Learning Activity Sheet GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Q4

LESSON 1:PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

A. Plant Reproduction
The propagation of flowering plants by sexual and asexual reproduction forms the basis of agriculture.
Explore more on the reproductive biology of flowering plants in much greater detail because they are the most
important group of plants in most terrestrial ecosystems and in agriculture.
The life cycles of plants are characterized by an alternation of generations, in which the haploid (n) and
diploid (2n) generations take turns producing each other. The sporophyte (diploid plant) produces haploid spores by
meiosis, which then divide by mitosis and giving rise to the gametophytes (the small male and female haploid plants
that produce gametes: sperm and eggs). Fertilization results in diploid zygotes, which divide by mitosis and form new
sporophytes.
FLOWER STRUCTURE
Flowers, the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte, are typically composed of four whorls of
highly modified leaves called floral organs, which are separated by very short internodes. They are called determinate
shoots, meaning that they stop growing after the flower and fruit are formed.
The floral organs – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (pistils) – are attached to a part of the stem called the
receptacle. Stamens and carpels are reproductive organs, whereas sepals and petals are sterile. Sepals, which enclose
and protect the floral bud before it opens, are usually green and
more leaflike in appearance than the other floral organs. In
most cases, petals are more brightly colored than sepals and
attract the flower to insects and other pollinators.
A stamen consists of a stalk called the filament and a
terminal structure called the anther; within the anther are
chambers called pollen sacs, in which pollen is produced.
A carpel/pistil has an ovary at its base and a long,
slender neck called the style. At the top of the style is the
sticky structure called the stigma that serves as a landing
platform for pollen. Within the ovary are one or more ovules,
with the number depending on the species. The term pistil is
sometimes used to refer to a single carpel or to group of fused
carpels.
Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls:
A. Complete - is a plant biology term that is used to describe a flower that is built with four parts which
include the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens.
B. Incomplete - If any of the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens, which are integral in forming a flower, is
missing, a flower is called an incomplete flower.
Types of flowers based on the presence of the reproductive whorls:
A. Perfect/Bisexual – is one in which both male and female reproductive structures are present. Both
androecium (whorl of stamens) and gynoecium (whorl of carpels or pistil) are located on the same flower.
Example: Roses
B. Imperfect/Unisexual - flower that does not have both male and female structures.
b.1. staminate flower (male)
b.2. carpellate/pistillate flower (female)
Examples: squashes, cucumbers, corn, and grasses
GAMETOPHYTE DEVELOPMENT AND POLLINATION
Anthers and ovules bear sporangia, structures where spores are produced by meiosis and gametophytes
develop. Pollen grains, each consisting of a mature male gametophyte surrounded by a spore wall, are formed within
pollen sacs (microsporangia) of anthers. An egg-producing female gametophyte, or embryo sac, forms within each
ovule.
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma. If pollination is successful, a
pollen grain produces a structure called a pollen tube, which grows and digests its way down into the ovary via the
style and discharges sperm in the vicinity of the embryo sac, resulting in fertilization of the egg. The zygote gives rise
to an embryo, and as the embryo grows, the ovule that contains it develops into a seed. The entire ovary, meanwhile,
develops into a fruit containing one or more seeds, depending on the species. Fruits, which disperse by dropping to
the ground or being carried by wind or animals, help spread seeds some distance from their source plants. When light,
soil, and temperature conditions are suitable, seeds germinate and the embryo carried in the seed grows and develops
into a seedling (Campbell & Reece, 2005).
The development of angiosperm gametophytes (pollen grains and embryo sacs)

Fertilization and its products: the seeds and the fruits

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION-After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain absorbs moisture and germinates; that is,
it produces a pollen tube that extends down between the cells of the style toward the ovary.
Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization.
From Ovule to Seed

After double fertilization, each ovule

develops into a seed, and the ovary
develops into a fruit enclosing the
seed(s). As the embryo develops
from the zygote, the seed stockpiles
proteins, oils, and starch to varying
extents, depending on the species.
This is why seeds are such major
sugar sinks. Initially, these nutrients
are stored in the endosperm, but later
in seed development in many species,
thestorage function of the endosperm
is more or less taken over by the
swelling cotyledons of the embryo
(Campbell & Reece).

From Ovary to Fruit

While the seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary of the flower is developing into a fruit, which protects the enclosed seeds
and, when mature, aids in their dispersal by wind or animals. Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that cause the ovary to
begin its transformation into a fruit. If the flower has not been pollinated, fruit usually does not develop, and the entire flower
withers and falls away. During fruit development, the ovary wall becomes the pericarp, the thickened wall of the fruit. As the
ovary grows, the other parts of the flower wither and are shed (Campbell & Reece).
 Asexual Reproduction
Gymnosperms are flowerless plants that produce cones and seeds. The term gymnosperm literally means "naked seed,"
as gymnosperm seeds are not encased within an ovary. Rather, they sit exposed on the surface of leaf-like structures called bracts.
Gymnosperms are vascular plants of the subkingdom Embyophyta and include conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes.
Some of the most recognizable examples of these woody shrubs and trees include pines, spruces, firs, and ginkgoes.
Gymnosperms are abundant in temperate forest and boreal forest biomes with species that can tolerate moist or dry conditions.

Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms do not produce flowers or fruit. They are believed to be the first vascular plants to
inhabit land appearing in the Triassic Period around 245-208 million years ago. The development of a vascular system capable
of transporting water throughout the plant enabled gymnosperm land colonization. Today, there over one thousand species of
gymnosperms belonging to four main divisions: Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, and Gnetophyta.

Gymnosperm Life Cycle

plants alternate between a sexual phase and an

asexual phase. This type of life cycle is known as alternation
of generations. Gamete production occurs in the sexual
phase or gametophyte generation of the cycle. Spores are
produced in the asexual phase or sporophyte generation.
Unlike in non-vascular plants, the dominant phase of the
plant life cycle for vascular plants is the sporophtye
generation.

In gymnosperms, the plant sporophyte is recognized

as the bulk of the plant itself, including roots, leaves, stems,
and cones. The cells of the plant sporophyte are diploid and
contain two complete sets of chromosomes. The sporophyte
is responsible for the production of haploid spores through
the process of meiosis. Containing one complete set of chromosomes, spores develop into haploid gametophytes. The plant
gametophytes produce male and female gametes which unite at pollination to form a new diploid zygote. The zygote matures
into a new diploid sporophyte, thus completing the cycle. Gymnosperms spend most of their life cycle in the sporophyte phase,
and the gametophyte generation is totally dependent upon the sporophyte generation for survival.

Female gametes (megaspores) are produced in

gametophyte structures called archegonia located in
ovulate cones. Male gametes (microspores) are produced
in pollen cones and develop into pollen grains. Some
gymnosperm species have male and female cones on the
same tree, while others have separate male or female cone
producing trees. In order for pollination to take place,
gametes must come into contact with one another. This
typically occurs via wind, animal, or insect transfer.

Fertilization in gymnosperms occurs when pollen

grains contact the female ovule and germinate. Sperm
cells make their way to the egg inside the ovule and
fertilize the egg. In conifer and gnetophytes, sperm cells
have no flagella and must reach the egg via the formation
of a pollen tube. In cycads and ginkgoes, the flagellated
sperm swim toward the egg for fertilization. Upon
fertilization, the resulting zygote develops within the gymnosperm seed and forms a new sporophyte.
 Other types of Asexual reproductin in Plants

B. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal modes: asexual (without sex) and sexual (fusion of gametes)
reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is the creation of new individuals whose genes all come from one parent without the fusion of
egg and sperm.
Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes to form a zygote (fertilized egg),
which is diploid.
The female gamete, the unfertilized egg (also called an ovum), is a relatively large cell and not motile.
The male gamete, the sperm, is generally a much smaller, motile cell.
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variability (one of its advantages over asexual reproduction) among offspring
by generating unique combinations of genes inherited from two parents. Thus, by producing offspring having a variety of
phenotypes, sexual reproduction may enhance the reproductive success of parents when environmntal factors (including
pathogens) change relatively rapidly.
Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages. For instance, it enables animals living in isolation to produce
offspring without locating mates. It can also create numerous offspring in a short amount of time, which is ideal for colonizing
a habitat rapidly. Theoretically, asexua reproduction is most advantageous in stable, favorable environments because it
perpetuates successful genotypes precisely.
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, a singe parent splits, buds, or fragments to give rise to two or more offspring that have
hereditary traits identical with those of the parent.

TYPES OF ASEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

REPRODUCTION
FISSION the separation of a parent into two or more individuals of approximately equal Sea anemone
size.
BUDDING in which new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones; the offspring Cnidarians
may either
FRAGMENTATION the breaking of the body into several pieces, some or all of which develop into Flatworms
complete adults.
REGENERATION the regrowth of lost body parts; usually accompanied with fragmentation. Sea stars
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Each contributes a specialized gamete (an egg or sperm); these fuse to
form the fertilized egg, or zygote.
Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and egg, may take place inside the body (internal fertilization) or outside the body
(external fertilization).

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
The details of the reproductive process vary tremendously from one organism to another, and so some generalizations
were made about animal reproductive systems in order to understand its variations.

Some Reproductive Variations

Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in their methods of reproduction. Even members of the same class
may differ markedly in their reproductive process.
A. Metagenesis – also known as ‘transformation development’, refers to an alternation of asexual and sexual generations.
Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a polyp generation gives rise by budding to a generation of medusas. The motile
medusas produce gametes and reproduce sexually, giving rise to new generation of polyps. Thus, there is alternation of
generations – polyp, medusa, polyp, medusa, and so on. Both generations consist of diploid organisms.
 B. Parthenogenesis – also known as ‘virgin development’, is a form of
reproduction in which an unfertilized egg develops into an adult animal. This
occurs for several generations, after which males develop, produce sperm,
and mate with females to fertilize their eggs. In some species,
parthenogenesis is advantageous in maintaining social order; in others, it
appears to be an adaptation for survival in times of stressor when there is a
serious decrease in population.
Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is inseminated by a male during
the “nuptial flight”. The sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch
connected with her genital tract but closed off by a muscular valve. As the
queen lays eggs, she can either open this valve, permitting the sperm to
escape and fertilize the eggs, or keep the valve closed, so that the eggs
develop without fertilization. Generally, fertilization occurs in the fall, and
the fertilized eggs are quiescent during the winter. The fertilized eggs become
females (queens and workers); the unfertilized eggs become males (drones).

