E-COURSE MATERIAL OF AEX-101 (0+2) - FUNDAMENTALS OF

RURAL SOCIOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Dr.S. Govinda Gowda, Professor of Sociology

Mr. P.N. Subba Reddy, Associate Professor of Sociology
Dr. V. Govinda Gowda, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Extension
Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, University of
Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore.

SOCIOLOGY AND RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Science is a body of organized and verified knowledge secured
through scientific methods. Science has been classified into three
types based on the nature of the subject matter; they are:

Physical science: This branch of science deals with inorganic matter

i.e., the matter and energy having no reference to life. Examples are
Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Astronomy, etc.

Biological science: This branch of science studies organic matter

i.e., matter and energy having reference to life. Examples are Botany,
Zoology, Entomology, Pathology, etc

Social Science: This branch of science deals with social

phenomena/social life. Examples are Economics, Political Science,
Psychology, History, Ethics, Anthropology, Sociology, etc.

Social life or society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude of

intricacies or phases or dimensions such as economic, political, legal,
educational, and cultural and so on. All social sciences except
sociology study social life or society focusing only on a particular
dimension or phase of human life and thus they have become
specialized social sciences. Thus, economics deals with economic
activities such as production, distribution and consumption of goods
and services. Political science studies political activities and
institutions. History studies significant events and personages that
have affected the flow of human life in a chronological order.
Psychology studies development of human mind and its influence on
human behaviours. Anthropology studies man in terms of physical,
cultural and social characteristics. Ethics studies morals governing
human behaviours. These social sciences give only a snap-shot
picture of society from various angles of vision, not a comprehensive
view of society in its totality. This kind of specialized knowledge about
society could not help solving various problems of society. Hence,
Auguste Comte, a French Philosopher and Sociologist felt the need of
a general social science which should purview the society as a whole
or as such or in its totality. This general social science was named as
‘Sociology’ by Auguste Comte in the year 1839 deriving it from Latin
word ‘Societus’ meaning ‘Society’, the Greek word ‘Logos’ meaning
study or science. The etymological meaning of sociology is thus the
‘Science of Society’. As Auguste Comte was responsible for sociology
to come into being, he is popularly called the ‘Father of Sociology’.

Sociology adopts holistic approach in the study of human

society i.e., it studies all aspects of human life to generate a
comprehensive knowledge in order to overcome problems of human
life and society. This is why sociology is said to be a “social science
par excellence”

Definitions:

1. ‘Sociology is the study of human inter-actions and interrelations,

their conditions and consequences’ – M. Ginsberg.
2. ‘Sociology is the study of social relationships, which are referred to
as ‘web of society’ – MacIver.
3. ‘Sociology is the study of interactions arising from the association
of human beings.’ - Gillin and Gillin.
4. ‘Sociology is the scientific study of the structure of social life’ –
Young and Mack.

Although the definitions of Sociology vary in their focus, the

common idea underlying them is that sociology is concerned with
human relationships. Its subject matter is society rather than the
individual, though the individual cannot be left out.

Since human life became complex, there was need for an in depth
study of each aspect of human life. Thus, sociology has been further
divided into different applied branches, namely; Rural Sociology,
Urban Sociology, Political Sociology, Educational Sociology, etc.

RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Rural Sociology originated in the United States in 1908, when

the then President T. Roosevelt constituted a commission called
“Country Life Commission” in order to study and make suitable
recommendations to overcome social problems which led to the decay
of American rural society. This commission made a scientific enquiry
into the causes and effects of social problems on rural life and made
suitable recommendations for increasing welfare of rural people. This
became the basis for emergence of rural sociology in the United States
and it later extended to the other countries in the world.
 The major portion of the world’s population lives in villages and
follows agriculture and allied activities. The way of life of rural people
is deeply influenced by the rural environment. Thus, rural sociology
being an applied branch of sociology analyses the way of life of rural
people. M.N. Srinivas gave the concepts of Sanskritization,
Westernization and Dominant Caste in the context of understanding
Indian rural social life and thus he is called the pioneer of Indian
Rural Sociology.

Definitions:

1. ‘Rural sociology is the study of human relationships in rural

environment.’ – Bertrand.
2. ‘Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural people in group
relationships.’ – E.M. Rogers.
3. ‘Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural social relationships.’
– Lynn smith.
4. ‘Rural sociology is the study of laws governing rural life and
development.’ – A.R. Desai.
Although the definitions vary in their focus, the common idea
underlying them is that rural sociology studies life and activities of
rural people i.e., rural social processes, social patterns and social
organizations.

Scope:

Scope of Rural Sociology indicates areas or fields of the study of

rural sociology. The important of them are:

1. Origin and development of rural society.

2. Nature and role of rural social institutions.
3. Nature and role of rural social organizations in the context of
rural development.
4. Nature of rural culture.
5. Nature of rural leadership.
6. Influence of demographic factors on rural life.
7. Influence of ecological factors on rural life.
8. Nature and role of social control operating in rural society.
9. Rural social change.
10. Rural Social problems

Importance of the study of Rural Sociology:

The importance of the study of rural sociology could be

understood by its uses.
 1. The study of rural sociology helps to understand the nature and
role of rural social organizations like co-operatives, panchayas, youth
clubs, self- help groups, etc. in the context of rural development.
Consequently, the change agents could involve these social
organizations effectively in achieving rural development.

2. The study of rural sociology is essential for framing effective

polices or plans or programmes. The social plans or policies or
programmes are the measures formulated and implemented for the
betterment of rural people. The policy makers/planners can design
effective rural development policies/ plans or programs only if they
have adequate knowledge about different dimensions of rural life and
this could be achieved only through the study of rural sociology.

3. The study of rural sociology helps to understand different

dimensions of rural culture which influence actions, attitudes and
decision-making of rural people. This helps change agents to evolve
effective strategies to create favourable attitudes and right decision-
making among rural people towards acceptance and adoption of new
technology.

4. Rural sociology helps in understanding different facets of rural

leadership like qualities, functions, types, methods of locating leaders
and their development functions. This helps change agents to get a
comprehensive knowledge about rural leadership and thereby involve
rural leaders in technology transfer or rural development process.

5. The study of rural sociology is helpful in understanding causes

and consequences of rural social change. This helps change agents to
understand the dynamics of rural life and thus, formulate strategies
to increase positive changes to promote welfare of rural people.

6. The study of rural sociology helps in finding solutions to rural

social problems. As the rural sociology generates scientific knowledge
on causes and effects of rural social problems, the change agents
could find suitable remedies to the social problems of rural society.
This would contribute to the welfare of rural people.

INDIAN RURAL COMMUNITY

Human beings live a collective life in a specific area with

fellow feeling, which is called community. In other words, community
is an area of common life marked by some degree of coherence.
Examples of community are village, town, city, tribe, and nation. A
group of people, a definite locality and community sentiment are the
essential elements of a community. There are three major types of
communities, namely, rural, urban and tribal communities.

Bases of Classification of Rural and Urban Communities:

Sociologists have used three criteria to classify community into

rural and urban communities, they are: size of population (numerical
strength), occupation and kind of relationship among people.

Meaning of Rural and Urban Communities:

Rural community is one which consists of relatively small

size of population, follows agriculture and allied activities as a major
occupation and possesses primary relationships. Primary
relationships are intimate, personal and face-to-face relationships.

Urban community is one which consists of relatively large

size of population, following non-agricultural occupations and
possessing secondary relationships. Secondary relationships are non-
intimate, impersonal and indirect relationships.

Characteristics of Indian Rural Community:

The important characteristics of Indian rural community are:

1. Predominance of agriculture
2. Predominance of primary relationships
3. Predominance of caste system
4. A strong sense of neighbourhood
5. Simple and homogeneous life
6. Lack of intense social mobility
7. Informal social control
8. Conservatism
9. Mass illiteracy
10. Joint family

Differences between Rural and Urban Communities:

1. Agriculture and allied activities are pursued as a major source of

livelihood in rural community while in urban community non-
agricultural activities are pursued as a major source of livelihood.
2. The size of population in rural community is limited while in
urban community size of population is relatively large.
3. The dependency of rural people is more upon the nature than that
of the urban people.
4. Rural relationships are predominantly primary in nature while
urban relationships are secondary.
5. Rural community involves simple and homogeneous life whereas
urban community involves complex and heterogeneous life.
6. There is lack of intense social mobility in rural community. But in
urban community intense social mobility is very much seen.
7. In rural community informal social control is operating
significantly in defining and regulating actions of people whereas
in urban community formal social control is operating
predominantly.
8. Caste based social stratification prevails in rural community while
in urban community class based social stratification operates
significantly.
9. Rural people are conservatives while urban people are innovators.
10. Joint family has been traditionally a predominant form in rural
community while in urban community nuclear family is
predominant.
11. The incomes of rural people are generally low and thus their
standard of living is also low, while the incomes of urban people
are relatively higher and thus they have better standard of living.
12. Incidence of illiteracy is higher in rural community while literacy
rate is higher in urban community.

SOCIAL GROUPS

Man is a group living animal. He is born into and spends his

life in groups. Generally, groups help people to acquire social
qualities, culture and also to satisfy their desires. Hence, groups are
important in the life of human beings.

In Sociology group and social group are synonymously used.

Social group refers to a collection of human beings who are interacting
with one another in accordance with a set of norms. Examples of
social groups are family, youth club, panchayat, political party, etc.

Definitions

1. “Social group is a collection of people, two or more, who are

brought into social relationships with one another” – MacIver.
2. “A social group is a collection of individuals, two or more,
interacting on each other, who have common objects of attention and
participate in similar activities.” – Eldredge and Merrill
The important characteristics of social group are:

1. A group of people

2. Social interaction
3. Common interest

4. Functional interdependence

5. System of leadership

6. We-feeling

7. Group norms

8. Size of group.

Factors Considered in Formation of Social Groups:

The important factors considered in the formation of groups are:

1. Occupation: Farmers’ association, Teachers’ association, etc.

2. Caste : Dalits’ association, Brahmins’ association, etc.
3. Religion : Hindus’ association, Christians’ association, etc.
4. Region : Jharkhand Morcha, Telugu Desham, Assam Gana
Parishat, etc.
5. Race : Whites, Negroes, etc
6. Income : Upper class, middle class, lower class.
7. Common interest: School, Recreational clubs, etc.

Classification of Social Groups:

The major classifications of social groups are as follows:

1. Voluntary and involuntary groups based on nature of

membership:

Voluntary groups are the one in which membership of a person is not

compulsory. Involuntary groups are those in which the membership
of a person is compulsory. Examples of voluntary groups are political
party, youth club, recreational club, etc. Examples of involuntary
groups are family, community, nation, etc.

2. Formal and informal groups based on degree of formality and

informality involved:
Formal groups are the one deliberately formed by people for achieving
their common needs. These groups possess written rules, defined
purpose, specific meeting place and time, specific name, selected and
titled officers. Informal groups are spontaneous or natural serving
general purposes of people. These groups have none of the
characteristics of formal groups excepting nomenclature.
 Examples of formal groups are college, political party, village
panchayat while examples of informal groups are family,
neighborhooud, nation, etc.

3. In-and-out groups based on personal feeling of belonging to

the groups:
This classification is given by W.G. Sumner. In-groups are the
one to which people feel that they belong. In other words, the groups
with which people identify themselves are called in-groups. Out-
groups are the one to which people do not feel that they belong. In
other words, the groups with which people do not identify themselves
are called out-groups. Examples of in-groups are our country, our
family, etc. while examples of out-groups are other university, their
village, etc.

4. Primary and Secondary Groups based on kind of

relationships among the members.

This classification is given by C.H. Cooley. Primary groups are those

whose members have personal, intimate and face-to-face
relationships. Examples are family, village, tribe, small neighborhood,
peer group, play group, etc. Secondary groups are the one whose
members have non-intimate, impersonal and indirect relationships.
Examples are political party, city, trade union, nation, etc.

Differences between Primary and Secondary Groups:

1. Primary groups are small in size where as secondary groups are

large in size.
2. There is close physical proximity among the members of primary
groups while the members of secondary groups do not have
close physical proximity.
3. The primary groups involve personal, intimate and face-to-face
relationships whereas the secondary groups involve impersonal,
non-intimate and indirect relationships.
4. Primary groups are spontaneous or informal whereas secondary
groups are formal and deliberate.
5. Primary relationships are all inclusive while secondary
relationships are non-inclusive.
6. Primary groups are governed by informal social control. But,
secondary groups are governed by formal social control.
 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social stratification refers to the division of society into

different strata or ranking of people or groups into socially superior
and inferior positions. Strata imply existence of status differences
characteristic of groups or society.

Definitions:

1. ‘Social stratification is the process by which individuals and

groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status -
Ogburn and Nimkoff.
2. ‘Social stratification is the vertical division of society into different
social strata. Strata imply different status levels – J.S.Rucek and
R.L.Warren.
The term status is the position held by people or groups in
society in relation to others. Examples of status are engineer, doctor,
mother, adult, boy, girl, student, leader, etc. There are two types of
status, they are ascribed status and achieved status.

Ascribed status is one given to individuals or groups based on

certain factors such as caste, religion, sex, age, race, etc., upon which
they have no control:

Examples are:

Caste status - Brahmin, Harijan, etc.

Racial status - White and Negro, etc.

Religious Status - Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, etc.

Age based status - Infant, child, adult, aged, etc.

Sex based status - Boy, Girl.

Achieved status is one obtained by people or groups by their

efforts and personal competence. Examples are professor, doctor,
engineer, etc

Bases for Social Stratification

The important bases upon which people or groups are ranked
into different social status levels are:

1. Income 6. Gender or Sex

2. Wealth 7. Race

3. Education 8. Religion
 4. Occupation

5. Caste
Types of Social Stratification:

There are two types of social stratification, namely;

1. Open social stratification

2. Closed social stratification
3.
Open social stratification

Open social stratification is one wherein there is an opportunity

for people or groups to move upwards or downwards in their status
based on their efforts and personal competence. This stratification
prevails very much in industrially advanced societies. Example of this
social stratification is social class system.

SOCIAL CLASS

Social class refers to a group of people having more or less

same status such as higher or middle or lower status. The social
classes generally found in society are upper, middle and lower classes,
which are based on the factors like income, wealth, education and
occupation. In Indian rural society, we find different classes based on
landholdings possessed by people. These classes are large farmers,
medium farmers, small and marginal farmers and agricultural
laborers. These classes of rural society are known as agrarian classes.

Characteristics:

Social class possesses certain important characteristics, viz.

a) Social class is a status group.

b) Social class is a culturally homogeneous group.

c) Social class involves more of class consciousness.

d) Social class maintains social distance.

e) Social class is an open system.

Closed social stratification:

Closed system of social stratification is one wherein people or

groups do not have adequate opportunities to move from one status to
the other. Rather, they are required to remain in that status which is
given to them on the factors beyond their control. Example of this
stratification is Indian caste system.

CASTE SYSTEM

Caste is an example for closed system of social stratification in

Indian society. The term caste owes its origin to Spanish word
‘Casta’ which means breed, race or a complex of hereditary qualities.
The Portuguese applied this term to the classes of people of India
known by the name of ‘Jati’. The English word caste is an
adjustment of the original term.

Definition:

“Caste is a group of people who often (not always) have

association with hereditary occupation, eat and marry among
themselves and avoid (minimize) interaction with members of other
out-groups.” – M.N.Srinivas

Characteristics:

Prof. G.S. Ghurye has given the following six important

characteristics of caste system.

1. Segmental division of Indian society.

2. Social and religious hierarchy
3. Endogamy
4. Restriction on feeding and social intercourse.
5. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation.
6. Civil and religious disabilities.

Differences between class and caste systems:

1. Class is an open system where as caste is a closed system.

2. Class is secular in nature whereas caste is divine in nature.
3. Class is non-endogamous whereas caste is endogamous.
4. There are no restrictions on food habits, interaction, occupation
in class system while there are rigid restrictions in caste system in
respect of food habits, interaction and occupation

CULTURE AND ITS CONCEPTS

Culture is an integral aspect of human life, which influences the

attitudes, actions and patterns of living of people in a society. Culture
is the sole possession of human beings and upon which they could be
distinguished from other lower animals. Culture is a system of
learned behaviors shared by and transmitted among the members of a
group.

Definitions:

1. “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge,

belief, art, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities acquired
by man as a member of society.” - E.B. Tylor.
2. “Culture is the totality of group ways of thought and action duly
accepted and followed by a group of people.” – Walter Paul.

Characteristics:

1. Culture is an acquired quality.

2. Culture is a social heritage.
3. Culture is transmissive
4. Culture is continuous and cumulative
5. Culture is dynamic
6. Culture is ideational
7. Culture is gratifying
Types of Culture

There are two types of culture; they are:

1. Material culture refers to concrete objects created by human

beings to satisfy their desires. These are external to human beings.
Examples are tools, furniture, automobiles, buildings, utensils, etc.

2. Non-material culture refers to an abstract creation of man

such as ideas, customs, beliefs, habits, morals, laws, knowledge, etc.
These are internal to human beings and are acquired through process
of learning.

Cultural Concepts:

There are different aspects in the culture of a society, which are

addressed by different concepts. The understanding of these concepts
helps to understand the various dimension of culture.

1. Cultural Traits are the individual elements or smallest units of a

culture. These units put together constitute culture. Thus, shaking
hands, touching the feet of elders, tipping hats, saluting the national
flag, wearing white ‘saris’ at mourning, taking vegetarian diets,
walking barefooted, sprinkling water on the idols are cultural traits.
Thus, traits are the elemental units of a culture.
2. Culture Complex is a group or cluster of related culture traits.
According to Hoebel “cultural complexes are nothing but larger
clusters of traits organized about some nuclear point of reference.”
Cultural traits do not usually appear singly or independently. They
are customarily associated with other related traits to form culture
complex.
3. Cultural Diffusion is the process by which cultural traits spread
from one group or society to another. This may take place either due
to the physical proximity of people of different societies or through
mass media of communication like T.V. etc.
4. Cultural Relativity (Cultural Relativism) is judging a culture on
its own terms and not in comparison to another culture. In other
words, judging the cultures in their own terms rather than by the
standards of other culture is cultural relativism. Cultures should be
judged only in the context in which they occur.
5. Cultural Lag is a situation in which some parts of culture (usually
material culture) change at a faster rate than other parts (usually
non-material culture). This concept has been given by Ogburn.
6. Cultural Pluralism is the living together of people despite cultural
differences with sympathetic consideration to each other.
7. Cultural Universals are those cultural traits that apply to all the
members of a society. Examples are incest taboo, respecting the
national flag, loyalty and patriotism to the nation, respecting
elders/women, etc.
8. Cultural Alternatives refer to the cultural traits that offer socially
acceptable choices. Examples are different modes of dress,
worshiping, occupation, customs, etc.
9. Cultural Change is the process of alterations in different spheres of
culture of a society. This takes place due to two sets of factors,
namely; (1) inventions and discoveries, (2) cultural diffusion and
borrowings.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

The term ‘institution’ is used to indicate the procedures followed

by social organizations. These procedures may be formal or informal,
which define and regulate actions of members of social organizations.
Therefore, Barnes called institution a strong hold of social life.

Definitions:

1. “Institution is an established forms or conditions of procedure

characteristic of group activity” – MacIver.
2. “Institution is the normative order of defining and governing the
patterns of social action, deemed by the members of the group or
society as morally and socially crucial to the existence of group or
society” – Park and Burgess.

The social organizations and procedures which we call social

institutions always go hand in hand. In view of this close relationship
and also due to their expression through social organizations, most
sociologists called social organizations themselves as social
institutions. This is why family, panchayat, co-operatives, school,
church, government, etc. are called social institutions.

Major Social Institutions

1. Family:

Family is a universal primary social institution. It functions as a

social, biological and economic unit and therefore it has a prime place
in human society.

Definitions:

1. “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise

and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of
children”- MacIver.
2. “Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife
with or without children, or a man or woman alone with children”-
Nimkoff.

Functions:

Following are the important functions of family

1. Fulfils sexual and reproductive urges.

2. Provides physical necessities for upbringing of children.
3. Provides affectionate and intimate relationships.
4. Serves as an effective agency of socialization.
5. Acts as an important agency of social control.
6. Determines initial status of its members.
7. Organizes and transmits assets.

2. The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs):

The PRIs came into being in India in 1959 on the

recommendations of the Balwanth Roy Mehta Committee as an
institutional agency of rural development. They were adopted first by
the states of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh and later by other states.
The PRIs are the local self-government consisting of three tiers namely
Gram (village) Panchayat, Taluk Panchayat and Zilla Panchayat duly
elected for taking care of rural administration and development. Of
late, the PRIs have been strengthened through the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment, 1993. The PRIs have provided administrative apparatus
for planning and implementation of rural development programmes
effectively through the involvement of rural people. They also help in
the democratic decentralization and devolution of powers, functions
and authority to the rural people to achieve rapid socio-economic
development.

Structure

The structure of PRIs is based on the pattern suggested by the

All India Panchayati Raj Act, 1993. The structure is of three tiers;
namely., (a) Gram Panchayat at village level, (b) Taluk Panchayat at
taluk level, and (c) Zilla Panchayat at district level. This pattern
prevails in Karnataka also.

1.Gram Panchayat:

Gram Panchayat (GP) is an elected body serving a village or a group of

villages having a population of not less than 5000 and not more than
7000 in maidan regions and not less than 2500 people in malnad or
hilly regions. Each elected member represents 400 villagers. The
chairperson of the GP is elected by and from among the elected
members. The SCs and STs are given reservation based on the size of
their population or 15 and 3 per cent respectively. Further, 33.33 per
cent of seats are also reserved for women. The GP is responsible for
development of villages under its jurisdiction.

2.Taluk Panchayat:

The Taluk Panchayat (TP) functions at taluk level and it is an elected

body. However, this includes MLAs/MLCs/MPs of the taluk and also
one-third of the chairmen of Gram Panchayats in the taluk as
associate members on rotation for a period of one year. Each elected
member represents 10,000 population or part thereof. The minimum
number of members in a taluk less than one lakh population is 11.
The chairperson of the TP is elected by and from among the elected
members. The SCs and STs are given reservation in the TP based on
the size of their population or 15 and 3 per cent, respectively.
Further, 33.33 per cent of seats are also reserved for women. The TP
is responsible for development of villages within its jurisdiction.
 3. Zilla Panchayat:

The Zilla Panchayat (ZP) functions at district level and has

responsibility to promote development of villages in the district. The
ZP is an elected body and each elected member represents 40,000
population in the maidan districts and 30,000 people in the malnad or
hilly districts. In addition, the ZP includes MLAs/MLCs/MPs of the
district and also of the chairmen of the TPs in the district as its
associate members. The chairperson of the ZP is elected by and from
among the elected members. The SCs and STs are given reservation
in the ZP based on the size of their population or 15 and 3 per cent
respectively. Women are also given 33.33 per cent of seats.

Development Functions of Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Following are the important development functions of the PRIs

1. Provision and maintenance of civic services.

2. Promotion of public sanitation and hygiene.
3. Promotion of women and child development.
4. Promotion of health and family welfare.
5. Provision for rural electrification.
6. Implementation of rural housing schemes.
7. Promotion of development of Khadi, Village and Cottage industries.
8. Undertake welfare programmes for handicapped, mentally retarded,
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
9. Promotion of education.
10. Promotion of agriculture, animal husbandry and social forestry.
11. Undertake minor irrigation and other public works.
12. Provision for public distribution system.
13. Promotion of cultural activities and libraries.

