ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT

An alternating current (A.C.) is one which periodically changes in magnitude
and direction. I = I0 sin (ωt + ϕ)
If ϕ is positive then current leads voltage and if ϕ is negative then current lags
the voltage.
The alternating emf E at any instant may be expressed as E = E0 sinωt
where ω is the angular frequency of alternating emf and E 0 is the peak value or
creast value or amplitude of emf. E is the instantanous value.

Direct current (D.C.) is that current which may or may not change in magnitude
but it does not change its direction.
ADVANTAGES OF A.C. OVER D.C.
 The generation of A.C. is cheaper than that of D.C.
 Alternating voltage can be easily stepped up or stepped down
by using a transformer.
 A.C. can be easily converted into D.C. by rectifier. D.C. is
converted to A.C. by an inverter.
 A.C. can be transmitted to a long distance without
appreciable loss.
AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
The average value of AC over one full cycle (sine or cosine) is zero since
there are equal positive and negative half cycles.
The average current for half cycle is 2I0 /π where I0 is the peak value of
current.
2
Eavg= π E =0.637 E =63.7 % of E ∨¿
o o o

2
I avg= I =0.637 I o=63.7 % of I o
π o

Average value of square of sine or cosine function for time period T is T/2.
T

Iavg= ∫ sin kwt ∨cos kwt= T2

0
2 2

t2

∫ f ( t ) dt
Average value of function y=f(t) from t1 to t2 is defined as y avg =
t1

t 1−t 2

RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

  The rms value of alternating current can also be defined as the direct
current which produces the same heating effect in a given resistor in a
given time as is produced by the given A.C. flowing through same resistor
for the same time. It is the effective or virtual value of current.
 The rms value of alternating current is called the effective or virtual value
I
of alternating current (or emf). I = √ 2 =0.707 I rms
o
o

 Similarly the rms value of alternating voltage is called the effective or

V
virtual value of alternating voltage (or emf).V = √2 =0.707 V rms
o
o

yo
 Rms value of sine or cosine y = yosinwt or y = yocoswt the yrms = √2
 Rms value for combined sine and cosine function y= y o+ yo1(sinw1t+ϕ1)+
yo2(sinw2t+ϕ2)+…..+ yon(sinwnt+ϕn)

√
n
1 2
Yrms= y 2o + ∑
i=1
y
2 oi
Ex: y= 3 + 2 sinwt+ 3 sinwt then
yrms= √ 4 9
9+ +
2 2 = √ 31
2

Time period: The time taken by A.C. to go through one cycle of changes is
2π
called its period. It is given as T = w
Phase: It is that property of wave motion which tells us the position of the
particle at any instant as well as its direction of motion.
Phase angle: Angle associated with the wave motion (sine or cosine) is called
phase angle.
Lead: Out of the current and emf the one having greater phase angle will lead

the other e.g., in equation i = i0 sin and e = e0 sin ωt, the current leads

the emf by an angle .

Lag: Out of current and emf the one having smaller phase angle will lag the

other. In the above equations, the emf lags the current by .

I rms I o π
Form factor of AC = = X
I avg √ 2 2 I o
=1.11

Io Io
= = √2
Peak factor of AC= I rms i o
√2

POWER IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT

The power is defined as the rate at which work is being done in the circuit. In ac
circuit, the current and emf are not necessarily in the same phase, therefore
we write E = E0 sin ωt & I = I0 sin (ωt + φ).
Instantaneous power, P = EI = E0 I0 sin ωt sin (ωt + φ)
Eo I o
Apparent Power =ErmsIrms= 2

Reactive power (watt less power) = Erms Irms sin φ

Average power (true power or watt full power) Pav = Erms Irms cos φ

∴
Here cos φ is known as power factor. ie, cosine of phase angle difference
between current and voltage. The value of cos φ depends on the nature of the
Average power
circuit. Cosϕ = Apparent power

RESISTANCE OFFERED BY INDUCTOR, RESISTOR AND CAPACITOR TO

A.C.
Alternating current in a circuit may be controlled by resistance,
inductance and capacitance, while the direct current is controlled only
by resistance.
IMPEDANCE (Z): Total opposition offered by all circuit elements to the
flow of a.c is called the impedance and is denoted by Z,

i.e., SI unit is ohm.

Impedance triangle
REACTANCE (X): The opposition offered by inductance or capacitance or
both to the flow of ac in an ac circuit is called reactance and is denoted
by X.
Thus when there is no ohmic resistance in the circuit, the reactance is
equal to impedance. The reactance due to inductance alone is called
inductive reactance and is denoted by XL, while the reactance due to
capacitance alone is called the capacitive reactance and is denoted by
XC. Its unit is also ohm.
ADMITTANCE (Y): The inverse of impedance is called the admittance
1
and is denoted by Y, i.e., y= Z Its SI unit is ohm–1 or mho or Siemen(S)

WATTLESS CIRCUIT & WATTLES CURRENT

If R = 0, cos φ = 0 and P av = 0 i.e., in a circuit with no resistance, the
power loss is zero. Such a LC circuit is called the wattless circuit and the
current flowing is called the wattless current.
We can resolve I rms into two components I rms cos ϕ and I rms sin ϕ. Here,
the component I rms cos ϕ contributes towards power dissipation and
the component I rms sin ϕ does not contribute towards power
dissipation. Therefore, it is called wattles current.

Pure Resistor Pure Inductor Pure Capacitor

Circuit
diagram

Phasor
diagram
And phase
difference

ϕ= 0 ϕ= 90o ϕ= 90o
P.f=cos 0=1 P.f= cos 90o=0 P.f= cos 90o=0
Graph
emf, I vs
wt

Equation
for
current

Iavg=0 for full cycle

2E Iavg= 0 for full cycle
Half cycle Iavg= πR o
2E
E Iavg= 0 for full cycle Half cycle Iavg= πRo

Irms = R
rms
2E
Half cycle Iavg= πR Irms = R
o E
rms

E
Irms = Rrms

Imped Z = R Z = ω L = XL=2πfL Z=Xc= wC1 = 2 πfc

1

ance Unit of XL ohm ML2T-3A-2

Dimen. ML2T-3A-2
Power Ins.Power=EoIosin2wt Average power = 0. Average power = 0. ie., no
Average power ie., no power is power is dissipated in pure
=ErmsIrms cosϕ dissipated in pure capacitor circuit.
=ErmsIrms inductor circuit. But Apparent power (rate
But Apparent power at which energy stored in
(rate at which energy capacitance) = Erms.Irms
stored in inductance)
= Erms.Irms
Note Impedance of For high frequency For high frequencies Xc
circuit is equal to of ac XL becomes becomes 0 and So
the ohmic ꝏ and the inductor capacitor offers low
resistance behaves as open resistive path to a.c. (a.c
circuit I=0. So current easily flows) and
inductor offers high the circuit acts as a high
resistive path to a.c. pass filter.
 RL series circuit RC series circuit LC series circuit
Circuit
diagram

Phasor
diagram
And
phase
differnce

E = V C – VL

Eo=√ V R
2 2
+V L
Eo=√ V R
2
+V C2

E = V L – VC
Graph
emf, I vs
wt

Equation I=Iosin(wt-ϕ) I=Iosin(wt+ϕ) I =I o sin ( wt ± ϕ )

for E E E E E E
current Io = Z √ R + X
o
= 2
o

L
2 Io = Z √ R + X
o
= 2
o

c
2 I= X − X
C L
∨¿
X L −X C

Impedan Eo Eo
Z= Io
=√ R + X L
2
where XL Z=
2
Io
=√ R + X c
2 2
Z=0,
ce 1
= ωL Xc = 1/ωC X= X −X =( wC −wL)
c L

Power R R π
cos ϕ = √ R + X2 p.f = cos ϕ = √ R + X
2 2 2 Φ=± 2 P.f cos ϕ=0.
factor L c

SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit containing a resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C in
series having an alternating emf. E = E0 sin ωt.
Phasor diagram

Let I be the current flowing in circuit. V R, VL and VC are respective potential

differences across resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C.
The p.d VR is in phase with current I. The p.d V C lags behind the current by angle
π/2. The p.d. VL leads the current by angle π/2.
∴ Resultant applied emf, E=√ V R2 +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
 = √(RI ) +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2

i.e., ∴ Impedance,
E
Z= =√ (R) + ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2
I

The phase leads of current over applied emf is given by

If XC > XL, the value of φ is positive, i.e., current leads the applied emf.
If XC < XL, the value of φ is negative, i.e., current lags behind the applied emf.
If XC = XL, the value of φ is zero, i.e., current and emf are in same phase. ie,
ϕ=0.
RESONANCE
When cosϕ=1, LCR circuit behaves as pure resistive circuit.
Power factor is unity. Current is maximum. Impedance is minimum.
This is called the case of resonance and resonant frequency for condition
XC = XL, is given by :

i.e., ∴
Thus the resonant frequency depends on the product of L and C and is
independent of R.
At resonance, impedance is minimum, Zmin = R and current is maximum

Note: Before resonance the current leads the applied emf, at resonance it is in
phase, and after resonance it lags behind the emf. LCR series circuit is also
called as acceptor circuit and parallel LCR circuit is called rejecter circuit.
Note:
Wrong: Adding impedances / reactances /resistors algebraically. Correct. For
these physical quantities, vector addition must be done.
Wrong: Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable in D.C. circuit only
Correct. Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable in A.C. circuit also (which may include
inductor and capacitor).

Q - Factor
The sharpness of tuning at resonance is measured by Q-factor or quality factor

of the circuit and is given by

Higher the value of Q-factor, sharper is the resonance i.e. more rapid is the fall
of current from maximum value (I0) with slight change in frequency from the
resonance value.
Bandwidth: It is the band of allowed frequencies and is defined as the
difference between upper and lower cut-off frequencies, the frequency at

which power becomes half of maximum value and current becomes .

Summary:
Unless mentioned otherwise, all a.c. currents and voltages are r.m.s. values.
For resonance to occur, the presence of both L and C elements in the circuit is a
must.
In series resonant circuit, current is maximum at resonance. In a parallel
resonant circuit, current is minimum (or zero) at resonance but p.d across the
combination is maximum.
The average current over a complete cycle in an a.c circuit is zero but the
average power is not zero.
An inductor offers negligibly low resistance path to d.c. and a resistive path for
a.c. A capacitor acts as a block for d.c and a low resistance path to a.c.

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device for converting high voltage into low voltage
and vice versa, without change in power and frequency.
Step up transformer: It converts low voltage into high voltage.
Step down transformer: It converts high voltage into low voltage.
The principle of a transformer is based on mutual induction and a
transformer always works on AC. The input is applied across primary
terminals and output is obtained across secondary terminals. In a
transformer, the input emf and the output emf differ in phase by π
radians.

The ratio of number of turns in secondary and primary is called the turn ratio.
n
i.e., Turn ratio K= n .
s

If EP and ES are alternating voltages, IP and IS the alternating currents across

E n I
primary and secondary terminals resply. then, E = n =K= I
s

p
s

p
P

S
 Output Power Pout Es I s
Efficiency of transformer, Ƞ= Input Power = P ¿
=
EP I P

The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long
distances is done with the use of transformers.
The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced
and consequently, the I2R loss is cut down) and it is transmitted to long
distances then it is stepped down at area substation and again stepped down at
distribution substation by 240V reaches our home.

POWER LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

 Copper loss: This is due to resistance of the winding of
primary and secondary coil (I2 R)
 Iron loss or Eddy current loss: Loss due to leakage of magnetic
flux. To reduce this transformer core is laminated.
  Magnetic loss or Flux leakage: Loss occurred due to flux
leakage. It can be reduced by winding the primary and
secondary coils one over the other.
 Hysteresis Loss: Due to repeated magnetization and
demagnetization of iron core. To minimize these losses, the
transformer core is made up of a laminated soft iron strips.
 Humming loss: Due to vibration.
Inspite of all these losses, we have transformers with efficiency of
more than 90%. For an ideal transformer efficiency is 100%.