C. Hermaphroditism – means that a single organism produces both

eggs and sperm. Although this form of reproduction is still classified
as sexual, (since both eggs and sperms are involved), it is an exception
to the important generalization that sexual reproduction involves two
different individuals. Example: Earthworm. Most hermaphrodites
do not reproduce by self fertilization. Rather, as in earthworms, two
animals copulate, and each inseminates the other.

Human Reproduction: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

Ovaries - Produce both the egg cell and the sex hormones. Enclosed in a tough protective capsule and contains many follicles.
Egg cell is expelled from the follicle in the process of ovulation.

Oviducts and Uterus – Egg cell is released into the abdominal activity near the opening of the oviduct, or fallopian tube. The
uterus is a thick, muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy to aaccommodate a 4-kg fetus. The inner lining of the
uterus, the endometrium, is richly supplied with blood vessels. The neck of the uterus is the cervix, which opens into the vagina.

Vagina and Vulva – a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm during copulation and that serves as the birth canal
through which a baby is born. Vulva is a collective term for the external female genitalia. Vestibule, labia minora, labia majora,
clitoris, and Bartholin’s glands are all located in this area having their special functions.

Mammary glands – present in both sexes but normally function only in women. They are not part of the reproductive system
but are important to mammalian reproduction. Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk which drains into
a series of ducts opening at the nipple.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

Testes (singular, testis) – consist of many highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules – where sperm form) surrounded
by several layers of connective tissue. The Leydig cells that are scattered between the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone
and other androgens. The production of normal `sperm cannot occur at the normal body temperatures of most mammals, and the
testes of humans and many other mammals are held outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.
Ducts – from seminiferous tubules, the sperm pass into the epididymis. During ejaculation, the sperm are propelled
from the epididymis through the muscular vas deferens. These two ducts (one from each epididymis) run from the scrotum
around and behind the urinary bladder, where each joins a duct from the seminal vesicle, forming a short ejaculatory duct. The
ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra, the tube that drains both the excretory system and reproductive system of male. The
urethra runs through the penis and opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.
Glands – three sets of accessory glands – the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands – add secretions
to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.
Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract – males usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of semen, and each milliliter may contain
50-130 million of sperm. Prostaglandins in the semen cause thinning of the mucus at the opening of the uterus and stimulate
contractions of the uterine muscles, which help semen move up to the uterus.
Penis – is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from modified veins and capillaries. During
sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries. As this tissue fills, the increasing pressure seals off the veins
that drain the penis, causing it to engorge with blood. The resulting erection is essential to insertion of the penis into the vagina.

HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

2 TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS
1. VASOCONGESTION – the filling of a tissue with blood caused by increased blood flow through the arteries of that tissue.
2. MYOTONIA – increased muscle tension of both skeletal and smooth muscles.

4 PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

1. EXCITEMENT PHASE – preparation of penis and vagina for coitus (sexual intercourse). During this phase, vasocongestion
is particularly evident in erection of the penis and clitoris; enlargement of the testes, labia, and breasts; and vaginal lubrication.
Myotonia may occur, resulting in nipple erection or tension of the arms and legs.

2. PLATEAU PHASE – responses in excitement phase continue. In females, the outer third of the vagina becomes
vasocongested, while the inner two-thirds slightly expands. This change, coupled with the elevation of the uterus, forms a
depression that receives sperm at the back of the vagina. Breathing increases and heart rate rises, sometimes to 150 beats per
minute – not in response to the physical effort of sexual activity, but as an involuntary response to stimulation of the autonomic
nervous system.

3. ORGASM PHASE – is characterized by rhythmic, involuntary contractions of the reproductive structures in both sexes. Male
orgasm has two stages. Emission is the contraction of the glands and ducts of the reproductive tract, which forces semen into the
urethra. Expulsion or ejaculation, occurs when the urethra contracts and the semen is expelled. During female orgasm, the uterus
and outer vagina contract, but the inner two-thirds of the vagina do not. Orgasm is the shortest response of the sexual response
cycle, usually lasting only a few seconds.

4. RESOLUTION PHASE – completes the cycle and reverses the responses of the earlier stages.
 Contraception and its types

ACTIVITY #1:In a 1 long bond paper, complete the table by comparing the asexual and sexual reproduction in plants
and animals.

TYPE PLANTS ANIMAL

ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

ACTIVITY #2:In a 1 long bond paper, omplete the table by listing the advantages and disadvantages of
asexual and sexual reproduction in plants and animals.
TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION