M.

A HISTORY
SEMESTER-IV

MHYS-42

HISTORY OF TAMILNADU
SINCE 1565 A.D.

SCHOOL OF HISTORY AND TOURISM STUDIES

TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY
No.577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai – 600015

September 2022
Name of Programme: M.A. History
(2nd Year – IV Semester)

Name of the Course Code MHYS- 42- History of Tamilnadu

with Title: Since 1565 A.D.

Curriculum Design / Content Dr. N. Dhanalakshmi

Editor / Course Coordinator :
Professor & Director
School of History and Tourism Studies
Tamil Nadu Open University

Course Writer Dr. N. Dhanalakshmi

Professor & Director
School of History and Tourism Studies
Tamil Nadu Open University

Translator:
September 2022 (First Edition)

Reprint (Year)

ISBN No: 978-93-5706-286-2

© Tamil Nadu Open University, 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by
mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Tamil
Nadu Open University. Course Writer is the sole responsible person for the
contents presented/available in the Course Materials.

Further information on the Tamil Nadu Open University Academic

Programmes may be obtained from the University Office at 577, Anna Salai,
Saidapet, Chennai-600 015 [or] www.tnou.ac.in

Printed by: (Name and Address of the Press)

07.10.2022
 M.A. History
Semester – IV
MHYS - 42
HISTORY OF TAMILNADU SINCE 1565 A.D.
SYLLABUS

BLOCK I
Vijayanagar and Political History - Impact of Vijayanagar Rule on Society, Administration,
Religion – Age of the Nayaks – Madurai, Tanjore and Gingi – Administration – Ramnad
Sethupathis and Pudukkottai Tondaimans - Europeans in the Eighteenth Century Tamilagam

BLOCK II
Poligar Rebellions – The Anglo - French War – Vellore Mutiny

BLOCK III
Political condition of Tamil Nadu in the 19th and 20th Centuries – Contribution of Christian
Missionaries to Tamil Society and Culture - Freedom Movement in Tamil Nadu.

BLOCK IV
Socio, Economic, Religious and Cultural Condition of Tamil Nadu between the 18th and 20th
Centuries - Self Respect Movement

BLOCK V
Congress Ministry - D.M.K. & A.I.A.D.M.K. – Developmental Schemes – Social, Economic and
Educational developments
 Scheme of Lessons

BLOCK I
Unit 1 Vijayanagar and Political History 2-7
Unit 2 Impact of Vijayanagar rule on Administration, Society and
Religion 8 - 20
Unit 3 Age of the Nayaks 21 - 37
Unit 4 Ramnad Sethupathis and Pudukkottai Tondaimans 38 - 51
Unit 5 Europeans in the Eighteenth Century Tamilagam 52 - 65

BLOCK II
Unit 6 Poligars Rebellion 67 - 74
Unit 7 The Anglo-French War 75 - 82
Unit 8 Vellore Mutiny 83 - 86

BLOCK III
Unit 9 Political condition of Tamil Nadu in the 19th and
20th Centuries 88 - 97
Unit 10 Contribution of Christian Missionaries of Tamil Society
and Culture 98 - 109
Unit 11 Freedom Movement in Tamil Nadu 110 - 129

BLOCK IV
Unit 12 Socio-economic, Religious and cultural conditions of
Tamil Nadu between the 18th and 20th centuries 131 - 192
Unit 13 Self-Respect Movement 193 - 196

BLOCK V

Unit 14 Congress Ministry 198 - 202

Unit 15 D.M.K. & A.I.A.D.M.K. 203 - 211

Unit 16 Social Economic and Educational Developments

in Tamilnadu 212 - 244

Plagiarism Report 245

 BLOCK I

Unit 1 Vijayanagar and Political History

Unit 2 Impact of Vijayanagar rule on Administration, Society

and Religion

Unit 3 Age of the Nayaks

Unit 4 Ramnad Sethupathis and Pudukkottai Tondaimans

Unit 5 Europeans in the Eighteenth Century Tamilagam

1
Unit 1

VIJAYANAGAR AND POLITICAL HISTORY

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Vijayanagar Rule in the Tamil Country

1.2.1 The Vijayanagar Empire

1.2.2 Conditions of the Tamil country

1.2.3 Conquest in the Tamil country

1.2.4 Krishnadevaraya

Let us sum up

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

The Later Pandya rule ended in Muslim invasions and confusion. The
Sultanate of Madurai lasted for about 50 years and the Pandyas moved
further down South. The Vijayanagar forces defeated the chieftains in
the northern part of the Tamil country and established the Vijayanagar
rule and ruled for more than four centuries. The Vijayanagar rulers
contributed much to a composite cultural developments of the Tamil
country.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to

 sketch the Vijayanagar conquest of the Tamil country

2
  explain the decline of the Vijayanagar kingdom and its results

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit the confused political situation prior to the establishment of

the Vijayanagar empire is outlined. Kumara Kamapan’s conquest of the
Tamil country and the subjugation of the Sambhuvarayas and other
chieftains are narrated. The political history of the Tamil country under
the Vijayanagar rulers is given. The emergence and the political
conditions of the Nayaka kingdoms of Madurai, Thanjavur and Gingee
(Chenji) are narrated.

1.2 THE VIJAYANAGAR RULE IN THE TAMIL COUNTRY

In subsections 13.2.1 to 13.2.4 we will touch upon the topics like the
Vijayanagar Empire, Condition of Tamil country, Conquests in the Tamil
Country and Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 A.D.).

1.2.1 The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1680 A.D.)

The history of Vijayanagar was a glorious chapter in the history of South

India. The Sangama brothers, Harihara and Bukka laid the foundation of
the empire on 16th April 1336, with the advise of sage Vidyaranya of
Sringeri. The 350 years rule of Vijayanagar was segmented by the four
dynasties as follows: Sangama (A.D. 1336-1490), Saluva (A.D. 1490-
1505), Tuluva (A.D. 1505-1570) and Aravidu (A.D. 1570-1680). The
battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) in 1565, brought an end to the
Vijayanagar empire and the Nayaka rulers took over the Tamil country.
However the Vijayanagar rule in the Deccan continued from their new
capital at Chandragiri and finally they were removed in the 17th century.

1.2.2 Conditions of Tamil Country

After the invasion of Malik Kafur, the Pandya country was raided twice
by the Tughlaks. In the second raid (1323 A.D.) the Pandya country was
brought under the control of the Tughlaks. Between 1323 A.D. and 1334
A.D. Madurai was a province of the Tughlaks of Delhi. In 1335, the
Sultanate rule in Madurai was installed by Jalal ud din. His successors
ruled Madurai for another 38 years. The Pandyas, were then divided
into small kingdoms and ruled the southern Tamil country. They
continued to rule from Tiruchirappalli, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli, Thanjavur
and Tenkasi as petty rulers, till the end of the 14th century. The regions

3
north of Kaveri were controlled by several chieftains. The Sambuvaryas,
who occupied the region around Padaividu, became dominant within a
short period of time. The Telugu Chodas and Kadavarayas occupied
certain regions in the northern Tondaimandalam and ruled
independently often encroaching ubon the others territories. The
absence of a paramount power in the Tamil country was well utilised by
the Vijayanagar power.

1.2.3 Conquests in the Tamil Country

During the Sangama rule, Harihara and Bukka added the Hoysala
territories to Vijayanagar and further strengthened their position. The
first invasion of the Vijayanagar took place under Bukka I and Qurbat
Hasan Kangu, the Sultan of Madurai was defeated, but no occupation
took place after this victory. In the mean time Kumara Kampana, the
second son of Bukka I was made Mahamandalesvara of Mulbagal
province. He started his southern campaign in about 1360 A.D. He
entered Tondaimandalam and defeated Rajanarayana Sambuvaraya at
Virinchipuram in A.D. 1363. In his southern campaign, Kumara
Kampana was assisted by his general Gandaraguli Maraya Nayakar. In
A.D. 1370 Kumara Kampana moved from Gingee and defeated the
Sultan of Madurai at Kannanur Koppam (Samayapuram near
Srirangam). Then he marched to Madurai and finally the Sultan,
Mubarak Shah was killed.

Gangadevi, the wife of Kumara Kampana has preserved these accounts

in her Sanskrit work Madhuravijayam. He brought under his control the
Tamil country upto Rameswaram. He restored worship in the temples at
Chidambaram, Thiruvannamalai, Kannanur Koppam, Srirangam and
Madurai. He was successful in establishing Vijayanagar rule in the
Tamil country and saved the country from the misrule of the Sultans of
Madurai. He combined in himself all the qualities that went to make up
an ideal Mahamandalesvara. His viceroyalty may be regarded as the
brightest chapter in the history of Vijayanagar rule in the Tamil country.
Bukka II, gave a final blow to the Sultanate of Madurai in A.D. 1378 by
removing Alauddin Sikandar Shah, the last Sultan of Madurai.

During the rule of Harihara II (A.D. 1377-1404) parts of the Tamil country
revolted against the Vijayanagar rule. His son, Virupanna Udayar
(Virupaksha), the Mahamandalesvara of the Tamil country suppressed
those revolts and brought them under his authority. The Tenkasi region
and the Tiruvadi kingdom of Venadu were captured. During the rule of

4
Devaraya II (1425-1447) the regions upto Tenkasi were under the
control of Vijayanagar kings. During his rule Ilakkana Dandanayaga, the
Mahapradhani of the Madurai region conquered Sri Lanka.

When Mallikarjunadeva, ascended the Vijayanagar throne, Hambar

(Hamvira) from Gajapati kingdom invaded Tamil country in 1463 A.D.,
and occupied Kanchipuram and Tiruchirappalli. This is supposed to be
a raid and no permanent results followed. Tirumalaideva Maharaya was
in possession of Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur and Pudukkottai regions.
During Virupaksha - II’s rule (1465-85), his avmed forces under Saluva
Narasimha, invaded the Gajapati kingdom in 1470 A.D. and took their
fort Udayagiri. He then suppressed the rebellions in the Tamil country.
During his rule, Saluva Narasihma, the Mahamandalesvara of the
Chandragiri Rajya became dominant. He conquered the territories of
Tiruvannamalai, Gingee, Bhuvanagiri, Kumbakonam, Srirangam,
Madurai and Rameswaram. The Bana ruler of Pudukottai,
Samarakolakala accepted the Vijayanagar authority. During this period,
the Tamil country was involved in a surprise attack from the Gajapathi
king of Orissa, but were defeated. Later, Saluva Narasimha established
the Saluva dynasty in A.D. 1490. During the Immadi Narasimha’s rule,
Narasa Nayaka retained all the power in his hands as regent. About
1496 Narasa Nayaka went to the South and suppressed the chieftains
like Konetiraja, the Governor of Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur. He also
subjugated the country upto Kanyakumari.

1.2.4 Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 A.D.)

The Saluva kingdom had a short rule upto 1505 and Vira Narasimha
(Immadi Narasa Nayaka) initiated the Tuluva dynasty. He was
succeeded by his illustrious half-brother, Krishnadevaraya in 1509 A.D.
(1509-29). The most important ruler of the Tuluva dynasty was
Krishnadevaraya. After his successful attacks on the Bahminis he
raided the Raichur Doab. Then he suppressed the Ummattur Chiefs.
The revolt of the Kadavas in the northern Tondaimandalam was
subdued. Tondimandalam was brought under his control. Tributes were
received from Gingee, Tiruchirappalli and Maduari.

In the Tamil country he created the Nayakships of Madurai and Gingee.

Nagama Nayaka was sent to suppress the rebellion at Madurai. After
suppressing the rebellion Nagama Nayaka ruled the country like an
independent king. Therefore to suppress Nagama Nayaka’s powers, his
son, Visvanatha Nayaka was sent. After defeating his father,

5
Visvanatha was made as the Nayaka of Madurai in 1529 A.D.
Visvanatha nayaka is regarded as the founder of the Madurai Nayaka
kingdom in the Tamil country. In 1513 A.D. he made a visit to
Rameswaram temple and gave munificent gifts. Thanjavur and
Tiruchirappalli were under Visvanatha Nayaka’s rule. Tiravancore
region also came under the authority of Madurai Nayaka.

Krishnadevaraya nominated his half-brother, Achyutadevaraya, (A.D.

1529-1542) as his successor. The son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya, Aliya
Ramaraya, opposed him. However Achyuta came into terms with
Ramaraya. Greatly displeased with this agreement, Chellappa (Saluva
Vira Narasimha) revolted with the Tumbichchi Nayaka (Paramakkudi).
He was joined in his campaign by Udayamarthanda Varma, the Tiruvadi
king of South Travancore. He removed the Tenkasi Pandya, Sadaikka
Varman Srivallabha. To suppress the revolts, Achyuta marched with an
army under the command of Salakaraja Chinna Tirumalai. Salakaraja
defeated the rebels at Tamaraparani. The kingdom was restored to the
Pandya ruler sometime in A.D. 1532. As a mark of gratitude, the
Pandya ruler gave his daughter in marriage to Achutadevaraya. A pillar
of victory was set up at Tamaraparani. In the same year Achyutaraya
created the Thanjavur Nayakship and installed Sevappa Nayaka as the
Nayaka of Thanjavur.

When Sadasiva (1542-1568) ascended the Vijayanagar throne, there

arose some confusion. The rulers of Chandragiri, Bhuvanagiri, and
Pudukkottai, protested. Vira Unni Keralavarman, the ruler of Travancore
captured some territories of the Pandya kingdom. He was helped by
Vetum Perumal, the ruler of Kayattaru. Aliya Ramayana the defacto
ruler during the reign of Sadasivaraya, sent Chinna Tirumalai and
Vittalaraya to march against the rebels in 1544 A.D. His army went to
Tiruchirappalli, Tiruvarur and the Travancore kingdom. Chinna Tirumalai
conquered the rebles and set up a pillar of victory at Kanyakumari and
returned to the capital. Vitthala was made in charge of the conquered
territory. During his rule the Roman Catholic Missionaries were busy in
converting the Paratava fishermen to Christianity. In A.D. 1558 Aliya
Ramaraya crushed the power of the Roman Catholics.

During the rule of Ramaraya the battle of Talikota (Rakshasi Tangadi)

was fought between the Bahminis and Vijayanagar. In the battle, that
took place in January 23, 1565, the Vijayanagar forces were defeated
and the Vijayanagar empire was eclipsed. Later they established their
capital at Penugonda. The Tamil country seems to be the important

6
territory of the Vijayanagar kingdom for the next 100 years. Even after
the defeat in the battle of the Talikota, the Nayaka kingdoms of Madurai,
Gingee, and Thanjavur were loyal to the Vijayanagar. However in the
course of time the weakness of the Central Government of the
Vijayanagar helped the ascendency of the regional Nayaka kingdoms.
The Nayakas were finally overthrown by the Nawabs of Arcot in the 18th
century.

Let us sum up

In this unit you have been told some important features of the
Vijayanagar empire. Their rule in the Tamil country started with the
invasion and occupation of Kumara Kampana. Some of the important
features of their conquests were narrated.

Check your progress

1. Trace the political history of the Vijayanagar empire in the Tamil

country.

Glossary

Pradhani : The Chief Officer (Minister) of the Nayak Kingdom.

Dalavay : The Commander of forces of the Nayak Kingdom.

Paratava : The fishing community of the coastal Tamil country.

Penugonda : The Capital of the Vijayanagar (Aravidu dynsaty) after

the Talikota war.

Answers to check your progress

1. Refer section: 1.3

7
Unit 2

IMPACT OF VIJAYANAGAR RULE ON ADMINISTRATION

SOCIETY AND RELIGION

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Impact of Vijayanagar Rule on Administration

2.3 Society

2.4 Religious conditions

Summary

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

The impact of Vijayanagar rule on administration, society and religious

conditions have been dealt with in detail in this unit.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

 describe the administrative system of the Vijayanagar rulers in

Tamil Nadu.

 explain the social conditions of Tamil Nadu under the

Vijayanagar rule

 state the religious conditions of Tamil Nadu under the

Vijayanagar rule.

8
2.1 INTRODUCTION

The advent of the Vijayanagar in the third quarter of the 14th century
introduced a new style of government and administration. Among others,
the avowed objective of Vijayanagar was to destroy the Madurai
Sultanate. After this was achieved the Vijayanagar rulers took charge of
the administration of the conquered territories in the south while Kumara
Kampana himself was their Viceroy. During the region of Harihara II the
hold was tightened and the need to make Tamil Nadu a military colony
was understood.

2.2 IMPACT OF VIJAYANAGAR RULE ON ADMINISTRATION

Administration

During the entire Sangama period (A.D.1377-1485) and during the

Saluva Period (A.D.1485-1505) and before Krishnadevaraya (A.D.1505-
1520) started introducing the Nayakships the Tamil country was ruled as
a military out post. The military elements dominated at the top replacing
the older local institutions; But the appointment of numerous Nayaks
transformed the whole character of the administration.

The Nayaks were the agents of the empire. They were empowered to
maintain law and order in the conquered territories to collect revenues
and generally make such arrangements as would be necessary to
consolidate the conquest effected by Kampana. They were not the
representatives of the Tamiliam population but agents of Telugu
speaking government beyond the cultural borders of Tamil Nadu.

They could have no interest in Tamil Nadu. A semi-feudal system came

into existence. The rural administration came under the power and
purview of the Nayaks. The Vijayanagar undoubtedly was more
interested in controlling the administration here than in preserving the
ancient-native local institutions in Tamil Nadu. As a result two tiers of
local government arose. They are: I) Palayams, ii) Ayagar system.

Palayams: This was perhaps invented for the first time by

Viswanatha Nayaks. It became the usual feature in the southern
districts from his time onwards. During this period 72 Palayams were
created. The Palayam served a military purpose in those days.

9
Ayagar System : In the place of the traditional form of the village
administration, the Vijayanagar rulers introduced the Ayagar System.
Under this system the village administration was entrusted with a
committee of twelve members popularly known as Ayagars. They were
Headman, Talayari, Karnam, Purohita, Neerguntee, Jotidar,
Goldsmith, Blacksmith, Carpenter, Kuyavar, Vannan and Navithan.
Among them the first three were very powerful and the king nominated
them. The headman collected tax from the people and remitted to the
government. He was also the village judge and magistrate. Karnam
was in-charge of land revenue accounts and (Karnam) maintained a
land register containing the categories of land. Water sources especially
for irrigation-tax assessed the area of land under cultivation etc. The
Nayaks divided their lands into Palayams and assigned them to the
subordinate chieftains known as Palayakkarans or poligars. This
practice led to the growth of another type of land-based political order
known as poligari system.

Divisions

The rulers of Vijayanagar divided the Tamil territories into 5 Rajyams.

They were Chandragiri Rajyam, Padaividu Rajyam, Tiruvedigai
Rajyam, Chola Rajyam, and Pandya Rajyam. The Pandyas of Tenkasi
and rulers of Travancore paid tribute and enjoyed quasi-independent
powers.

The Rajyam were sub-divided into Valanadus which were again divided
into nadus. The nadus were the same as the Kottams or the
Kurrams. These latter were groups or bunches of 50 villages which
constituted a unit of rural administration called Aimpadirmelagaram.

The Rajyams were governed by Mahamandalesvars. They were chosen

mostly among the members of the royal family. These high officials the
Mahapradhan and the Dandanayaka were civil and militant officers
respectively.

There were of course a host of officials like accountants,

correspondents, personal servants etc. The powers of the provincial
officers varied according to their status in the royal family.

Princes like Kumara Kampana and Virupana naturally enjoyed the

utmost power and the other officials enjoyed less. They could mint their
own coins and impose additional taxes if necessary. They were quasi-

10
feudal who held the fiefs directly from the Emperor who according to
theory the owner of the entire land of the empire. The persons entrusted
with the fraction of the lands which were called amarams and holders
were Amarnayaks. So the Mahapradhan, the Amaranayaks, the
Dananayakas, and the Ayagar system of village administration
constituted the imperial civil and military administrative structure devised
for Tamil Nadu in the Vijayanagar days. Major Nayakships : From
the days of Krishnadevaraya, three major Nayakships were created in
Gingee, Tanjore and Madurai and the Nayaks had the political-military
powers of the Mahamandalesvar.

The Army : The Vijayanagar king had his own standing army. There
was a separate department for military affairs called Kandachara.
Under Dhandanayaka several officers performed the duties. The cavalry
and elephantry were very efficient under them.

2.3 SOCIETY

For want of sufficient sources it is not easier than expected to present a

comprehensive account about the social and economic life and the
religions conditions in Tamil Nadu during the Vijayanagar days down to
the battle of Talikota, because in the first place after Marco-Polo till
1565 A.D. there was no foreign traveler except Ibn Batuta who knew
Tamil Nadu personally and described it. The Vijayanagar empire was
established as a political necessity against the Muslim onslaught and
aggressions. They safeguarded the Varnasirama Dharma of Hinduism.
Hindu caste system was safeguarded and well preserved during this
period.

Divisions in the Society

There were many divisions based on different castes and communities

in the society during this period. They were: (i)Brahmins, (ii)Vellalas,
(iii)Chettiyars, (iv)Kaikolas, (v)Maravas, (vi)Panchalas, (vii)Valangai and
Idangai groups. (viii)Muslims, (ix)Christians and (x)Other Castes

(i)Brahmins: During the Vijayanagar period a large number of Telugu

Brahmins settled in Tamil Nadu. The Brahmins enjoyed high status,
because they were high caste people in the society. They participated in
all the activities of the society. They were well versed in the Vedas,
Vedagamas and Suritis and Smirits. They became priests in temples.
They were given high posts in the Government offices; some were

11
landlords in those days; some others engaged in various trades; some
served as military officers during this period. According to a Portuguese
merchant the Brahmins were very brilliant in arts and letters.

The Brahmins wore the holy thread across the body. They also wore
sacred ash (Tiruneer) on their forehead. They grew long hair and used
ear-ring. Some worshipped Tirumal and they were called Sri
Vaishnavas. Some Brahmins worshipped both Siva and Tirumal and
they were called Madhvas. There were two divisions in the Sri
Vaishnava sect. They were: Vadakalai, and Thenkalai. In spite of these
divisions they all worshipped their respective Gods faithfully. They were
vegetarians. The Brahmins were engaged both in agriculture and
industry in those days. Krishnadevaraya exempted the Brahmins from
punishments even if they committed grave crimes during this period.

(ii)Vellalas : The Vellalas occupied a good position in the

society next to that of the Brahmins. They were found in large numbers
in the following districts: Coimbatore, Salem, North Arcot, and
Tirunelveli. There were many divisions in the Vellala community. They
were: Karkatha Vellala, Solia Vellala, Kodikkal Vellala, Kottai Vellala,
Pandava Vellala and Sainthalai Vellala. The Vellalas did not take wine
and meat in those days. Most of them were pure vegetarians. Widow
remarriage was not allowed in this community.

(iii)Chetty: The Primary occupation of the Chettis or Komattis was

business during this period. They showed keen interest in trade and
commerce.

(iv)Kaikolas: Weaving was the main occupation of the Kaikolas during

the Vijayanagar period. The Kaikolas had the title of “Mudaliyars” in
those days. The Government collected taxes for their looms (Taris)
during this period. The Kaikolas had separate streets in
Kancheepuram, Virinjipuram and Tiruvannamalai. The Kaikolas lived in
Ratha (Car) Streets in Tiruvannamalai. The Sourastras too engaged in
weaving in Tamil Nadu. They led a comfortable life.

(v)Maravas : The Maravas and Kallars were attached to

agriculture and economically were not sound. They lived mostly in
Ramnad district. Most of the people were converted to Christianity by
the Europeans later.

12
(vi)Panchalas : The goldsmiths, blacksmiths, sculptures, utensil makers
and carpenters were the five major craftsmen (Panchalas) in the society.
They wore the holy thread across the body like the Brahmins. There
was mutual co-operation and co-ordination among them. Among them
some were vegetarians; some others were non-vegetarians. They
enjoyed more privileges at Tadaividu, Gingee, Tiruvannamalai,
Kancheepuram etc. It is mentioned in the accounts of the foreigners.

(vii)Valangai and Idangai Groups: The Valangai and Idangai

groups were those who were non-Brahmins and were of low economic
status involved agricultural operations, trade and artisan jobs.They rose
in rebellion against the new land measurement introduced in the
Vijayanagar rule in the 14th Century. In addition they often quarreled
within themselves on many occasions. Further these groups also
undertook some temple services jointly. A great change took place only
after the coming of the Telugu speaking people. The interaction with the
immigrants smoothened their rebelliois character.

(viii)Muslims: After the invasion of Malik Kafur, the Muslims came to

Tamil Nadu and settled there permanently. Many local people were
converted to Islam. The Muslims began to follow Tamil culture and
civilization.

(ix)Christians: The legends connected with the martyrdom of St.

Thomas assign the earliest Christian contact with Tamizhagam to the
first centry A.D. Many Europeans came and settled in the territories of
Tamizhagam during the Vijayanagar rule. Some of them embraced our
culture and civilisation. Some of the hapless Tamils converted to
Christianity during the period.

(x) Other Castes: Nadars were Tamil speaking people engaged in

agriculture and commerce. They were also called as ‘Sanars’ in those
days. The Parayas, Pallas and Chakkiliyas were considered as low
caste and lived in separate areas referred to as cheris. The people from
the higher castes dominated them. Tottis were engaged in village
works during the Vijayanagar period. The Srivilliputhur inscription of the
17th century refers to the revolt of the Parayas. It gives a clear picture
of the struggle between Devendra Kudumbas and Parayas. As a result
of the struggle some privileges were given to Parayas. Generally they
were non-vegetarians. They consumed liquor. Widow remarriage was
permitted among those four castes (Parayas, Pallas, Chakkiliyars and
Tottis).

13
Kuravas lived during this period. They were nomadic people.
Uppukuravas were engaged in salt business. Other Kuravas were
engaged in basket making and mat weaving. Dombas (acrobats) also
lived during the Vijayanagar period. Besides there were Odders and
Irulas among the nomadic people.

Position of Women: Women were the ornament of the society. They

maintained their respectable position. But they were under the control of
their husbands. They were true house- wives and were engaged in
household duties. Music and dance were taught to elite women from
their childhood. It was a male dominated society. Certain restrictions
were imposed on them. Really their condition was pitiable.

Marriage : Marriage was considered a sacred ceremony in the society.

Love marriages were not encouraged in those days. Child marriage was
very common. It was largely practiced by the Brahmins. Kanyadhanam
was adopted all over Tamil Nadu. Monogamy existed during this period.
It is mentioned by Edward Terry in his account. But the rich and the
higher caste people practiced polygamy. Particularly it was common
among the Kaikolas, Pallas and Parayas. There was no question of
divorce among the higher caste people. Divorce was prevalent among
the low caste people. The marriage expenses were borne by the
bridegroom. The marriage ceremony was conducted for five days i.e., it
lasted for five days in the Brahmin community. Wearing of Thali was in
practice among the people. Many ceremonies and rituals were
performed during marriage.

Widows : The condition of the widows was really pitiable. They were
forbidden to wear ornaments and flowers. They were permitted to wear
only white sarees. In general widow remarriage was not looked upon
with favour. It is obviously mentioned by the foreigners in their accounts.

Sati: Sati was practiced by some women during this period. During
the Vijayanagar rule it was very common. It is mentioned by the
foreigners like Barbosa and Nuniz in their accounts. It continued even in
the 17th century A.D. But Sati was not practised by the Brahmins. .

Devaradiyars: Devaradiyars meaning the servants of Gods &

Goddesses were engaged for the services of temples. Their status and
position were changed during the Vijayanagar period. Gradually they
were induced for prostitution. Gangadevi in her famous Maduravijayam
refers to her husband’s passion for devaradiyars. Prostitution was a

14
recognized institution later on in the land. Devaradiyars performed
dances during festivals. Taxes were collected from the prostitutes.
Rich awards were given to the prostitutes by the Kings.

Dress : Men wore two pieces of dresses i.e., upper and lower garments.
They also wore turban on their heads. Women wore two pieces of
dresses ie. Upper and lower garments which covered the entire body.
Rich ladies wore colourful dresses. They also wore golden belts. They
beautified their hair in various styles. They applied oil and combed their
hair daily.

Ornaments : Womenfolk of this period used various types of

ornaments such as necklaces, studs, ear-rings, rings, bangles etc. They
used gold and silver ornaments. They also used precious stones for
jewels. It is said that the ladies wore nose-studs during this period.
‘Arambidi’ was used by female children.

Cosmetics : The womenfolk were fond of cosmetics. They used

beautiful sweet smelling flowers, sandal, akil, saffron, musk etc., Both
men and women applied kumkum on their forehead. Men used to apply
Tiruneer (sacred ash) and namam on their forehead. They also used
betel leaves.

Food : Brahmins gave special care to their diet. Nuniz states that the
Brahmins, Vaisyas and Jains were strict vegetarians. They had great
aversion for fish, meat and egg. They even avoided garlic and onion in
their day to day diet. They added rice, milk, butter, sugar, dhal and
honey to their food. Coconut was used in abundance. The other
communities took non-vegetarian food, goat, deer pork, rabbit, cat,
chicken, etc., were consumed by them. By and large, a large number of
non-Brahmins and depressed classes took to non-vegetarian food. But
vegetarians were kept in high esteem in society.

Entertainments: The people of the Vijayanagar period spent their

leisure time in entertainment. They indulged in playing chess i.e.,
Chadurangam. Cock-fighting was another interesting entertainment of
the people. Tavernier refers to the fighting of the monkeys in his
account. John Frier refers to some of the entertainment undertaken by
the ladies during this period. The English people spent their time in the
Fort St. George by witnessing duels (fighting with swords). Besides
many entertainments are mentioned by foreigners who visited the
country during the Vijayanagar rule.

15
Judicial System : The King was the fountain of justice. He was the
highest court of appeal. The highest court of justice was situated in the
capital. Pradhani was the Chief Justice. In rural areas many small
courts were set up. Generally the judgement was based on
Dharmasastras. Even for small crimes like theft severe punishment
was given in those days. Trial by ordeal was undertaken. Punishments
like torture, impaling, trampling by the elephants and confiscation of
property were given for other crimes varying in accordance with the
gravity of the crime. The judicial system was seemed to have been
perfect because the King had personal touch with the lower courts.

2.4 RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

Political instability and frequent Muslim invasion warranted the

emergence of the Vijayanagar Empire to restore and revive the Hindu
social order and Hindu way of life in the South.

Kumara Kampana, the son of Bukka I liberated the Tamil country in

particular and the South in general from the clutches of the Sultans of
Madurai. He rebuilt the decayed temples and revived the worship in the
uncared for temples.

He and his followers took pride in making liberal endowments to the

various temples throughout the country. There are so many inscriptions
that speak of endowments being given to the temples. The idol of Lord
Ranganatha was again reconsecrated in the temple at Srirangam by
Gopanna, a general of Kumara Kampana. Madurai Talavaralaru
mentions Kumara Kampana’s revival of worship at Madurai.

Political stability gave rise to a new awakening and enthusiasm among

the people. They enjoyed their religious freedom and the Kings and
officers of Vijayanagar empire gave equal encouragement and
endowments to the different sects of religion.

Hinduism–Saivism: The Saivites constituted a large majority among

the Hindu religious communities in the Vijayanagar Empire. The
Saivites were classified into three smaller groups, namely Advaidins,
Pasupatas and Vira Saivas. The Vijayanagar rulers, from the
Sangama brothers upto the commencement of Virupaksha’s rule
followed Pasupata Saivism and patronized Advaitham.

16
The Advaidins were the followers of the philosophy of Sri Sankara who
advocated the theory of non-dualism. Sri Sankara established two
monasteries: One at Sringeri and the other at Kanchi. In 1546, the
Sangama brothers of Vijayanagar made grants to the monasteries.

The Pasupatas paid greater attention to the Saiva Agamas and the
famous saint of the sect of Saivism was Kaivilas Kriyasakti. Harihara I
and Bukka I were the disciples of Kriyasakti. Under this sect, Lord
Virupaksha was the deity of the royal family.

The Vira Saivas constituted the influential religious sect in the

Vijayanagar Empire. It was made popular by Basava, a minister. The
Virasaivas were the staunch Saivas and they carried Lingam always with
them. They rejected the authority of the Vedas; the doctrine of rebirth,
objected to child marriage, approved the marriage of widows and
cherished an intense aversion to Brahmins.

Vaishnavism : The Vijayanagar was very favourable for the spread of

Vaishnavism in South India. Since the day of Ramanuja, the great
Vaishnava philosopher and teacher, the Vaishnavites creed was gaining
a large number of followers. After the death of Ramanuja, the
Vaishnavites became divided into two camps, ‘Vadagalai’ and
‘Thengalai’. Regarding their differences, the first point of issue was
whether Sanskrit or Tamil was to be the medium of worship. Whether
the sanskrit Vedas or the Tamil Prabhandas were to be read for the
attainment of salvation. While the ‘Vadagalai’ Vaishnavas preferred the
Sanskrit Vedas to the Tamil Prabhandas, the ‘Thengalai’ Vaishnavas
preferred the Tamil Prabhandas to the Sanskrit literature. Regarding the
doctrine of salvation, the ‘Vadagalai’ school held that self effort was
necessary for the salvation and the ‘Thengalai’ school held that self
effort was not necessary as the grace of God was spontaneous and
overflowing. The ‘Vadagalai’ school held that Goddess Lakshmi could
not be considered as one different from God, for she lived in and through
him. But the ‘Thengalai’s’ school assigned her a lower position. The
Vadagalai believed in the caste system. But the ‘Thengalai’ held that a
man of lower order was equal to Brahman if he was true devotee of God.
Vedanta Desika, who flourished in the Tamil country in the 14th century,
wanted to restore the doctrines of Ramanuja and stood as a great
apostle of conservative Orthodoxy. He had the followers of ‘Vadagalai’
sect. The other party which fought against the conservative orthodoxy
was led by Manavala Mamunigal. By his effort, the ‘Thengalai’ school
was able to command an equal number of followers in the ‘Vadagalai’.

17
The Vijayanagar Kings and Vaishnavism: While the early
Vijayanagar Kings wre Saivites, the later Kings were staunch
Vaishnavas with a deep devotion to God Venkatesa of Tirupati. The
change of faith of the ruling sovereigns had its direct effect on the faith of
the people in the empire and in particular the 16th and 17th centuries
Vaishnavism spread in South India with amazing rapidity. The Saluvas
were Vaishnavas, equally devoted to Narasimha of Ahobalam and
Venkatesa of Tirupati. They patronized Saivism also. Under
Krishnadevaraya and Sadasivaraya, Vaishnavism gained a large
number of followers. Krishnadevaraya built a temple for Lord Krishna
which he carried to his capital with great renovation from the fort of
Udayagiri. He also built portions of Vithalaswami temple at the capital.
He bathed God Venkatesa in Tirupati with 30,000 gold pieces. He
encouraged the Vaishnava literary scholars, Venkata Tatarya, an
eminent Vaishnava teacher. He was greatly honoured by
Krishnadevaraya. Vysa Tirtha was another eminent teacher who
received patronage at the royal court of Vijayanagar. Achyutaraya
made liberal grants to the Varadaraja and Ekambara temples at Kanchi.
He set up the image of God Tillai Govindaraja at Chidambaram.
Vaishnavism received still greater support at the hands of the rulers of
Aravidu dynasty. At every stage the Saivas opposed the spread of
Vaishnavism.

Jainism : Jainism also received patronage in the Vijayanagar days. The

Jains were a minority and was few in number. The kings patronized Jain
Pallis. A large number of Jains lived at Thirupparathikkunram, Salakkai
and Vijayamangalam. The Minister of Harihara-II built a Mandapa in
Jain Palli. Krishnadevaraya gave liberal donations to the Jain Palli at
Tirupparuthikkunram. Even the Jain Pallis at Nagercoil received grants
from Krishnadevarayar.

Buddhism : Kanchi and Nagapattinam were the centers of Buddhism

during the Vijayanagar days. Buddhism flourished in Tiruvelanthurai,
Kumbakonam and Tiruvalarkoli. In those places Buddhist viharas were
established to spread Buddhism.

Christianity: Christianity really began to spread in South India with the

coming of the Portuguese. About 1533 A.D. the Paravas of the coastal
region in the land were the first to be converted to Christianity. According
to Father Heras, at least 20,000 were converted to Christianity in the
16th century. In the Nayak court of Madurai the Jesuit Missionary,
Robert de-Nobili began a regular campaign of conversion of the Hindus

18
of the Tamil country. But Robert de-Nobili failed in his attempt. The
Vijayanagar rulers followed a policy of tolerance towards Christianity.
They permitted them to establish churches in many places like
Chandragiri, Santhom etc. The arrogant attitude of the Portuguese
annoyed Ramaraya. He followed a severe policy and did not approve of
the activities of the Portuguese at Santhome. In spite of this the
Portuguese, the Italians and the Romans paid regular visits to the court.
They enjoyed the feasts and festivities of the courts.

Islam : With the exception of invading Muslims and warring Muslims

who earned the hatred of the indigenous people, the local Muslims lived
a life of co-existence with the Hindus. Devaraya II entertained Muslims in
his service, allotted them lands and erected a mosque. He placed a copy
of the Koran before his throne to command the loyalty of the Muslims.
Krishnadevaraya and Ramaraya also followed the same policy.

Check your progress

1. Ayagar system was introduced by ______

2. Rajyam was governed by ________

3. Gangadevi wrote _________

Summary

Under the Pretext of preventing the onward march of Islam into the
South, Vijayanagar rule was established over the Tamil country and it
continued upto 1463. They gave an efficient and able administration.
Nayankara system and Ayagar system were introduced by the
Vijayanagar rulers. Under the Vijayanagar rule Hinduism was restored
to its glory.

Glossary

Palayam : One of the two tiers of local government

Ayagar : The Vijayanagar rulers introduced this system - under this

system the village administration was entrusted with a committee of
twelve members popularly known as Ayagars

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Rajyam : The Vijayanagar rulers divided the Tamil territories into 5
Rajyams - They were Chandragiri Rajyam, Padaividu Rajyam,
Tiruvedigai Rajyam, Chola Rajyam and Pandya Rajyam.

Kandachara : separate department for military affairs under Vijayanagar

rule.

Answers to check your progress

1. Vijayanagar rulers

2. Mahamardaleswars

3. Madura Vijayam

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Unit 3

AGE OF THE NAYAKS

Structure

Overview

Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Nayaks

3.2.1 Nayaks of Tanjore

3.2.2 Nayaks of Gingee

3.2.3 Nayaks of Madurai

3.3 Administration under the Nayaks

3.3.1 Central Administration

3.3.2 Local Administration (Palayakar Systems)

3.3.3 Society

Summary

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the Nayak rulers of Tanjore, Genji and Madurai and their
administrative system in their region have been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

21
  assess the career and achievements of the Nayak ruler of
Tanjore

 describe the Nayak rulers of Gingee

 State the contribution of the Nayak rulers of Madurai

 analyse the administrative reforms made by the Nayak rulers.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Since the fall of the Chola empire Tanjore had no stable politics. The
Pandyas and Hoysalas held sway over the province in her evil days. The
Sultans of Madurai were the masters of the country till the invasion by
Kumara Kampana over the Tamil country. It was only in the 16th
century that Tanjore became once again a metropolitan city under the
Nayaks.

3.2 THE NAYAKS

In the following subsections 18.2.1 to 18.2.3 we will touch upon the

topics like Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayaks of Gingee and Nayaks of Madurai.

3.2.1 Nayaks of Tanjore

(i) Sevappa Nayak

The first Nayak of Tanjore was Sevappa. His period was from 1530 to
1580 A.D. He was closely related to the Emperor Achyutaraya.
According to Prof.Sathianathier the Nayakship of Tanjore was created in
A.D.1530 . Prior to this position, Sevappa served under Achyutaraya as
adappam. In A.D.1530 he was appointed as Mahamandalesvara of
Tanjore and subsequently as Nayak. He was a loyal subordinate to the
emperor and seems to have aided him in the battle of Talaikotta. He
renovated the Tiruvannamalai temple which was much damaged during
the Muhammadan invasions. He established the relations with the Dutch
and improved Nagapattnam as a port.

(ii) Raghunatha Nayak

After Achyutappa’s regime, his son Raghunatha became a distinguished

Nayak of Tanjore. His period was from 1600 to 1634 A.D. He was a

22
great warrior, patron of the arts and was himself a prodigious poet. In
general the Nayaks were able and benevolent.

When the civil war between Jaggaraya and Yachama Nayak broke out,
Raghunatha supported the legal claimant to the throne and gained
victory for the latter in the battle of Topur (near the Grand Anaicut).
Muttuvirappa of Madurai and Krishnappa of Gingee sustained a single
defeat and were forced to flee. Thus Raghunatha lent a helping hand to
the emperor in the hour of need.

Raghunatha Nayak was interested in the overseas trade and permitted

the Danish to establish a factory at Tranquebar. He was an eminent poet
and wrote the “Rukmini-parinayam”, Parijata Pushpakarnam,
Ramayanam etc., in Telugu. He had an abiding interest in music. He
was the author of a few treatises on music. He did much for the
rejuvenation of the Carnatic music. Under him Tanjore rose to the
position of a seat of learning.

(iii) Vijaya Raghava

In 1634 Vijayaraghava succeeded his illustrious father Raghunatha. He

reigned till 1673. He was a peace-loving ruler. Towards the end of his
regime a war with the Nayaks of Madurai broke out. Chokkanatha Nayak
of Madurai sent an army under Alagiri Nayak against Tanjore in 1674. In
the battle Vijayaraghava was defeated and killed. Alagiri was appointed
the Governor of Tanjore by Chokkanatha. Within a short time, he turned
recalcitrant and threw of his allegiance to Madurai. His repressive
regime was brought to an end by Venkoji (Son of Shahji and half brother
of Shivaji) who was sent by Adil Shah to restore Vijayaraghava’s son
Chengamaladas in A.D.1675. In the following year Venkoji himself
usurped the throne. Thus the Nayak rule came to an end and the
Marathas became rulers.

3.2.2 Nayaks of Gingee

Prof. C.S.Srinivasachari in his book, “A History of Ginjee and its

Rulers says that Gingee became the seat of a line of Nayak rulers
whose jurisdiction tended along the sea coast from the Palar on the
north to the Coleroon in the south. The regular Nayakship of Gingee,
Tanjore and Madurai seem to have been created during the time of
Krishnadevaraya, because the petty chieftains of the Tamil country
hesitated to acknowledge the authority of the emperor.

23
(i) Tubaki Krishnappa

The first Nayak of Gingee according to Prof.C.S.Srinivasachari and

Father Heras was Tubaki Krishnappa. He ruled from 1541 to 1554 A.D.
.

(ii) Surappa Nayak

Krishnappa was succeeded by Surappa Nayak, the first son of his

second wife. He ruled from 1554 to 1567 A.D. and was the Nayak of
Gingee when the fatal battle of Talikota was fought. The poet
Rathanakheta Srinivasa Dikshita lived in the court of Surappa Nayak
and dedicated to him the drama called “Bhavanapurushottama”. He
might have rendered help to Ramaraja at the battle of Talikota and
hence the title “Karnatasimhasana pratishtapancharaya” was given to
him by his court poet. Prof.C.S. Srinivasachari thinks that Surappa
Nayak helped either Tirumala or Sriranga I after the battle of Talikotta.

(iii) Krishnappa Nayak II

Surappa Nayak was succeeded by his brother Krishnappa Nayak the

son of Lakshmamba. He ruled from 1567 to 1578 A.D.
Prof.C.S.Srinivasachari and Father Heras maintain that Krishnappa II
revolted against the Emperor Venkata I. The imperial army led an
expedition to Gingee defeated the rebel and imprisoned him. Later on he
was released at the instance of Rahunatha of Tanjore.

Krishnappa was an ardent Vaishnvite and renovated the Shrine of Lord

Govindaraja in the Nataraja temple at Chidambarm. Father Piomenta, a
Jesuit traveller, visited his court at Chidambaram and paid glowing
tribute to the enlightened regime of the Nayak. He describes Gingee as
“the greatest city we have seen in India, and bigger than any in Portugal,
Lisbon excepted. He called it “the Troy of the East”. Krishnappa
founded the Krishnapatnam (Portonovo or Parangipet) at the mouth of
the Vellar. He aided the construction of a chapel for the Christians. In the
civil war between Jaggaraya and Yachama Nayak, he supported the
former. Nothing is known of him after A.D.1617.

The Nayaks of Gingee began to decline after A.D.1617. Adil Shah sent
an expedition to Gingee in A.D.1648 under Mir Jumla. He conquered the
province and appointed Syed Nasir Khan as its Governor. In A.D.1678
Shivaji took Gingee during his Carnatic expedition. Till 1698 it was under

24
the control of the Marathas and in the same year it fell to the favour of
the Mughals. In 1700 Gingee was entrusted to the care of a Rajput
general called Sorup Sing. He ruled Gingee as a Mughal Vassal, by
paying tribute. He was placed under the nominal control of the Nawab of
Arcot.

Desing: Sorup Singh was succeed by his son Desing (Tej Singh)
famous in tradition and folk-love as Raja Desinga. Raja Desing broke the
allegiance to the Emperor and emancipated himself from the Mughal
Yoke and stopped paying tribute. The emperor ordered the Nawab of
Arcot to chastise the rebellious chief. The Nawab Saadat-Ullah Khan I
sent an army to subdue the rebel. Desing heroically defended the fort
but was unable to resist the numerically superior army of the Nawab.
Desing killed himself to avoid humiliation at the hands of the invaders.
Then Gingee passed under the direct control of the Nawabs of Arcot.

3.2.3 Nayaks of Madurai

(i) Visvanatha Nayak (A.D.1529-64)

Visvanatha was the first Nayak of Madurai. He was appointed by

Krishnadevaraya. He was the son of Nagama Nayak who was an officer
in charge of the Madurai province under Krishnadevaraya. He was sent
by Raya to quell the local revolts and subsequently entrusted with the
administration of the far south. But Nagama Nayak himself turned
recalcitrant and so was recalled. In his place his son Viswanatha Nayak
was appointed as Nayak of Madurai. He took part in many wars under
Krishnadevaraya. In A.D.1529 he was sent to Madurai as Nayak.

Viswanatha was a “hero of Chivalrous qualities” and had a “remarkable

career”. Viswanatha improved the defense of the city of Madurai. He
tried to win the support of the people by a lavish provision of public utility
services and simultaneously strengthening the imperial administration
by a new system of Palayams, a semi-military feudal arrangement by
which he hoped to tighten the imperial hold on the conquered territory.
Visvanatha unified and consolidated the conquest. But still the remnants
of the ancient Pandyan dynasty did persist in Tenkasi where they went
on till the end of the 16th Century.

During his period there were two separate Nayakships. Trichy became
part of the territory of the Nayak of Madurai and Vallam was included in
Tanjore jurisdiction. Viswanatha improved the defence of Tiruchy,

25
renovated the temples there and Srirangam and is said to have
excavated the famous Teppakulam in Tiruchy at the foot of the rock.
Viswanatha governed a large territory comprising of the present districts
of Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Trichy, Coimbatore and
Salem as well as part of Travancore.

In all these imperialist and benevolent tasks, Viswanatha Nayak was

greatly assisted by his coadjuter Ariyanatha Mudaliar around whose life
was a lot of romance has been built by enthusiastic chroniclers.

Ariyanatha Mudaliar : Dalavay (Minister and Army General) Ariyanatha

Mudaliar was highly responsible for all the achievements of Viswanatha
Nayak. He was an expert in civil and military administration. He was the
first Dalavay during the time of Viswanatha. He took a series of
successful steps for the progress of Madurai Nayakship.

Ariyanatha Mudaliar was born in 1515 A.D. in a small village called

Meypedu near Kancheepuram, the temple city or the silk city. He
belonged to Tondaimandala Vellala Community. He gradually rose to
prominence by sheer dint of his merit. He was greatly appreciated by
Krishnadevaraya and hence he was appointed as Accountant of the
Government.

He was second only to Viswanatha Nayak in the Nayakdom, and he was

not a distant second either. He was highly responsible for the
maintenance of peace in the land. It is probable that Arianatha Mudaliar
was mainly responsible for the organization of Palayms. He died at the
age of 80 in 1600 A.D.

(ii) Krishnappa Nayak I (A.D.1564-72)

Krishnappa Nayak was the son and successor of Viswanatha. He was

the valiant warrior and sagacious administrator. He suppressed a revolt
staged by the Polygar of Paramakudi, Tumbichi Nayak. Krishnappa
gained another victory against the Raja of Kanchi (Ceylon) in a battle at
Puttalam. The cetastrophe at Talaikota (A.D.1565) took place during his
reign. He sent a big force under Arianatha to the battlefield. He built the
Tiruvengadanatha temple at Krishnapuram with a mandapa and
teppakkulam.

26
(iii) Virappa Nayak (A.D.1572-1595)

Krishnappa I was succeeded by his son Virappa Nayak. His reign was
noted for profound peace. His relationship with the Emperor was cordial.

Virappa built the Vellyambalam, the northern gopuram and 1000

pillared mandapas of the Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram and
provided the pillars of the Meenakshi Temple at Madurai with golden
covers. It was in A.D.1592 that the Jesuit fathers established their
Madurai Mission under Father G.Fernandez.

(iv) Krishnappa Nayak II (A.D.1595-1601)

The death of the veteran, Arianatha Mudaliar occurred during his rule.
Rev.Fr.Heras maintains that he withheld payment of tribute to Venkata I
and so an army was sent to chastise him.

(v) Muthu Krishnappa Nayak (A.D.1601-1609)

Muthu Krishnappa Nayak, who succeeded Krishnappa Nayak II, has

been associated with three important developments. His reign is
important for three developments : (i) The growth of Christian influence
in the coastal regions ; (ii)The settlement of the Sethupathis with
authority over the eastern part of the Nayak domains; and (iii)Increased
attention to administration and public works. Robert de Nobili, an Italian
missionary came to Tamil Nadu during his period. He organized the
missionary activities with some success.

(vi) Muthu Virappa Nayak I (A.D.1609-1623)

Muthu Virappa Nayak I the first son succeeded his father in 1609 to the
Nayak throne. In the civil war between Jeggaraya and Ramadeva Muthu
Virappa supported the former. He shifted the capital from Madurai to
Tirchinopoly in 1616. At that time a war was going on between the
Nayaks of Madurai and Tanjore. To accomplish it in a successful
manner the capital was moved to Tiruchinopoly. The Madurai Nayak
was aided by the Pandyas of Tenkasi in this venture. During this period,
Robert de Nobili began to propagate Christianity in the guise of a
Christian Brahmana. Muthu Virappa died in 1627 and was succeeded by
his brother Tirumalai Nayak.

27
(vii) Tirumalai Nayak (A.D.1623-1659)

Tirumalai Nayak ascended the throne on the 19th February, 1623. He

was undoubtedly the greatest among the Nayaks of Madurai. His reign is
noteworthy for making Madurai virtually independent of the Vijayanagar
empire. He ironed out the traditional differences between Madurai and
Tanjore. In spite of his conquests his title to lasting fame rests on his
contribution to art and letters. He was noted for his ‘infinite faculties’. He
shifted the capital back to Madurai.

His Conquests: (i) In 1625, Chamaraja Udaiyar of Mysore invaded the

Madurai Kingdom and advanced upto Dindigul. Ramappayyan, the
Brahmin general of the Nayak and the Palayagar of Kannivadi defeated
those forces but pursued them to the very gates of the capital of
Mysore..

(ii) Next came the invasion of Travancore by the Nayak forces under the
command of Ramappayyan. Thirumalai Nayak’s intention was to
chastise the ruler for non-payment of customary tribute. This invasion
took place after A.D.1634. It was successful for the Nayak arms.

(iii) Ramappayyan’s most spectacular victory was achieved against the

recalcitrant Sethupathi of Ramnad in A.D.1637. The then Sethupathi
was Sadaikka Tevar. He was also known as Dalavary Setupati. His
position was challenged by one Tambi, an illegitimate son of Kuttan
Sethupathi who was the father of Sadaikka Tevar. The country plunged
into a civil war. Sadaikka was murdered and later Tambi died. After
much trials and tribulations Raghunatha became Setupati with the
approval of the Nayak.

(iv) Tirumalai Nayak gradually rejected the hegemony of the emperor of

Vijayanagar. By that time the Muslim invasions sealed the fate of the
Vijayanagar empire. Tirumalai Nayak however saved Madurai from the
impending danger of the Muslim invasions with the Marava support. The
glorious days of the Vijayanagar were gone once for all.

(v) Mysore War was renewed once again in A.D.1636. This time
Kanthirava Narasa Raja conducted a war of revenge into the Madurai
Principality to punish Tirumalai Nayak for having co-operated with the
Sultan of Bijapur against the Hindu powers of the south. In 1656 he
ransacked Satyamangalam and infiltrated deep into the Madurai
Kingdom, perpetrating inhuman atrocities like cutting the nose of the

28
victims. This is known as the war of the Noses.. The invaders were
repulsed by an army led by the Sethupathi. The Sethupathi collected an
army of 60,000 troops and fought the Mysore army at the northern
outskirts of Dindigul. Heavy damage was done to them. It was obliged to
flee back to Mysore. The story of cutting the noses was repeated on the
Mysoreans including their king. This “war of the noses” has been
described by Dr.Fryer in his account.

Tirumalai Nayak maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. But

he treated the Dutch very harshly. They reacted sharply and invaded the
main land and occupied Tiruchendur. Then they attacked the
Portuguese at Tuticorin and occupied the place in A.D.1658. Tirumalai
Nayak out of necessity, left the coastal regions largely to the contending
European powers of those times.

During his reign the Christian Missionaries under the leadership of

Robert de Nobili converted a number of natives to their religion. He met
the Nayak himself and secured the permission for unhindered
conversion. Tirumalai Nayak beautified Madurai. He built a great and
beautiful palace there which still stands witness to his artistic leanings.
The Pudumandapam and many parts of Sri Meenakshi temple as they
stand now are proof of his activities which combined art with piety.
Tirumalai Nayak died on 16th February1659 at the age of 75 and was
succeeded by his son Muthu Virappa Nayak II.

(viii) Muthu Virappa Nayak II (A.D.1659)

He ruled the vast Kingdom of Madurai for a very short period of nearly
four months only. He strengthened the fort of Tiruchy. During his period
Adil Shah made another attempt to invade Madurai but was repulsed.

(ix) Chokkanatha Nayak (A.D.1659-1682)

Chokkanatha Nayak was the son and successor of Muthu Veerappa II.
Chokkanatha took personal charge of the defense of the capital,
Madurai and defeated the ruler of Tanjore. He further pressed his
enemies so hard that Shahji and Lingama fled to Gingee, and
Vijayaraghava Nayak of Tanjore surrended Chokkanatha then
conducted a war against the Sethupathi for refusing to cooperate during
the Bijapur invasion. The Nayak army captured Tirupattur, Pudukottai,
Manamadurai and Kalayarkoyil, but was not able to gain a crushing
victory over the Maravars who like the Marathas during the Mughal

29
invasions resorted to guerilla warfare. Chokkanatha then made an
attack on Mysore. In this Mysore war the Nayak lost the Kongu country.
The then ruler of Mysore was Devaraja Udaiyur.

The entire Nayak country (Madurai as well as Tanjore) suffered greatly

as a result of ceaseless war depredation. There was a great famine in
the country. In addition to this the Dutch people sold the Tamils as
slaves in other countries. This miserable situation was eased to some
extent by the timely efforts of Chokkanatha. Feeding the Poor was
organized on a vast scale and the king supervised it personally. Among
other things, in 1665 the king shifted his capital to Trichy. He beautified
his new capital and built a palace in Trichy. He placed Alagiri Nayak, his
foster brother in charge of Tanjore. He tolerated other religions in his
land. Christianity had its ups and downs, obtained favours and faced
persecution during this period. The first few years of Chokkanatha’s
reign constitutes a brilliant period of his greatness as a solider and a
general, says Prof.R.Sathianathaier.

(x) Muthu Virappa Nayaka III (A.D.1682-89)

Muthu Virappa was the son of Chokkanatha Nayaka by Mangammal. He

was 15 years old when he ascended the throne. After the death of
Chokkanatha, Mangammal became the regent of her son.

(xi) Mangammal (A.D.1689-1706)

Mangammal was a peace-loving and benevolent administrator. She

moved the coins diplomatically in the trade of politics. She carried out
many public works like laying and repairing of roads, digging of wells for
providing irrigation and drinking water, building of choultries (board and
lodging houses for travellers), renovating temples etc. The Mangammal
Choultry and the Tamukam (the summer house in Madurai are examples
of her charity and building activities. She granted agraharas to
Brahmins and ordered the construction of irrigation channels. These give
an impression rightly of a very liberal and humanitarian administration.

Mangammal strategically submitted to Aurangzeb, the Mughal Viceroy of

the Deccan. She had a perfect estimate of her own caliber and capacity
of the kingdom.

Mangammal’s campaign against Tanjore, Mysore and Travancore

yielded remarkable success. Raghunatha Setupati (the Kilavan), who

30
assumed practical independence even in the days of Chokkanatha,
progressed from strength to strength till he dared to defy his royal
neighbours. In A.D.1698, the Setupati besieged and captured Madurai
where his army stayed till it was driven out by Narasappaiyah. In
A.D.1702 the Dalavay undertook an expedition against the Maravas,
with the help of the Tanjore army. The combined forces of Madurai and
Tanjore, where badly mauled by the Maravas. Narasappayah lost his
life in one of these engagements. There was nothing thereafter to
prevent the Setupati becoming ‘dejure’ independent of the Nayak of
Madurai. Mangammal’s crusade against the Setupati (Raghunatha or
Kilavan Setupati) who sided with Tanjore was a great failure.
Mangammal was no match to Kilavan in statesmanship and
swordsmanship. In general, Mangammal’s reign was an enlightened
one. She was a liberal minded patron of arts and letters and a supporter
of beneficent activities. She was tolerant and helpful to the Christians
who were persecuted by the contemporary Sethupathi, whose major
achievement in the field of persecution was the murder of De Britto.

Prof.R.Sathianatha Iyer says, “Mangammal was a feminine politique.

Her vigour and diplomacy gave the Nayak kingdom longer tenure of life
than it would have otherwise had. . . “Her prudent administration in an
age of storm and stress marks her out as a ruler of high repute. Like
Sembiyan Mahadevi, Mangammal was a liberal patron of arts.
Mangammal’s regency ended with her death in A.D.1706. Vijayaranga
Chokkanatha her grandson assumed full control of the government in
the same year.

(xii) Vijayaranga Chokkanatha (A.D.1706-31)

Vijayaranga Chokkanatha was a weak ruler. He had no interest in

administration. He neglected the affairs of the state. He was succeeded
by his better-half Meenakshi in A.D.1731.

(xiii) Meenakshi (A.D.1731-39)

Meenakshi adopted one Vijayakumara, son of Bangaru Tirumala who

was related to Tirumalai Nayak. In due course of time, he became the
source of political instability in the country. Minakshi fell into the hands
of Chanda Sahib whose servant imprisoned the queen. Unable to bear
the disgrace, queen Minakshi committed suicide. Thus the Madurai epic
ended in martyrdom. The southern districts were once again thrown
open to violence and chaos.

31
3.3 ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE NAYAKS

Sources for writing of Nayak history are literary and epigraphical and
monuments In his monumental work The history of the Nayaks of
Madura Prof.R. Sathianatha Iyer has given a graphic picture of their
administration and society. From the available sources we get a lot of
information about the Nayaks of Tanjore and Gingee. The Nayaks in
tune with the traditional concepts of royalty were extravagantly pompous
and luxurious. They had their own imperial paraphernalia as provincial
rulers and in later period timid as independent sovereigns. New
innovations were introduced in the administrative machinery.

3.3.1 Central Administration

The Nayak as provincial viceroy had the assistance of a host of officials

and ministers. Though dependent on the Emperor, the latter did not
interfere in the internal affairs of the Nayak Kingdom. The top officials of
the kingdom were: Dalavoy (Chief Minister), Pradhani (Revenue
Minister), and Rayasam (Chief Secretary). “Thus three officials”, says
Prof.R. Sathianatha Iyer, “formed the trio of the kings council. Other
members of the bureaucracy were: Kanakkan (accountant), Sthanapati
(foreign secretary). Adappam (Betel bearer), and Tirumantira Olai
Nayakam.

These officials came under broad divisions called Periyapillaiyandans

(Senior servants) and Chinnapillaiyandans (Junior servants), Dalavoy
Ariyanatha Mudaliar was the first Dalavoy of Tamilnadu. He possessed
extraordinary ability and capacity. He ably assisted the King in all
activities of the kingdoms. Mostly Brahmins were appointed as
Dalavays. Ramappaiyarn was the Dalavoy of Tirumalai Nayak.
Viswanatha Nayak and Sivappa were Adappam (betel bearer) to the
Emperor before their appointment as Nayak. As provincial Governors
they respected the traditions, conventions and public consensus among
the ruled. As a vassal to the Emperor, they paid an annual tribute of 40
to 45 lakhs. In their province the Nayaks were the ultimate authority.
The Nayaks of Madurai considered themselves as imperial successors
of the Pandyas. Viswanatha is mentioned in a coin as ‘Pandya
Visvanatha’. The double carp of the Pandyas was the royal emblem of
Nayaks of the Madurai. Both Madurai and Trichy were their Capitals.

32
3.3.2 Local Administration (Palayakar Systems)

The reorganization of the administrative services at the local level was a

remarkable feature of the age. The Nayakdom was divided into
‘mandalam’ or ‘rashtra’ or ‘desam’ or ‘rajya’ or ‘nadu’. They were
subdivided into ‘makana’ or ‘simai’ and thence into villages. The estates
or fiefs so divided were left in charge of poligars. The fiefs were called
Palayams where the power to collect taxes, administration of internal
peace and maintenance of an armed division were entrusted to the fief
holders.

The Polygar system was devised by Ariyanatha Mudaliar during the

regime of Viswanatha. Dr. T.V.Mahalingam regards the poligars as an
overgrowth of the Padikkaval (kaval-watch) or rudimentary police system
of Kavalkarar and Padikkappar. There were 77 Palayams during the
period. In the Dindigul region alone there were 18 Palayams under the
leadership of the poligar of Kannivadi.

The local institutions of the Pallava Chola-age like the Ur and Maha
Sabha fell into disuse during the chaotic period following the
disappearance of the Pandya power. The villages were changed
radically along with their names. They had for their suffix mangalam
(e.g., Uppidamangalam), Polayan (Periyanaicken-palayam), samudram
(Amba-samudram), Kudi (Paramakudi), Ur (Tiruppur), Puram
(Tirumalaisamyapuram), Kulam (Periyakulam), Patti (Bodinaickenpatti)
etc. The poligar system in its core resembled the medieval feudalism in
Europe.

The Palayagars (Poligar) enjoyed para-military, police and revenue

powers. They were to maintain military retainers and were to provide
military assistance to the Viceroy when needed. One of the palayagars
maintained 300 infantry, 200 horses, and 50 elephants. The Palayagars
had the following three divisions in their army: The Amaran Sevakar,
The kattuppudi Sevakar and Cooly Sevakar. The first division acted
as policemen and prevented theft. The second division had to provide
war-materials to the palayagars. The third division simply and humbly
followed the orders of the palayagars. The Palayagars collected taxes
and paid tribute to the king. It was called ‘kisti’. The Palayagars
followed guerrilla method of warfare during this period.

The Palayagar system had its own advantages and disadvantages. The
first and foremost advantage of this system was the protection of the

33
country. Secondly they greatly helped the Nayaks in collecting the taxes
of their area. Thereby they relieved them from the great burden. Thirdly
they gave excellent and efficient administration. Fourthly they were
highly responsible for the unity of the country.

The first and foremost disadvantage of the system was their cruel
attitude towards the people in collecting the taxes. Secondly the system
badly affected the trade and commerce. Thirdly they gave justice as
they desired. It badly affected the people. Finally the lands were not
properly estimated for assessment.

3.3.3 Society

The establishment of Vijayanagar rule in Tamizhagam added a new

element to the population. Most of them seem to have migrated along
with Vijayanagar Viceroys and their train of servants and officials.
Some, it appears came still earlier when Andhra Pradesh suffered from
serious political instability. .

The important Telugu speaking communities in Tamizhagam are the

Kammavar, Kavarai or Balijas (bangle merchants), Uppuliya (Salt
merchants), Saliya (textile workers), Tottiar or Kumbalattar (those with a
Kambalam blanket), Oddar, Chakkiliyar and Dombar. The Kavarai and
Kammavar topped the list as merchants and agriculturists par
excellence. Now they take the name suffix like Naidu and Naicker
respectively. The Chettis and Komatis among the Telugu speaking
people were noted for trade. Now they are noted for their subtle and
ingenious practices in trade.

The above Telugu speaking people are distinguished by their own

characteristic manners, customs and forms of worship. Most of them
form small groups who adore a particular God or Goddess. In most
cases household deities are worshipped. Women adored secret deities
called Kanniyar (Virgin Goddesses). The Kanniyar were worshipped
with flowers, turmeric and other holy oblations.

The Brahmanas occupied a high position in the society. A large number

of Telugu Brahmins were settled in Tamil Nadu. They actively
participated in all the activities of the Society. They were experts in
Vedas and Vedanthas. They held high posts in the Government. They
were pure vegetarians. They wore the holy thread across the body and
sacred ash (Tiruneer) on their forehead. Moreover they grew long hair

34
and used ear-ring. They were patronized by the Nayak rulers. They
were given lands for their livelihood.

The Vellalas occupied a comfortable position in the society during the

Nayak period. Their primary occupation was agriculture. They too were
vegetarians like that of the Brahmins. They were Tamil speaking
people.

The Nadars who were called Sanars in those days were mainly engaged
in trade and commerce, some were in agriculture too.

The Kallars and Maravas were war like people governed by their own
tribal customs and regulations. They mainly lived in the districts of
Ramnad and Tirunelveli.

The Paraiyan, Pallan and Paravan were considered as low-caste and

lived in separate areas referred to as ‘Cheris’. Though the people from
the higher castes dominated them, they were given certain privileges
after a great struggle. The Srivilliputhur inscription of the 17th century
describes the struggle between Devendra Kudumbas and Parayas.
Kannadigas migrated to Tamil Nadu during this period. They were
encouraged by grants of land and other concessions. Sourashtrans also
received some concessions at this juncture.

Barbers and washermen lived during the Nayaks period. An important

addition to the Tamil population was the Muhammadan. The present
day Ravuttars (Merchants) and Lebbais (Priests) were indigenous
converts to Islam. With the advent of the Europeans one more element,
the Christian, was added to the Tamil population. The Valangai and
Idangai groups often quarreled among themselves even during this
period. These groups also undertook some temple services jointly. The
Kaikolas had the title of ‘Mudaliar’ during the Nayak period. They lived
in Ratha Streets (Car Street) in Tiruvannamalai. The royal insignia like
conch, fan (Ven Samaram), elephant were presented to them. Weaving
was their main occupation. A large number of Reddis migrated from
Andhra and settled in Tamil Nadu. Goldsmiths, blacksmiths, carpenters,
masons and sculptors lived during this period. They were called
Kammalas.

35
(i) Position of Women

From the accounts of Christian Fathers we know something about the

position of women of this period. The elite women in particular enjoyed
respectable position in the society. They showed great interest in dance
and music. They were very courageous. It is said that a heroic lady
lived in Tenkasi in those days. It is mentioned in the records.

Devaradiyars were appointed for the services of temples during the

Nayak rule. Emmanuel mentions the wonderful dance performance of
the devaradiyars in Tiruvarur temple in his account. Piedro Tella also
mentions the same thing in his account. Many titles and lands were
given to them. One devaradiyar by name Umayammai of Rangiyam in
Tirumayam received the title of “Nalutikkum Venra Manickam”
(conqneror of all the four directions) for her efficiency. Sati existed
during this period among the higher classes.

(ii) Dress

Women wore two pieces of dresses i.e., upper and lower garments
which covered the entire body. Men wore dhotis. Both men and women
beautified their hair style during festive occasios.

(iii) Ornaments

Both men and women used ornaments. Particularly ladies used gold
ornaments. They used necklaces, ear-rings, nose-studs, bangles, studs,
rings. They also used silver and precious stones. Cosmetics like sandal
and akil were used by them.

(iv) Food

Both vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets were consumed by the people.

Rice, dosai, adhirasam, sugiyam are mentioned in the accounts of the
foreigners. They also used gingelly oil and coconut oil in their diet.

(v) Judiciary

Under Vijayanagar Empire the Nayak rulers maintained law and order in
the country. They gave impartial justice to the people. Even during this
period the Brahmins dominated the judiciary. Severe punishments were
given even for small crimes like theft and adultery.

36
Check Your progress

1. _________ was the First Nayak of Tanjore

2. ________ wrote Rukmini Parinayam.

3. ________ was the first Nayak of Madurai

4. ________ was the first Dalavay of Tamil Nadu.

Summary

It was in 1371 that Kumara Kampana was sent by the Raya of

Vijayanagar regime to defeat the Muhammadans. However
Krishnadevaraya created the Nayakship of Madurai and appointed
Viswanatha nayak to be the provincial governor. The nayakship of
Tanjore Gingee and Madurai were created. Palayakar system was
introduced by them.

Glossary

Adappam - betel bearer

Dalavoy - Chief Minister

Pradhani - Revenue Minister

Answers to check your progress

1. Sevappa Nayak

2. Raghunatha Nayak

3. Vishwanatha Nayak

4. Ariyanath

37
Unit 4

RAMNAD SETHUPATHIS AND PUDUKKOTTAI

THONDAIMANS

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Sadaikka Thevar - II

4.3 Ragunatha Thevar, Thirumalai Sethupathi

4.4 Kilavan Sethupathi

4.5 Sivakumar Muthu Vijaya Raghunatha Thevar

4.6 Muthuramalinga Thevar

4.7 Marava Revival

4.8 Pudukkottai Thondaimans

4.9 Ragunatha Raya Thondaiman

4.10 Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman

4.11 Raghunatha Thondaiman and his successors

Let us sum up

Keywords

Answers to check your progress

38
OVERVIEW

In this unit you will study about the history of the Ramnad Sethupathis
and Pudukkottai Thondaimans. Their administration, political activities
and contribution in various fields are presented in this lesson.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to

 explain the political activities of the Sethupathis of Ramnad.

 narrate the contribution made by the Sethupathis.

 describe the political activities of the Thondaiman Rulers

 state the contribution of the Thondaimans in various fields.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The Sethupathis were the rulers of Ramnad and they were the Maravas
who belonged to the territory to the east of Madurai, South of Tanjore,
North of Thirunelveli and bounded on the east by the sea. The Marava
country from Aranthangi on the Vellar river in the north extended upto
Saliyakudi in the south, covering the coastal provinces of this part of
Tamil Nadu. The Marava country, also included Pudukkottai and
portions of Thiruchirapalli, Madurai and Tirunelveli. The Sethupathis
played a notable role in the history of Tamil Nadu in the 17th and 18th
Centuries. They were indigenous tribe also known as ‘kallars’ and they
designated themselves as Thevars. They were recognised as warriors
and they never wanted to submit to any authority. In earlier times, they
had their hideouts in deep forests and wild jungles. The Maravas are
said to have been one of the branches of the Maravar race.

Though the Maravas were warriors, they were not associated with the
rulers of the Tamil country till the 17th century. It was in 1605 that the
Nayak ruler of Madurai, Muthukrishnappa Nayak appointed Sadaikka
Theva Udayan (1602-21) as Sethupathi of Ramnad region. Sethupathi
means guardian of the causeway to Rameswaram. The Sethupathi was
expected to restore order in the Ramnad region. The Maravas of those
times had always considered it their privilege to protect the pilgrims
going to Rameswaram for worship. The way to the pilgrim center in

39
those days was very much infested by robber gangs who caused much
troubles to the pilgrims. It was thought that if Kallan (robber) or Maravan
(warrior) was appointed as guardian of this place who by strict
regulations could effectively control the movements of their own
kinsmen. The Sethupathi was entrusted with the task of subduing the
rebellious chiefs of this region and he agreed to pay a tribute to the
Nayak ruler as a vassal. Sadaikka Thevar was a loyal subordinate to the
Nayak ruler. He checked the Vanniyar dominance and pacified the
Poligars (Palayakkars). Also, he became the chief of the Polygars, in
later times. This he achieved after proving his capacity to control the
turbulent chiefs of that region to Nayak ruler. He also increased the
Nayak ruler’s revenue. The Nayak ruler was much pleased and offered
him the insignia of dignity. Sadaikka Thevar was succeeded by his son
Koothan Sethupathi, (1621-35) and his reign was uneventful.

4.2 SADAIKKA THEVAR – II

Sadaikka Thevar II (1635-46), the son of Koothan Sethupathi succeeded

as the next Sethupathi. He was also known as Dalavoy Sethupathi. His
position was challenged by Tambi, an illegitimate son of Koothan
Sethupathi. He was supported by the Nayak of Madurai as the
Sethupathi incurred the displeasure of the Madurai Nayak by withholding
the payment of tribute. Sadaikka was ready to fight out the issue as he
had the popular support. Tambi with an army sent by the Nayak ruler
invaded Ramnad. The battle between the two is graphically described in
the historical literature “Ramappaiyan Ammanai”. Sadiakka Thevar was
able to secure the help of the Dutch from Ceylon, while his opponent
secured the help of the Portuguese. This fact is confirmed by the
Portuguese records and Jesuit letters. The Sethupathi was defeated and
taken as prisoner. Tambi was crowned but the popular sentiment was
against his regime. He proved to be unpopular in the Marava country.
Further, Raghunatha Thevar and Narayana Thevar, nephews of
Sadaikka Thevar were also opposed to Tambi. There was so much
disorder in the country. So, Thirumalai Nayak ousted Tambi and
restored Sadaikka Thevar. But, Tambi hatched a plot against the
Sethupathi and killed him. The assassin himself died soon. Raghunatha
Thevar was then appointed as Sethupathi. He was a loyal servant of the
Nayak ruler. Raghunatha Thevar ably assisted the rulers, Thirumalai
Nayak and Muthu Virappa-II in their wars against Mysore.

40
4.3 RAGHUNATHA THEVAR, THIRUMALAI SETHUPATHI
(1647-1672)

Raghunatha Thevar became the ruler of a very extensive territory. With

his might he helped his master in the war against the Mysore ruler
Kanthirava Narasa Raja. The victory in this battle secured the title of
“Thirumalai Sethupathi” for him. The Sethupathi was granted the
privilege of using the lion-faced palanquin which was the unique feature
of Madurai royal household. The Sethupathi suppressed the Muslim
rebellion led by Khutab Khan and defeated the confederation of the
Poligars and earned the title “Protector of the country” and was also
gifted with some territories by the Nayak ruler. His reign also witnessed
religious and cultural development. He built temples and choultries and
granted villages to Brahmin families. He performed Hiranya garbha
sacrifice and won the title Hiranya garbhayaj which others assumed
later. The friendly relationship between the Sethupathis and Nayaks of
Madurai turned into one of hostility under Thirumalai Sethupathi. His
growing power created a suspicion in the minds of the Nayak ruler. So,
Chokkanatha Nayak invaded Ramnad on the pretext that the Sethupathi
had refused to co-operate during the Muhammadan invasion of Tiruchy.
The Nayak ruler overran Tirupattur, Pudukkottai, Manamadurai and
Kalayarkoil. The Maravas withdrew to the jungles and resorted to
guerilla warfare. Chokkanatha returned ordering the army to render their
submission. But Sethupathi’s army by their ability won back some
territories. His eventful and glorious reign finally came to an end in 1674.
Thirumalai Sethupathi was succeeded by his nephew Raja Surya
Thevar, son of Narayana Thevar.

Thirumalai Sethupathi as indicated earlier, was a great patron of literary

men. He built a number of temples and renovated many temples. He
promoted fine arts. Alagiya Chitrambala Kavirayar and Amirtha
Kavirayar were among the Tamil poets patronized by him. It is believed
that the second ‘Prakara’ of Ramanathaswamy temple at Rameswaram
was built by him. Thayumanavar, the famous mystic poet spent his last
days in Ramnad during the rule of Thirumalai Sethupathi.

His successor, Rajasurya Thevar’s reign lasted only for six months.
Surya Thevar’s alliance with Tanjore turned him a traitor against
Madurai. He along with the ruler of Tanjore was defeated, taken as
prisoner and was then finally killed. Athana Thevar ruled Ramnad after
him for a very short period. After a few years of personal rule, the Nayak

41
ruler appointed Kilavan Sethupathi, the illegitimate son of the former
Sethupathi through his fifth wife.

4.4 KILAVAN SETHUPATHI (1674-1710)

Kilavan Sethupathi was the greatest among the Marava kings. His reign
was a significant one in the annals of the Marava History. He was a
capable administrator. He was mainly instrumental in raising the
prestige, status and power of the Marava country. He was a skillful
soldier. He stood with Chokkanatha Nayak in the days of difficulty and
particularly when he was a captive under his own brother, and under the
grip of a userper, Rustom Khan. The Sethupathi saved him and got the
title Para Raja Kesari (Lion to alien Kings). He increased the defences of
the Marava kingdom and took stern measures against rebels. He was
ruthless and unscrupulous in his methods to make his position secure.
He was warlike and at the same time tolerant. It was during his reign that
Pudukkottai emerged as a separate entity.

After the death of Chokkanatha Nayak in 1682, the Sethupathi began to

assert his independence gradually. This enraged the Nayak ruler who in
turn wanted to punish him. So the Nayak of Madurai sent an army
against Ramnad which was defeated by the Sethupathi in league with
Tanjore. By 1700, he seceded the Marava country practically from the
subjection to Madurai. Rani Mangammal sent an army to Ramnad in
1702 which was also routed by the Maravas. Mangammal’s strained
relations with Aurangazeb gave Kilavan the opportunity to liberate
Ramnad from the Nayak’s Yoke. By 1707 Kilavan Sethupathi
established the independent kingdom of the Maravas. His regime was
the golden age in the history of the Maravas. He shifted the capital of the
kingdom from Pogalur to Ramnad. He also created the Nalcottai
Palayam (Later Sivganga). Kilavan Sethupathi was also responsible for
the execution of the Christian missionary, Father John de Britto. The
conversion activities of the Christian missionary enraged the Sethupathi
ruler very much and particularly the conversions took place in his own
palace. Shortly, the missionary was beheaded as per his orders. It is
argued that Britto was punished for political reasons. Also, Sethupathi
feared that the local converts in league with the rebels could topple his
government, and hence he ordered the execution.

Kilavan Sethupathi offered many grants to the temples. He spent part of

his wealth in charitable works. He also built choultries for the pilgrims
and wayfarers. He also built forts and lakes. In 1710, Kilavan Sethupathi

42
died. It is said that his wives, 47 in number, performed the age-long
Sathi. His demise was soon followed by a war of succession. Kilavan
Sethupathi wanted to crown his illegitimate son Bhavani Sankara. But it
was his nephew Thiru. Udaya Thevar alias Vijayaraghunatha Thevar
(1710 - 25) who was crowned as the Sethupathi. During his reign many
reforms were introduced. He reformed the revenue system and for
military purposes he divided the country into 72 divisions. He built forts
and gave grants to temples and Brahmins. In about 1720, Bhavani
Sankara with the help of Serfoji I of Tanjore launched a civil war.
Vijayaraghunatha Sethupathi died in the same year. He nominated
Tanda Thevar, a great grandson of Raja Surya, as his successor. But he
was challenged by Bhavani Sankara Thevar who defeated and killed
Tanda Thevar in a battle. Bhavani Sankara secured popular support and
ascended the throne. But this was not for a long time and his weak rule
hastened his fall.

Tanda Thevar’s nominee Kattaya Thevar sought the help of Tanjore

against Bhavani Sankara Thevar. He promised to cede the territories
north of Pamban to Tanjore for the military help. He was also joined by
Sasivarna Thevar and other influential Poligars. They invaded Ramnad
and defeated Bhavani Sankara Thevar in a decisive battle. He was then
imprisoned. Tanjore ruler got the promised territories. The rest of
Ramnad was divided into five parts of which Kattaya Thevar (1728-34)
retained three for himself and awarded two to Sasivarna Thevar for his
meritorious services. Thus, a base was created for the independent
state of Sivaganga in 1729. The respective states came to be known as
the Greater Marava and Lesser Marava states. In 1732 Tukoji of Tanjore
released Bhavani Sankara Thevar from the prison. They formed an
alliance and invaded Ramnad country. Kattaya Thevar and Sasivarna
Thevar presented a united front and drove the enemies away. All the
territories which were given to Tanjore on a prior occasion were
confiscated. Kattaya Thevar died in 1734 and was succeeded by
Sivakumar Muthu Vijaya Raghunatha Thevar.

4.5 SIVAKUMAR MUTHU VIJAYA RAGHUNATHA THEVAR

(1736-48)

Muthu Vijaya Raghunatha Thevar on his accession aided the

Thondaiman of Pudukkottai to repulse an invasion of Tukkoji. However,
in 1740, the Maravas supported the Maratha ruler who was ruling over
Tanjore. In fact, they invited the Marathas to settle the problems in Tamil
Nadu and put an end to the Nawab’s power. Raghuji (Maratha ruler)

43
defeated the Nawab and thus Trichy came under the control of the
Marathas for sometime.

Muthuvijaya Raghunatha was succeeded by Racka Thevar (1747-48)

and Sella Thevar alias Vijaya Raghunatha Sethupathi (1748-60). In
course of time, the Maravas slowly drifted towards the Nawab and later
to the English. In 1752 the Sethupathi and Udaya Thevar of Sivaganga
captured Madurai which was in the grip of Raja of Mysore and captain
Cope and restored Vijayakumara as the Nayak ruler. But within few
months the Nayak was overthrown. Another attempt to revive the Nayak
power in 1757 also did not materialize. The Maravas aided Count de
Lally too during the third round of the Carnatic Wars. Thus, the Maravas
were shifting their sides as demanded by occasions to strengthen their
power. In 1763 Muhammad Ali decided to conquer the Marava States
and put an end to their independence. His allegation was that the
Sethupathi had not paid tribute since 1754. However, he could not
accomplish his task.

4.6 MUTHURAMALINGA THEVAR

Vijaya Raghunatha Sethupathi (Sella Thevar) was succeeded by his son

Muthuramalinga. He was a minor and so he was placed under Muthu
Vijaya Raghunatha, the Regent. The Regent was almost a defacto ruler.
He was challenged by the minister Damodaram Pillai. He was in league
with the minister of the King of Sivaganga. They attempted to plunge the
country into a civil war. Luckily for Damodaram Pillai, Muthu Vijaya
Raghunatha, the regent, died in an epidemic. Damodaram Pillai rose to
the position of the Sethupathi’s chief advisor. He followed a vigorous war
policy. He recovered Hanumanthagudi from Tanjore. In 1771 Tuljaji
made an attempt to recover Hanumanthagudi. The united forces of
Ramnad and Sivaganga resisted the invaders. They also sought the
help of the Nawab and the Nawab promised help. But he was simply
delaying for sometime. His real intention was that both the powers must
be weakened by mutual conflict.

The Marathas of Tanjore then struck vigorously at Ramnad. The Queen

Mother was forced to sign a humiliating treaty. According to the treaty,
Tanjore took Hanumanthagudi. Mappillai Thevar (an ally of Tanjore and
uncle of Sethupathi) was assigned sovereignty of Aranthangi. In the
meanwhile, Thuljaji was forced to go back to Tanjore because his forces
were defeated by the Nawab who wanted to enforce his authority over
his recalcitrant tributaries. So, Thuljaji was forced to give up all his

44
conquests in the Marava country. In 1772 the Nawab with British help
invaded Ramnad under the pretext that the Sethupathi refused tribute
and failed to help the Nawab in his battle against Tanjore.
Muthuramalinga, his mother and sisters were imprisoned soon after the
defeat. The English had played only a mercenary role in subjugating the
Marava country, while the sovereignty of the areas passed on to the
Nawab. This marked the end of the Sethupathi’s territory as a separate
entity and it remained with the Nawab for eight years.

4.7 MARAVA REVIVAL

The Maravas were so belligerent a group that the Nawab could not
establish his power effectively in their country. They created problems by
conducting plunder and sabotage into the Nawab’s territories. Mappillai
Thevar organized the rebels and recovered Ramnad by 1780. At about
the same time, one group of Maravas re-established Vellanchi (daughter
of Udaya Thevar) at Sivaganga. Hence, to counteract the activities of
Mappillai Thevar, the Nawab released Muthuramalinga Thevar from
prison in 1781 and recognized him as Sethupathi. Muthuramalinga
ousted Mappillai Thevar and ascended the throne. He wanted to unite
the Greater and Lesser Marava states and proposed to marry Vellanchi
which was rejected by the latter who took the hand of her father’s
nephew, Wodaya Thevar. Thus, the Marava States had established their
independence once again. After the restoration, the Maravas did not
settle peacefully. During the Polygar revolts in the second half of the
18th century the Marava Country became the hot-bed of rebel activity.
The Sethupathi was finally dismissed in 1795. Sivaganga fought
heroically under the Marudu brothers and the South Indian Rebellion
was crushed by the English in 1801. The Tondaimans of Pudukkottai,
however, remained loyal to the British and retained their right to rule as a
meek native power.

During the last years of the rule of the Sethupathi’s, many charitable and
endowment works were undertaken by the rulers. Many chatrams were
constructed and were provided with generous grants. Repairs and
renovation were executed in various temples of the region, such as at
Rameshwaram, Kamudi and Tiruchuli. Many villages were granted to
Brahmins for their temple activities. The Sethupathi rulers, in general,
were the patrons of art, music, dance and literature.

45
4.8 PUDUKKOTTAI THONDAIMANS

During the seventeenth century, the Pudukkottai region became the

home of the Thondaimans which they gained through their services to
their overlords namely, the emperors of Vijayanagar and the Nayaks.
The Pudukkottai state emerged in 1686 as a result of territorial
concessions made by the Sethupathi of Ramnad, Kilavan Sethupathi to
the first Thondaiman ruler of Pudukkottai region, Raghunatha Raya
Thondaiman. The Thondaimans, being kallars by caste, were brave and
intrepid people with an insatiable desire for fighting. Their skill in tackling
elephants and their clamour for fighting won for them several masters
who engaged them in many battles. Their energies found scope in
several wars in South India waged by them for the rulers of the Southern
territories. Their services to these rulers were rewarded with suitable
cessions of land at different intervals.

The Thondaimans, in order to retain their country and to perpetuate their

line rendered signal services to the powerful Nawab of Arcot as they did
on earlier occasions to the Nayaks and the rulers of Ramnad. It is for
their services, they were exempted from paying tribute to the Nawab.

4.9 RAGHUNATHA RAYA THONDAIMAN (1686-1730)

The first ruler of Pudukkottai region was Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman.

He was known for his strength and courage. By his signal services to
Vijayanagar rulers Nayaks and rulers of Tanjore and Ramnad he gained
territories for his rule. Uniting Singamangalam and Kalasamangalam, the
gift lands from his overlords with a few other areas he became the ruler
at Pudukkottai from 1682. He built a new fort and his capital came to be
called as Pudukkottai. He obtained Thirumayam from the Sethupathi
who married his sister and Pudukkottai area from the Rajah of Thanjavur
and made territorial expansion. Thondaimans helped the Nawabs,
supported the English East India Company and strengthen their own
position.

Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman was employed by the Nayak Queen of

Madurai as one of her military chiefs. In 1698 he joined the Nayak army
against Travancore and helped to secure a victory for Madurai. He
successfully participated in the operations against the Mysore forces
which besieged Tiruchi. When war developed between the Nayaks of
Tanjore and of Madurai the Thondaimans intervened on behalf of
Madurai. By defeating the Tanjore army, the Thondaimans conquered

46
the territory to the West of Triukkattupalli. This was the beginning of a
series of clashes between Tanjore and Pudukkottai since the area
conquered was an important tract which controlled the entire irrigation
system of Tanjore Kingdom.

After 1700 the Maratha ruler of Tanjore attacked Pudukkottai. The

Maravas of Ramnad supported the Marathas. The combined forces were
defeated by the intrepid Thondaiman. The chiefs of Turaiyur, Ariyalur
and Udayarpalayam had failed to pay tribute to their chief, the Nayak of
Madurai. So, the Thondaiman was sent to recover the tributes due to the
ruler of Madurai. He chastised the recalcitrant chieftains and loyally
served the Madurai rulers. About 1720 the ruler of Tanjore took
Aranthangi from Pudukkottai by defeating the Thondaiman. However,
the engagements were indecisive and the Thondaiman considerably
extended his territories.

The Thondaiman was famous for many charitable works. He offered

refuge to the Christians who were persecuted in the neighbouring
States. He was a tolerant ruler. In 1718, he granted Kadayakkudi as a
rent-free village to Vaishnava Brahmins and similar grants were made to
other Brahmins also. The Jesuit missionaries often speak of the
Thondaiman’s fair-mindedness and strict sense of Justice. He had 13
consorts legal and illegal, and he had 32 sons through them legitimate
and illegitimate. On his death he nominated his eldest grandson Vijaya
Raghunatha to succeed him.

4.10 VIJAYA RAGHUNATHA RAYA THONDAIMAN (1730-69)

South India was very much disturbed in the middle of the eighteenth
century by the rivalries between the English and French East India
Company. During this period, the Thondaiman territory was subjected to
the endless ravages by the armies of various powers which were
roaming about. To make matters worse famine conditions also prevailed.
At this juncture Madurai Nayakdom also came to an end. Thondaiman’s
reign witnessed the serious Anglo-French rivalry in the Carnatic.
Pudukkottai showed its loyalty sincerely to the English East India
Company. Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman by this time
consolidated the State of Pudukkottai. He also laid foundation for an
independent Pudukkottai. During the time of Hyder Ali’s activities in
Tamil Nadu, Thondaiman stood by the English. Hyder Ali became very
angry and conducted ravages in parts of the Pudukkottai Kingdom
through his cavalry forces.

47
The Thondaiman helped the English and the Nawab of Arcot in their
battle against Hyder Ali, who had secured the assistance of Tanjore.
During 1782-83, the Thondaimans helped the English in their offensive
against Tipu Sultan which ended in the Treaty of Mangalore in March
1784. Col. Fullarton congratulated and thanked the Thondaiman for his
great support and help. In December 1769 Vijaya Raghunatha Raya
Thondaiman passed away. During his period, he consolidated the
Pudukkottai State and made it a powerful one by his ability. He granted
lands to Brahmins and temples. He also had spiritual bent of mind and
spent his time in Vendanthic speculation. He instituted many charities
with the directions from his spiritual Guru, Sadasiva Brahmam. He was
succeeded by Raya Raghunatha Thondaiman who ruled Pudukkottai
from 1769 to 1789. He rendered remarkable and devoted services to the
Nawab and English throughout his life. After his death his uncle’s son,
Raja Vijaya Raghunatha Thondaiman became the ruler of the
Pudukkottai State in 1789. He was steadfast in his services to the
English in critical circumstances. He had always been loyal to the
English Company and effected the capture of Kattabomman and handed
him over to the English. After his demise in 1807 Vijaya Raghunatha
Raya Thondaiman became the ruler of the state. During this period town
planning and other reforms were undertaken. Also, his period witnessed
educational, cultural and literacy development. The welfare measures of
the Thondaiman abruptly ended when he died in 1825. He was
succeeded by his brother Raghunatha Thondaiman.

4.11 RAGHUNATHA THONDAIMAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS

Raghunatha Thondaiman was grief-stricken for sometime over the

sudden demise of his brother. But, soon he recovered by the
encouragement given by the English authorities who impressed on him
the need to proceed with the administration of the state. He constructed
an Agraharam in memory of his brother in Pudukkottai. This was called
Vijaya Raghunathapuram. He also donated lands to many Brahmins. He
also introduced reforms in judicial administration and public works. He
built chatrams all over the state. Royal patronage was given to fine arts
and tolerance was showed to Christian missionaries. Also in 1830, the
Thondaiman was conferred with the title of “His Excellency” by the
English.

In 1839, Raghunatha Thondaiman passed away and was succeeded by

his son Ramchandra Thondaiman. Since he was a minor, the English
Resident supervised the entire affairs of the state. Development

48
schemes and improvement works were carried on in the state with the
English support. The English Political Agents offered their services very
well. Marked improvements were made in communications and irrigation
works. Substantial amount was allocated for the development of schools
and other institutions. However, the state incurred some debts due to
some excess expenditure and the British authorities restricted the
powers of the ruler. In 1878, A Seshiah Sastri took over the
administration of the state as its Diwan and during his time, the state
prospered very well.

In 1886, Ramachandra Thondaiman was succeeded by Marthanda

Bhairava Thondaiman. He was a minor and with the help of A. Seshiah
Sastri, the Diwan Regent, the administration was carried on efficiently.
During the reign of Marthanda Bhairava Thondaiman, English Education
and English system of administration placed the state on a better
footing. Progress was seen in the spheres of agriculture, industry,
education and public health. In 1915, the Thondaiman married E.Molly
Fink, daughter of an Australian Barrister and in 1916, a son was born to
him who was named Marthanda Sydney Thondaiman. During his period,
reforms were made in municipal administration. In 1928, the
Thondaiman passed away and a succession problem arose. There was
much opposition to his son to become the ruler as he had the Australian
Mother. Hence, Rajagopala Thondaiman of Western palace was
approved by the British to succeed him.

During the period of Rajagopala Thondaiman the state witnessed many

developments. The political atmosphere in India at the time was very
critical. The Indian National movement was raging high and the world
war situations also affected the British very much. However, the
Thondaiman had not showed any support to the nationalists in the state
as he still had high respect for the British imperialists. But at the same
time, he never showed hatred to the national movement in the State.
When the national leaders visited the state, the people of Pudukkottai
thronged to their meetings and the Thondaiman did not deter them from
attending to these meetings. When India achieved Independence in
1947 and when the Integration activities took place, the Thondaiman
accepted the proposal of Sardar Vallabhai Patel, and the state joined the
Indian Union by merger with the Madras Province. The Pudukkottai state
was taken by the Collector of Tiruchirappalli on 3rd March 1948 under
the orders of the Government of India.

49
Thus, the Thondaiman rulers developed very well as the only Tamil
State in the Madras Presidency by their ability and foresight in the
presence of the Nawabs of Arcot and the British and nurtured the Tamil
Culture during the last 350 years.

Let us sum up

You have learnt in this unit that the Sethupathis of Ramnad were
powerful in their region as vassals of Nayak rulers of Madurai. They held
political ties with their overlords and efficiently carried on their
administration contributing to the society and culture. In the similar
manner the Thondaimans of Pudukkottai as loyal all lies to Nawabs and
the English administered their country well and contributed greatly to the
development of the Tamil State.

Key Words

Maravas Poligars (Palayakkars)

Kallars Chatrams Regent

Thevars Hiranya Garbayaj Diwan

Check your progress

1. Who are the Maravas?

2. Write a note on Kilavan Sethupathi.

3. Give an account of the Sethupathi rulers of Ramnad.

4. Describe the development of the Pudukkottai state under the

Thondaimans.

5. Sketch the history of the Thondaimans.

Answers to check your progress

1. Refer section 4.1

2. Refer section 4.4

3. Refer section 4.2 to 4.6

50
4. Refer section 4.9 to 4.11

5. Refer section 4.8 to 4.11

51
Unit 5

EUROPEANS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TAMILAGAM

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

5.1. The Advent of the Europeans

5.2 Portuguese

5.3 The Dutch

5.4 The French

5.5 The English

5.6 The Anglo-French Rivalry and the Carnatic Wars

5.7 First Carnatic War

5.8 Second Carnatic War

5.9 Third Carnatic War

5.10 Causes of the French Failure

Let us sum up

Key words

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit you will study about the Europeans who came to South India
in general and Tamilagam in particular for commercial activities. The
Portuguese, The Dutch, The French and The English came to India in
order to procure spices and other rare commodities. Soon there was a
competition between the English and the French in establishing authority

52
over India. The English were successful in the wars that were fought in
Carnatic because of their ability and wisdom. The narration is presented
in this lesson.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to

 describe the coming of the Europeans in India.

 explain the Portuguese settlements in India

 sketch the Dutch activities in India

 discuss the competition between the French and English in India.

 give an account of the Carnatic Wars.

 discuss the causes of the French failure in India.

5.1 THE ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS

Until the fifteenth century, Indians had held connections with the western
world by land routes which ran through the passes in the north western
mountains. The missionaries of Indian religions and the caravans of
merchants went through these passes to countries beyond. Settlers and
invaders entered India through them. But in the fifteenth century the bold
navigators of Europe discovered the sea route from Europe to India and
the East.

Indian spices, particularly pepper and Cardamum from Malabar, were in

great demand in the European markets as they were required not only to
preserve meat and food items but also to make it more palatable.
Throughout the middle ages the Italian merchants purchased the Indian
spices and articles from the Arab merchants who sold them at high
prices in the markets of the European capitals. The Arab merchants
visited India and the Far East more frequently. There they procured
spices and other articles such as ivory, apes, pearls and rice at cheap
rates and carried them in their ships to the Persian Gulf Region. From
there they transported all the commodities to the Mediterranean region.
These articles were again transported in ships to Europe. The demand
for Indian spices and articles increased by passage of time in the middle
ages. At that time wealth was also increasing in Europe. The rich were in

53
a position to lead a luxurious and comfortable life and hence the articles
were sold at exorbitant rates. However, the supply was unsteady and
uncertain since the Arabs had to procure the articles from India and the
Far East and bring them in their ships. Voyage by sea in those days was
slow and very dangerous. The transportation of these articles from the
Persian Gulf Region to the Mediterranean Region was also equally slow
and very difficult.

In course of time, there arose an enormous demand for Indian

commodities and it was not adequately met by the Arab traders. Due to
these reasons, the Europeans wanted to go to the East and secure
these articles without the help of the middle men. They decided to
discover a new route to India and the Far East. But the task of discovery
was not easy. It required training in distant voyages. It also required the
knowledge of other parts of the world. It also required better kinds of
ships fit for long voyages. In the beginning the Europeans gained
knowledge and experience in distant voyages by undertaking
expeditions along the western coast of Africa, which was close to them.
They also gained knowledge of geography from the Arab scholars. For
instance, in the Court of Frederick II there were Arab Geographers who
described the Geography of the East to Europeans. Apart from this, the
Europeans learnt the use of the ‘Mariners Compass’ from the Arabs.
This enabled the Europeans to plan for distant voyages which would
enable them to go to India and the far East. The Crusades were another
factor which provided the great opportunity for the Europeans to travel to
the East and see for themselves the oriental luxuries.

It is also to be pointed out here that the adventurous spirit of the

Europeans was earlier aroused by the Venician Traveller Marco Polo
(1254-1324) who travelled across Europe and Asia and reached the
Court of the Chinese Emperor. The Chinese Emperor, Kublai Khan, was
very much impressed by Marco Polo, and he appointed him as an official
in the Palace. He also sent him to a number of countries. During the
course of his travels Marco Polo toured the Indian Peninsula. Finally, he
returned to Europe in 1295 A.D. On his return, Marco Polo described
what he saw on the way to China. He also referred to the wealth of the
Countries in the East. His description of the Pandya Country in the 13th
Century is a graphical tale. The descriptions of Marco Polo aroused the
curiosity of the Europeans and they wanted to go to the countries of the
East.

54
Soon, the opportunity came to them when the Turks captured
Constantinople in 1453 which closed the Mediterranean trade route that
linked Europe with India. Hence, the Europeans had to go without the
oriental spices and commodities. They made frantic efforts to discover
an alternative trade route to India. Thus began the voyages of discovery
in the early modern period.

The Portuguese and the Spaniards were the first to undertake the
voyages of discovery. The Portuguese felt that if they could go in the
eastern direction they could discover a sea route to the East. On the
other hand, the Spaniards wanted to discover a sea route to the East by
going in the western direction. The Portuguese and the Spaniards thus
wanted to go in different directions to the East. This was because of the
development of the theories in the early modern period that the world
was a globe.

5.2 THE PORTUGUESE

The Portuguese were the first people in Europe to discover and use the
sea route to India and the East. Portugal and Spain being situated on
the Atlantic Ocean were in advantageous position to undertake such
voyages of discoveries. Portugal had Prince Henry, the Navigator, as
their ruler who encouraged these adventurous voyages. He gave all
possible encouragement for voyages and discoveries. He started a
school to give instructions in voyages. In 1498, Vasco Da Gama a native
of Portugal sailed round Africa and moved across the sea from the coast
of East Africa to India. The Portuguese came to India partly for trade to
secure spices and partly because, they are hostile to the Muslims and
wanted to strike a blow at them since the Arabs held the monopoly of
trade in Indian seas.

The Portuguese were thus the first among the Europeans to discover a
sea route to India. Their Viceroy Almeida established forts on the coast
and his successor Albuquerque made the Portuguese masters of the
coast from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf to Malacca and Spice Islands.
Earlier in 1500 Cabral established a factory at Cochin which remained
the Portuguese headquarters in India until the capture of Goa by
Albuquerque in 1510. Factories had been established by the Portuguese
at Diu and Daman also, and in 1511 Malacca too was seized by them.
Thus, the control of the vast Indian Ocean came under the Portuguese.

55
After this settlement, the Portuguese began to indulge in other activities.
The Portuguese Viceroy of the East, Almeida (1505-1509), heard from
some Christians of the West Coast that there was on the east coast the
sepulchre of St. Thomas. He also further heard that two Portuguese
visited the Sepulchre at the orders of their king and built a Church at the
site with walls around, which were later washed away by the sea.
However, the priority of the Portuguese was trade and hence their early
tangible step was the acquisition of trading rights at Nagapattinam from
Sevappa Nayak of Thanjavur (1532-1560), the first Nayak of that place.
At the same time the Portuguese missionaries and merchants showed
much interest in the Pearl Fishery coast of Pandya country. The
Parathavars (fishermen) of that place were exploited and oppressed by
the Muslim merchants. After many bloody clashes with the Muslims the
Parathavars sent a deputation to Cochin seeking Portuguese protection
and they offered to embrace Christianity. A Portuguese fleet arrived at
the port-towns of the East Coast including the strategic Tuticorin.
Keeping their word the Parathavars embraced Christianity. The Madurai
Nayaks were quite against this and attempted to drive the Portuguese
out. But they failed in this task and finally agreed to leave the coast
under the latter’s control subject to a certain annual tribute. During their
stay in this region the Portuguese introduced a new administrative and
judicial system in the coastal areas under their control. The Nayaks of
Madurai and Thanjavur made many unsuccessful efforts to dislodge the
Portuguese. Finally, Thirumalai Nayak (1623-1659) one of the
outstanding rulers of the Nayak dynasty, had to confirm their privileges
in return for their help in the war against the Maravars. At the request of
the Portuguese he even turned the Dutch out of the sea-port of
Pattanam, a port-town on the Panda Coast in 1648.

