of
the junction.

The mobility of a charge carrier is defined as the velocity gained by its per unit electric field,
i.e. µ= Vd /E
Mobility of holes is less than mobility of electrons because mobility of holes takes place in valence
band and mobility of electrons takes place in conduction band.

Conductivity σ of Ge is greater than Si. Because EGe=0.7V, Esi=1.1V

Diffusion current: Due to difference in concentration of charge carriers holes from p side
diffuse to n-side and electrons from n-side diffuse to p-side. Diffusion current flows p-side to n-
side.
Drift current: Due to electric field formed in the pn junction holes from n side diffuse to p-side
and electrons from p-side diffuse to n-side. Drift current flows n-side to p-side.
Forward and reverse biasing:
p-side of p-n junction is joined to positve terminal of voltage source and n-side to negative
terminal of voltage source, the junction is said to be forward biased and applied electric field E
opposes the barrier electric field Eb - depletion layer is reduced and on applying a voltage V >
Vb , a forward current begins to flow. Resistance offered by p-n junction in forward bias is
small (about 10-50 Ω).
p -side is connected to negative terminal of battery and n-side to positive terminal, the junction
is said to be reverse biased and E and Eb , being in same direction, are added up. So, the
depletion layer broadens and potential barrier is fortified. Small leakage current flows across
the junction due to minority charge carriers and junction resistance is extremely high (10 5Ω)

For a sufficiently high reverse bias voltage (25 V or even more), the reverse current suddenly
increases. This voltage is called Zener voltage or breakdown voltage or avalanche voltage.

p-n junction behaves as a voltage controlled switch. In forward bias, it acts like ON switch and
in reverse bias as OFF switch.
The p-n junction can be presumed as a capacitor, in which the depletion layer acts as dielectric.
Diode allows current to pass only when it is forward biased.
VI characteristics of PN diode:

Diode as a Rectifier- AC to DC
Half Wave Rectifier- rectifies only one-half of each AC input-discontinuous and pulsating DC
output- efficiency is quite low.
Full Wave Rectifier A rectifier, which rectifies both halves of each AC input cycle-output of a
full wave rectifier is continuous, but pulsating in nature. -can be made smooth by using a filter
circuit. Efficiency is more than that of half wave rectifier.

The ripple factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of AC component in the output of the
rectifier to the DC component in the input.

Zener Diode-highly doped p-n junction diode which is not damaged by high reverse current-
always used in reverse bias in breakdown voltage region and is chiefly used as a voltage
regulator. The Zener diode is selected with Zener voltage Vz equal to the voltage desired across
the load.
Si is preferred for making zener diode over Germanium due to its thermal stability and current
compatability. In forward bias zener diode acts as ordinary PN diode.
In Zener breakdown, the valence electrons move to conduction due to the high electric field in the
narrow depletion region. This occurs in heavily doped diodes and break down occurs below 6V.
In avalanche breakdown, the valence electrons are forced into conduction due to the energy gained by
accelerated electrons, which gain their velocity due to their collision with other atoms. This occurs in
lightly doped diodes and break down occurs 25V for Ge and 35V for Si..
SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS OF HALF-WAVE AND FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
Light Emitting Diode (LED)- It is a specially designed diode made of GaAsP, GaP, etc.
When used in forward biased, it emits characteristic, almost monochromatic light. In reverse
biased, it works like a normal diode. LEDs are current dependent devices with its forward
voltage drop (VF ) depending on the forward biased LED current.
Photodiode-special diode used in reverse bias which conducts only when light of suitable
wavelengths is incident on the junction of diode. The energy of incident light photon must be
greater than the band gap of semiconductor (i.e. h v>Eg ). Materials used are Cds, Se, Zns, etc.