3. Co-operatives

Co-operatives are the forms of organizations in which persons

voluntarily organize themselves on the basis of equality for promotion
of their economic interests. Examples of cooperatives in Indian rural
community are primary agricultural credit society, milk producers’
cooperative society, consumers’ cooperative society, etc. The functions
of cooperatives are as follows:

1. Agriculture development.

a) Providing agricultural credit.

b) Supply of farm inputs.
2. Live-stock development.

3. Marketing of Agricultural and live-stock products.

4. Providing consumer requirements.

5. Providing services of agricultural machinery to the members.

6. Serving as forum for democratic planning and implementation of

development Programmes.

7. Promoting co-operative values such as self-help, mutual aid, self

reliance, mutual trust etc. among members.

8. Providing opportunity for emergence of development oriented

leadership.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

Social organizations are important aspect of human life and

thus of society. Human beings are not only born, live in and work
through social organizations but also satisfy most of their desires
through them. Social groups that have been deliberately and
consciously constructed in order to seek certain specific ends are
called social organizations. In other words, social organizations are
groups of people organized to pursue specific objectives.

Definitions:

1. “Social organization is an articulation of different parts performing

different functions, it is an active group devised for getting something
done”- Ogburn and Nimkoff.

2. ”Social organization is the patterned relations of individuals and

groups. It is one of the sources of order in social life.” – Leonard
Broom and Phillip Selznick.

The form and structure of a social organization develops as a

specialized activity, rules and regulations for operating, time and place
of meetings are formulated, and the organization operates as a clearly
defined entity having a specific objective with officers and
membership. Examples of social organizations are school, political
party, youth club, village panchayat, co-operatives, self-help group,
trade union, etc.
 Types:

Social organizations are classified into four types based on

different bases; they are:

1. Prescribed and Voluntary social organizations on the basis of

political structure:

The prescribed organizations are primarily or wholly government

established and controlled with membership being compulsory.
Generally, they exist in totalitarian societies. Voluntary organizations
arise as spontaneous expressions of interests of people in society with
membership not being compulsory. These are generally found in non-
totalitarian societies.

2. Recreational and Service Social Organizations on the basis of

motives of participation of people:

The recreational social organizations clubs are the one in which

people participate for personal pleasure and satisfaction. The service
social organizations are formed to provide service for the welfare of
members or the general public.

3. Open and secret social organizations on the basis of

organizational operation:

Open social organizations are the one whose programmes, goals

and membership are known to the general public. Examples are
political party, village panchayat, farmers’ association, college, etc.
Secret social organizations are those whose purposes, programmes,
membership or activities are known only to the members. Examples
are caste and religious organizations.

4. Inclusive, Restricted and Exclusive social organizations on the

basis of admission to membership:

a) Inclusive social organization is one in which membership is open to

anyone interested in the purposes of the organization and meets its
requirements. Examples are recreational clubs.
b) Restricted social organization is one whose membership is open to
the persons who possess predetermined qualifications that
characterize the organization and the individual. Examples are
associations of radio engineers, agronomists, doctors or textile
manufactures, etc.
c) Exclusive social organization is one in which the admission is given
through selection. Examples are rotary international, red cross
 society, etc., where membership is at the discretion of the
organization within its constitutional provisions.

SOCIAL CONTROL

Social control is a universal phenomenon whereby social order

and harmony are ensured in a group or society for its effective
functioning by defining and regulating actions of members in
accordance with its norms. Thus, social control refers to the process
of influencing the members of a group or society to function in
accordance with its norms and usages. The norms and usages refer
to the rules of behaviors and practices accepted and followed by the
group or society.

Definitions:

1. “Social control refers to the process - planned or unplanned -

whereby society or group influences its members to conform to its
usages and values.” - Roucek.
2. “Social control is sum of those methods by which society tries to
influence human behaviour to maintain a given order.” - Mannheim

Need of Social Control:

Social control is needed for a group or society to define and

regulate behaviours of its members in order to ensure orderliness and
harmony essential for its effective functioning.

E.A. Ross has given the following objectives of social control.

1. To bring about social conformity:

Social conformity refers to the process of behaving in accordance

with norms of a group or society. The opposite of social conformity is
social deviance which refers to the process of behaving against norms
of a group or society. Social conformity is brought about by means of
social sanctions by encouraging right behaviours by means of rewards
and discouraging wrong behaviours by means of punishments. This
promotes social equilibrium essential for effective functioning of a
group or society

2. To promote social unity:

Social order and harmony become a dream without social control.

Social control regulates human behaviour through established norms
and consequently uniformity of behaviour develops leading to social
unity. Unless unity prevails in a group or society, it becomes
impossible for smooth social living.

3. To promote social welfare:

Social control always aims at common welfare rather than

welfare of an individual. An individual is influenced to act in
accordance with the norms not for his benefit alone but also for the
benefit of a group or society as a whole.

4. To check cultural mal adjustment.

Culture provides certain patterns or ways of living for people to

follow. Social control prevents people from going contrary to the ways
of living given by the culture of a group or society. This process is
known as checking cultural mal-adjustment. This is essential to
maintain social harmony.

5. To bring about continuity of a group:

The continuity of a group or society depends on the right

behaviours of its members. Social control ensures the right
behaviours by persuading the members of a group or society to adhere
to its norms. Consequently, social order and harmony set in paving
the way for continuation of a group or society. If the members of a
group or society behave contrary to the group or societal norms
disintegration of group or society sets in.

Forms of Social Control:

There are two forms of social control; they are informal and formal
social controls.

Informal of social control

Informal social control refers to unwritten form of social control

which emerges from collective life of people over ages and gets
expressed through their collective reactions. These are non-deliberate
but none the less effective. The important means of informal social
control are customs, folk-ways, mores, taboos and rituals.

1. Customs:

Customs are spontaneous and are learnt by people automatically

in the process of living in groups or society. Customs are those
practices oft-repeated es by many generations and they are followed
simply because they were followed in the past. In other words, the
habits which are recognized and practiced in a group or society over
years are said to be customs. Customs have become an integral part
of human life and they range from the practices followed from birth to
the death.

Definitions:

1. “Customs are the group accepted techniques of control that have

become well established, that are taken for granted and are followed
from generation to generation.” – Bogardus.
2. “Customs are the social habits which through repetition become the
basis of an order of social behaviour.”- Ginsberg.

Customs involve an element of sacredness and therefore, people

obey and show reverence to them. They also involve value judgment
i.e., they define what is right or wrong, moral or immoral, just or
unjust, good or bad and insist people to follow right or moral, just or
good ways of living. Any behaviour contrary to them will be ridiculed,
gossiped over or mocked at. This ensures social order and harmony.
This is why Barness called “customs as strong holds of social life.”

2. Folkways:

The concept of folkways has been made popular by W.G.

Sumner through his classic work ‘Folkways’. Folkways are the
behaviour patterns recognized by a group or society which are learnt
spontaneously or automatically.

Definitions:

1. “Folkways are the behavioural patterns of everyday life which

generally arise unconsciously in a group.”- Gillin anb Gillin
2. “Folkways are recognized and accepted ways of behaving in
society.”- MacIve

Examples of folkways are patterns of dress, respecting elders,

eating patterns, greeting patterns, mannerisms, etc.

Folkways are followed by people in their day to day life as a

matter of smooth social living. They also change from time to time
and society to society and hence they are dynamic. Generally,
folkways do not involve value judgment and an element of sacredness.
The violation of these does not result in serious punishment. However,
the violators have to face gossip, mockery, ridicule, etc.
 3. Mores:

The term ‘mores’ is derived from Latin word ‘Mos’ which stands
for customs of a society. Mores are those behaviour patterns which
are considered as vital to the welfare group or society. Examples of
mores are non-eating of beef by Hindus, non-eating of pork by
Muslims, wearing purdha by Muslim women, wearing dress, wearing
Manglasutra and Toe rings by Hindu married women, etc.

Definitions:

1. “Mores are those behaviours considered by the groups to be of great

significance and therefore rather indispensable to their welfare.”-
W.G.Sumner. Further, he says that when the folkways take on the
philosophy of right living and policy of welfare, then they become
mores.
2. “When the folkways have added to them the conception of group
welfare, standard of right or wrong, they are converted into mores.” -
MacIver

The mores involve value judgment and their violation will be

viewed seriously. Sometimes, it results in ridicule, mockery, gossip,
lashing, ex-communication from the group. Mores also change from
society to society and from time to time. Hence, they are dynamic.

4. Taboos:

Taboos are followed in every group or society in order to prohibit

people from taking to certain acts against those accepted by the group
or society. Thus, the taboos are the prohibitive norms followed in a
group or society. The important taboos followed in groups or societies
are modesty taboos, linguistic taboos, food taboos, incest taboos, etc.

Modesty Taboos prohibit people from living without wearing clothes.

In other words, they insist upon wearing certain amount of cloth to
cover certain parts of the body whose exposure leads to immodesty or
nuisance.

Linguistic Taboos prohibit people from using foul words and also
misusing sacred words as they create unwarranted situations.

Food Taboos prohibit people from eating certain foods other than the
one accepted by the group or society. Examples are prohibition of
Hindus from eating beef, prohibition of Muslims from eating pork, etc.
Incest Taboos prohibit people from having marital relationships with
blood relatives like brothers and sisters, parents and children,
cousins, not having marital relationships within the North Indian
villages as there is feeling of brother -sister relationships.

5. Rituals:

Rituals refer to a set ways of carrying out religious ceremonies

such as birth ceremony, puberty, marriage, death, etc. Generally, the
Vedic rites like chanting mantra, offering flowers, coconuts, burning
camphor and perfumery sticks, singing hymns, etc are observed while
performing the Hindu religious ceremonies. This is believed to help
people in getting Moksha (Salvation), peace, harmony as well as good
fortunes/prosperity

Formal Social control

Formal social control refers to written rules and regulations

that are deliberately created and enforced by authorized agencies.
Important means of formal social control are laws, education and
coercion.

1. Laws refer to a body of rules and regulations enacted and enforced

by authorized agencies. These have become important as the human
society has grown in size and complexity with predominance of
secondary relationships. Laws define and regulate human
behaviours. Their violation results in punishment or penalty as
indicated in them. Consequently, social order and harmony are
ensured for smooth living of people.

2. Education is a process of learning or gaining knowledge about the

universe. Education helps in acquiring the patterns of living, values of
discipline, co-operation, tolerance, positive attitudes, and sense of
judgment as well as rational thinking among people essential for
smooth social life.

3. Coercion is the use of force to achieve social order. It may be

violent or non-violent in nature. This is used as means of social
control when all other normal means fail to bring social order. Violent
coercion may be in the form of physical injury, imprisonment, death
punishment, etc. Non-violent coercion involves strikes, boycott, non-
co-operation, etc.
 SOCIAL VALUES

Social values are the parts of social institution and therefore

they are called high order norms. Social values refer to the group
conceptions (ideas) or standards by which things (feeling, action,
object and group) are compared and approved or disapproved relative
to one another, held relatively desirable or undesirable, more or less
meritorious. The Social values provide standard by which choice can
be made from available alternatives and by which certain actions may
be judged as moral or immoral, right or wrong, just or unjust. Values
mainly deal with what “is” and more with what “must’ be. Examples of
social values are respecting elders and women, charity, non-violence,
patriarchal tendency, respecting religious priest, freedom of speech,
adult franchise, respecting the priest, religious freedom social justice,
non-discrimination, etc.

The advantages of social values are:

1. Social values help in making choices among available

alternatives.

2. Social values provide the general frame work within which

the behaviours of individuals are moulded.

3. Social values help in making judgment of what is right or

wrong.

4. Social values provide means for settling resolving social

conflicts.

SOCIAL CHANGE

Change is the law of nature. The word ‘change’ denotes a

difference in anything observed over some period of time. Therefore,
social change means observable differences in any social phenomena
over a period of time.

Definitions:

1. “Social change is a term used to describe variations in or

modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social
interaction or social organization.” - Jones.
2. “Social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social
organization, that is, structure and functions of society.” - K. Davis.
Social change results in both positive and negative
modifications of and alternations in human life or society.
 Nature of Social Change:

The nature of social change could be understood in terms of following

features.

1. Social change is a universal phenomenon.

2. Social change occurs as an essential law.
3. Social change is a community change.
4. Speed of social change is not uniform.
5. Nature and speed of social change are affected by and related to
time factor.
6. Definite prediction of social change is not possible.
7. Social change shows chain reaction sequence.
8. Social change results from the interaction of a number of factors.
9. Social changes are chiefly those of modification or replacement.

Dimensions:

There are three important dimensions of social change; they are:

1. Structural change.
2. Functional change
3. Cultural change.
1. Structural change involves changes in roles, changes in class and
caste structures, changes in the forms of social institutions such as
the family, the Government, the educational system, etc.

2. Functional change refers to change in the interactional processes

between persons and groups. Changes may be in the frequency of
contacts, a shift from primary relationships to secondary relationships
i.e., informal, personal and intimate to formal and contractual
relationships, co-operative to competitive relationships, changes in the
functions of social institutions like family, Government, Educational
etc.

3. Cultural change refers to changes in the culture of society through

discoveries and inventions, diffusion and borrowings of new
technology.

Factors:

There are four important factors of social change; they are:

1. Physical (Geographical) factors

2. Psychological factors
3. Cultural factors
4. Technological factors.
1. Physical or geographical factors such as climate, flood, famine,
earthquake, etc. influence human life. Some times, they result in ill-
effects. To control these effects, new technologies have been evolved.
For example, dry land agriculture technologies have been evolved to
grow certain crops in areas with less moisture; famine resistant crops
are also evolved; new technology has been evolved for indicating the
occurrence of earthquake or tsunami and also to control their adverse
effects. Recurrent famines have also made the village people not only
poor and jobless but also to migrate to other places where better
opportunities of life are available. Consequently, the rate of rural
migration has increased over years which have led to scarcity of
labour for agricultural activities.

2. Psychological factors like willingness, motivation, perception,

outlook, progressive thinking contribute to the changes in human life
or society.

3. Cultural factors include education, social legislations, discoveries,

inventions, diffusions and borrowings significantly bring about
changes in society.

Education brings changes in human life by means of new ideas,

values, skills, social patterns and rational thinking.

Social legislations have been responsible for eliminating many evil

social practices and ensuring the right paths of living.

Cultural diffusion helps in spreading the patterns of living or

technology of one group or society to the other by means of contact or
influence of communication.

4. Technological factors: Science and technology are the two

important aspects of human society. Technology refers to the
application of scientific knowledge to improve living conditions of
people. Technology has been in existence in varied forms in human
society since its inception. However, it has undergone changes due to
more of inventions and discoveries. The important areas of modern
technology which have brought about changes in human society are:
(a) Industrialization, (b) Improved means of transport and
communication, (c) Development of agriculture.
(a) Industrialization:

Industrialization occurred in the middle of 18th century in

England and later entered into other nations. This has brought about
changes in production process through large scale factories. This
system provided more employment opportunities to the people and at
the same time adversely affected the village and cottage industries
upon which the rural artisans had depended very much.
Consequently, the rural artisans lost their jobs and moved in search
of jobs and settled down in and around factories which led to
emergence of urban centers (townships). As these town ships bulged
in size, new infrastructural facilities were created to meet the needs of
the people. This attracted more people from rural areas and thus the
rate of rural migration increased over years.

(b) Improved means of transport and communication:

Improved means of transport includes road, rail and air transport

which helped people to move out of their community to other far-off
places within a short span of time for various purposes.
Consequently, the physical barriers that existed among people of
different places are broken. This has helped to increase awareness
among people about the happenings in and around their places.
Further, cosmopolitan nature has developed among people due to
their frequent visits to other places consequent to the improved means
of transport.

Improved means of communication like television, radio,

telephone, cell phones, computers, etc, have helped people to
establish contacts with others who are at a greater distance within a
short span of time. Further, communication has also helped people in
acquiring and adopting the culture of others. It has also helped in
providing recreation and education to people and thus their outlook
and horizon are broadened.

(c) Development of Agriculture:

Agriculture development has taken place due to use of modern

agriculture technology such as high yielding varieties of seeds,
chemical fertilizers, pesticides and agricultural machinery. This has
helped in increasing agricultural production and thus solved the food
problem. Consequently, rural incomes have increased resulting in
improvement of standard of living of rural people. The agricultural
development is found to be more advantageous to the farmers
particularly the large farmers in irrigated areas as against the farmers
in rain fed area. Thus, social cleavage has widened among different
categories of farmers. The use of agricultural machinery such as
tractors, power tillers etc. has taken away the jobs of agricultural
labourers who moved to the cities in search of jobs. This has resulted
in increase in the rate of rural migration which creating scarcity of
labourers for agriculture. As the modern agricultural technology is
cost intensive, many new financial organizations like credit co-
operative societies, rural banks, etc. have been established to help the
farmers. The over use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has
resulted in health hazards, environmental pollution and hence efforts
have now been made to control the use of these by means of organic
farming which is believed to be harmless.

LEADERSHIP

Leadership is a universal phenomenon having its presence in all

groups or societies. Leadership is the mechanism of the group in
promoting, stimulating, guiding or influencing its members towards
common goals. Although leadership and leader are mutually related,
they are not same. Leadership refers to the process of influencing
members towards common goal while the person influencing the
members towards common goal is called leader.

Definitions:

1. “Leadership is the activity of directing and controlling people in

pursuit of common goal.” – Ordway Tead
2. “Leadership is the process of influencing and energizing people to
work together in common effort to achieve the purpose of a group or
community or an organization.” – Seckler and Hudson.

Elements of leadership:

The basic elements of leadership are:

a) leader – who leads,

b) The followers – who allow themselves to be influenced by the
leader.
c) The situation – the cultural context, and
d) The task – the common goal set by the group for achievement.
 Classification:

Generally, leadership is classified into three types as follows based on

nature of functioning of the leaders in groups/societies. Such
classification is called general type.

1. Democratic leadership.

2. Autocratic leadership

3. Laissez-faire leadership

1. Democratic leadership is one in which the leader and the

members of the group have more or less equal participation in
planning and decision making processes towards common goals.
There is ample scope in this type of leadership for mutual discussions
and suggestions between leader and members. Thus, there is no
question of either the leader or the members of the group depending
wholly on each other. This type of leadership could be seen in groups
or societies where democratic system of governance prevails.

2. Autocratic leadership is one wherein the leader exerts

absolute power and determines by him all plans or policies of the
group. The leader never consults any member nor allows any freedom
to give suggestions on any of his plans/policies or decisions. He
expects that his judgment should be obeyed without any questioning.
He brushes aside all doubts and doubters. Thus, there is more
dependency and less of individuality on the part of the members of a
group. This kind of leadership existed in Germany during Nazi period
when Hitler was the leader.

3. Laissez–faire Leadership is one in which the leader keeps

his role to a minimum and allows maximum freedom to members of
the group to determine the policies and plans essential for achieving
the goals. Thus, there is less dependency and more individuality on
the part of the members of the group.

Leadership in Indian Villages:

The leadership in Indian villages is classified as follows:

1. Administrative leadership

2. Institutional leadership

3. Opinion leadership

4. Functional leadership
 1. Administrative leadership is one wherein the leaders are
appointed by the Government to take care of village administration
and development. Examples are extension agents and village officers
like village accountant, agricultural assistant, health extension
agents, etc.

2. Institutional leadership is one wherein the leaders are

elected by the village people to village organizations like panchayat,
co-operatives, youth clubs, mahila mandals, farmers’ association, etc.
The leaders hold office in these organizations only for some specific
period of time. Examples of these leaders are chairman of a
panchayat, president and other office bearers of youth club, farmers’
association, mahila mandal, etc.

3. Opinion leadership is one in which the persons to whom the

village people go for opinion and advice on certain issues. The opinion
leaders also act as legitimizers and influence decision making of the
opinion seekers.

4. Functional leadership is one in which the leaders are

recognized because of their specialized knowledge and function in the
society. Examples are headmaster of a school, doctor, scientist,
agricultural innovators, etc.

Methods of Locating Leaders:

There are four methods of locating leaders in a community; they

are:

1. Positional Method
2. Reputational Method
3. Decision-making Method
4. Social Participation Method

1. Positional method is one wherein the leaders are identified in

terms of the ‘key’ position held by them in village organizations.

2. Reputational method is one in which people are asked to name

the persons whom they think as influential in the community. The
persons who are considered by more number of people are regarded as
leaders.
3. Decision–making method is one in which the persons who have
been actively involved in decision - making about community issues
are identified as leaders.

4. Social participation method is one in which the persons who are

participating in more number of community organizations either or as
office bearers as members are identified as leaders.

Usefulness of Leaders to Development Agents

Following are the development functions of leaders:

1. Serve as first- foot-hold: Rural leaders are helpful to

development agents for their first contact in the village.

2. Serve as introducers: Rural leaders help in introducing the

development agents to the people of a community.

3. Serve as informants: Rural leaders help development agents

in collecting vital statistics about the community.

4. Serve as effective planners: When leaders are involved in

planning development programmes, the programmes get the quality of
being that of the people and carry an implicit assurance of people’s
participation. Their knowledge about the local problems helps in
formulating effective development programmes.

5. Serve as effective executors: The leaders can be entrusted a

part of the programme for execution as they enjoy more popularity
and confidence of people in the community. This makes the leaders to
take more interest in influencing people to accept and adopt the
programmes.

6. Serve as legitimizers: Social or moral support of the leaders

to the development programmes enables larger adoption of them by
the people. This is because of the intimate relationship between the
leaders and people.

7. Serve as multipliers: Leaders help development agents in

spreading development message or programme to all the people in
community. This is mainly due to their close personal contact with
people.

8. Serve as mass mobilizers: The rural development could be

achieved to a higher level only when people participate in the
development programmes. This could be achieved only when the
leaders are involved in development process.
 9. Serve as resource mobilizers: Leaders are very much useful
to mobilize the resources (material, manpower, money) locally required
for executing development programmes.

10. Serve as beneficiary identifiers: Recent rural development

programmes are beneficiary oriented. Hence, there is need for
identifying deserving beneficiaries and in this process the leaders are
highly useful as they have better knowledge about living conditions of
people.
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology is the science of behaviour. It attempts to
understand, explain and modify behaviour. The term behaviour refers
not only to our physical (motor) reactions which can be observed by
others but also to internal glandular and mental reactions. The
mental responses include our thoughts, feelings and attitudes.
Further, behaviour also refers to our abilities, aptitudes, thinking,
reasoning, memory, perception, learning, etc. Psychology is also
concerned with conscious and subconscious behaviour, and normal
as well as abnormal behaviour. Though psychology is primarily
concerned with human behaviour it also makes use of animals as
subjects in order to gain insight into certain aspects of human
behaviour.

Like other branches of science, psychology emphasizes objective

observation, various forms of experimental control, accurate
measurement and quantitative description in the study of behaviour.
Psychological studies make use of various statistical techniques in the
analysis of data before arriving at conclusions. In short, psychology is
a science for it follows scientific method in the study of behaviour.

Psychology is a Bio-social science.

Psychology studies the living organism and its reactions to the

external world. One of its concerns is to understand the relation
between the psychological processes and the functioning of certain
physiological structures like brain, sense organs, endocrine glands,
etc. for this reason, it is called a biological science.

Not all aspects of our behaviour are influenced by biological

factors alone. Our behaviour is also influenced by social factors like
our interaction with other people, various social agencies, different
cultural factors, etc. Psychology is also concerned with understanding
the factors that affect our perception of other people attitude
formation and its change. Leadership behaviour and such other
aspects which add a social dimension to our behaviour.

There are a lot of variations in our behaviour depending upon

the social class, the society and culture in which we are brought up
and live in. Certain social values and norms change from time to time.
So, psychology tries to understand behaviour with reference to
relevant established behaviour patterns (norms) of the society.
Further, certain aspects of behaviour have to be understood with
reference to one’s age, educational level, gender, etc. For this reason,
psychologists develop appropriate norms for the interpretation of
individual’s scores on a psychological test. Thus psychology is also a
social science.

Concepts

Stimulus: Any factor that initiates some activity of the organism is a

stimulus. The source of the stimulus can be either internal or external
to the individual. The external stimulus can be either social or
physical in nature.

Response: Any activity that is known to be dependent upon (initiated

by) the stimulus is a response to that stimulus. a response is a joint
function of the stimulus and organism characteristics. Responses to a
stimulus can be either covert (e.g., glandular reactions feeling, etc.) or
overt (e.g. motor reactions).

Behaviour: The total response which an individual makes to a

stimulus is called behaviour. Total response refers to the covert and
overt responses of the individual.

Environment: All influences that shape an individual’s behaviour

after conception are called environmental factors. Though there exists
a prenatal environment, generally the term environment refers to
postnatal environment unless specified otherwise. The term refers to
both socio-cultural and physical environments,.

Subject: The organism (Human or Animal) on whom an experiment is

conducted is called a subject for that experiment. When an individual
takes a psychological test, he is also referred to as a subject.

Norms: Norms are the established behaviour patterns or standards

shared by group members, and against which the appropriateness of
behaviour is evaluated.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Educational Psychology is an applied branch of psychology in

which the psychological facts and principles are applied to teaching,
learning processes and the problems concerning education. It deals
with such topics as:

1. The learner characteristics, his methods of learning, etc.,

that affect his learning efficiency.
2. The teacher characteristics, teaching methods and their
impact on learners and their learning efficiency.
 3. The influence of various social and situational factors that
operate in the learning situation and their impact on learning
efficiency.
4. The techniques of evaluation of learning outcomes in the
learners.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

The educational objectives are the educational goals which

teachers try to achieve by bringing about desired out-come in their
students. These are explicit formulations of the ways in which
students are expected to be changed in their thinking, feelings and
actions by the education process. These objectives help in planning
suitable curriculum, choosing instructional methods, to provide
appropriate learning experiences and device adequate techniques to
evaluate learning outcomes in students. Bloom and his associates
have classified the educational objective into three broad categories:

a) Cognitive domain

b) Affective domain

c) Psychomotor domain

a) Cognitive Domain
Cognitive domain includes those objectives which deal with
remembering or reproducing what has been learnt as well as
objectives which involve the solving of some intellective task. These
objectives vary from simple recall of material learnt to highly original
and creative ways of combining and synthesizing new ideas and
materials. Largest proportion of educational objectives falls into this
domain.

b) Affective Domain
Affective domain objectives emphasize a feeling tone, an
emotion or a degree of acceptance or rejection. These vary from
simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally
consistent qualities of character and conscience.

c) Psychomotor Domain
Psychomotor objectives emphasize muscular or motor skill,
manipulation of material and objects or some act which requires a
neuromuscular coordination. These objectives are most frequently
related to handwriting and speech, physical education, trade and
technical courses.

Each of these domains has been systematically sub-divided

into further sub-categories.
Example: Cognitive Domain

1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

METHODS OF STUDY

1. Case study (Case History)

It is an intensive study of an individual to find out as much as
possible about a certain problem. Generally, a combination of
procedures such as interview, administration of Psychological tests,
use of bio-graphical data, etc., is used. This method is usually used
to investigate abnormal behavioral patterns.

2. Naturalistic observation
It is a systematic method of observing and recording events as
they occur naturally in the real world. This method is used (1) when
artificial probes or manipulations might destroy some basic
characteristics of the phenomenon or (2) when there is no way of
making a more controlled observation.

3. Tests, Interviews and Surveys

A standardized test consists of a number of questions about
some aspect of behavior. The pattern of answers people give will
reveal about their personality traits or mental ability as the case may
be.

Interviews can be either structured or unstructured.

Generally, unstructured interview is employed in the case study.
Whereas, structured interview is used to collect data from a group of
people that will lead to general conclusions about them.

Collection of data from a section of the population about an

issue (e.g. opinion on a particular issue) or the prevalence of certain
behavioral problems or personality traits constitutes a survey method.
In this, structured interview and psychological tests are generally
used. The selection of people (Sample) from the population is done
based on scientific sampling techniques.

The use of tests, interviews and survey is sometimes called a

correlation method.
 RELEVANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY TO EXTENSION
EDUCATION.

What is extension education?

Extension education is a non-formal and out of school

educational process to assist rural people to bring about
improvement in their physical, economic and social well-being
through individual and cooperative efforts. Agricultural
extension personnel disseminate information concerning new
agricultural varieties, practices, inputs and implements. They
provide technical information, training and guidance to the
farmers through suitable methods of education. They offer
solutions to the problems of agriculture based on research
findings. Their aim is to increase agricultural production
through diffusion of innovations.

Relevance of Educational Psychology.

The Principles of educational Psychology have a great

relevance and application value to extension education for
bringing about desirable changes in the farmer’s behavior as far
as the adoption of agricultural practices are concerned. The
desirable behavioral changes in farmers include.

1. Learning of new ideas, concepts and information concerning

agriculture.
2. Learning of new agricultural practices and related skills.
3. Formation of favorable attitudes toward new agricultural
technology and change of negative attitudes, if any.

Extension personnel employ various extension methods to

educate the farmers. They conduct meetings, method &
result demonstrations, prepare and exhibit charts,
bulletins, films and such other audio-visual aids during the
communication process. In this context, knowledge of
learning, motivation, memory, personality and attitudes
will helps the extension personnel to plan the extension
programmes to disseminate the technologies to farming
community.
 INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence has been defined in different ways, including the

abilities for abstract thought, understanding, communication,
reasoning, learning, planning, emotional intelligence and problem
solving.

Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but has also

been observed in animals and plants. Artificial intelligence is the
intelligence of machines or the simulation of intelligence in machines.

Numerous definitions of and hypotheses about intelligence have

been proposed since before the twentieth century, with no consensus
reached by scholars. Within the discipline of psychology, various
approaches to human intelligence have been adopted. The
psychometric approach is especially familiar to the general public, as
well as being the most researched and by far the most widely used in
practical settings.

Definitions

Humans have pondered the nature of intelligence for centuries.

How to define intelligence is controversial. Groups of scientists have

stated the following:

1. from "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an editorial

statement by fifty-two researchers:

A very general mental capability that, among other things,

involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think
abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn
from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow
academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a
broader and deeper capability for comprehending our
surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or
"figuring out" what to do.[5]

2. from "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1995), a report

published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American
Psychological Association:

Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand

complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn
from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to
overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these
individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely
consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on
 different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different
criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and
organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable
clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such
conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions,
and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen
prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence,
they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.[6][7]

Besides the foregoing definitions, these psychology and learning

researchers also have defined intelligence as People who are strong in
linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when
writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at
writing stories, memorizing information and reading.

Characteristics of Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

• Good at remembering written and spoken information

• Enjoys reading and writing
• Good at debating or giving persuasive speeches
• Able to explain things well
• Often uses humor when telling stories

Verbal Intelligence- What is Verbal Intelligence?

Verbal intelligence is the ability to analyze information and solve

problems using language-based reasoning.

Verbal tasks may involve concepts such as:

• Concrete or abstract ideas; or

• Internalized language-based reasoning.

Verbal tasks involve skills such as:

• The ability to listen to and recall spoken information;

• Understanding the meaning of written or spoken information;
• Solving language based problems of a literary, logical, or social type;
• Understanding the relationships between language concepts and
performing language analogies or comparisons; and
• The ability to perform complex language-based analysis.

Verbal reasoning is important in most aspects of school work. Reading

and language arts tasks required verbal reasoning skills. Even the
more abstract courses such as math and physics require verbal
reasoning skills, as most concepts are either introduced orally by the
teacher or introduced in written form in a textbook.

The Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence is an intelligence

test that measures nonverbal reasoning. The purpose of this test is to
isolate and assess a student's visual learning skills.

Non-verbal Intelligence Tests

Nonverbal Intelligence Tests - In general, nonverbal

assessments attempt to remove language barriers in the estimation of
a student's intellectual aptitude. This is especially helpful in assessing
students without speech or who have limited language ability, those
with deafness or who are hard of hearing, and those with English
language limitations. To accommodate students with speech or
language limitations, the student can be administered either orally or
by using pantomime.

PERSONALITY

Personality is relatively organized configuration of typical

patterns of behavior, attitudes, beliefs and values. Characteristic of a
person, recognized as such by himself and others.

Personality is a product of socialization that includes

experiences in a cultural environment and social interaction. We
identify the structure of an individual’s personality by observing his
general pattern of behavior.

Components of Personality

Human personality is the combination of

• Physical Self,
• Mental Self,
• Intellectual Self &
• Spiritual Self.
Harmonious development of each component is reflected in a healthy
personality.

Importance of Personality:

1. Pleasant personality is an invaluable possession of a person. It

is as important a factor for success in life as intelligence,
 scholastic excellence, physical health, money etc. In today’s
world, our success depends more and more on how well we can
interact with people around us.
2. Peace and progress in family life depends on how well one deals
with family members. Organizational life is full of interactions
with customers, subordinates, colleagues, boss, government
officials etc.
3. A pleasant and agreeable personality is capable of creating a
climate in his favour in the midst of even a hostile and troubles
some environment. It is the personality that places an individual
in the position of either a leader or a follower.
4. Today’s business is not restricted within the narrow confines of
a city or region. It is moving fast towards globalization. One has
to interact with people coming from far distant places. The way
one welcomes and talks, makes a world of difference and
contributes immensely towards success or failure.
5. Organizations prefer to employ and promote people who are
good in the art of human interaction. They are on the lookout
for people who are intelligent, have skills necessary for the job,
and have desirable personality characteristics as well. Reaching
the top of the success ladder is not possible simply by having
intellect or better quality of work. Personality plays a crucial role
in reaching the top.
6. Researches reveal that the students who achieve top grades in
the University examinations are far less likely to remain ahead
of others in their subsequent career as well. Social skills play
too significant a role in shaping the destiny of an individual.
7. Realizing the importance of personality, many a business
schools and professional institutions evaluate personality
characteristics of candidates before granting admissions.
8. Personality tests have become an integral part of admission and
employment. Some of such tests are:

Healthy Personality Traits

Important characteristic behaviors of a healthy human personality are

mentioned

1. Realistic, positive, and optimistic outlook

2. Respect for the feelings of others

3. Assumption of responsibility

4. Independence

5. Control over feelings and emotions

6. Realistic goal setting and result orientation

 Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:

• Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity

to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar
ways in a variety of situations.
• Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological
construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by
biological processes and needs.
• Impact behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence
how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to
act in certain ways.
• Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just
behavior. It can also be seen in out thoughts, feelings, close
relationships and other social interactions.

DESCRIPTION OF PERSONALITY VARIABLES:

1. Dominance: individuals whose personalities are characterized

by dominance will more frequently be found to occupy or
emerge in leadership roles. The primary desires prevalent in
such persons are for power prestige & material gain.
2. Neuroticism: This concept implies a heightened sensitivity to
stressful environmental situations; a low degree of stress
tolerance. Neuroticism has been summarized in terms of four
major categories; excessive & conflicting motivations,
emotionally & instability, inadequate coping procedures & low
self esteem.
3. Empathy: This variable, otherwise known as interpersonal
sensitivity, has been considered important for people in
leadership positions. This involves the realization &
understanding of another person’s feelings, needs & sufferings.
It is a self conscious effort to share & comprehended accurately
the presumed consciousness of another person.
4. Need-achievement: This implies desire or tendency to complete
with a standard of excellence where, winning or doing well is the
primary concern, affective concern over one’s goal attainment &
there is no competition with others but involves meeting a self-
imposed requirement of a good response. Need to achieve means
striving to increase or keep as high as possible one’s own
capacity in all activities in which a standard of excellence is
thought to apply & where the execution of such activities can,
therefore, either succeed or fail.
5. Ego-ideal: The ego-ideal is composed of all the fantasies which
portray the person as a hero, accomplishing great deeds or
achieving recognition.
6. Introversion: He tends to be self-oriented & introspective. His
interests run towards the intellectual & artistic & he shows
more concern for abstract ideas than reality.
 7. Self-confidence: To be leader of any situation, an individual
must appear to make positive contribution to the group. Self-
confidence has a positive relationship with leadership. It
indicates the extent of assurance one possesses about one’s
capacities and abilities in not only confronting problem
situations but also in finding solution to them.
8. Dogmatism: It is a closed way of thinking which could be
associated with any ideology regardless of content &
authoritarian outlook on life, an intolerance towards those with
opposing beliefs and a sufferance of those with similar beliefs.
9. Pessimism: It is a tendency to look upon the future with
uncertainty, disbelief accompanied, sometimes by expectation of
negative happenings regardless of the actualities of the
situation.

TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

WHAT IS LEARNING?

Learning is the process by which a more or less

permanent modification in behaviour results from
observation, activity or training.

Only the modifications in behaviour that are

primarily dependent upon external stimulation and
experience of the individual are said to be learned. On
the other hand, behavioural modifications that result from
natural growth processes are due to maturation of the
individual. Similarly temporary changes in behaviour
that occur due to fatigue, illness, intake of drugs etc., are
not considered as learning. Learning is a gradual and
continuous process and generally requires repeated
efforts.

Learning brings about modifications in several aspects of

behaviour such as:

1. Knowledge and understanding.

2. Skills (verbal and motor) and competence.
3. Attitudes and interests.
4. Action pattern (intellectual, social, emotional etc.)
Learning cannot be observed directly. It is inferred from
the observation of changes in the performance of the
individual. However, some times performance of an
individual in a given situation may not be an accurate
indicator of learning. For example, after the completion of
the learning subsequent performance on a different
 occasion is likely to be affected by motivation, physical
and mental condition of the individual at that time.

The efficiency of learning is generally assessed by such criteria

as:

a) The number of attempts made to complete the learning

(trials taken)
b) The accuracy of performance (errors committed) while
learning.
c) The speed with which learning is completed (time
taken)
There are inherited differences among individuals in their
ability to learn. What we are capable of learning and how
efficiently we learn indicate these differences.

KINDS OF LEARNING

Types of learning can be classified from different points of

view. Robert M Gange (1965) has identified eight types of
learning in a hierarchical order.

1. SIGNAL LEARNING.

The individual learns to make a general, diffuse response to a

signal. The typical example of this is the classical conditioned
response demonstrated by Pavlov in his experiment on dog as
the subject.

Classical conditioning is a process in which a response is

associated with or produced by a stimulus that did not produce
the same response originally (naturally). This type of learning
involves building up of a new association between a stimulus
and a response by repeatedly presenting the stimulus to be
conditioned immediately before presenting the natural stimulus.
This process is repeated several times. Ivan Pavlov
demonstrated this by conditioning salivary response (of a
hungry dog) to an unnatural stimulus like bell sound. He used
meat powder as a natural stimulus for eliciting salivary
response.

The natural stimulus that invariably produces its natural

response is called the unconditioned stimulus (US). This
natural response to the US is called the unconditioned response
(UR). The previous neutral stimulus which elicits the same
salivary response after conditioning is known as conditioned
 stimulus (CS). And the response to the CS is called the
conditioned response (CR).

US: Meat powder UR: Salivation

CS: Bell sound CR: Salivation

2. STIMULUS-RESPONSE LEARNING.

The instrumental conditioning (also known as operant

conditioning) illustrates this type of learning. This process
involves identifying a desired response from among several
responses the subject makes and reinforcing it. Incorrect
responses are either ignored or punished. This was
demonstrated by the experiments conducted by Thorndike and
also by skinner.

Thorndike placed a hungry cat inside a puzzle box and food

(fish) outside it. The cat has to learn to pull the string attached
to the latch of the door to come out of the box. But the cat
makes different responses before pulling the string. Since only
this response enables it to come out of the box and eat food kept
outside it is reinforced. This process is repeated several times
before the learning is completed.

3. CHAINING

Chaining means the connection of a set of individual S-R

(stimulus-response) in a sequence. Most of our behaviour when
observed in a natural setting involves complex chains of
responses. There are mainly two types of chaining-verbal and
motor.

a) VERBAL CHAINING

It is connecting together in a sequence two or more previously

learned verbal Ss-Rs (stimuli and responses).

e.g. Table – Chair, Duster – Blackboard.

b) MOTOR CHAINING
Motor chaining refers to doing some physical activities in a
particular sequence. However, a chain cannot be established
unless the individual is capable of performing the individual
links. E.g. The process of unlocking the door.
 Key in hand – facing the lock – checking the key – inserting the
key – etc. etc.

4. VERBAL ASSOCIATE LEARNING

It refers to association of certain verbal expression with a

physical object or between two verbal expressions as in paired
associates.

a) e.g. Hearing the verbal expression of “Doll” and seeing the

object “Doll”
b) e.g. Association between one meaningful word with a non-
sense syllable.
Book – Alden

‘OR’ it can be between two words of two different languages

meaning the same thing.

5. DISCRIMINATION
Learning to give a specific response to a particular stimulus
but not to other similar stimuli is called discrimination. This can be
achieved by selectively reinforcing the response only to the desired
stimulus but not other stimuli.

Discrimination is different from differentiation. Differentiation

involves reinforcing a particular desired response out of a variety of
responses to a stimulus. Differentiation and discrimination may
operate together in many learning instances.

6. CONCEPT LEARNING
Concept learning involves making a similar response to a class
of stimuli (objects) which share common characteristics. We form
concepts by finding properties which a class of objects shares in
common. In forming a concept, the learner first discriminates
between relevant and irrelevant features among the objects. Concepts
enable him to distinguish between classes of events and experiences.
Secondly, the learner must generalize by correctly identifying the
several instances or examples that belong to the conceptual category.
Generalizing is the act of deriving a general concept, principle, law or
theory from particular facts or observations. Every language is full of
concepts. Eg, Tree, Table, Animal, etc.
 7. PRINCIPLE LEARNING

Principles show regular relationship among two or more

concepts. E.g. 1. Between heat and Iron

2. Between positive reinforcement and desired

behaviour.

Learning of principles depends upon learning of concept

formation and other forms of learning. There is a large number of
principles that every individual masters in order to function properly
in the environment. Most of the classroom learning contributes to the
development of principles in various fields like mathematics,
grammar, physics, etc.

8. PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving is the highest in the hierarchy of learning
process. Problem solving is the most unique, complex and significant
of human abilities. A problem situation is one in which a individual
must respond but does not have the immediately available information
or methods or both to arrive at a solution (goal) without further
thinking.

The quality of problem solving performance is dependent upon

the availability of a board range of concepts, generalization and
thinking abilities. Problem situations vary in their complexity. At a
simpler level, Kohler demonstrated how a chimpanzee that is kept in a
cage solves the problem of reaching food kept outside the cage by
joining two sticks that were kept inside the cage.

Solutions to complex problems generally require perceptual

reorganization of the relations among the characteristics of the
various stimuli present in a problem situation. This perceptual
reorganization is called “insight”, which generally occurs suddenly
only after the subject makes a few trials and errors.

FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

Teaching and learning processes involve the interaction between three

groups of variables. They are:

1. Learner variables
2. Teacher Variables
3. Situational variables
The learning efficiency (qualitative and quantitative aspects of learning
process) is influenced by the characteristic of these variables.

LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS

1. General Intellectual Ability

It is a composite of many abilities that play an important

role in performing a large number of activities. How well a pupil
learns subject matter in science, literature, etc., depends upon his
level of general mental ability.

2. Cognitive Structure
Since subject matter knowledge is organized in a sequential
and hierarchical manner, what a pupil already knows in a given field
and how well he knows it influence his readiness for related new
learning’s. The organization of this previously learnt subject matter
(concepts, ideas, information, etc.,) within the individual is called
cognitive structure.

3. Developmental Readiness
Learning, retention, thinking process and ability to do certain
motor skills (strength, speed, precision, co-ordination, etc.,) are
influenced by developmental readiness of the pupil. This readiness
includes both the cognitive development and physiological maturity of
the learner. This factor plays an important role in the case of young
learners.

4. Motivational Factors
Factors such as the learner’s desire for knowledge, need for
achievement, and interest in a particular subject matter affect his
alertness, attentiveness, level of effort, persistence and concentration.

5. Personality Factors
Personality factors such as learner’s attitudes toward learning,
the teacher and the learning situation, his anxiety, and personal and
social adjustment will affect his learning efficiency.

6. Method of learning
a) Whole versus part Learning: Attempting to master the
entire unit of the subject matter or learning part by part
has its own advantages and disadvantages. Hence, neither
method can be said to be superior to the other.
The relative advantage of the method varies:

1. With the amount, difficulty and organization of the

learning material.
2. With the learner’s age, intelligence, and motivation.
 3. His previously acquired subject-matter.

However, the whole method is generally superior:

a. When the learning material is potentially meaningful.

b. When learners are older, highly motivated, and
intellectually more mature.
c. When they posses considerable background experience in
the learning task.
When the conditions are opposite, the part method is better.

b) Distributed versus Massed Method: Generally, distributed

learning practice (practice with rest pauses in between) is
more effective than massed practice (without rest pauses)
for both learning and retention (memory).

The two possible explanations for the superiority of the

distributed practice are:

1. It reduces fatigue.
2. There is covert rehearsal and helps in consolidation of what
has been learned.

c) Repetition versus Recitation (Recall): Whether the

learners are children or adults, whether the material is
meaningful or meaningless; it is more efficient to read and
recite (recall) than mere repetition alone.

The effectiveness of recitation is attributed to several

factors, such as:

1. It enables to know to what extent learning has taken place.

2. It gives an idea of the adequacy of the learning that has
taken place so far (i.e., errors and correct responses)
3. This information feedback acts as a incentive condition to
the learner.

TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS

1. Intellectual and Cognitive Abilities

General intellectual ability, academic achievement

(grades/marks) and subject-matter preparation of the teacher have
positive correlation with teaching effectiveness. Higher intelligence
beyond a particular point may not necessarily contribute to teaching
effectiveness. Meaningful and adequately organized grasp of the
subject matter, clarity and fluency of expression on the part of the
teacher are essential for effective teaching.

In general, teachers who are skillful and imaginative in

organizing learning activities, and in diagnosing learning difficulties
among pupils contribute more to effective learning among pupils.

2. Psychomotor Abilities

An important objective of education is to help learners acquire

appropriate skills of various complexities like, mechanical drawing,
operating machines, measuring and recording devices, handling
chemicals, etc. Only a teacher who understands the nature of the
skill to be taught and can demonstrate it properly can promote
adequate skill learning among pupils.

3. Personality Characteristics

Teachers with the ability to generate intellectual stimulation,

and who are imaginative and enthusiastic about the subject are
judged as more successful. Effective teachers are found to be sociable,
emotionally stable, responsible, controlled, friendly and secure. Most
important personality characteristics of teachers influencing their
effectiveness are the extent of their personal commitment to the
intellectual development of pupils.

4. Teaching Style

Teaching styles vary depending upon teacher’s personality. A

teacher should adopt his instructional style to strengths and
weaknesses in his background, personality and preparation. It is also
desirable for teaching styles to differ because of variability in pupil
needs and their characteristics.

However, the effectiveness of teaching style depends upon:

1. The extent to which lecture, discussion, practical

demonstration, and teaching aids are used.
2. The degree to which pupil participation is
encouraged and allowed in the learning process.
SITUATIONAL FACTORS (FACTORS IN THE LEARNING
SITUATION)

1. Instructional/learning Materials

The effectiveness of the instructional/learning materials

depends upon:

The amount and difficulty of the subject-matter (or the

learning task)

a) Its internal logic and organization.

b) Meaningfulness of the subject-matter.
c) The rate at which new concepts and information is
presented.
d) The use or non-use of teaching aids, textbooks, schematic
models, Laboratory methods, etc.

2. Information Feedback
Providing the learner with the information on how well his
learning is progressing (that is, how much he has learned, the types
of errors he is making, etc.,) is called information feedback. It plays
an important role in the learning process.

Providing information feedback (also known as knowledge of

results) helps learning in several ways, such as:

a) It enables the learner to correct his mistakes quickly

b) It serves as a sort of reinforcing stimulus that encourages
learning.
c) It enables the learner to selectively focus his efforts and
attention on those aspects of the learning task which
require further reinforcement.

3. Rewards and punishments

Praise, cash and other material rewards are most frequently

used in the management of learning. They influence learning in
several ways, suchas:
a) They serve as an incentive to a specified goal outcome.

b) They give selective emphasis on desired or correct

responses.
 c) They may strengthen whatever motive that is directing the
learning.

4. They may increase the probability of recurrence of certain

responses.

The effectiveness of punishment in the management of

learning depends upon the nature of learning situation and
the learners. Punishment must be used judiciously.
Otherwise, it may:

a) Generate anxiety, disrupt learning and increase the risk of

failure.
b) Induce a negative self-concept in the learner.

4. Group and Social Factors

The group and social factors play an important role indirectly

by affecting both the learner’s degree and kind of motivation for
acquiring subject-matter knowledge. However, their relevance is less
tangible when compared to that of cognitive, motivation and
personality factors.

Some of the important group and social factors are;

a) Classroom climate (authoritarian or democratic, discipline, etc.,

)
b) Composition of the pupils (social stratification, gender, etc.)
c) Interaction among pupils (whether pupils work singly or in
groups, co-operation and competition among pupils, etc.)
d) Teacher – pupil interaction (formal or informal, frequency etc.)

5. Physical Facilities

There should be adequate light, ventilation and comfortable seating

arrangements. The learning situation should be free from outside
distractions. These facilities will enable the teacher and learners to
fully concentrate on teaching and learning respectively.

Extension Teaching

Teaching: - is the process of arranging situations that stimulate and

guide the learning activity towards the goal and brings desired
changes in the behaviour of people.

‘OR’
Teaching is directing the learning process

‘OR’

Teaching is the process of providing situations in which learning take

place, in other words, arranging situations in which the things to be
learnt are brought to the attention of the learners, their interest is
developed, desire aroused, conviction created & action promoted &
satisfaction ensured.

The word teaching is equally applies to extension work where

the extension worker teaches farmer or house wife or any body about
the improved ways of doing things or living.

In teaching subject matter is a “means” and not an “end”

itself.

Steps in Extension Teaching

In order to bring about the desirable changes in the behaviour

of people / farmer, the extension worker / teacher has to move step by
step in a scientific and logical way to impart training to the farmer,
farm women & youths. The role of extension worker is that of a
facilitator and motivator. Though details of the procedure may vary
from situation to situation, there are some steps which are basic
extension teaching. These are presented by Wilson & Gallup (1995).

SATISFACTION

ACTION

CONVICTION

DESIRE

INTEREST

ATTENTION
1. Attention:-

“Getting the attention of the learner”

The first step in extension teaching is to make the people aware of

new ideas and practices. The people must first know that a new idea,
practice or object exists. This is the starting point for change. Until the
individual’s attention have been focused on the change that is considered
desirable, there is no recognition of a problem to be solved.

Mass Medias like radio, TV. Exhibition, personal contact, and contact
through local leaders are important at this stage.

2. Interest:-

“Stimulating the learner’s interest”

Once the people have come to know of the new idea, the next step is to
stimulate their interest. This may be done by furnishing them more
information about the topic in a way that they will be able to understand
and use. Presenting one idea at a time which is definite & specific is another
important factor in building the interest.

Eg: Farm & home visit, personal contact, contact through local leaders, farm
publications, Radio, TV.

3. Desire:

“Arousing the learner’s desire for information”

It means un-freezing the existing behaviour and motivating the people

for change. At this stage, it is necessary to emphasize on the advantage of
the new idea or practice.

Eg: Visit to demonstrations, farm publications, personal contact, group

discussion etc.

4. Conviction:-

“Convincing the learner that he should act”

It is a stage of strong persuasion so as to convince the people about

the applicability of the new idea or practice in their own situation & that it
would be beneficial for them. The farmers are furnished with adequate
information about the practice and how it works.
Eg: Field day, Slide show, Personal contact, trainings.

5. Action:-

“Getting action by the learner”

Unless conviction is converted into action, the teaching effort is

fruitless.

This is the stage of putting the idea or practice into operation. Small
scale demonstration with supply of critical inputs may be set up in real life
situation of the individuals who come forward. This provides the opportunity
of direct experience on the part of the learners. At this stage it is necessary
to collect evidence of change such as change in yield, income, employment
etc.,

Eg: Demonstration, personal contact, supply of critical inputs & ensuring

essential services.

6. Satisfaction:-
“Making certain that the learner obtains satisfaction from the action”

The end product of the extension teaching effort is the satisfaction

that comes to the farmer as a result of solving their problem, meeting their
need, acquiring a new skill or some other change in behaviour.

To produce lasting change, the extension efforts should produce

satisfying results. Satisfaction may come from high yield, more income,
better health etc., Satisfaction reinforces learning and develops confidence,
which generates motivation for further change. To sustain the changed
behaviour, it is necessary to furnish new & relevant information about the
practice on a continued basis. Follow up by the extension worker helps the
learner to evaluate the progress made which strengthens satisfaction. The
extension worker should consider the possibility of breaking down difficult
jobs into smaller ones that are easier to accomplish. The satisfaction &
confidence resulting from the successful completion of each small job will
lead them logically to the accomplishment of the difficult job.

Eg: use of mass media, local leaders & personal contact are important.

Availability of critical inputs and essential services are also to be

ensured.
 Principles of Adult (Extension) Teaching

(Criteria for effective extension teaching)

• The student / learner should understand and subscribe to the

purposes of the course
• Learner or farmer should want to learn.
• There should be a friendly and informal climate in the learning
situation.
• Physical conditions should be favourable.
• The learners should accept some responsibility for the learning
process.
• Learning should be related to and make use of learners experience.
• The teacher should be enthusiastic about his subject and teaching it.
• Learners should be able to learn at their own pace.
• The learner should be aware of his own progress and have a sense
accomplishment.
• The method of instruction / teaching should be varied.
• The teacher or extension worker should have a flexible plan for the
course.

Methods of Teaching

• Lecture
• Group discussion
• Question and Answer
• Project method
• Laboratory method
• Demonstration
• Apprenticeship – working closely with skilled practitioners – Crop
raising, animal raising, carpentry etc.
• Individual Investigation.

Materials of Teaching

• Literature and textbooks

• Audio-visual aids – film strip, Movie, exhibits, radio, models,
charts, posters, black board, field trips, role playing etc.

Points to be considered in teaching

An Extension worker should consider these points while teaching.

1. Natural impulse of the trainee should be made use of in teaching:
All development and education starts with instincts and drives.

Instinct is an accomplishment of instinctive activity. Careful assistance by

skilled teacher brings improvement in the handicapped individuals. It
should give place to encouragement and promise for slightest improvement.

2. The teacher should develop a pleasing personality, patience, helpfulness,

clearness, sense of humour, cheerfulness, sincerity and sympathy.
3. Motivation: It is the persuasion of people to take part in certain
activities. It is the goal seeking or need satisfying behaviour. It is the
need or drive with in an individual that drives him or her towards goal
oriented action.
4. Use of appropriate aids along with new presentation – Visual appeal is
most effective.

Elements of a Learning situation:

TEACHERS SUBJECT MATTER

LEARNERS

PHYSICAL FACILITIES TEACHING

MATERIALS

The Elements of a Learning Situation

 Elements of a Learning Situation:

1. Learners
2. Teachers
3. Subject matter
4. Teaching materials
5. Physical facilities

An effective learning situation is one in which all the essential elements

for promoting learning i.e. learners, teachers, subject matter, teaching
materials & physical facilities relevant to a particular situation are
present in a dynamic relationship with one another. The conditions
under which effective learning can take place are presented by Leagans
(1961).

1. LEARNERS: Persons who want and need to learn are the learners. In
an effective learning situation, learners occupy the most important
central position & all efforts are directed towards them. Learners
should-
a) be capable of learning
b) have interest in the subject
c) have need for the information offered
d) be able to use the information once it is gained.

In the present context, the farmers, farm women & rural youth
comprise the learners.

Ex; Dairy farmers who need to increase milk production are the learners.

2. TEACHERS: They are the extension agents who impart training and
motivate the learners. They not only know what to teach, but also know
how to teach. The teachers should-

a) have clear-cut & purposeful teaching objectives

b) know the subject matter in a well organized manner
c) be enthusiastic & interested about the learners & subject matter
d) be able to communicate & skilful in using teaching aids
e) be able to encourage participation of the people.
3. SUBJECT MATTER: it is the content or topic of teaching that is
useful to the learners. The subject matter should be-
a) relevant to learners needs
 b) applicable to their real life situations
c) well organized and presented logically and clearly
d) consistent with the overall objectives
e) challenging, satisfying and significant to the learners

ex: The subject matter is increasing milk production

4. TEACHING MATERIALS: These are appropriate instructional

materials, equipments & aids. The teaching materials should be-
a) Suitable to the subject matter & physical situation
b) Adequate in quantity & available in time
c) Skillfully used
Ex: Teaching materials like improved breeds of bull/ semen, improved
breeds of cattle/milking cows, fodder seeds/ varieties suitable for the area,
medicines, audio-visual aids relevant to the topic.

5. PHYSICAL FACILITIES: it means appropriate physical environment

in which teaching-learning can take place. The physical facilities
should be-
a) Compatible with the objective
b) Representative of the area & situation
c) Adequate & easily accessible
Example;

• Physical facilities may include facilities for artificial

insemination & administering medicines.
• Suitable land, irrigation, facility for growing fodder.
• A place which is easily accessible, free from outside distractions,
adequate seating arrangements, electricity for projection etc for
conducting training program.

Principles of Learning and their implications for teaching.

1) Principle of Association
• Learning is a growth and continuous.
• Learning takes place as a result of kind of experiences we have.
• Previous learning always sets the stage for subsequent learning.

Implications for teaching.

• New must be related old

• Repeat the idea in a variety of ways over a period of time.
Farm & home visit, Demonstration, Radio, TV, Exhibition.
 2) Principle of clarity.
• Learning is purposeful.
• Learning varies directly with meaningfulness of the material/
subject presented.

Implications.

• Learning must make sense to the learner.

• Goals / objectives should be clear to the learner and teacher.

3) Principle of Self-Activity.
• Learning results through self-activity.
• It is an active process in the part of learner.
• Teacher can only create a learning situation & stimulate the
learner.
Implications

• Activities should be appropriate to the learning situation.

• Learning activities should engage a maximum number of senses by
using audio-visual aids.
Senses are the gate ways to learning.

4) Principle of Readiness (Motivation)

• Readiness does not connote mere desire to learn; it includes
social and intellectual maturity as well.
• A favourable attitude accelerates learning; unfavourable attitude
retards learning.

Implications.

• Teacher motivation of the student is essential in making learning

more challenging.
• Appropriate and timely recognition should be given to student learner
achievement.

5) Principle of Practice.
• Learning must result in functional understanding.
• Learning must be put to use in a practical situation / real life
situation.
• Practice leads to perfection.
Implications.

• Theory must be related to practice.

• Stimulate actual use situations.

6) Principle of Dis-association (Emotions)

• Learning is affected by emotions.
• The intensity of emotional feeling affects learning differently in
different individuals.

Implications

• Strive to increase pleasant emotions and decrease unpleasant

emotions of learners in connection with learning process.

7) Principle of Timing.
• Learning takes place more readily when the facts / informations
are given just before use.

Implication.

• Select the appropriate time depending on the learning activity.

8) Principles of Environment.
• Learning is affected by the Physical and Social environment.

Implications for teaching.

• The physical Environment should be suitable to the kind of learning

taking place. – Classroom, lab, Field.
• The teacher should recognize and utilize the effects of the social
environment on learning. – good school, Colleges, houses, Local
organizations.

9) Principle of satisfyingness
• Learning must be challenging and satisfying.
• Learning depends upon satisfaction of wants or needs; in other
words success.
• Rewards maintain and strengthen the learning process.
 Crops grown during rabi season give higher economic return & higher level
of satisfaction to the farmers. In addition to understanding the principles
underlying how adults learn, training must also plan experiences and
activities that maximize the learning of trainees.

ATTITUDES

An attitude is a predisposition to react in a favourable or unfavorable

way towards persons, events, objects etc.

Attitudes refer to the likes & dislikes of the individuals. These are
learned predispositions to behave in certain ways & are relatively enduring.
Attitudes are inferred from verbal expressions & overt behavior of the
individual. Attitudes are often emotionally satisfying to a person & serve a
variety of social motives.

ATTITUDE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Attitudes are learnt: Attitudes are not innate but are acquired during
an individual’s life history by way of his social interaction.
2. Attitudes are enduring: Attitudes are not temporary but are more or
less enduring once they are formed. They donot change from moment
to moment with every change in stimulus conditions. However, they
are liable to change.
3. Attitudes reflect a subject-object relationship: Attitudes are formed
to identifiable referrants, such as; persons, objects, groups,
institutions, social issues or ideologies.
4. Attitudes have motivational-affective properties: Once a person
forms an attitude towards an object or person, he is no longer neutral
towards it. He is either for or against it. Thus, attitudes acquire
emotional overtones & directive properties.
5. Attitude formation involves concept formation: It involves the
formation of categories encompassing a small or large number of
specific items.
6. Attitude formation: Attitudes are formed as we grow up as a result of
our experiences in life. The various factors that influence our attitudes
are:
a) Personal experience: This refers to direct experience the
individual has with the attitude object. The direct experience
with the attitude object is of two kinds:
i. Experience in the form of repeated & accumulated
contacts
ii. Experience in the form of a single traumatic or salient
incident.
 b) Social influences: These refer to influences of other people.
The various social influences are:
i. Parents
ii. Friends
iii. Culture
iv. Mass media school
v. Religious institutions
vi. Group influences
c) Physiological factors: These refer to the influences of :
i. Ageing
ii. Illness, certain pharmacological & surgical interventions.
As individuals progress through the different stages in
life, their accompanying social roles & accumulated experiences bring about
certain attitudes & also change in attitude orientations. Certain illnesses
may alter an attitudinal outlook of the patient due to the perceived finality of
the condition rather than the disease process itself.
 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Introduction:
The purpose of having Constitution is to ensure that Government
functions according to its provisions to bring about welfare of the masses.
Prior to the independence, our country was governed by the rules framed by
the British Parliament and hence, we had no say in the matters of
governance. But, after getting Independence it was felt to have our own
Constitution for the purpose of governing ourselves. Consequently, the
Constituent Assembly was set up in 1946 which worked for two years eleven
months and eighteen days to draft, discuss and approve the Constitution.
The Constituent Assembly was headed by Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the
President while Dr. B.R. Ambedkar served as the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constitution. The drafting committee studied the
Constitution of France, Canada, America, Switzerland, England, etc., and
adopted the best features of them in our constitution for realization of the
well-being of our country. Hence, we have the best constiution as compared
to other countries in the world.
India adopted Constitution on November 26, 1949 and came into force
on January 26, 1950. It is for this reason January 26th is celebrated every
year as Republic Day.
Meaning of Constitution.
Constitution is a document of the rules and regulations guiding the
administration of a country. It explains the powers of the State, the
fundamental rights, duties and directive principles of state policy as well as
relationship between the citizens and the government. Therefore, MacIver
defines constitution as a body of rules that define and control the activities
of the state.
Preamble of the Indian Constitution.
The Constitution of India begins with the preamble. This was inspired
by the “Objectives Resolution” adopted by the constituent Assembly. The
preamble helps to understand the ‘spirit’ or ‘philosophy’ of our constitution.
It basically serves two purposes, namely. (1) source from which the
constitution derives its authority (2) the objects which the constitution seeks
to establish and promote.
 Text of the Preamble of the Constitution of India

“WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute

India into a SOVEREIGN, SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC,
REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE: social, economic and political;

LIBERTY: of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY: of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them
all;
FRATERNITY: assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity
and integrity of the nation.

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this 26th day of November,

1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT, AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS
CONSTITUTION.

Meaning of the Concepts used in the Preamble:

1. Sovereign refers to the supreme power of the State to legislate on any
subject and not being subject to the control of any other country. This
means that the state has both internal and external freedoms.
2. Socialism: This concept was introduced into the preamble of the
Constitution in 1976 by 42nd Amendment. Socialist is a condition of
being free from exploitation.
3. Secular: This concept was also introduced into the Constitution in 1976
by 42nd Amendment. Secular indicates the treating of all religions or
castes equally without any discrimination.
4. Democratic: Indicates the government formed by the people, of the
people and for the people.
5. Republic refers to the State in which the supreme power rests with the
people and their elected representatives as against a State governed by a
king or a dictator.
6. Justice: The essence of justice is the attainment of the common good.
The preamble emphasizes on three types of justice, namely;
(a) Social justice: This implies absence of any kind of discrimination.
(b) Economic justice: This implies equitable distribution of income and
wealth among all people.
(c) Political justice: This indicates free and fair participation of people
in the political process of the country.
7. Liberty is emphasized in thought expression (giving opinions), having
belief and faith in any religion or caste.
8. Equality indicates providing equal opportunities to all, treating all
equally before the law and getting equal protection to all people by the law.
9. Fraternity indicates promotion of a sense of brotherhood among all
people essentially required for solidarity among people of the country.
10. Unity and integrity concepts were introduced into the Constitution in
1976 by the 42nd Amendment. These words indicate the sense of oneness
and cohesiveness essentially required for the progress of the country.

Salient features of the Constitution of India:

1. Most lengthiest and detailed.
Our constitution consists of 26 Parts, 444 Articles and 12 Schedules
and runs over three hundred pages and has 50,000 words.
2. Written Constitution.
3. Federal in character
4. Partly flexible and partly rigid.
5. Provision of Fundamental Rights and Duties of citizens.
6. Provision for Directives Principles of State Policy.
7. Provision for single citizenship of the country.
8. Provision of secular state.
9. Provision for adult franchise.
10. Abolished communal based elections.
11. Abolished untouchability and princely sates.
12. Provision for independent judiciary with judicial review power.
13. Emphasizes on parliamentary form of government.
14. Set the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy to the state to
achieve. It also provides equality and freedom to all people.
15. Provides special provisions for welfare of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and
Scheduled Tribes (STs) as well as the Minorities.
16. Defines powers of the Union and the State Executives.
17. Provisions for National Security through emergency provisions.
 FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Introduction:

Rights are the conditions of life to promote the progress of an individual;

the aim of rights is to provide a chance to an individual to promote his best
self, so that he can lead a good life. The Constitution of India has provided
fundamental rights to the people under Part III, Articles 12 - 35. The
Articles 12 and 13 deal with the introduction and definition and the rest are
dealing with types of fundamental rights. The fundamental rights form the
foundation of the democratic political system. They are the sum and
substance of the liberty of the citizens of India

Characteristics:
The important characteristics of fundamental rights are: (1) the
fundamental rights are given to all the citizens irrespective of caste, creed
and sex; (2) people have freedom to approach the Supreme Court or High
Court when there is an obstruction to the enforcement of their fundamental
rights from any individual or the government or other agency, and (3) the
fundamental rights are subject to reasonable restrictions and no absolute
freedom is given to citizens.

Types of Fundamental Rights:

The fundamentals rights provided to the citizens by the Constitution of India

at present are as follows:

1. Right to Equality (Articles 14-18) includes equality before the law

(Art.14): prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, sex or
place of birth (Art.15); equality of opportunity in matters of public
employment (Art.16); abolition of untouchables (Arat.17); and abolition of
titles (Aart.18).

2. Right to freedom (Articles 19-22) guarantees several freedoms, namely;

freedom of speech and expression (Art.19); freedom of associations and
freedom to organize and participate in public meetings Art.20); (freedom to
reside and settle in any part of India (Art.21); freedom to practice any
profession (Art.22).
3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23 & 24) includes prohibition of
traffic in human beings (forcing for illicit sexual acts) and forced labour
(Art.23); prohibition of employment of children in factories and other
hazardous activities (Art.24).

4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28) includes freedom of

conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion (Art.25);
freedom to manage religious affairs (Art.26); freedom from payment of taxes
for promotion of any particular religion (Art.27); freedom to attend any
religious instruction or religious worship (Art.28).

5. Cultural and Educational Right (Articles 29-30) covers protection of

interests of Minorities (Art.29); rights of minorities to establish and
administer educational institutions (Art.30).

6. Right to constitutional remedies (Articles 32-35) includes remedies for

enforcement of rights conferred by moving the supreme court or High court
(Art.32); power of parliament to modify the rights conferred (Art.33);
restriction on rights conferred while martial law is in force in any area; and
legislation to give effect to the provisions of the part III of the constitution.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

As the Indian Constitution has given the fundamental rights, so also it

prescribes fundamental duties to the citizens. The progress of the country
is possible only when citizens realize their duties and carry them out in
practice. The fundamental duties have been incorporated into the
Constitution in 1976 by 42nd Amendment of the Constitution on the
recommendation of Sardar Swaran Singh Committee under Article 51A in
Part IV. This Article prescribes that it shall be the duty of every citizen of
India to:

1. Abide by the Constitution, and respect its ideals and the National flag
as well as National Anthem;
2. Cherish and follow the noble ideals of the freedom movement;
3. Uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
4. Defend the country, and render national service when called upon to
do so;
 5. Promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the
people of India, transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities.
6. Renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
7. Value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
8. Protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, and wild life to have compassion for living creatures;
9. Develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
10. Safeguard public property and keep away from violence;
11. Strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activities so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of
endeavour
and achievement;
12. Provide opportunities for education to children in the age group of 6 to
14 years (this is inserted into the constitution through 86th
Amendment in 2002 and is meant for parents and guardians who
have children of 6 to 14 years of age group).