5.3 THE DUTCH

The Dutch also entered the race for voyages along with their European
counterparts. They ventured in the Eastern Seas late in the sixteenth
Century. In 1605 they founded trading stations at Musulipatnam and
Nizampatnam with the permission of the ruler of Golconda. In 1608 they
set up a factory at Devanampattinam (Fort St. David, Cuddalore) with
the permission of Krishnappa Nayak of Senji. Pulicat was also given to
them by a local Nayak in 1610. Soon there arose a rivalry between the
Dutch merchants and the Portuguese in the East. The Portuguese of
Santhome (Mylapore) destroyed the Dutch station at Pulicat in 1612 and
this was retaliated. At their request the Senji Nayak destroyed the
Devanampattinam settlement. During the reign of Thirumalai Nayak, the

56
Portuguese received royal patronage and they supported the Nayak in
his war against the Sethupathi of Ramnad who was aided by the Dutch.
Thirumalai Nayak expelled the Dutch from Devanampattinam and in
retaliation the Dutch captured Tiruchendur and destroyed Tuticorin, a
Portuguese settlement. The Dutch – Portuguese clashes continued on
the eastern coast for some time. The Dutch defeated the Portuguese in
many naval battles and captured Karaikal, Santhome, Tuticorin and
Nagapattinam (1658) along with Cochin and Cannanore on the West
Coast. In 1689, Nagapattinam was made the headquarters of the Dutch
and the seat of the Dutch Governor. But soon, the attention of the Dutch
was diverted towards Indonesia. The Anglo-French entry in India, in fact
fore-warned them that their future in India would be bleak. They were
practically giving a free hand to the English and the French in India.
They concentrated only on slave trade in India and were not interested
in conversion. By 1844, they sold away all their settlements to the
English.

5.4 THE FRENCH

The early efforts of the French to found companies for the Indian trade
were not successful. It was only during the reign of Louis XIV, the Grand
Monarch of France the French East India Company was founded in
1664. The first French factories in India were established at Surat (1668)
and Masulipatnam (1669). In 1672 the French seized San Thome near
Madras but next year they had to surrender the same to the Dutch. In
1674, Francois Martin obtained from the Muslim Governor, Sher Khan
Lodi of Valikandapuram, and the small village of Pondicherry. Again, in
1674, another village, Chandranagore was granted to the French by
Shaista Khan, the Nawab of Bengal. In the same year Francois Martin
became Governor of Pondicherry. He built a Fort (Fort St. Louis) for its
defence which was later enlarged and extended. He improved the trade
of the place. He remained governor till his death in 1706. He developed
the settlement into a beautiful city with its straight and parallel roads and
fine and tall buildings. In 1693 Pondicherry was lost to the Dutch but was
restored by the Treaty of Ryswisk in 1699. In 1701, it became the
headquarters of the French possessions in India.

A French factory was established at Masulipatnam with a firman granted

by the Sultan of Golkonda in 1669. Another factory was opened at
Chandranagore in Bengal with the permission of Shaista Khan in 1674.
In the beginning of the eighteenth century the French East India
Company could not realise any profit. The Company was reorganised

57
and government control was tightened. Under the wise and able
management of Lenoir and Dumas, Governors of Pondicherry between
1710 and 1742, prosperity was restored. The French occupied Mauritius,
a strategic island lying between Africa and India, in 1721; Mahe on the
Malabar coast in 1724 and Karaikal in 1739. Karaikal was taken from the
Marathas of Tanjore, Dumas maintained an army of 1,100 French
soldiers supplemented by about 6,000 Indian sepoys trained and
equipped in western style. He maintained good relations with the Nawab
of Arcot. He was also honoured by the Mughul Emperor for his help to
the allies of the Mughuls in the South. Till Dupleix’s appointment as
governor in 1741 the French were primarily concerned with trade. They
maintained forts and troops for no other purpose than security. The
policy was changed by Dupleix with far-reaching consequences. Thus
only after 1742 the political ambitions of the French gained the upper
hand with the advent of Dupleix.

5.5 THE ENGLISH

The English East India Company was founded by the charter of Queen
Elizabeth on 31st December, 1600. The company obtained the
monopoly of English commerce in the East. The Company set up its first
Indian factory at Masulipatnam, the chief port of Golconda in 1611. By
an agreement with the Dutch of Pulicat, the English erected a small fort
at Armagoan. However, the English wanted a better place for their
trading activities. In 1639 Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from
the Governor of Chandragiri, Damarla Venkatapathi (son of
Chennappa). The English were influenced by the fact that the cloth was
cheap at Madras region and also it was near Santhome, the religioys
centre. The grant of the site was confirmed by the Vijayanagar Emperor,
Venkata II. It was agreed that for the site, the company was to pay a
small quit-rent annually. In 1641, Fort St. George was erected and
Madras was made the headquarters of the commercial activities of the
English in the East. In 1647, Mir Jumla occupied the region on behalf of
the Sultan of Golkonda. It is significant to note that Mir Jumla was the
Prime Minister of the Sultan of Golkonda. He confirmed the privileges of
the English traders on their agreeing to pay to the treasury of Golkonda
a fixed sum of about 1,000 pagodas annually. In 1653, Madras became
the headquarters of all the English possessions in the East.

In course of time, The English trade and influence steadily grew in

Southern India. Fort St. George was further strengthened and enlarged,
and its population touched 50,000 in 1674. New settlements were

58
opened at a few parts such as Cuddalore and Porto Novo in 1681. Fort
St. David was built at Cuddalore only after 1690 when Zulfikar Khan, the
Mughal general who had conquered the Karnataka, confirmed the
Privileges of the English.

With these possessions the English carried on their commercial activities

in the South uninterruptedly. In Bombay and Madras the British did not
meet with any serious opposition due to the coastal position of their
settlements. But in Bengal, they had a difficult time. It was only after the
death of Aurangazeb the company prospered in Bengal. Prosperity and
success induced the political ambitions of the English company which
resolved in 1687 to embark on a policy of civil and military power. The
Indian political condition also encouraged the English to proceed in this
direction. The English started purchasing more neighbouring villages
around Fort St. George, finally raising Madras to the status of a
Municipal City under a Mayor and twelve Alderman in 1688.

The English slowly began to introduce their systems in India. In 1681,

Fort William (Calcutta) was made independent of Madras and the
Governor of Fort St. George was also entitled President since 1688.
Hence the term ‘President of Madras’ came into practice from that time.
The President or Governor was the senior member of the Council
consisting of senior merchants. Though the Governor possessed a
casting vote he had no over-riding powers.

The English, unlike the French were overbearing in nature, exhibited a

sense of racial superiority and arrogance. They were also contemptuous
of the natives. Their trade, mainly purchase of dyed and printed cotton
cloth, was based on coercion, deceit and fraud on the Indians. Further,
they also indulged in an obnoxious trade. Thousands of natives were
purchased and employed as slaves within Fort St. George or packed
away to the other English colonies for slave labour on plantations. Many
Englishmen enriched themselves through private trade and money
lending which were full of fraudulent practices, bribery, fleecing, robbery
and other quick-money methods. The merchants of England prepared
such a ground in India to become masters in a short span of time.

5.6 THE ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY AND THE CARNATIC

WARS

From the beginning of the Eighteenth Century the Mughul power began
to decline. The Marathas also could not dominate the political scene of

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the country. India remained as an open house since there was no single
mighty power to check any alien force that might infiltrate into the Indian
soil. In the beginning of the 18th century, the French and British powers
alone, among the European powers, remained powerful in India. The
French had their political establishments at Pondicherry. The French had
their factories at Chandranagore, Mahe, Karaikal, Calicut, Surat and
Masulipatnam. The English had their commercial establishments at
Bengal, Bombay and Madras. They had their factories at Surat,
Masulipatnam and Hugli.

The trading companies of these countries differed from each other by

their background and operations. The French had good leadership in
Dupleix but their Company was financially weak. It was also under the
control of the French Government. The English Company on the other
hand was a voluntary association, which was sound commercially and
financially. It was very wealthy that it was in a position to lend money
even to the Government of England. But this company had no able
leaders initially to carry on its activities.

The Local Powers

In the eighteenth century a congenial atmosphere prevailed in South

India in general and Tamil Nadu in particular for the European powers to
thrust their hegemony over this region. The ruler of the Carnatic was
called Nawab. He had his headquarters at Arcot. In theory he was the
deputy of the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Nizam of Hyderabad was a sub-
ordinate and representative of the Mughals. But in practice the Nawab
and the Nizam ruled like independent princes. There were small
principalities scattered all-over this region ruled by petty chieftains,
Palayakkars and Zamindars from whom the Nizam and Nawab collected
tributes so as to be sent to the Mughul overlords occasionally.

5.7 FIRST CARNATIC WAR

The war of Austrian succession broke out in Europe in 1744 between

Austria and Prussia. France took the side of Prussia and Britain took the
side of Austria. As a result of the European War, war clouds spread to
India also between the French and English East India Companies. This
became vigorous in 1766 only. In 1745 an English fleet came to the
Coromandel Coast and Dupleix at once sent an appeal to La
Bourdannais, Governor of Mauritius to come to his rescue. La
bourdannais came to the Coromandal Coast in the middle of 1746.

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Dupleix besieged Madras both by land and sea. The English made no
resistance and surrendered the Fort. St. George to the French.

The English made an appeal to Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Arcot. But

the help did not come in time and the Nawab warned the French not to
pursue their attempt. Dupleix promised that he would give the City of
Madras to Anwar-ud-din since the conquest was attempted on behalf of
the Nawab. But Dupleix delayed the delivery of the city. When the
warnings to the French where unheeded Anwar-ud-din sent a large army
to take Madras from Dupleix. The cavalry of Nawab was no match for
the French guns and cannons. The Nawab’s forces were defeated by
the French at Santhome and Adyar. Flusned with the success in the
battle of Adyar, Dupleix made an attack on Fort St. David (Cuddalore)
but failed to take it in spite of a siege Earlier, La Bourdannais had
agreed to restore Madras to the English Governor in return for a heavy
ransom. But Dupleix refused to accept it. This disagreement between
these two great Frenchmen paved the way for French failure in later
times. In the meanwhile, severe storm destroyed the fleet of La
Boundannais and hence he left the carnatic. From Mauritius, La
Bourdannais was recalled by the Government of France and the French
had lost an able general.

By this time, the English gathered a large army and laid siege to
Pondicherry. But, Dupleix defeated the English forces. As a result, his
prestige rose high. However, the war of Austrian succession had come
to an end and by the Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748), Madras was
restored to the English.

In spite of the failure of Dupleix, in the capture of the Fort St. David at
Cuddalore and loss of Madras, his reputation increased and the military
fame of the Frenchmen in India. Also, the weakness of the Nawab of
Arcot was exposed. These were the effects of the First Anglo-French
struggle in the Carnatic.

5.8 SECOND CARNATIC WAR

The French Governor, Dupliex was the first to form the ambitious project
of making his nation supreme in India. He raised an army at the time of
the First Carnatic War and did not want to pay the soldiers
unnecessarily. He was eagerly expecting a pretext to interfere in the
internal affairs of Indian rulers. Long awaited opportunity came to him
when a dispute arose to the thrones of Hyderabad and Arcot in the

61
Carnatic. He supported the cause of Muzaffar Jang in Hyderabad and
Chanda Sahib in Arcot. When Nasir Jang in Hyderabad and Anwaruddin
in Carnatic were killed the struggle started. Dupleix entered into an
agreement with Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib and the combined
forces plunged into war. When Anwaruddin was killed his son
Muhammed Ali escaped and fled to Trichirapalli. A French army was
sent to capture him. The English supported Anwaruddin and Nasir Jang
and thus, the French and the English took sides. The English and their
supporters were defeated by the French. Chanda Sahib became the
Nawab of Arcot and Muzaffar Jang became the Nizam of Hyderabad.

The strong Fort of Trichirappalli was held by Muhammed Ali. The new
English Governor (Saunders) quickly realised the gravity of the situation.
He knew that the English position in the Carnatic would be hopeless if
the French took Trichirapalli. So, he opened negotiation with Muhammed
Ali. In the meanwhile, Chanda Sahib’s forces and a French army
besieged Trichirapalli. The siege dragged on for several days.
Muhammed Ali suggested that the English governor should send an
army to attack Arcot to divert the attention of the rival forces. This
suggestion was accepted by Saunders. With an army of only 500,
Robert Clive proceeded and took Arcot without any serious resistance.
This was the turning point in the history of the English East India
Company. Clive became very popular by this victory. The capture of
Arcot was followed by more victories at Arni, Kaveripakkam and other
places. Chanda Sahib himself surrendered to his enemies and was
finally executed. Thus, Dupleix’s hopes came to nothing largely owing to
his incompetent generals. Dupleix also failed due to the energy and
drive of the English general, Clive and Lawrence. In 1754, Dupleix was
recalled and the fortunes of the French thus ended.

5.9 THIRD CARNATIC WAR

The Seven years’ war broke out in 1756 in Europe. This time Count-de-
Lally became the French Governor. He was given absolute power in civil
and military matters. He was a daring and brave officer, but hasty and
violent. But he could not command the naval forces and military officers.
Also the division of command in the French army, led to disunion and
the disappearance of the French power. The outbreak of Seven Years’
War in Europe became the important cause for the Third Carnatic War in
South India.

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Count-de-Lally attempted to capture the English Fort. St. David at
Cuddalore. Then he wanted to attack Madras. Before the capture of
Madras he attacked the ruler of Tanjore. Count-de-Lally used his force to
extract the dues from him. But all his efforts ended in utter failure, and
during this period, the English made elaborate preparations for offensive
actions.

Earlier, Dupleix kept an efficient army under a brilliant commander called

Bussy. Count de Lally failed to use this army in attacking Madras and
Tanjore. This is the great blunder committed by Count de Lally. Lally
gave independence to the Nizam of Hyderabad who was powerless.
Robert Clive sent an army to fight against the French soldiers at
Hyderabad. He also sent another army under the command of Sir Eyre
Coote. A major war took place between the French and the English at
Wandiwash (1760). Count-de-Lally was completely defeated and Bussy
was taken as prisoner. Thus the empire built up by Dupleix came to an
end, and the English conquered the French territories one after another
including Pondicherry. In 1763, the Seven Years War came to an end.
The French were left without a foot of ground in India. The Treaty of
Paris was concluded and Pondicherry was restored to the French and
Northern circars were restored to the English. Count-de-Lally was
thrown into prison and then was condemned and executed.

5.10 CAUSES OF THE FRENCH FAILURE

The causes of the French failure were mainly due to financial, naval,
military and administrative aspects. The failure of the French in India
was due to the failure of France in Europe against the English forces. In
India France lost command over sea. At the same time Britain
maintained her Naval superiority. As the French lost command over sea
to the English, the English established their mastery over India. Also, the
lack of co-operation and co-ordination among the French military officers
led to the failure of the French in their military operations. Further,
without sufficient money, Dupleix and Count-de-Lally could not keep the
mercenary army under their control for long. Dupleix sometimes met the
demand with his personal resources. But the financial position of the
English company was stronger than that of the French company.
Further, the English company at that time enjoyed commercial
prosperity.

The French East India Company was a public company while the
English company was a private company. Therefore, the English brought

63
Bengal under their control after the battle of Plassey. Bengal was the
most fertile part of India. So the English were able to mobilise their
resources from Bengal and send money and materials to the Carnatic.
On the other hand, the French wanted to conquer India with Pondicherry
as their base. It was impossible for them to compete against a power
which controlled the best part of this country. It has been said neither
Alexander nor Napoleon could have conquered India with Pondicherry
as a base. The French also failed because of lack of steady support and
sympathy from the Home Government. The English were extremely
fortunate in that respect and they had brilliant generals like Robert Clive
and Lawrence, who were largely responsible in liquidating the plans of
Dupleix.

Also, the French people were indifferent to the fortunes of the company
and even its proprietors exhibited the same attitude. In all respects, the
English company was different. It had been “cradled in the chilly but
invigorating atmosphere of individualism”, whereas in foreign trade the
French private enterprise had been conspicuously non-existent. This
difference in the organization of the two companies affected them in
numerous ways and shaped their fortunes differently and Tamil Nadu
provided the necessary ground for these European companies for such
a development and this in later times led to the establishment of the
British rule in India.