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

Introduction:
The Directive Principles of State Policy are laid down in Part IV of the
Constitution and Articles 36-51 and 355 deal with them. Altogether there
are eighteen Directive Principles of State Policy.

The Directive Principles of State Policy refers to the instrument of

instructions or directions to the State to base its policies to meet those
social, economic and cultural reforms the framers of the Constitution look
upon as the ideals of the new social order.

The Directive Principles cannot be enforced by any courts, but the

principles therein laid down are nevertheless fundamental in the governance
of the country, and it shall be the duty of the State to apply these principles
in making laws. The Directive Principles of State Policy are as follows:

1) The State shall secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of people
(Article 38).
2) Certain principles of the policy to be followed by the State (Article 39).
- all the citizens have the right to an adequate means of livelihood.
- promoting the common good through proper ownership and control
of community resources.
- equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
- ensuring the health and strength of workers, men and women, etc.
- children shall be given opportunities and facilities to develop in a
healthy manner etc.

3) Equal justice and free legal aid (Article 39A) to ensure the opportunities
for securing social justice to the economically weaker sections.
4) Organization of village panchayats (Article 40) to enable them to function
as units of local self-government.
5) Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases
(Article 41) such as un-employment, old age, sickness and disablement,
etc.
6) Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief
(Article 42).
7) Living wage and good conditions of work for workers (Article 43) to
ensure descent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social
and cultural opportunities.
8) Participation of workers in management of industries (Article 43A).
9) Uniform Civil Code for the citizens (Article 44).
10) Provisions for free and compulsory education for children (Article 45).
11) Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes (Article 46).
12) Raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve
public health (Article 47).
13) Organization of agriculture and animal husbandry (Article 48).
14) Protection and improvement of environment and safe-guarding forests
and wild life (Article 48A)
15) Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance
(Article 49).
16) Separation of judiciary from the executive (Article 50)
17) Promotion of international peace and security (Article 51)
18) Duty of Union to protect States against external aggression and internal
disturbances (Article 355).

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WELFARE OF SCHEDULED

CASTES (SCs) AND SCHEDULED TRIBES (STs)

1. Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha under
Article 330:
Under this Article, some seats are reserved for SCs and STs in the
Lok Sabha. The No. of seats reserved shall be in proportion to their
population in the State or Union Territory. Such reservation was
originally to continue till 1960 but by successive Amendments to
Constitution it has now been extended till 2020. At present, 125 seats
reserved in the Lok Sabha for these communities. Of these, 79 are
reserved for SCs and 46 for STs.

2. Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Legislative

Assemblies of the States under Article 332:
Under this Article, some seats are reserved for SCs and STs in the
assemblies of the State and Union Territories. Thus, in a total of 4,037
seats in the State assemblies and Union Territories, 532 have been
reserved for SCs and 529 for STs.

3. Claims of SCs and STs to services and posts under Article 335:
This Article states that the claims of the members of SC and ST shall
be taken into consideration in the making of appointments to services
and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State,
subject to maintenance of efficiency of administration.

4. Constitution of National Commission for SCs and STs under

Article 338:
The Article provides for the appointment of a National Commission
for SCs and STs. By the 87th Amendment Act, 2003 a new Article has
been inserted (Art.338A). According to this, henceforth, there are two
commissions, one for SCs and another for STs. These commissions
consist of a chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and three other members.
These commissions have been assigned the following duties.

i) To investigate and monitor all matters to safeguard the interests

of SCs and STs.
ii) To inquire into specific complaints with respect to deprivation of
rights to SCs and STs.
iii) To participate and advice on the planning process of socio-
economic development of the SCs and STs.
iv) To present to the President of India an annual report on the
working of the commissions.
v) To make recommendations in the report as to the measures that
should be taken by the State and Central Governments for
effective implementation of the safeguards provided for SCs and
STs.
vi) To discharge such other functions as the President may specify.

5. Control of the Union over the administration of scheduled areas

and the welfare of STs as per Article 339:
This Article gives power to the President to constitute a
commission to report on the administration of the scheduled areas
and welfare of STs.

6. Empowers the President of India to prepare the list of castes,

groups, tribes or their sub-groups which can be considered as SCs
as per Article 341. This list is specific to each state and the
Governor of that state is consulted for its preparation.

7. Empowers the President of India to prepare the list of tribes,

tribal communities, groups and their sub-groups, which can be
considered as STs as per Article 432. This list is specific to each
state and the Government of that state is consulted for its
preparation.

Apart from the aforesaid Articles the following Articles of the

Constitution also aim to achieve the welfare of SCs and STs.

1. Equality before law and equal protection of laws for all people of India
(Article 14).
 2. The State shall not make any discrimination against any citizen on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them
(Article 15).
3. The State shall guarantee equality of opportunity in matters of public
employment and shall not discriminate on grounds of religion, race,
sex, caste, etc., However, the state can make reservation of
appointments in favour of any backward class not adequately
represented in services under state (Article 16).

4. Abolition of untouchability (Article 17). Untouchability is abolished

and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any
disability arising out of “untouchability” shall be an offence
punishable in accordance with law.
5. All citizens have right to move freely throughout the territory of India
and to reside and settle anywhere. But this right will not prevent the
State from imposing restrictions on their freedom, in the interests of
SCs and STs (Article 19).
6. The State shall promote with special care to the educational and
economic interests of the weaker section among the people and, in
particular, of the SCs and STs and shall protect them from social
injustice and all forms of exploitation (Article 46).
7. There shall be a minister in-charge of tribal welfare in states of Bihar,
Orissa and Madhya Pradesh in addition to be in charge of the welfare
of SCs and other backward classes (Article 164).
8. Grants have been given from the central govt. to certain states for the
purpose of administration of the scheduled areas (Article 275).

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WELFARE OF

MINORITIES

The expression ‘minority’ is used in Article 30 refers to” any

community which is numerically less than 50 per cent of the population of
the particular state as a whole”. It implies that a community which is a
minority in a specific area of a state, though a majority in the state as a
whole, would not be treated as a minority for the purpose of Article 30 of
the Constitution. Minority is a multilayer concept. A minority group may
need removal of disadvantages, if any, protection, empowerment and
emancipation as well.
 The provisions of the Constitution meant to safeguard the interests of
the minorities may be enumerated as under:
1. Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part
thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall
have the right to conserve the same (Article 29(i)).
2. All minorities whether based on religion or language shall have the
right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice (Article 30(i)).
3. All persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and of the
right to profess, practice and propagate their religion (Article 25(i)).
4. Every religious group or any section shall have the right to establish
and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes, to
manage its own affairs in matters of religion, to own and acquire
movable and immovable property; and to administer such property in
accordance with law (Article 26).
5. No person or community shall be compelled to pay any taxes the
proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment of
expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion
or religious domination (Article 27).
6. No religious instruction shall be provided in any institution wholly
maintained out of state funds (Article 28).
7. Every state is directed to provide adequate facilities for instruction in
the mother tongue at the primary stage for education to children
belonging to linguistic minority groups (Article 350A).
8. A special officer for linguistic minority shall be appointed by the
president to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided
for linguistic minorities group (Article 350B).
9. The property of the educational institutions belonging to a minority
community cannot be acquired by the state without payment of such
compensation (Article 30 (1A)).
10. No denial of admissions in any educational institution maintained by
the state or aided institution on grounds of religion, race, caste or
language (Article 29 (2)).
11. Prohibition of state discrimination in giving aid to educational
institutions on the grounds of religion or language (Article 30 (2)).
12. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion (Article 15).
13. No discrimination on grounds of religion in public employment
(Article 16(2)).
 Institutional Efforts for Protection of Rights of Minorities:

The judiciary, National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), State

Human Rights Commission (SHRC), National and State Women’s
Commissions have also powers to protect the rights of minorities including
women. Besides, there is a National Commission for Minorities which acts
as the guardian of their rights. It was set up by the central government in
1992. It comprises the chairman, vice-chairman and five other members.
Its functions include:

(i) Evaluation of the progress and development of Minorities.

(ii) Monitoring the implementation of safeguards provided in the
Constitution and in the laws adopted by parliament and state
legislatures.
(iii) Looking into specific complaints regarding the deprivation of rights
and safeguards of minorities; and
(iv) Submission of reports to the Central Government. In many states
the state level minorities commissions have been set-up. In
December 2004, parliament passed the bill for the constitution of a
National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions to
safeguard educational interests of minorities.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WELFARE OF WOMEN

In India, the patriarchal system has been followed, which has led to gender
inequality among men and women. This means that women are not
considered equal to men and are subject to many disabilities. Thus, the
Constitution includes many provisions to secure equality and dignified living
to women as well as empowering them to exercise their rights meaningfully
in the socio-economic spheres of decision-making. Following are the
constitutional provisions available for welfare of women.

(i) Equality before law for women (Article14),

(ii) The State shall not discriminate any citizen on grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them (Article 15(i),
(iii) The State can make any special provision in favour of women and
children (Article15(3),
(iv) Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to
employment or appointment to any office under the State (Article
16),
(v) Prohibition of trafficking of women (Article 23),
(vi) The State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women
equally the right to an adequate means of livelihood (Article 39)
(a); and equal pay for equal work for both men and women (Article
39(d),
(vii) To promote justice, on the basis of equal opportunity and to
provide free legal aid by suitable legislation or scheme or in any
other way to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not
denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities
(Article 39A),
(viii) The State to make provision for securing just and humane
conditions of work and for maternity relief (Article 42),
(ix) The State to promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and to
protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation
(Article 460),
(x) The State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of
its people and the improvement of public health (Article 47),
(xi) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood
amongst all the people of India and to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e),
(xii) Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for
women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in
every panchayat to be reserved for women and such seats to be
allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a panchayat
(Article 243 D (3).
(xiii) Not less than one-third of the total number of offices of
Chairpersons in the panchayat at each level to be reserved for
women (Article 243 D (4),
(xiv) Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for
women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in
every Municipality to be reserved for women and such seats to be
allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a Municipality
(Article 243 T (3),
(xv) Reservation of offices of Chairpersons in Municipalities for the
Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes and women in such
manner as the legislature of a State may by law provide (Article
243
 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WELFARE OF CHILDREN

Children are the future citizens of any country. If all the children in
the country are given equal benefits of health care and equal opportunities
for education, the country would prosper significantly. The constitution
makers have made the following benefits available to the children through
the Constitutional provisions.
1) Article 15 and clause 3 declares that nothing shall prevent the state
from making any special provisions to both women and children.
2) Article 24 prohibits employment of children below the age of 14 years
in any factory, mine or other hazardous employment. The Supreme
Court has directed that the States shall provide an employment to an
adult member of the family of the children in order to overcome the
problem of child labour.
3) Article 21A has been added to the constitution by the 86th
Amendment in 2002, making the right to education of children, a
fundamental right.
The constitution allows for speedy trial for child offenders (Juvenile
delinquents). Such children with criminal records are lodged in the
remand homes rather than in jails for their rehabilitation and reform.
4) Protecting children from illicit use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic
substances (Article 33).
5) Protecting women and children from all forms of sexual exploitation
and sexual abuse (Article 34).
6) National Commission for Protection of Rights of Children has been
constituted in order to ensure the enforcement and protection of
rights and interests of children respectively. It gives directions to all
the states to create necessary conditions for the overall development of
children.

PARLIAMENT OF INDIA

The parliament of India is also called the Union Legislature. It consists

of two houses, namely., Upper House called Rajya Sabha (popularly called
House of Elders) and Lower House called Lok Sabha (popularly called House
of People).
 COMPOSITION OF RAJYA SABHA AND LOK SABHA:

The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and it cannot be dissolved by the

president as is done in the case of Lok Sabha. It consists of not more than
250 members. Out of these members 238 are the representatives of the
States and Union Territories and 12 are nominated by the President, who
are usually eminent persons from the fields of literature, art, science and
social service. The Rajya Sabha has a federal character. The members of the
State legislative assemblies elect the representatives of that State. The
number of representatives from each State is in proportion of its population.

The term of a member of Rajya Sabha is 6 years. One-third of its

members retire after every two years and election is held only for the vacated
seats. Persons who are citizens of India and who have completed thirty years
of age are eligible to be members of Rajya Sabha. The Vice-President of
India acts as the Ex-Officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, and it is he/she
conducts all the proceedings of the Rajya Sabha. The members of Rajya
Sabha elect one among them as the Deputy Chairman.

The Lok Sabha is composed of not more than 545 members. Out of
these, 543 are elected from the States as well as the Union Territories on
adult franchise by persons who have completed 18 years of age and
registered their names in the electoral rolls, and 2 are Anglo-Indian
members nominated by the President of India. The term of Lok Sabha is five
years from the date of its first session. However, it can be dissolved earlier
by one year by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. Persons
who are citizens of India and have completed 25 years of age are eligible to
become members of Lok Sabha.The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok
Sabha is elected by and from among its elected members. The Speakers are
responsible for conducting the proceedings of Lok Sabha.

Powers and Functions of Parliament:

The Indian Parliament has the following powers and functions.

1. Legislative Powers:
The parliament can make all the necessary laws required for the
administration of the country. It has powers to make laws for the
departments in the central list. The finance bill is moved only in the Lok
Sabha and the other bills can be moved in either of the houses. However, all
the bills have to be approved by both the houses. In case of any
disagreement, a joint session of the parliament could be called and a
decision can be taken. When the bill gets the approval of both the houses, it
is forwarded to the President for his/her assent so that it becomes law.

2. Financial Powers:
No tax can be levied and no money could be spent without approval of
the parliament. The parliament allots money by Appropriation Act to the
various departments of the Government. This authority is vested in the Lok
Sabha, as the financial bill must be introduced only in it. Rajya Sabha has
to give its consent within 14 days of the receipt of financial bill; if it does
not, it is taken for granted that it has approved it. It is then sent for the
assent of the President.

3. Executive Powers:
The parliament exercises its authority over the administration through
its ministers. The ministers are responsible to the Lok Sabha. If they lose
confidence of Lok Sabha , the ministry has to resign. The parliament has
control over all the departments and their development which is made
known during the question hour of the parliament. The parliament can give
directions to various departments.

4. Power to amend Constitution:

Amendment to the constitution can be introduced in any of the house of
the parliament. However, such amendments should be passed in both the
houses of the parliament separately by 2/3 majority. In cases of certain
amendments pertaining to the entire nation, apart from the parliament, the
amendment has to be approved by more than half of the state legislatures
with a majority. Then only it is sent to the president for his signature.

A number of committees are being formed in order to carry out the

responsible work of parliament. The speaker appoints members to various
committees. There are two kinds of committees: (1) standing committees, (2)
Ad-hoc committees. Prominent among them are Accounts committee,
privilege committee, etc. For every department there will be parliamentary
committees.
5. Freedom of debate and proceedings:
The members of parliament enjoy full freedom of speech and debate
inside the houses. They cannot be impeached or questioned for what they
say and do inside the parliament.

6. The Right to publish debates and right to restrain others from

publishing:
Although no person can be tried in the court for reporting the true
proceedings of the parliament, the house nevertheless can prohibit the
publication of its proceedings by not allowing any body into the parliament
session.

7. Right to punish members & outsiders for breach of privilege:

The parliament has the powers to admonish or reprimand anybody who
brings down the dignity of the house.

UNION EXECUTIVE

The Constitution of India provides for a parliamentary form of

Government of which the union executive is a part. The union executive
generally refers to the entire central government machinery which runs the
administration of the country. It includes the offices of the President, Vice-
President, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, etc.

PRESIDENT OF INDIA
Article 52 of our Constitution declares that there shall be a President
of India. The President of India is the head of the Union Executive. He/She
is the Constitutional head of the country and all the national activities are
carried out only in his/her name. The President is the custodian of the
Constitution and the symbol of unity of the nation and is the first citizen of
the country. The President does not belong to any political party. The
President is administered oath by the Chief Justice of Supreme Court of
India.

Qualifications to become president:

In order to be qualified for election as President, a candidate:

1. Must be a citizen of India;
2. Must have completed 35 years of age;
3. Must be qualified to become member of Lok Sabha.
 The candidate elected as the President of India must take oath being
administrated by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of India.

Term of Office of the President.

The President is elected for a period of 5 years. However, he/she is

also eligible for re-election for one more term. The term of office of the
President comes to an end due to any of the following:

1. on the expiry of the term of five years;

2. by death;
3. by resignation which shall be handed over to the Vice-president;
4. on removal by impeachment for having violated the Constitution;
5. by setting aside of election as President by the Supreme Court, if there is
any violation of the election procedure.
The President of India is paid a salary of rupees one lakh fifty
thousand per month at present along with other allowances and free
furnished accommodation. The emoluments and allowances of the
President cannot be decreased during the term of his/her office.

Mode of Election of the President.

The President of India is elected by the Electoral College consisting of
the elected members of Parliament (i.e., Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) and
the elected members of State legislature (i.e., Legislative Assemblies and
Legislative Councils of all the States including Union Territories).

Powers and Functions of the President.

Under Article 53 of the Constitution, the executive power of the
Union is vested with the President and it could be exercised either directly or
indirectly through the officers subordinate to him/her. The different powers
exercised by the President are as follows.

1. Executive Powers:
The President is the Commander- in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
He/She appoints the Prime Minister from the majority party in the Lok
Sabha, the Council of Ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister,
Attorney–General, Comptroller and Auditor General of India, members of
Union Public Service Commission, Election Commissioners, Governors of
States and Chief Commissioners of Union Territories, Ambassadors and
other diplomatic representatives, members of Finance Commission,
Commissioner for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes Commissions,
Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air Force.

2. Judicial powers:

The President appoints the Chief Justices and other judges of the
Supreme Court and High Courts. The President has power to pardon or
reduce the sentences given to criminals by the Supreme Court on the
grounds of humanity under the Article 72.

3. Legislative powers:
The President summons the houses of Parliament for various
sessions. Further, he/she sends messages to or address the joint sessions
of the Parliament. The President gives ascent to the bills approved by both
the houses of the Parliament so that they become laws. However, the
President has a right to send back the bills without giving ascent for
reconsideration. The power to withhold ascent to a bill is known as ‘Veto
Power’. He/She dissolves the Parliament or State legislature and imposes
President Rule on the advice of the Prime Minister or Governor as the case
may be. He/She also issues an Ordinance when the Parliament is not in
session and it has the same force and effect as an Act of Parliament.
He/She may also withdraw the ordinance at any time he/she likes. The
President has power to nominate two Anglo Indian members to the Lok
Sabha and twelve other members to the Rajya SSabha.

1. Emergency power:
The President has power to declare emergency in the country under
any of the following situations:
a. When the constitutional machinery has failed in any part or the
whole of India.
b. When the country is threatened by enemy attack.
c. When the financial condition is in crisis (in which case financial
emergency may be declared).

VICE-PRESIDENT OF INDIA

The Vice-President of India is elected by both nominated as well as

elected members of Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. By virtue of his/her
office, the Vice-President acts as the Ex-officio-Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
presiding over all its meetings.
The term of office of the Vice-President is five years; can resign by
writing to the president, or may be removed by a resolution of the majority
of the members of the Rajya Sabha, and approved by the Lok Sabha.
To become eligible to the Vice-President, a candidate must (a) be a
citizen of India, (b) have completed 35 years of age, (c) be qualified for
election as a member of Rajya Sabha.

PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA

The Prime Minister (PM) occupies a pivotal place in our parliamentary

democracy and the entire political system revolves around him. The office of
the PM has been created by the Constitution itself. The PM heads the
council of Ministers which he / she forms. According to Article 75, the PM
is appointed by the President of India. However, the President has no real
choice in the matter. Rather, the President must appoint the leader of the
majority party in the Lok Sabha as the PM. If no political party secures
absolute majority, the President can exercise his/her discretion.

Term of Office:
There is no fixed term of office for the PM. He/she holds office during
the pleasure of the President. This means that he/she can remain in office
as long as he/she is chosen leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha,
until next election.
The PM may end his/her tenure for the following reasons:
i) Own resignation
ii) Party chooses another leader
iii) No confidence Motion
iv) Split or defection in his/her party removing majority status.
v) Rejection of the budget
vi) Dissolution of the Lok Sabha.

Powers and Functions:

1) The PM selects other ministers, allots them various portfolios,

monitors their performance and provides guidance and leadership
when needed.
 2) The PM may demand the resignation of any minister or may dismiss
him/her if he/she does not resign.
3) The PM presides over the meetings of the cabinet and co-ordinates the
works of various ministers.
4) The PM is the link between the President and the Council of Ministers.
Article 78 makes it the duty of the PM to communicate to the
President all decisions made by the Council of Ministers and to give
the President any information desired by him/her.
5) If the President desires something to be considered by the cabinet,
he/she communicates it to the PM.
6) The PM may shuffle and reshuffle the ministry at his/her own
discretion.
7) The PM recommends, in consultation with his/her colleagues, the
persons to be appointed as judges, ambassadors, governors, etc.
8) The PM and his/her cabinet recommends to the President to summon,
prorogue (to terminate meetings without dissolving) or dissolve the
Lok Sabha. Similarly, the PM advices the President to declare
emergencies when the need arises.
9) The PM generally determines the financial policies of the Government.
He/she ensures that the annual budget is properly prepared on time
and submitted for the approval of the parliament.
10) The PM represents the country in various international conferences
and organizations.

UNION COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

The Union Council of Ministers is a composite body of all the

ministers with and without cabinet rank. It includes the Prime Minister who
is the head of the council of Ministers. It is the Prime Minister who selects
the ministers, allocates them portfolios, monitors their work and asks them
to resign if they do not perform to the expected level.
 Appointment of a Minister:
The President appoints a minister and inducts him to the Council of
Ministers, on the advice of the Prime Minister. Each minister is generally
in-charge of the department entrusted to him/her by the Prime Minister.
He/she is individually responsible for the proper working of his/her
ministry.

Qualification to be a Minister:
The important qualification to become a minister is that he/she must
be a member of either of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. If a minister is not a
member of parliament, he/she must become a member within a period of six
months from the date of his appointment. Otherwise, he/she ceases to be a
member. To become Member of Parliament, he/she may either get elected to
Lok Sabha or get nominated to Raja Sabha.
Every minister must take an oath of office before he/she assumes the
office, which is administered by the President of India. The total number of
ministers in the Lok Sabha must not be more than 15 per cent of its total
strength.
Categories of Ministers:
There are three categories of Ministers, they are: (1) Cabinet Ministers,
(2) Ministers of State, and (3) Deputy Ministers.

1. Cabinet Ministers:
The cabinet ministers are the ministers of higher rank, who along
with the Prime Minister form the cabinet. The strength of the cabinet
would be around 15-20 ministers. The cabinet meets often to
determine policies and programmes of the government.

2. Ministers of State:
These are the ministers of lower rank who have to work under a
cabinet minister of the concerned ministry. Sometimes, the Ministers
of State may be given independent charge of their portfolios.
3. Deputy Ministers:
These Ministers also assist the cabinet ministers by performing
such functions that are assigned to them. They do not have
independent powers.
Powers and Functions:
(i) It formulates the policy of the country on the basis of which the
administration is carried on.
 (ii) It introduces all important bills and resolutions in the parliament
and pilots them through.
(iii) It presents the budget of the country before the parliament.
(iv) It determines foreign policy of the country and recommends the
persons to be appointed by the President as ambassadors/diplomats.
(v) It also approves the international agreements and treaties.
(vi) It advices the President regarding the proclamation of emergency on
grounds of war, external aggression or armed rebellion.

SUPREME COURT

The Supreme Court is at the apex of the judiciary system of India

rendering justice to the people in an independent and impartial manner.
The Supreme Court of India was created by an Act of Parliament in 1950
and it is located in New Delhi. Articles 124 to 147 in Chapter IV of the
Constitution deal with the organization and powers of the Supreme Court..

Composition of Supreme Court:

The Supreme Court consists of one Chief Justice and 28 other judges.
The Chief Justice of Supreme Court is appointed by the President in
consultation with other judges or with high courts as he may deem
necessary for the purpose. Normally the senior most sitting judge is
appointed as the Chief Justice of Supreme Court but the President reserves
the right to appoint any one ignoring the seniority rule. All other judges of
the Supreme Court are also appointed by the president in consultation with
the Chief Justice.

Qualification to be a Supreme Court Judge:

To be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court, a person must be:

i) A citizen of India
(ii) A judge of a High Court for at least 5 years or an advocate of a High
Court for at least 10 years a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the
President.
 Term of Supreme Court Judges:

A judge of the Supreme Court may hold office until he attains 65 years
of age. But, there is no minimum age for appointment as a judge. A retired
judge is prohibited from working as an advocate in any court of the country.
However, he can be appointed by the Government for working in special
tasks like inquiry committees, judicial investigations, Loka Ayukta, etc.

Impeachment of a Supreme Court Judge:

Article 124(4) of the constitution lays down the procedure for the
impeachment of a Supreme Court judge. A judge may be removed from his
office on the ground of misbehaviour and incapacity.

Remuneration to Judges:

The Chief justice of Supreme Court of India is paid a salary of Rs.

90,000/- per month and each of the judges is paid Rs. 80,000/-.They are
provided each a rent free furnished accommodation and a car. Besides, they
are entitled to such other allowances and privileges as may be prescribed by
the parliament from time to time.

Powers and Functions of Supreme Court:

The Supreme Court of India has vast jurisdiction and extensive

judicial powers. Important among these are briefly discussed below:

1. Original Jurisdiction:
This means that the Supreme Court has the final say in any disputes
regarding legal rights arising:

i) Between Govt.of India and one or more States.

ii) Between two or more States.
iii) Between Govt. of India and one or more States on one side and
one or more State on the other.

2. Appellate Jurisdiction.
As the highest court of appeal in the country, the Supreme Court
admits the following appeals.
 i) Appeals in Constitutional matters.
ii) Appeals in civil matters.
iii) Appeals in criminal matters.
iv) Appeals by special leave granted by the Supreme Court.
v) Appeals permitted by miscellaneous acts.

3. Guardian of Fundamental Rights.

The Supreme Court plays the role of the custodian of fundamental
rights and do not permit the Government or any individual or agency to
come in the way of enforcement of the fundamental rights of the citizens.
For this purpose, it can issue writs of different nature.

4. Judicial Review:
The judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to examine
whether the acts of central and state Govt. violate the constitution in any
way. If so, they can be declared ‘Ultra Vires’ i.e., unconstitutional and
rendered null and vo

5. Judicial Activism.
The power of the Supreme Court to come forward voluntarily to help
the cause of the common man or any other cause concerning the well-being
of the country is known as judicial activism.

In 1985, the then Chief Justice of India, Justice P.N. Bhagavathi

converted a letter written to him on a post card by an aggrieved citizen into
Public Interest Litigation (PIL). This was the beginning of judicial activism

STATE LEGISLALTURE

Introduction:

The Constitution of India provides for the establishment of State

Legislature. In most of the States of India, the State Legislature is
unicameral, i.e., it consists of only one house called the Legislative Assembly
(popularly called Vidhana Sabha – the lower house). In a few States like
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra and Karnataka,
the State Legislature is bicameral, i.e., it consists of two houses called the
Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council ( popularly called Vidhana
Parishat – the Upper House).
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY

Introduction:
The Constitution of India provides for legislative assembly for each
state. The legislative assembly is a popular house consisting of members
directly elected by the people.

Composition of Legislative Assembly:

The legislative assembly consists of not more than 500 and not less
than 60 members, elected by people. However, the legislature of Goa State
consists of 40 members only. The total strength of the legislative assembly is
fixed in proportion to the population of the state. It may be noted that the
Governor of the state can nominate one member of the Anglo-Indian
community to the legislative assembly. Again, some seats are reserved for
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

Election of Members to the Legislative Assembly:

In order to be elected to the legislative assembly, a person:

i) Must be a citizen of India.

ii) Must not be less than 25 years of age.
iii) Must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by
the parliament for that time.

Term of Office of Legislative Assembly:

The legislative assembly has a term of 5 years from the date fixed for
its first meeting unless dissolved earlier. The legislative assembly stands
automatically dissolved after 5 years. However, if proclamation of
emergency is in operation, the term of the legislative assembly may be
extended by the parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at a
time, a not exceeding in any case beyond a period of six months after the
proclamation has ceased to operate.
 Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly:

The members of the legislative assembly choose two members from

amongst themselves as the speaker and the deputy speaker. The speaker
presides over the meetings of the legislative assembly. He is vested with
powers to ensure orderly discussion in the legislative assembly. His/her
decision is final regarding the classification of bills as money bills or
ordinary bills. In the absence of the speaker, the deputy speaker presides
over the legislative assembly and performs the functions of the speaker.

Powers and Functions of the Legislative Assembly.

The legislative assembly has more powers than the legislative council.
The important powers and functions of the legislative assembly are:

1) Legislative Powers: The legislative assembly has more legislative

powers. Its legislative powers include.
a. It is empowered to frame laws on all matters included in the state
list.
b. It can also make laws in respect of subjects included in the
concurrent list without contradicting the laws made on the same by
the parliament.

2) Financial Powers: The legislative assembly has financial powers. Its

financial powers are:
i) It controls the finances of the state. All the expenditure and
revenues should be approved by the legislative assembly.
ii) No tax can be imposed or withdrawn without the approval of the
legislative assembly.
iii) Money bills are passed by the legislative assembly.
3) Constitutional powers:
The legislative assembly has constitutional powers. The constitutional
amendment bill of a certain category passed by the union parliament shall
be referred to the legislative assemblies of the states for ratification.

4) Control over the executive:

The legislative assembly has control over the executive. Its control
over the executive covers the following:
 i) The legislative assembly has control over the executive. The
council of ministers is collectively responsible to the legislative
assembly.
ii) The legislative assembly can exercise supervision and control over
the ministry.
iii) The legislative assembly can remove the council of ministers by
passing a no-confidence motion.

5) Other functions:
Besides the above functions, a legislative assembly also performs the
following functions:
i) It elects the speaker and the deputy speaker.
ii) It takes part in the election of the President of India.
iii) It considers the reports submitted by various independent
agencies like the state public service commission, the auditor
general, etc.

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

Introduction:

The Constitution of India has provided for the creation and abolition
of the legislative council. The creation or abolition of the legislative council
is done by following certain procedure. First, a resolution should be passed
by the legislative assembly for the creation or abolition of the legislative
council. Such resolution should be passed by the majority of the total
members, not being less than two-thirds of the members, actively present
and voting. Then, that resolution shall be represented to the Parliament.
The Parliament, in turn, passes an Act to create or abolish a legislative
council.

The legislative council is the upper house of the state legislature. It is

also known as Vidhana Parishad. It may be noted that the legislative
council is not present in every State. It is present only in the States of
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Composition of a Legislative Council:

The strength of a legislative council shall not be less than 40

members. However, the maximum number of a legislative council should
not exceed one-third of the total number of members in the legislative
assembly of the state.

a) One-third of the total members are elected by electorates consisting of

members of local bodies such as Municipalities, corporations, District
Boards, etc.,
b) One-twelth of the total members shall be elected by registered
graduates living in the state and obtained their degree three years
before their registration as voters.
c) One-twelth of the total members shall be elected from the teachers’
constituency. Teachers engaged in teaching for three years in
educational institutions within the state (not lower than a high school)
are eligible to be voters.
d) One-third of the total members shall be elected by the elected
members of the Legislative Assembly of the state.
e) The remaining one-sixth of the members who have made significant
contributions to the fields of art, science, education, literature, etc.
shall be nominated by the Governor.

The term office of a member of this council is 6 years. If a member

dies or resigns, another person is elected to fill the vacancy only for the
remaining period of the previous member. One-third of the members retire
every two years. Hence, the legislative council is a permanent body. It is
not subject to dissolution rather it can be abolished.

Powers and Functions:

1) Legislative Functions:
No bill can become a law unless agreed upon by both the houses. Any
bill other than a money bill can originate in the upper house. The lower
house on passing a bill sends it to the upper house for consideration and
recommendations. The upper house may delay the bill for a maximum
period of 4 months but cannot defeat the bill.

2) Financial Functions:
The legislative council does not enjoy on financial matters. It is
clearly stated that in the Constitution that money bill or financial bill cannot
originate in the upper house. On financial matters, the legislative council is
sub-ordinate to the legislative assembly. The legislative council can only
discuss the budget but cannot make change.
3) Control over the Executive:
The influence of the legislative council over the executive is minimal
because the executive is directly responsible to the legislative assembly. It
has the right to seek necessary information and records for suggestions but
cannot directly control the administration. The legislative council cannot
initiate a motion of no confidence to bring down the government as it is a
nominated house.

STATE EXECUTIVE

The Constitution of India makes provision for federal Government, of which

the State is a part. The State executive generally refers to the entire State
government machinery which runs the administration in the State. It
includes the offices of the Governor, Chef Minister, Council of Ministers, etc.

THE GOVERNOR
The Governor of each State is at the apex of that State Executive.
He/she is the Constitutional head of the State. All the State activities are
carried out in his/her name. He/she is the first citizen of the State and
does not belong to any political party. The Governor is administered oath by
the Chief Justice of the High Court of the concerned State.

Qualification to be a Governor:
In order to be qualified for selection as Governor, a candidate.
1) Must be a citizen of India.
2) Must have completed 35 years of age.
3) Must be qualified to become a member of the State Legislative
Assembly.
4) Must not hold any office of profit under Central or State Government.

Term of Office and Privileges of the Governor:

The Governor holds office for a term of 5 years from the date he/she
assumes office. He/she is eligible for re-appointment any number of times,
but normally it is limited to one term or to the discretion of the President of
India.A vacancy in the office of the Governor may be caused in any one of
the following ways:
1) On the expiry of his/her term of 5 years.
2) By his/her death
3) By his/her resignation, which he/she may hand over to the President.
 4) On his/her dismissal by the President
5) On his/her transfer to another State by the President.

The Governor is entitled for salary of Rs. 1,10,000/- per month.

Besides, he/she is given all other allowances, furnished accommodation as
well as transport facilities.The Governor is appointed by the President on the
recommendations of the Central Government. The Governor of a State is
generally appointed from the other State. This helps him/her to view
matters impartially without having prejudice.
Powers and Functions of the Governor.
Under Article 164 of the Constitution, the executive power of the State
is vested in the Governor who is empowered to exercise it either directly or
indirectly through officers subordinate to him. The various powers exercised
by the Governor are as follows:
1) Executive Powers:
The Governor has considerable appointing powers within the State.
The following is the list of appointments that he/she makes though many of
them with the advice of the ruling Government.
i) The Chief Minister, who is the leader of the majority party in the
State Legislative Assembly.
ii) Council of Ministers with the advice of the Chief Minister.
iii) Advocate-General
iv) Chairman and members of the State Public Service
Commission.

2) Judicial Powers:
The Governor helps the President to appoint various judges of the
high court of his/her State. Under Article 161 the Governor has power to
pardon or reduce the sentences given to criminals by the State High Court,
on grounds of humanity.
3) Legislative Powers:
The Governor summons the Houses of Legislature for various
sessions. He/She can send messages to or address the joint sessions of the
Legislature. He/She gives assent to the bills approved by the State
Legislature and also has power to withhold assent to the bills or to send
them back for reconsideration to suggest amendments. The Governor may
suggest to the President to dissolve the State Legislature, depending on the
State situation, and recommend imposing President’s rule. The Governor
can also issue ordinances when the Legislature is not in session which has
the same force and effect as an Act of legislature. He/she may also
withdraw the ordinance at any time he/she likes. The Governor has the
authority to nominate one Anglo-Indian member to the State Legislative
Assembly and 1/6 of the total members, drawn from the fields of art,
science and literature, to the State Legislative Council.
4) Emergency Powers:
The Governor has power under Article 356 to submit a report to the
President for the declaration of Emergency in his/her State if there is failure
of the constitutional machinery.

HIGH COURT

The High Court is at the apex of the State judiciary system in India. The
organisation and powers of the High Court are dealt with by the Articles
214-231 and empower it to play a vital role in the State judiciary system.
Below the High Court there are a string of other courts called subordinate
courts such as the District and Sessions Court, the City Civil and Sessions
Court, the Chief Judicial Magistrate Court, the Chief Metropolitan
Magistrate Court, Munsiff Court, etc. All these Courts handle different
categories of cases at lower levels. There are 21 High Courts in India at
present. Some smaller States are clubbed to have common High Courts
such as the High Court at Guwahati, Assam serves all the seven North-
Eastern States. The High Court of Maharashtra also serves Goa and so on.

Composition of the High Court:

Every High Court consists of a Chief Justice and such other Judges as
the President may appoint from time to time. But if the work load increases,
the additional and the retired Judges can be accommodated temporarily on
an ad-hoc basis.
Appointment of Judges
The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President of India
in consultation with the Supreme Court and other senior Judges of Supreme
Court and Governor of the particular State. The other Judges of the High
Court are appointed by the President of India in consultation with the Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court and also the Chief Justice of the High Court
as well as the Governor of the same State.

Qualifications to be a High Court Judge:

T o appoint a Judge of a High Court, a person must be
1. A citizen of India
2. Less than 62 years of age
3. An advocate of an High Court for atleast 10 years or
4. Held for at least 10 years a judicial office in the territory of India.

Term of the High Court Judges:

A judge of the High Court may hold office until attains 62 years of age,
unless resigns. All other terms and conditions for the position of the High
Court Judges are same as the Supreme Court Judges.

Remuneration of Judges:
The Chief Justice of a High Court is paid a salary of Rs. 90,000/- per
month and each of the other Judges is paid Rs.80,000/- per month. In
addition, the other privileges such as rent free furnished accommodation
and a car as well as other special allowances are paid.

Power and Functions of High Court:

Following are the powers and functions of High Court.
1. The High Courts make rules to regulate the business before them.
2. Apart from appellate jurisdiction, judicial review and judicial activism, the
Constitution confers four additional powers to the High Courts, they are:
a) The power to transfer cases to themselves from subordinate courts
b) The power to appoint officers and servants of the High Court
3) Power to issue writs or orders for the enforcement of fundamental rights
or for any other purpose
4) Power to supervise all courts in the State.

THE ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA

Article 324 of the Constitution has created an independent body

called the Election Commission of India (ECI) which is entrusted with the
superintendence, direction and control of elections in India.

Composition of the ECI:

The Election Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner and
two other Election Commissioners. They are appointed by the President of
India.
Functions of the ECI:
 The Election Commission is a powerful independent body constituted
to conduct free and fair elections in the country. The various functions of
the Election Commission of India are listed under matters regarding:

1. Election of the President

2. Election of the Vice-President
3. Composition of Union Parliament
4. Qualification for members of Parliament
5. Composition of State Legislature
6. Qualification for members of State Legislature.
7. Duration of Parliament and the State Legislatures.
8. Determination of population for the purpose of elections.
9. Preparation and maintenance of electoral rolls for election to
Parliament and State Legislatures.
10. Allotment, maintenance and solving of disputes relating to election
symbols.
11. Conduction of election to Parliament and State Legislatures.
12. Reservation of seats for Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly for
SCs and STs.
13. Counting of votes after elections and declaring results.

Electoral Process:
India has Representative form of Government. The representatives are
elected by the people. The Election Commission has to conduct the regular
and bye-elections to Parliament and the State Legislatures.

Elections are conducted by secret ballot. The contesting candidates

are assigned different symbols so that even an illiterate voter can vote by
identifying the symbol. According to the People’s Representatives Act all
matters of disputes arising in elections are settled by the Supreme Court of
India or a High court. The elections are conducted according to the calendar
of events prepared and published by the election commission. The election
commission appoints the officers as election observers for overseeing the
smooth conduct of elections and also to have vigil over the expenditure
being incurred by the candidates for elections. The different stages of
elections are as follow

1. Submission of Nominations: The President in the case of Lok Sabha

and the Governor in the case of State Legislatures issue notification of
election. The contesting candidates are expected to submit their
nominations before the appointed returning officer, before the
prescribed date. Every nomination should be accompanied by a
deposit as prescribed. Deposit money is forfeited in case the
candidate does not get the minimum number of votes prescribed.

2. Scrutiny of Nominations: The contesting candidates should properly

fill up the nomination forms and satisfy the various conditions
prescribed by the election commission. During the process of
scrutiny, all such issues are examined. After such scrutiny alone, the
names of the eligible candidates to the election are announced.

3. Withdrawal of Nominations: The contesting candidates are given a

chance to withdraw their nominations field for elections. A date is
fixed for this purpose.

4. Election Propaganda or campaign: After the declaration of the

names of contesting candidates, propaganda work starts to influence
the electorate. The various leaders participate in the propaganda
work and explain their stand on public issues. The independent
candidates belonging to no political parties are also contesting in
elections as independent candidates. Election meetings are organized
in various parts of the country. Processions, pamphlets and other
means of communication are used for the purpose of influencing the
voters. All such election campaigns must come to an end 36 hours
before commencement of the poll. However, one is allowed to go from
house to house for campaigning.

5. Election Day: For the sake of voters, the election commission creates
a number of booths based on the number of voters. On the day of
election, the voters can go to their nearest booth and exercise their
vote. To carry out the election work, a number of officers are
appointed as polling officers to every booth. Security arrangements
are also made. A voters’ list is prepared for officers to identify the
voters. The Voters’ list consists of names, sex, age and addresses of
 the voters. Recently, the Election Commission has introduced photo
identification cards to the voters. This is, however, not fully done.
The blind and disabled are helped to cast their votes. The agents of
various political parties are present in the booth during elections and
their job is to identify the voters and check malpractices. Voters cast
their votes through Electronic Voting Machines (EVM) by pressing the
button present against the symbol of the candidate of their choice.

6. Counting of Votes: A number of counting centers are created and in

the presence of candidates or their agents the sealed voting machines
are opened for counting. One who gets the majority of votes is
declared as the winner. There is scope for recounting under special
circumstances. The winning candidate is given a “letter of victory”
by the returning officer, which is the basis for entry into Lok Sabha or
State Legislature.

NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION (NHRC)

The Parliament of India adopted the Human Rights Act in 1993 for
the protection and promotion of human rights and for this purpose, the
NHRC was set-up in 1993. It exercises the powers conferred upon, and to
perform the functions assigned to it under Human Rights Act, 1993.
Composition of NHRC:
The NHRC is an autonomous body consisting of:
1. A Chairperson who has been a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
2. One member who is, or has been, a judge of the Supreme Court.
3. One member who is, or has been, the Chief Justice of a High Court.
4. Two members to be appointed from amongst persons having
knowledge of, or practical experience in, matters relating to human
rights.
5. The Chairpersons of the National Commissions for minorities, the SCs
and STs as well as women shall be the members of the NHRC for the
discharge of functions relating to the human rights of the specific
group concerned.
6. There shall be a Secretary–General who is the Chief Executive Officer
of the commission and shall exercise such powers and discharge such
functions of the commission delegated to him.

The Head Quarters of the NHRC is New Delhi. It can establish its
offices at other places with the prior approval of the central
 government. The Chairperson and other four persons shall be
appointed to the NHRC by the president of India on the
recommendations of a committee under the chairmanship of the
Prime Minister besides the Speaker of Lok Sabha, Home Minister,
Leaders of Opposition in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha and Deputy
Chairman of Rajya Sabha as its members.

Term of the Chairperson and Members of NHRC:

The Chairperson and members are appointed for a term of five
years or until he/she attains the age of 70 years whichever is earlier.
Members are eligible for reappointment for another term of five years.
However, no member shall hold office after he attains the age of 70
years.

Powers of NHRC:
The NHRC has powers of a civil court in respect of the following
matters
1. Summoning and enforcing the attendance of witnesses and
examining them.
2. Discovery and production of documents.
3. Receiving evidence on affidavits.
4. Requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court or
office.
5. Issuing notices for the examination of witnesses or documents.
6. Investing the complaints relating to violation of rights.
7. Approaching the Supreme Court or the High Court concerned for
which directions, orders or writs as that court may deem
necessary.
8. Submission of annual report to the central government.

Functions of the NHRC.

1. Inquire Suo-Moto on a petition presented to it by a victim or any
person on his behalf into complaint of (i) violation of human rights or
abatement thereof; or (ii) negligence in the prevention of such
violation, by a public servant.
 2. Intervene in any proceeding involving any allegation of violation of
human rights pending before a court with its approval.
3. Visit, under intimation to the State Government, any jail or any other
institution under the control of the State Government, where persons
are detained or lodged for purposes of treatment, reform or protection,
to study the living conditions of the inmates and make
recommendations thereon;
4. Review the safeguards provided by the constitution or any law for the
time being in force for the protection of human rights and recommend
measures for their effective implementation;
5. Review the factors, including acts of terrorism, that inhibit the
enjoyment of human rights and recommend appropriate remedial
measures;
6. Study treaties and other international instruments on human rights
and make recommendations for their effective implementation;
7. Undertake and promote research in the field of human rights.
8. Spread of human rights literacy among various sections of society and
promote awareness of the safeguards available for the protection of
these rights through publications, the media, seminars and other
available means:
9. Encourage the efforts of N.G.Os and institutions working in the field of
human rights.
10. Such other functions as it may consider necessary for the promotion
of human rights.

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN

The National Commission for Women (NCW) in India was established

under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990. The National
Commission for Women was set up to deal with the rights of women and
their conditions.
Composition of the NCW:
The NCW consists of:
a) A chairperson, committed to the cause of women, nominated by the
Central Government.
b) Five members, nominated by the Central Government, from amongst
persons of ability, integrity and standing who have had experience in
law or legislation, trade unionism, management of an industry or
organization committed to increasing the employment potential of
women, women’s voluntary organizations including women activitists,
administration, economic development, health, education or social
welfare. Of these five persons, at least one member each shall be from
 amongst persons belonging to the scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes.
c) A member secretary, nominated by the Central Government, who
should be (i) an expert in the field of management, organizational
structure or sociological movement or (ii) an officer who is a member
of a civil service of the union all-India service or who holds a civil post
under the union with appropriate experience.

Term of Office:
The chairperson and every member of the NCW will hold office for
such period not exceeding three years, as may be specified by the Central
Government in this behalf.

Functions of NCW:
The NCW performs a number of functions. They are:
a) Investigation and examination of all matters relating to the
safeguards for women provided under the Constitution and other
laws.
b) Presenting to the Central Government reports upon the working of
those safeguards annually and at such other time as the
Commission may deem fit.
c) Making, in such reports, recommendations for the effective
implementation of those safeguards, for improving the conditions of
women by the union or any state.
d) Reviewing, from time to time, the existing provisions of the
Constitution and other laws affecting women, and recommending
amendments thereto so as to suggest remedial legislative measures
to overcome the shortcomings in the existing legislations.
e) Taking up the cases of violation of the provisions of the
Constitution and other laws relating to women with the appropriate
authorities.
f) Looking into complaints and taking Suo-Moto notice of matters
relating to (I) deprivation of women’s rights, (ii) non-Special Rights
Created in the Constitution of India for Certain Classes of Persons.
Implementation of laws enacted to provide protection to women
and (iii) non-compliance of policy decisions, guidelines, or
instructions aimed at mitigating hardships and providing relief to
women, and taking up issues arising out of such matters with the
appropriate authorities.
g) Calling for special studies or investigations into specific problems
or situations arising out of discrimination and atrocities against
women and identifying the constraints so as to recommend
strategies for their removal.
h) Undertaking promotional and educational research so as to
suggest ways of ensuring due representation of women in all
 spheres and identifying factors responsible for impeding their
advancement.
i) Participating and advising on the planning process of socio-
economic development of women.
j) Evaluating the progress of the development of women under the
union and any state.
k) Inspecting or causing the inspection of a jail, remand home,
women’s institution or other place of custody where women are
kept as prisoners or otherwise, and taking up with the concerned
authorities for remedial action.
l) Filing litigations involving issues affecting a large body of women.
m) Making periodical reports to the Government on any matters
pertaining to women, in particular various difficulties under which
women toil.
n) Attending to any other matter which may be referred to it by the
Central Government.

THE NATIONAL LEGAL SERVICES AUTHORITIES ACT, 1987

An Act constitute Legal Services Authorities to provide free and

competent legal services to the weaker sections of the society to ensure that
opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of
economic or other disabilities and to organize Lok Adalats to secure that the
operation of the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal
Opportunity.

Be it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty eighth year of the Republic of

India as follows:

1. This Act may be called the Legal Services Authorities Act. 1987.
2. It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and
Kashmir.
3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may,
by notification, appoint and different dates may be appointed for
different provisions of this Act and for different States and any
reference to commencement in any provision of this Act in relation to
any State shall be, construed as a reference to the Commencement of
that provision in that State.
ENTITLEMENT TO LEGAL SERVICES

1. Every person who has to file or defend a case shall be entitled to legal
services under this Act if that person is-
a) a member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe;
 b) a victim of trafficking in human beings or beggar as referred to in
Article 23 of the Constitution:
c) a woman or a child;
d) a mentally ill otherwise disabled person;
e) a person under circumstances of undeserved want such as being a
victim of a mass disaster, ethnic violence, caste atrocity, flood,
drought, earth quake or industrial disaster: or
f) an Industrial workman; or
g) in custody, including custody in a protective home within the meaning
of clause (g) of section 2 of the Immoral traffic (Prevention) Act. 1956
or in a Juvenile home within the meaning of clause (j) of section 2 of
the Juvenile Justice Act. 1986 in a psychiatric hospital or psychiatric
nursing home within the meaning of clause (g) of section 2 of the
Mental Health Act. 1987 : or
h) in receipt of annual Income less than rupees nine thousand or such
other higher amount as may be prescribed by the State Government, if
the case is before a Court other than the Supreme Court and less
than rupees twelve thousand or such other higher amount as may be
prescribed by the Central Government, if the case is before the
Supreme Court.
2. a) Persons who satisfy all or any of the criteria specified in section 12
shall be entitled to receive legal services provided that the concerned
Authority is satisfied that such person has a prima facie case to
prosecute or to defend.

b) An affidavit made by a person as to his income may be regarded as

sufficient for making him eligible to the entitlement of legal services
under this Act unless the concerned Authority has reason to disbelieve
such affidavit.

THE NATIONAL LEGAL SERVICES AUTHORITY – STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTIONS

1. The Central Government shall constitute a Body to be called the National

Legal Services Authority to exercise the powers and perform the functions
conferred on or assigned to the Central Authority under this Act.

2. The Central Authority shall consist of:

 a) The Chief Justice of India who shall be the Patron-in-Chief.
b) A serving or a retired Judge of the Supreme Court to be nominated by
the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India, who shall
be the Executive Chairman; and
c) Such number of other members, possessing such experience and
qualifications as may be prescribed by the Central Government to be
nominated by that Government in consultation with the Chief Justice
of India.

3. The Central Government shall, in consultation with the Chief Justice of

India, appoint a person to be the Member-Secretary of the Central
Authority, possessing such experience and qualifications as may be
prescribed by that Government to exercise such powers and perform
such duties under the Executive Chairman of the Central Authority as
may be prescribed by that Government or as may assigned to him by the
Executive Chairman of that Authority.
4. The terms of office and other conditions relating thereto of members and
the Member-Secretary of the Central Authority shall be such as may be
prescribed by the Central Government in consultation with the Chief
Justice of India.
5. The Central Authority may appoint such number of officers and other
employees as may be prescribed by the Central Government in
consultation with the Chief Justice of India for the efficient discharge of
its functions under this Act.
6. The officers and other employees of the Central Authority shall be
entitled to such salary and allowances and shall be subject to such other
conditions of service as may be prescribed by the Central Government in
consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
7. The administrative expenses of the Central Authority including the
salaries allowances and pensions payable to the Member Secretary,
officers and other employees of the Central Authority shall be defrayed
out of the Consolidated Fund of India.
8. All orders and decisions of the Central Authority shall be authenticated
by the Member-Secretary or any other officer of the Central Authority
duly authorized by the Executive Chairman of that Authority.
9. No act or proceedings of the Central Authority shall be invalid merely on
the ground of the existence of any vacancy in or any defect in the
constitution of the Central Authority.
The Central Authority shall perform all or any of the following functions,
namely:
a) Lay down policies and principles for making legal services available
under the provisions of this Act:
b) Frame the most effective and economical schemes for the purpose of
making legal services available under the provisions of this Act:
c) Utilize the funds at its disposal and make appropriate allocations of
funds to the State Authorities and District Authorities:
d) Take necessary steps by way of social justice litigation with regard to
consumer protection, environmental protection or any other matter of
special concern to the weaker sections of the society and for this
purpose, give training to social workers in legal skills:
e) Organize legal aid camps, especially in rural areas, slums or labour
colonies with the dual purpose of educating the weaker sections of the
society as to their rights as well as encouraging the settlement of
disputes through Lok Adalat;
f) Encourage the settlement of disputes by way of negotiations,
arbitration and conciliation;
g) Undertake and promote research in the field of legal services with
special reference to the need for such services among the poor:
h) To do all things necessary for the purpose of ensuring commitment to
the fundamental duties of citizens under Part IVA of the constitution:
i) Monitor and evaluate implementation of the legal aid programmes at
periodic intervals and provide for independent evaluation of
programmes and schemes implemented in whole or in part by funds
provided under this Act:
j) Provide grant-in-aid for specific schemes to various Voluntary Social
Service Institutions and the State and District Authorities from out of
the amounts placed at its disposal for the implementation of legal
services schemes under the provisions of this Act:
k) Develop, in consultation with the Bar Council of India, programmes
for clinical legal education and to promote, guide and supervise the
 establishment and working of Legal services Clinics in Universities,
Law Colleges and other institutions;
l) Take appropriate measures for spreading legal literacy and legal
awareness amongst the people and in particular to educate weaker
sections of the society about the rights, benefits and privileges
guaranteed by social welfare legislations and other enactments as well
as administrative programmes and measures;
m) Makes special efforts to enlist the support of Voluntary Social Welfare
Institutions working at the grass-root level particularly among the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, women and rural and
urban labour; and
n) Co-ordinate and monitor the functioning of State Authorities, District
Authorities, Supreme Court Legal Services Committee, High Court
Legal Services Committees, Taluk Legal Services Committees and
Voluntary Special Service Institution and other legal services
organizations and give general directions for the proper
implementation of the legal service programmes.
In the discharge of its functions under this Act, the Central Authority
shall work in coordination with other governmental and non-governmental
agencies, Universities and others engaged in the work of promoting the
cause of legal services to the poor.

Supreme Court Legal Services Committee:

1. The Central Authority shall constitute a committee to be called the

Supreme Court Legal Services Committee for the purpose of exercising
such powers and performing such functions as may be determined by
regulations made by the Central Authority,.
2. The Committee shall consist of:-
a) A sitting Judge of the Supreme Court who shall be the Chairman;
and
b) Such number of other members possessing such experience and
qualifications as may be prescribed by the Central Government to be
nominated by the Chief Justice of India.
3. The Chief Justice of India shall appoint a person to be the Secretary to
the Committee, possessing such experience and qualifications as may be
prescribed by the Central Government.
4. The terms of office and other conditions relating thereof to the members
and Secretary of the Committee shall be such as may be determined by
Regulations made by the Central Authority.
5. The Committee may appoint such number of officers and other
employees as may be prescribed by the Central Government in
consultation with the Chief Justice of India for the efficient discharge of
its functions.
6. The officers and other employees of the Committee shall be entitled to
such salary and allowances and shall be subject to such other conditions
of service as may be prescribed by the Central Government in
consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
STATE LEGAL SERVICES AUTHORITY - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

1. Every State Government a Body to be called the Legal services Authority

for the State to exercise the powers and perform the functions conferred
on or assigned to a State Authority under this Act.
2. A State Authority shall consist of:
a) The Chief Justice of the High Court who shall be the patron-in-Chief;
b) a serving or a retired Judge of the High Court to be nominated by the
Governor in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court who
shall be the Executive Chairman; and
c) Such number of other Members possessing such experience and
qualifications as may be prescribed by the State Government to be
nominated by that Government in consultation With the Chief Justice
of the High Court.
3. The State Government shall in consultation with the Chief Justice of the
High Court, appoint a person belonging to State Higher Judicial Service,
not lower in rank than of a District Judge as the Member-Secretary of the
State Authority to exercise such powers and perform such duties under
the Executive Chairman of the State Authority as may be prescribed by
that Government or as may be assigned to him by the Executive
Chairman of that Authority:
Provided that a person functioning as Secretary of State Legal Aid
and Advice Board immediately before the date of constitution of the State
Authority may be appointed as Member- Secretary of that Authority even
if he is not qualified to be appointed as such under this sub- section for a
period not exceeding five years.
4. The terms of office and other conditions relating thereto, of members and
the Member Secretary of the State Authority shall be such as may be
prescribed by the State Government in consultation with the Chief
Justice of the High Court.
5. The State Authority may appoint such number of officers and other
employees as may be prescribed by State Government in consultation
with the Chief Justice of the High Court for the efficient discharge of its
functions under this Act.
6. The officers and other employees of the State Authority shall be entitled to
such salary and allowances and shall be subject to such other conditions
of service as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation
with the Chief Justice of the High Court.
7. The administrative expenses of the State Authority including the salaries,
allowances and pensions payable to the Member-Secretary, officers and
other employees of the State Authority shall be defrayed out of the
Consolidated Fund of the State.
8. All orders and decisions of the State Authority shall be authenticated by
the Member Secretary or any officer of the State Authority duly
authorized by the Executive Chairman of the State Authority.
9. No act or proceedings of a State Authority shall be invalid merely on the
ground of the existence of any vacancy in or any defect in the
Constitution of the State Authority.
Following are the functions of State authority:
1. It shall be the duty of the State Authority to give effect to the policy and
directions of the Central Authority.
2. Without prejudice to the generality of the functions referred to in sub-
section (1) the State Authority shall perform all or any of the following
functions, namely:-
a) Give legal service to persons who satisfy the criteria laid down under
this Act:
b) Conduct Lok Adalat, including Lok Adalat for High Court cases;
c) Undertake preventive and strategic legal aid programmes; and
d) Perform such other functions as the State Authority may, in
consultation with the Central Authority fixed by Regulations.
 In the discharge of its functions the State Authority shall appropriately
act in coordination with other governmental agencies, Non-governmental
Voluntary Social service Institutions; Universities and other bodies engaged
in the work of promoting the cause of legal services to the poor and shall
also be guided by such directions as the Central Authority may give to it in
writing.

High Court Legal Services Committee

1. The State Authority shall constitute a Committee to be called the High

Court Legal Services Committee for every High Court, for the purpose of
exercising such powers and performing such functions as may be
determined by regulations made by the State Authority.
2. The committee shall consist of:-
a) a sitting Judge of the High Court who shall be the Chairman; and
b) Such number of other members possessing such experience and
qualifications as may be determined by regulations made by the State
Authority to be nominated by the Chief Justice of the High Court.
3. The Chief Justice of the High Court shall appoint a Secretary to the
Committee possessing such experience and qualifications as may be
prescribed by the State Government.
4. The terms of office and other conditions relating thereto, of the members
and Secretary of the Committee shall be such as may be determined by
regulations made by the State Authority.
5. The Committee may appoint such number of officers and other
employees as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation
with the Chief Justice of the High Court for the efficient discharge of its
functions.
6. The officers and other employees of the Committee shall be entitled to
such salary and allowances and shall be subject to such other conditions
of service as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation
with the Chief Justice of the High Court.
DISTRICT LEGAL SERVICES AUTHORITY - STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS

1. The State Government shall, in consultation with the Chief Justice of the
High Court, constitute a Body to be called the District Legal Services
Authority for every District in the State to exercise the powers and
 perform the functions conferred on, or assigned to the District Authority
under this Act.
2. A District Authority shall consist of:-
a) The District Judge who shall be its Chairman; and
b) Such number of other members, possessing such experience and
qualifications, as may be prescribed by the State Government to be
nominated by that Government in consultation with the Chief Justice
of the High Court.
3. The State Authority shall, in consultation with the Chairman of the
District Authority, appoint a person belonging to the State Judicial
Service not lower in rank than that of a Subordinate Judge or Civil Judge
posted at the seat of the District Judiciary as Secretary of the District
Authority to exercise such powers and perform such duties under the
Chairman of that Authority as may be assigned to him by such
Chairman.
4. The terms of office and other conditions relating thereto, of members and
Secretary of the District Authority shall be such as may be determined by
regulations made by the State Authority in consultation with the Chief
Justice of the High Court.
5. The District Authority may appoint such number of officers and other
employees as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation
with the Chief Justice of the High Court for the efficient discharge of its
functions.
6. The officers and other employees of the District Authority shall be
entitled to such salary and allowances and shall be subject to such other
conditions of service as may be prescribed by the State Government in
consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court.
7. The administrative expenses of every District Authority, including the
salaries, allowances and pension payable to the Secretary, officers and
other employees of the District Authority shall be defrayed out of the
Consolidated Fund of the State.
8. All orders and decisions of the District Authority shall be authenticated
by the Secretary or by any other officer of the District Authority duly
authorized by the Chairman of that Authority.
9. No act or proceedings of a District Authority shall be invalid merely on
the ground of the existence of any vacancy in, or any defect in the
constitution of the District Authority.
Following are the functions of District authority:
1. It shall be the duty of every District Authority to perform such of the
functions of the State Authority in the District as may be delegated to it
from time to time by the State Authority.
2. Without prejudice to the generality of the functions referred to in sub-
section(1), the District Authority may perform all or any of the following
functions, namely:-
a) Co-ordinate the activities of the Taluk Legal Services Committee and
other legal services in the District:
b) Organize Lok Adalat within the District; and
c) Perform such other functions as the State Authority may fix by
Regulations.
In the discharge of its functions under this Act, the District Authority
shall wherever appropriate, act in Co-ordination with other Governmental
and non-Governmental institutions, universities and others engaged in the
work of promoting the cause of legal services to the poor and shall also be
guided by such directions as the Central Authority or the state may give to it
in writing.
TALUK LEGAL SERVICES COMMITTEE - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

1. The State Authority may constitute a Committee to be called the Taluk

Legal Services Committee, for each taluk or Mandal or for group of
Taluks or Mandals.
2. The Committee shall consist of:-
a) The Senior most Civil Judge operating within the jurisdiction of the
Committee who shall be the ex-officio Chairman; and
b) Such number of other Members possessing such experience and
qualifications as may be prescribed by State Government to be
nominated by that Government in consultation with the Chief Justice
of the High Court.
3. The Committee may appoint such number of officers and other
employees as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation
 with the Chief Justice of the High Court for the efficient discharge of its
functions.
4. The officers and other employees of the Committee shall be entitled to
such salary and allowances and shall be subject to such other conditions
of service as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation
with the Chief Justice of the High Court.
5. The administrative expenses of the Committee shall be defrayed out of
the District Legal Aid Fund by the District Authority.
Following are the functions of Taluk Legal services Committee:
The Taluk Legal services Committee, may perform all or any of the
following functions, namely:-

a) Co-ordinate the activities of legal services in the taluk:

b) Organise Lok Adulats within the taluk; and
c) Perform such other functions as the District Authority may assign to
it.

LOK ADALAT – ORGANIZATION AND POWERS

1. Every State Authority or District Authority or the Supreme Court Legal

Services Committee or every High Court Legal services Committee or, as the
case may be, Taluk Legal Services Committees may organize Lok Adalat at
such intervals and places and for exercising such jurisdiction and for such
areas as it thinks fit.

2. Every Lok Adalat organized for an area shall consist of such number
of:-

a) Serving or retired judicial officers; and

b) Other persons.
of the area as may be specified by the State Authority or the District
Authority or the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee or the High Court
Legal Services Committee, or as the case may be, the Taluk Legal Services
Committee, organising such Lok Adalat.

3. The experience and qualifications of other persons referred to in

clause (b) sub-section (2) for Lok Adalat organized by the Supreme Court
Legal Services Committee shall be such as may be prescribed by the Central
Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
 4. The experience and qualifications of other persons referred to in
clause (b) of sub-section (2) for Lok Adalat other than referred to in
sub section (3) shall be such as may be prescribed by the State
Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court.

5. A Lok Adalat shall have jurisdiction to determine and to arrive at a

compromise or settlement between the parties to a dispute in respect
of :
i) Any case pending before; or

ii) Any matter which is falling within the jurisdiction of and is not
brought before, any Court for which the Lok Adalat is organized;

Provided that the Lok Adalat shall have no jurisdiction in respect of any
case or matter relating to an offence not compoundable under any law.

Following are the Powers of Lok Adalat.

(1) The Lok Adalat shall, for the purpose of holding any determination under
this Act, have the same powers as are vested in a Civil Court under the Code
of Civil Procedure 1908, while trying a suit in respect of the following
matters namely:-

a) The summoning and enforcing the attendance of any witness

and examining him on oath.
b) The discovery and production of any document;
c) The reception of evidence on affidavits;
d) The requisitioning of any public record or document or copy of
such record or document from any Court or office; and
e) Such other matters as may be prescribed.

2. Without prejudice to the generality of the powers contained in sub-section

(1) every Lok Adalat shall have the requisite powers to specify its own
procedure for the determination of any dispute coming before it.

3. All proceedings before a Lok Adalat shall be deemed to be judicial

proceedings within the meaning of sections 193.219 and 228 of the Indian
Penal Code and every Lok Adalat shall be deemed to be a Civil Court for the
purpose of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal Procedure,
1973.
REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Rural Sociology in India – A.R. Desai, Popular Prakashan, Bombay.

2. Introductory Rural Sociology – J.B. Chitamber, Wiley Eastern limited,
New Delhi.
3. Extension Communication and Management – G.L.Ray, Kalyani
publishers, New Delhi.
4. Introduction to Sociology – Sachdev and Vidya Bhushan, Kithab
Mahal, Allahabad
5. Introduction to Rural Sociology – A.R. Desai, Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
6. Educational Psychology – Skinner, Prentice hill publication.
7. Educational Psychology – Crow and Crow. Eurasis publication house
8. Psychology in Education – H.C. Sorenson, Mc Graw hill, New York.
9. Elements of Educational Psychology – Bhatia, Bombay
10. Introduction to Psychology – Morgen and king, Mc Graw hill,
New york.
11. Extension Education – A. Adivi Reddy, Sree Lakshmi Press,
Bapatla.
12. Constitution of India and Professional Ethics – K.R. Paneesha,
Sudha Publications, Bangalore.
13. Indian Constitution – K.Ramachandra, D.Prathima Prabhakar,
S.Shivakumar, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai.
 UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, GKVK, BANGALORE

Laboratory Manual

On

Rural Sociology, Educational Psychology & Constitution of India

AEX 101 (0+2)

Name of the Student: ________________________ I D No. ___________

Class: I B.Sc. (Agri.) Batch:_____ Semester: II Year: 2010-11

2010

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UAS, GKVK, BANGALORE

 UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, BANGALORE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

COLLEGGE OF AGRICULTURE

BANGALORE-560065

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr / Miss ______________________________________

I.D. No. AL__________ has satisfactorily completed the course of

practical in “Rural
Rural Sociology, Educational Psychology & Constitution of
India” AEX 101 (0+2), prescribed b by
y the Department of Agricultural
Extension, College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore for the B.Sc. (Agri.) Degree Programme during the year 2010-
2010
11.

Date of Submission: _____________

Marks Obtained: ______________

Remarks:

Course Teacher
 CONTENTS

Sl. No. Title of exercise Page

No.

1 Introduction to Experimental Psychology

Practical No. 1: INTELLIGENCE

2
Non Verbal test (RPM)

Practical No. 2: INTELLIGENCE

3
Verbal Test (GMAT)

Practical No. 3: PERSONALITY

4
Eysenck Personality Inventory

Practical No. 4: PERSONALITY

5
Multivariable Personality inventory

Practical No. 5: LEARNING

6
Associative Learning

Practical No. 6: LEARNING

7
Trail and Error Learning

Practical No. 7: ATTITUDES

8
Reaction and Radicalism

Marks Scored: 5
 INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Psychology Practicals
Practical classes in psychology mainly consist of conducting
experiments as well as administering tests. Experimentation involves
studying an aspect of behavior under controlled condition. A
psychological test is an “an objective and standardized measure of
sample behaviour”. Some aspects of behaviour like learning is usually
studied through experimentation. Aspects such as personality traits,
attitudes, values, etc., are assessed through standardized tests. These
include rating scales, questionnaires, inventories, etc. Tests of this
nature are called verbal tests and are popularly known as “paper and
pencil tests”. Certain other aspect of behaviour like abilities (Eg:
intelligence) is assessed either through verbal tests or performance tests.
The latter form of tests requires the subjects to manipulate objects,
blocks, apparatus and so on.

2. Writing the Practical Record

Record writing is an exercise to the student as to how to prepare an
objective report on the aspect of behaviour studied. This involves writing
the report under standard sub-headings, like:

a) Problem: It is a precise statement of the aim of the study. It may

also involve writing specific objectives and hypotheses.
b) Materials: This includes listing all the articles, apparatus or tests
used in conducting the study (in the present manual the term
“Answer Sheet” refers to the stranded printed sheet in a
particulars format required for a test. “Writing materials” refers to
ordinary white paper, pen, pencil, graph sheets, etc.,).
c) Method: It is writing of all the details concerning arrangements of
apparatus, control of variables, and mode of recording
observations (data) instructions given to the subject, precautions
taken, scoring and analysis of data and so on. In other words, it
is a record of all the activities of how an experiment / test is
conducted.
d) Results: It is presentation of data collected and analyzed in the
form of convenient tables with proper headings.
e) Discussion: It is the interpretation of the results with reference
to the problem, hypotheses and theoretical framework. In the
case of tests, it involves interpreting obtained data with reference
to the established norms or average scores of the class.
Highlighting the nature and extent of individual differences
among the subjects of the group is an important feature of
psychological studies.
 f) Conclusions: This includes writing of objective and precise
statements of findings with reference to the problem of the
experiment (or test) based on the obtained data.

3. About this Manual

To save time in the practical class and to help the student gain
proper experience in conducting the experiments or administering the tests,
detailed steps are given in this manual right from the problem up to
conclusions. After conducting an experiment or a test, what a student is
required to do is to write the tables of results obtained, discussion and
conclusions by himself.

The points given in the manual for discussion and conclusions are
only for the guidance of the student. The discussion should not be written in
the form of questions (points given) and answers. What is aimed at is that
the student should write the discussion on these points in a sequential
manner and in convenient paragraphs.

Interpretation of test data for writing discussion is generally done with

reference to the norms given in the test manual. But norms have to be
relevant to the subject concerned in terms of his age, gender educational
level and sometimes to his cultural and economic status also. Blind
interpretation of the scores with reference to the outdated (established long
ago) and irrelevant norms are both unscientific and misleading. Where
relevant norms are not available, it is desirable to interpret scores with
references to the group (class) average (preferably median) scores.

4. A few Technical Terms

a) Score: It is a quantitative value given to a response or to the series

of responses in an experiment or a test.
b) Scoring Key: It is a list of correct response choices to test items by
which a subject’s score is arrived at.
c) Test Norms: A norm refers to a “normal or average” performance.
Subject’s responses or scores on a test are interpreted with
references to the appropriate norms given.
d) Test Manual: It is a booklet supplied by the test author consisting
of the details of standardization of the test. It consists such details
as preparation and selection of test items, instructions to be given
to the subjects, scoring key, norms, establishment of reliability and
validity, etc.
Practical No. 1 Date:

INTELLIGENCE

PERFORMANCE TEST OF INTELLIGENCE/ NON VERBAL TEST (RPM)

PROBLEM

To assess subject’s level of intelligence by administering performance

test of intelligence.

MATERIALS

Raven’s Standard Progressive matrices test book lets, answer sheets,

pen or Pencil.

METHOD

The test is administrated to a group of students either as an

individual test or group test. The subjects are asked to fill in particulars
about themselves, on the data sheet before the experiment is commenced.
When the subject is ready to do the test, the experimenter gives the
following instructions.

”Open your book to the first page; at the top it says set A and you
have the corresponding column A in your data sheet. Set A consists of 12
problems and so there are serial numbers 1 to 12 on the data sheet in the
column A. This test consists of 5 sets altogether, A B C D E and each set
has 12 problems. You notice provision being made on the data sheet to
record your response to each set at appropriate column. Now attend to the
instruction about how to do the test. Take set A and Fig. 1. The upper part
is a pattern with a bit missing. There are six alternatives given below. Each
of the alternatives is of correct shape and size but only one is of correct
pattern which when fitted in, complete the figure above. That one is 4. You
have to write 4 as your response to A1 in the data sheet, against the Sl. No.
1, under column A”. The experimenter notices whether the subject does this
correctly. If not, he gives further explanations to help the subject
understand thoroughly well. Then he continues the instructions as follows
on every page in your book there is a pattern with a bit missing. You have to
decide each time which of' the alternatives given below is the right one to
complete the pattern above. When you select the right one, write its serial
number against the corresponding Sl. No. under the proper column on your
response sheet. The problems are easy at the beginning and become harder
as you proceed, in each set. If you pay attention to the easier ones, the later
ones will not appear to be so hard. Do not omit any problem. There is no
time limit, but do all the problems.

Precautions: There should be close supervision to see that S’s are following
instructions properly and that every problem has been attempted.

Scoring: A person’s score on the scale is the total number of problems he

solves correctly when he is allowed to work quietly through the series from
the beginning to the end. The most satisfactory method of interpreting the
significance of a person’s total score is to consider it in terms of the
frequency with which a similar score is found to occur amongst people of his
own age.

Norms

Scores Percentiles Grades

+55 95 intellectually superior

52-54 90 Definitely superior

47-51 75

40-46 50 Average

27-39 25

14-26 10

-14 5 Below average

RESULTS

Table I: Scores and Grades obtained by the subjects in Raven’s Progressive

matrices test.

Sl.No Name/ID No. Score Grade

3
4

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29
 30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Total

Discussion

Conclusion
Practical No. 2 Date:

INTELLIGENCE

VERBAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE (GMAT)

PROBLEM

To assess subject’s level of Intelligence (General mental Ability) by

administering a verbal test of intelligence devised by Jalota and Tandon.

MATERIALS

Group Test of General Mental Ability (20-52) – A point Scale for adults
by Jalota Tandon, Stop Watch, data sheet, pencil.

METHOD

The test is administered to a group of students either as an individual

or group test. If the group consists of more than 20 subjects it is better to
take one or two assistants to help the examiner.

Before administering the test, the experimenter should assure himself

of adequate lighting, comfortable seating, adequate and ample table and
desk space, freedom from outside disturbances. After the examinees are
seated, the examiner should give an introductory talk of 2 or 3 minutes
explaining the general purpose of the test. He should try in this period to
maintain a rapport with the examiners. Then the answer sheets should be
distributed. After the subjects furnish the information required at the top of
the answer sheet, the test booklets are to be supplied. The examiner should
clearly explain each example (meant for practice) to the examinees. The
examinees should be given opportunities for getting their doubts cleared
without any hesitation.

The time limit is only 25 minutes. After about half a minute of the
start, the examiner should make a round and remove the difficulties of the
subjects gently. The examiner should announce the time two times, once
when “15 minutes are more” and then “5 minutes are more”. The examiner
should ask the examinees to stop their work as soon as the time is over. The
test booklet must be taken back.
 Instructions to subject: “This is a test of general mental ability. You will
have 25 minutes to do it. There are 5 pages of this test with 100 questions.
Examples of the various types of problems set in this test will be explained
to you before you start on the test proper. All questions are in simple
language. In all cases alternative answers are given, and what you have to
do is simply to choose the right answer and write its number on the answer
sheet. Thus the answer to each question is always a number. So there is not
much writing work to be done. There is only one correct answer to each
question, and each correct answer carries one mark. Time is rather short,
and it is very rare for a person to complete the entire test. So you should
work very quickly and solve accurately as many as you can. Hence, if you
find any problem to be too difficult for your type of knowledge, then do not
spend much time over it and you may pass on to the next one. Start when
you are told, and go on as fast as you can.

Scoring: The answer sheets are scored with the help of a scoring key
provided for this purpose. The new score of a subject is his total number of
right attempts. A total score or a raw score can be interpreted with the help
of a 7-point intelligence grading.

Score Grade of General mental Ability for 20/52 Form.

Score Grade

81+ Very superior

69-81 Superior
57-69 Bright Average
34-57 Average
22-34 Dull Average
20-22 Border line
0-10 Mental Defective

RESULTS

Table I: Raw Scores and Grades of subjects.

Sl.No Name/ID No. Total Score Grade

2
3

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28
 29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Total

Discussion

Conclusion
Practical No. 3 Date:

PERSONALITY

EYSENCK PERSONALITY INVENTORY

PROBLEM

To assess the personality of subjects by administering Eysneck

personality Inventory

MATERIALS:

Eysneck personality questionnaire, answer sheet, scoring key, paper

and pencil.

METHOD:

The personality inventory and answer sheets are distributed to the

subjects. They are asked to fill in the name and other particulars in the
answer sheets. The directions printed on the inventory are read out aloud
asking the subject to read along silently. Further the subjects are instructed
“Remember you have to give any one of the two answers by placing a cross
mark (x) on the answer sheet against the item. Do not think over but give
spontaneous answer whether ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.

Precautions: Subject should be urged to give spontaneous answers, but not

deliberate answers.

Treatment of data:

1. Results are scored in accordance with the key.

2. If the total lie score is 5 and above, reject that answer sheet.
Norm:

Description Score

Extravert 17 and above

Intravert 7 and below

Neurotic 14 and above

Emotionally well balanced 4 and below

RESULTS:

Table 1: Scores obtained by the subjects on the inventory

Sl.No Name/ID No. Extravertive Neurotic No. of lie

Score Score score

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23
 24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Total

Average

Discussion

Conclusion
Practical No. 4 Date:

PERSONALITY

MULTIVARIABLE PERSONALITY INVENTORY

PROBLEM

To assess some of the personality variables of the subjects by

questionnaire method.

MATERIALS

Multivariable Personality Inventory developed by B.C. Muthayya.,

Scoring key and manual.

Description of the Inventory

Multivariable Personality Inventory consists of 50 questions and

measures nine selected personality variables. Such as:

1. Dominance (6 items)
2. Neuroticism (7 items).
3. Empathy (5 item).
4. Need achievement (5 items)
5. Ego-ideal (5 items).
6. Introversion (6 items).
7. Self-confidence (5 items)
8. Dogmatism (5 items)
9. Pessimism (6 items).

The number in the parenthesis indicate the number of items in each

personality variable. The description of each personality variable is given in
the manual.

METHOD

The test is administered as a group test. Personality Inventory is

distributed to the subjects and the subjects are asked to answer each
question in terms of ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. The answer category ‘Yes’ indicates the
presence of the variable in the subjects and ‘No’ response indicates the
absence of it. Nine personality traits are assessed by self-inventory method.
INSTRUCTIONS TO SUBJECTS

The subjects are seated comfortably. The following instructions are

given to the subjects after distributing the inventory to the subjects.

“Here are some questions regarding the way you behave, feel and act.
For each question the response categories ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ is given. You should
try to decide whether ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ represents your usual way of acting or
feeling and then encircle ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ as the case may be for each question.
There is no right or wrong answers. You should work quickly and do not
spend too much time over any questions. You should give your first reaction
but not a long-drawn out thought process. Do not leave any question
unanswered, and answer all questions in terms of ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. If you find it
difficult to understand any question, please do not hesitate to ask for its
meaning. Your true and honest answers will help to understand your
personality better.

PRECAUTION

Subjects should be urged to give honest and true response for each
question.

SCORING

The responses of the subjects are scored by comparing it with the

scoring key. Each of the nine personality variables are scored separately and
the scoring key is toned in the direction of the presence of the trait. That is,
if the answers of the subject correspond with the scoring key, it indicates
the presence of the particular personality trait and a score of 1 is given for
the presence of the trait. The score range for each variable is as follows.

1. Dominance 0-6
2. Neuroticism 0-7
3. Empathy 0-5
4. Need-achievement 0-5
5. Ego-ideal 0-5
6. Introversion 0-6
7. Self-confidence 0-5
8. Dogmatism 0-5
9. Pessimism 0-6

The higher the score in each trait, the greater the prevalence of the trait in
the subject
TREATMENT OF DATA

Personality scores of individuals on nine variables are compared.

RESULTS

TABLE -1: Shows the scores of the subject on nine personality

variables.

Personality variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Scores

Percentages

TABLE – 2: Shows the group score on nine personality variables

Sl.No Name/ID No. Scores on the personality variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.
14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.
 40.

41.

TABLE – 3: Shows group results.

Measures Nine personality variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Mean

Maximum

Minimum

Range

Discussion:

Conclusion:
Practical No. 5 Date:

LEARNING

Associative Learning

Problem

To study the rate of associative verbal learning.

Materials

1. Ten letter – digit substitution test sheets.

2. Stop – clock
3. Writing materials.
Method

1. Conduct the experiment in ten trails. Take ten test sheets and
write the trail numbers from 1 to 10 on the backside of the
corresponding sheets. Arrange the ten sheets in a sequence and
place them in front of the subject with the printed matter facing
down. The sheet meant for Trail-1 should be on top and the
sheet for trail-10 at the bottom.
2. Explain what is letter –digit substitution with the letters and
digits (numbers) other than those are used in the test sheets.
3. Give the following instructions to the subject:
“This experiment will be conducted in ten trails. You are
supplied with ten letter-digit substitution test sheets. At the top of
each sheet you find a digit is written beneath each letter. This is the
key for substitution. Below this key, there are several rows of letters.
You will have to write beneath each letter its corresponding digit. The
duration of each trail is 60 seconds. Start the work at my ‘start’
signal. Stop the work at my ‘stop’ signal and keep the sheet away with
the printed matter facing down. You must work as fast as you can in
all the trails. While substituting, you should neither jump the rows
nor pick and choose the letters for substitution.”

Precaution

Make sure that the subject starts the substitution work only at
the ‘start’ signal and stops the work immediately after the ‘stop’
signal.
 Scoring

Find the number of correct substitutions made by the subject

separately for each trail.

Results

1. Collect the number of correct substitutions made by the

subjects in the group in each trial.
2. Find the group average scores for the ten trails separately.
3. Draw two learning curves on the same sheet – one indicating
the progress of learning made by your subject and the other
for group average scores.
Discussion

1. How the associate learning is studied in the experiment and

why the number of substitutions increases as the trails
progress?
2. Describe the progress of individual learning with the help of the
learning curve.
3. Describe the progress of the group learning. Compare the
progress of your subject with that of the group average learning.
4. Discuss the probable reasons for more fluctuations in the
progress of individual learning.
Conclusions

1. How much of learning has taken place in the subject? (

Compare the correct substitutions made in the last trail with
that of the first trail)
2. Whether your subject’s learning is superior, similar or inferior to
that of the group average learning?
Probable reasons for fluctuations

1. Not following the time properly.

2. Not maintaining equal speed in all the trails due to, fatigue and
lack on interest.

Table – 1: Number of correct substitutions made by the subject: ………

Trails

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Scores
Table – 2: Number of correct substitutions made by the subjects

Sl. Subjects Trails

No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22
 23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Average

Discussion:

Conclusion:
Practical No. 6 Date:

LEARNING

Trial and Error Learning

Problem

To study the trial and error learning process.

Materials

1. Bolt-head maze.
2. Stylus.
3. Electric counter.
4. Three pieces of electric wires to interconnect the maze, stylus
and counter.
5. Stop clock.
6. Writing materials.

Method

1. Connect the maze, stylus and counter with electric wires in

such a way that when you touch a bolt-head with the stylus,
the electric circuit is completed and an impulse is recorded in
the counter. Later, reset the counter at zero.
2. Arrange a random (zig - zag) path in the maze from the starting
point “S” to the end point “G” (Goal) by loosening the bolt-heads.
3. Give the following instructions to the subject:
“This is a bolt-head maze. Some of the bolt-heads on this
board are electrically connected and some others are not. The bolt-
heads that are on the path from the point “S” to the “G” are not
electrically connected. You have to find the path between these two
points by touching the bolt-heads with the stylus. When you touch a
bolt-head that is not on the path, a clicking sound is made and an
error is recorded in the counter.

“You have to start tracing of the path in each trail at my “start”

signal. While tracing the path, you must always move to the next bolt-
head either horizontally or vertically. When you find that a particular
bolt-head is not on the path, you must go back to the previous correct
bolt-head and from there move to the next one. You must not go
 diagonally from one bolt-head to another or skip (jump) a bolt-head.
Tracing the path once from the point ‘S’ to ‘G’ constitutes one trail.
The time you take to complete a trail and the errors you commit in it
will be noted. The experiment will continue till you are able to trace
the path without any errors in three successive trials”.

Precautions

1. See that the subject does not trace the bolt-heads diagonally.
2. See that when the subject commits an error, he goes back
only to the previous correct bolt-head.
3. See that the subject does not skip a bolt-head.
Scoring

Note down the amount of time taken and errors committee by the
subject in each trial.

Results

1. Collect from each subject in the group the number of trails

taken to complete the learning, and the time taken and errors
committed in each trail.
2. Draw two learning curves – one for the time taken and another
for the errors committed by your subject in each trail.
3. Find the maximum, minimum, and range of the group results.
Calculate the group average scores.
Discussion

1. What is trail and error learning?

2. What are the errors and time taken by your subject in the first
trail? Is there a gradual reduction in them as the trails
increased?
3. Compare your subject’s scores with that of the group average
scores.
4. Discuss individual differences in the trail and error learning.
Conclusions

1. In your subject, is there a gradual reduction of time and errors

as the trails increased?
2. Are there individual differences among the subjects in their
learning? In which aspect the extent of differences is more?
Trial and Error Learning

Learning which is characterized by a lot of random activity initially,

gradual elimination of incorrect responses and fixation of correct responses
to stimuli is called the trial and error learning.

Table – 1: Time taken and errors committed by the subject….. in

each trail.

Trails Time in Seconds Errors

10

Total

Table – 2: Total number of trails and time taken and errors committed
by the subjects.

Sl. No. Subjects No. of Trails Time in Seconds Errors

5
6

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31
 32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Average

Table 3: Statistical Results

Trials Time in Errors

Seconds

Maximum

Minimum

Range

Average

Discussion:

Conclusion:
Practical No. 7 Date:

ATTITUDES

Reactionism and Radicalism

Problem

To assess attitude towards some selected social issues.

Materials

1. Test booklets of the Reactionism – Radicalism scale by

Rajamanickam.
2. Answer sheets
3. Manual
4. Writing materials
Method

Distribute the test booklets and answer sheets to the subjects and
give them the following instructions:

“This test consists of 60 statements referring to some social issues.

Read each statement and give your response by placing a check (Τ) mark
below on one of the following response categories, viz., strongly agree, agree,
unable to decide, disagree or strongly disagree. Write your responses in the
answer sheet. There is no right or wrong responses. You are requested to
give spontaneous responses. You must respond to all the items. There is no
time limit”.

Precaution

Before collecting the answer sheets, check to ensure that the subjects
had responded to all the items.

Scoring

1. As per the scoring key given in the manual of the test, give a
score ranging from 1 to 5 for each response.
2. Total the scores of all the statements that represent a particular
issue. Thus, derive scores for the following six social issues:
a) Political issue.
b) Economic problem
c) Social, sex and family
d) Race, community and tradition.
e) Progressive education.
 f) Individual freedom.

3. Determine attitude description for each issue and for the total
score with the norms given in the manual.
Results

1. Collect the scores for the six issues, the total score and their
attitude description from each subject in the group.
2. Find the maximum, minimum and range of the group results.
Calculate group average scores.
3. Find distributions of subjects for each attitude category and
social issue.
Discussion

1. What is an attitude?
2. State your scores and describe your attitude towards the issues.
3. State the average scores of the group and discuss.
4. Discuss what the distributions of subjects according to attitude
categories and issues indicate.
5. Discuss individual differences with reference to the range of the
group results.

Conclusions

1. What are the attitudes of the group towards different social

issues?
2. In which issues there are more differences in the attitudes of the
subjects?
NOTES

1. Norms for attitude description:

Total score of an issue Attitude description Total score on
the test

10 - 15 → Reactionism (Re) ← 60 - 90

16 - 25 → Conservation (C) ← 91 - 150

26 - 35 → Neutralism (N) ← 151 - 210

36 - 45 → Liberalism (L) ← 211 - 270

46 - 50 → Radicalism (Ra) ← 271 - 300

 2. What the attitudes refer to:
a) Reactionism: It is opposition to change – social or
political. It also refers to sudden and violent reaction or
feeling for any change in the present set-up.
b) Conservatism: It is opposition to change or innovation. It
is conventional in style. It is characterized by the
preservation of established order in society, i.e. customs,
values etc., and opposed to radical changes.
c) Neutralism: It is not siding with any dispute and
remaining between two sides or parties characterize it. It
is middle position between the two extremes.
d) Liberalism: it is characterized by a change or
reformation in the existing conditions. It refers to liberal
opinions, practices and politics.
e) Radicalism: It is characterized by favoring or tending to
produce extreme or fundamental changes in political,
social, economic and such other areas.

Table1: Individual Scores

Sl. Subjects/ID Scores of Social issues

No. No.

Pol Eco Ssf Rct Pe If Total Attitude

category

10

11
12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37
 38

39

40

41

Table2: No. of subjects fallen under the various Attitude categories

Sl. Attitude categories No. of subjects

No.

1 Reactionism

2 Conservatism

3 Neutralism

4 Liberalism

5 Radicalism

Discussion:

Conclusion:
PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN FUNDAMENTALS OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Exercise – 1

1. What is science? Name branches of science with examples.

2. When did Sociology come into being? Name the words from which it
originated.

3. Why is sociology called a “social science par excellence”? Who is

regarded as its father?

4. What is rural sociology? Where did rural sociology originate?

5. Which commission became the basis for the beginning of rurual

sociology? Who constituted it?

6. Why is M.N. Srinivas called pioneer of Indian rural sociology?

7. List out areas of the study of rural sociology?

8. List out advantages of the study of rural sociology.

Exercise No – 2

1. What is community? Give examples.

2. Name the criteria used to classify community into rural and urban
communities?
3. What do you mean by rural and urban communities? List out differences
between them
4. What do you mean by social problems? Mention social problems of Indian
rural community.
5. Give correct meaning of the following:
a) Social mobility
b) Primary and secondary relationships
c) Social homogeneity and heterogeneity
6. How are rural people conservatives? What is their response to new
technology or innovations?
 Exercise No -3

1. What are social groups? Give examples.

2. Mention characteristics of social groups.
3. Mention factors considered in the formation of social groups.
4. Name different classifications of social groups along with their respective
bases.
5. What do you mean by primary and secondary groups? Give examples.

Exercise No – 4

1. What is social stratification? Mention its bases.

2. What is social status? Give examples.
3. Differentiate between ascribed and achieved statuses with examples.
4. What is social class? Mention its features.
5. Name agrarian class structure in Indian rural community along with its
basis.
6. What is caste? Mention its characteristics.
7. Differentiate between class and caste systems.

Exercise No – 5

1. What is culture? Mention its characteristics.

2. Differentiate between material and non-material cultures.
3. Give correct meaning of the following cultural concepts with examples.
a) Cultural traits
b) Cultural diffusion
c) Cultural lag
d) Cultural universals
e) Cultural change
f) Cultural relativity

Exercise No – 6

1. What are social institutions? Give examples.

2. What is family? List out its functions.
3. Name types of families along with their bases.
4. What do you mean by Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)? Name the three
tiers being adopted in India.
5. When did the PRIs come into being in India? Which committee
recommended for their setting up and which States adopted first?
6. Mention different development functions of PRIs.
7. What are cooperatives? List out their functions.

Exercise No - 7

1. What are social organizations? Give their classifications along with their
bases.
2. Mention important characteristics of social organizations.

Exercise No – 8

1. Give meaning of the following:

a) Social norms

b) Social control

c) Social conformity

d) Social deviance

e) Social sanction

f) Social solidarity

2. List out objectives of social control

3. What do you mean by formal and informal social controls? Give examples
of means of these social controls

Exercise No – 9

1. What are social values? Give examples.

2. Mention their advantages.

Exercise - 10

1. What is social change? Indicate dimensions of social change with

examples.
2. Mention characteristics that help to understand the nature of social
change.
3. List out factors of social change. Explain how agriculture development
has brought about changes in Indian rural society.

Exercise – 11

1. What is leadership? Mention its elements.

2. Explain types of general leadership?

3. Mention types of leaders in Indian villages with examples.

4. Name methods of locating leaders in a community.

5. Explain usefulness of leaders to development agents.