Check your progress

1. Write a note on early European settlements in Tamilagam.

2. Describe the Carnatic wars.

3. What were the causes of the French Failure in India?

Let us sum up

You have learnt in this unit about the coming of the Europeans in India
for commercial activities. In the competition among the European trading
companies the English finally won and became Masters of India by their
powerful military forces and efficient generals. The mother country also
provided greater support to the English company which became the
ruling power in India in a short span of time.

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Key Words

Navigators, Spices,

Crusades, Parathavars (Fisherrmen),

Chennappa, Damarla Venkatapathi,

Fort. St. George, Fort. St. David,

Fort William, Carnatic,

Mayor, Mariners Compass,

Alderman, Battle of Wandiwash,

Answers to check your progress

1. Refer section 5.1 to 5.5

2. Refer section 5.6 to 5.9

3. Refer section 5.10

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 BLOCK – II

Unit 6 Poligars Rebellion

Unit 7 The Anglo-French War

Unit 8 Vellore Mutiny

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Unit 6

POLIGARS REBELLION

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Poligars Rebellion

6.2.1 Vira Pandya Kattabomman (A.D.1790-99): The Getti

Bommus

20.2.2 The Ramnad Incident

20.2.3 Fall of Panchalam Kurichi

20.2.4 Umai-Durai

20.3 The Marudu Brothers

20.4 First War of Independence

Summary

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit the role played by the Poligars like Kattabomman, Umaidurai,
Marudhu brothers and others to fight against the British rule in India
have been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

67
  describe the part played by Kattabomman to fight against the
British.

 explain the role played by Marudhu brothers and Umaidurai to

fight against the British regime.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The Poligar Rebellion in the Tamil country during the later part of the
eighteenth century has been considered as a revolt against the English
dominance in the political affairs of the Tamil country.

During the later part of the eighteenth century, Veera Pandia

Kattabomman, Marudhu brothers, Umaidurai and other valiant warriors
of the Tamil country waged incessant warfare against the English
government and they were finally executed ruthlessly by the English
authorities. But in the initial period, the relations between the English
and local chiefs in the Tamil country had been quite cordial. Only after
the harassment and stringency of the English in the revenue collection,
they had antagonised the local chiefs. These initial uprisings were due
to the spirit of patriotism at the regional level and not nationalism at a
larger level.

6.2 THE POLIGARS REBELLION

The word ‘polygar’ takes its origin from the root palayakaran which
stands for an armed camp. The palayakkarans were appointed as
rulers of a palayam or pollam (zamin or estate). They can be equated
with the earls and barons of medieval Europe, and the jagirdar and
zamindar of the Mughal and British India. They maintained an armed
camp, cultivated the lands, an administered justice and maintained
internal peace. The polygar “was thus administrator of his pollam,
commander of his forces, the renter of the Nawab and a ryot among his
people. The polygars had their own royal paraphernalia and multi-
coloured attire. The apparel proclaimed the polygar. He was
distinguished by an imposing variety of dresses and ornaments
consisting of turban, gold coloured turban band, laurel upon head, gold
chains, bangles, belts tied with bells, white fleece, sticks, flags, umbrella,
parasols etc. Most palayams were administered by Naidu, Reddi, Raju
and Marava communities. The polygars were not actually cultivators of
the soil. They leased out the palayam to tenents called sherogars. The
actual cultivation was done by ryots known as the Pullar. The

68
organizer of the system was Viswanatha Nayak of Madurai who
accomplished it with the assistance of his minister Ariyanath. Ramnad
and Sivaganga were greater palayams while Maniachi and
Elayirampannai were smaller ones some seventy two palayams seem
to have existed. The revenue collected by the poligars was known as
pothuchelavu (public expenditure).

The system flourished well under the Nayaks. Anomalies began to crop
up in the age of the Nawabs as a result of their indifferent attitude. They
levied illegal taxes and demanded exaction. Unable to bear the burden
of taxation the polygars rose in revolt. Robert Orme divided the polygars
into two groups viz., the Eastern and Western polygars. But in fact the
vice versa is correct. The Eastern Padagai Palayappattu and Western
Padagai Palayappattu were headed by Kattabomman and Puli Tevar
respectively. The crusade launched by the polygars against the Nawabs
and their British task-masters is celebrated in folk-songs and ballads.
They have gone deep into the Tamil tradition as the earliest of liberation
movements in the South.

6.2.1 Vira Pandya Kattabomman (A.D.1790-99) : The Getti

Bommus

Vira Pandya Kattabomman was the son of Jagavira Pandya

Kattabomman who was born in A.D.1760. His ancestors seem to have
migrated to Salikulam from the Bellary area in the 11th century.
Kattabomman was the hereditary title of the rulers of Panchalamkurichi.
They could have become independent in the 18th century.. A hero-stone
depicting the sculptural portraits of Kattabomman has been discovered
in the Panchalamkurichi area.

6.2.2 The Ramnad Incident

The polygars as auxiliary powers came directly under the control of the
Nawab of Arcot. When the latter assigned the Nawab to the British in
1790, they claimed tribute from all the local powers. The Company
appointed collectors to collect taxes. The oppressive methods adopted
by them led to an inevitable conflict between the polygars and the
company. The first confrontation took place in 1798. Kattabomman of
Panchalamkurichi was insulted by the English Collector who tried to
imprison him. But the latter forced his way out of the fort. In the skirmish
that followed the security guard Lieutenant Clark was killed. The raja
escaped but his minister fell into the British hands. The company keenly

69
observed the Ramnad incident and appointed a committee to study the
case, which acquitted Kattabomman and dismissed Jackson from
service.

6.2.3 Fall of Panchalamkurichi

The Ramnad episode alerted the internal powers who formed a coalition
under Kattabomman to resist the British expansion. There was a general
discontent in Tirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai areas. The company took
a note of these developments and was for disarming the whole of the
southern poligars and for reducing those irregular chieftains to the
authority of the civil government. Jackson was followed by Washington
as the collector of Ramnad. He resolved to bring the rebellioys chiefs of
Panchalamkurichi under control. The company’s forces marched
towards Panchalankurichi. Major Bonnerman led the British forces.
Kattabomman’s army included remarkable generals. In a short time the
polygar resistance was quelled by a grand display of British arms.
Kattabomman escaped and sought refuge at Pudukkottai. Vijaya
Raghunatha Tondaiman got an opportunity to display his loyalty to the
‘low wretches’ by handing over the rebel.

The British rule of law entitled the whites alone to liberty and equality.
They took all precautionary measures to divide and rule the native
powers and render them to submission. The disunity among the native
powers in India was congenial for their growth. The national character of
the Indians and the superiority of British arms rendered the fighters for
freedom into an ineffective state. After the fall of Panchalamkurichi, the
‘rebels’ were tried and punished. Soundara Pandya of Nagalapuram and
the commanders of Kattabomman’s army were executed. Umaidurai
was put in prison at Palayamkottai. Kattabomman was taken to Kayatar
and hanged on 16th October, 1799. The order of execution carried the
following allegations: (i).that Kattabomman accumulated arrears of
tribute.(ii). that he refused to meet the collector without an armed band,
(iii). when summoned by the collector at Tiruneveli, he disregarded it
saying that the day was not auspicious (iv). that he induced other
polygars to armed revolt, that he refused to meet the collector on the
day of the declaration of war. Kottabomman was executed for these
reasons.. The allies of the company like the rulers of Ettayapuram,
Pudukkottai, Maniachi etc., were amply rewarded for their services. But
they were deprived of their right to possess arms and required to pay
more tribute.

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Kattabomman lit the torch of liberty in India. He stands first in the annals
of modern India as an immaculate freedom fighter. He was an example
to the freedom fighters of the 19th and 20th centuries. In the British eyes
he was a rebel and notorious robber. In folk songs, native chronicles and
legends he is celebrated as a national leader and first rate patriot. He
was less a rebel and more a victim of British machinations.

6.2.4 Umai-Durai

Sivattaiya Kumrasamy alias Umaidurai (the dumb Raja) was the brother
of Kattabomman. He was an excellent organizer. During the siege of
Panchalamkurichi, he fell into the British hands and was imprisoned in
the fort at Palayamkottai. After the execution of Kattabomman, the
rebels released Umai-durai from prison in a heroic feat comparable to
the Agra adventure of Shivaji. Then they stormed the British arsenal at
Tuticorin and took possession of arms and ammunition. Then they
attacked Panchalamkurichi and recovered it. In 1801 the British declared
War against Umai-durai. His fort was smashed for the second time,
Umai-durai escaped to Sivaganga. Afterwards he was captured and
executed after a heroic resistance in A.D.1801.

6.3 THE MARUDU BROTHERS

Sivaganga before A.D.1710 was a part and parcel of the Sethupathi

kingdom of Ramnad. The sovereignty of that province was assigned to
one Periya Udaya Tevar by Kilavan Sethupathi in recognition of the
former’s service to the latter. Later on the kingdom of Ramnad was
divided into five parts and awarded to Sasivarna Tevar. Thus the
independent state of Sivaganga came into being. The rulers of
Sivaganga were friendly towards Ramnad and aided the Sethupathi in
times of trouble. During the period of one Muthuvaduganatha in 1772,
the Nawab invaded Sivaganga to render its submission after having
subdued Ramnad. Muthuvaduganatha resisted the invasion but died
fighting. His widow, Vellachi with the Marudu brothers escaped to the
Dindigul region and lived in forced exile for sometime. In 1780, Marudu
brothers rose against the Nawab and captured Sivaganga. They
crowned their late sovereign’s widow, Vellachi. Vellachi was followed by
her daughter Velu Nachi on the throne.

The Marudu brothers, popularly known as Sherogars (ministers) were

brave men. Periya or Vella Marudu and Chinna Marudu played a heroic
role in the checkered history of the Maravas. Ministers to Vellachi and

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after her death to Velu Nachi and Vengum Periya Wodaya Thevar, they
were popular leaders of the country. The Marudus realized the need for
concerted action against British regime and the liberation of the
motherland. The fall of Panchalamkurichi under Kattabomman was a
serious shock to their nationalist fervour but they had hope to live and
were prepared to die.

The League: After the fall of Kattabomman, Gopala Nayak of Dindigul

organized a local league against the alien government. Lakshmi Nayak
of Manaparai, Yadul Nayak of Delhi, Poojari Nayak of Deodanpatti, the
chiefs of Darapuram, Kangeyam, Columbum, Sankagiri, Karur,
Kannivadi, etc., joined the league. In 1801 the local leagues formed by
the Marudus and Gopala Nayak merged together with the common
objective of ousting the British land grabbers from the South. Under the
leadership of Umai-durai the local forces were mobilized. They attacked
the British arsenal at Tuticorin and Cape Comorin and took possession
of arms and ammunition. The fort of Panchalamkurichi was built again
as though by a miracle. Colin Macaulay led an army against Umai-durai,
smashed the fort and razed it to the ground. Umai-durai and his
comrades escaped and took refuge at Sivaganga.

Kalayarkoil was the heroic land, which welcomed the heroic sons of
Tamilzhaham who had resolved to unfetter the chains which bound the
hands of Mother India. With the union of Umaidurai, the Maruthu
brothers and Gopala Nayak, the volcano which was groaning since the
execution of Kattabomman blasted out in mighty flames. Nowhere in
India at any time did the common people organize and fight for a
nationalist cause so extensive for the first time. So violent a rebellion
against British imperialism, as the patriots of the South did in the
memorable years 1800-1801.

British Action

The British government conducted a “three-pronged offensive” against

the revolutionaries. Three divisions were sent against the insurgents at
Kalayarkoil. Serfoji of Tanjore, the Tondaiman of Pudukottai and Woya
Thevar (a rival claimant to the throne of Sivaganga) stood with the
British. The rebellion was at last suppressed with a heavy hand. All the
rebels were taken captive. Seventy three of them including Umai-durai,
the Marudus and Gopala Nayak were ordered to be executed or hanged.

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6.4 FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Dr.K.Rajayyan opines that what took place in 1801 was not a polygar
insurrection but a national uprising against the British regime. Most of
the peninsular powers beginning from Umai-durai of Panchalamkurichi,
Marudus of Sivaganga, Gopala Nayak of Dindigul, Khan-I-Jah Khan of
Kongunad to Dhoonhaji Waug of Northern Karnataka, Krishnappa Nayak
of Western Mysore and Kerala Varma of Malabar were wedded to the
common cause of national liberation. With Kalayarkoil and Dindigul as
their rallying centre the radius of rebel movement extended as far as
Anegudi, Gwalior, Karnataka and Malabar.

The suppression of the commotion in the far south left the British power
free to consolidate its conquests. The Nawab of Arcot came under the
direct administration of the company. The native powers were required
to surrender their arms and prohibited to manufacture fire-arms. The
jungles in Dindigul and Sivaganga which served as dens of the lions
fighting for freedom were ordered to be destroyed. The forts of the rebel
chiefs were demolished. Panchalankurichi was ravaged and levelled to
the ground as the Romans did in Carthage. Military roads, military posts
and postal links were established in the southern provinces.

Check your progress

1. The organiser of the polygar system was _____ of Madurai who

accomplished it with the assistance of his minister Ariyanath.

2. Vira Pandya Kattabomman of ______ was the son of Jagavira

Pandya Kattabomman.

3. Marudus of _______ played a heroic role in the polygar

rebellion.

Summary

Thus the South Indian leaders fought against the British regime in India
for national liberation. The poligars like Kattabomman, Umaidurai, and
Marudu brothers played a prominent role in this rebellion.

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Glossary

Polygar : administrator of palayam.

Marudhu Brothers : Periya Marudu or Vellai Marudu and Chinna

Marudu.

Sivattaiya Kumarasamy : known as Umaidurai, the dumb Raja, brother

of Kattabomman

Answers to Check your progress

1. Viswanatha Nayak

2. Panchalamkurichi

3. Sivaganga

74
Unit 7

THE ANGLO-FRENCH WAR

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Anglo French War (A.D.1746-48)

7.2.1 Carnatic War I (A.D.1748-54)

7.2.2 Carnatic War II (A.D.1758-1763)

7 .2.3 Carnatic War III

Summary

Answer to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the causes, course and results of the three Carnatic wars
have been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

 explain the position of the English and the French companies on

the eve of the outbreak of hostilities in the Deccan.

 discuss the causes, course and results of the different phases of

the Anglo-French conflict for supremacy in the Deccan.

75
7.1 INTRODUCTION

The English and the French had their settlements on the Western Coast,
Eastern Coast and in Bengal at the time of the outbreak of hostilities in
the Deccan. The three phases of this struggle are called the three
Carnatic wars.

7.2 ANGLO – FRENCH WAR

The position of the English Company was superior to that of the French
Company in five respects:-

(i) The financial position of the English Company was superior to

that of the French Company. It carried on trade very vigorously
and made huge profits. The French trade was not on the same
scale. Finances are the sinews of war and in this respect the
English Company was at a great advantage.

(ii) The English company was a private concern and its employees
possessed a lot of incentives and initiatives. Their prosperity was
linked with the prosperity of the company. The French Company
was the off – spring of State patronage and its employees lacked
that initiative which characterises a private concern.

Position of Carnatic: It is important to mention the position of Carnatic

also. Carnatic was under the nominal authority of the Nizam of Deccan.
As the Nizam of deccan was under the nominal authority of the Mughal
Emperor and he had become independent for all intents and purposes.
Similarly the Nawab of Carnatic had become virtually independent. In
1741 the Marathas invaded Carnatic, killed its ruler, Dost Ali, and
captured his son – in – law, Chanda Sahib. In the absence of any ruler
of Carnatic, the Nizam of Deccan sent Anwar-ud-Din, a near relative of
his ,as the Nawab of Carnatic. It was in 1748 Chanda Sahib was
released by the Marathas and he claimed the throne of Carnatic.

7.2.1 Carnatic War I ( A.D.1746 – 48)

The English and the French fought three wars in India between 1746
and 1763. These put an end to the French military power in this country.
The first Carnatic War was an echo of the war of Austrian Succession in
Europe.

76
Causes: The first cause of this war was the commercial rivalry of the
English and French Companies in India. Each wanted to turn the other
out of India to increase its trade. It greatly strained their relations.
Secondly, the War of Austrian Succession broke out in Europe in which
the English and the French fought against each other. It had its
repercussions in India also.

Events: Dupleix, the French Governor of Pondicherry, felt that the

French position was not very strong and suggested to the Madras
Governor that both sides should maintain neutrality in India. It was not
accepted by the Madras Governor because he was expecting
reinforcements from England with which he hoped to drive out the
French from India. Dupleix then approached Anwar-ud-Din, the Nawab
of Carnatic, because Madras and Pondicherry were situated in his
kingdom. The Nawab asked the English and the French not to wage war
in his kingdom. The English obeyed his order.

Dupleix had requested La Bourdonnais, the Governor of Mauritius, for

help and the latter reached the Coromandel Coast with his squadron in
1746. The two fleets faced each other for some time but then the English
navy withdrew without a fight. La Bourdonnais besieged the Nawab of
Carnatic to stop the French from fighting but Dupleix coaxed the Nawab
by telling him that after capturing Madras he would hand it over to him.
Madras was captured but then the relations of La Bourdonnais and
Dupleix became strained. La Boundonnais handed over Madras to the
English on their promise to pay £40,000 to the French Company.
Dupleix did not accept this arrangement and captured Madras. Then he
refused to hand over Madras to the Nawab. The Nawab sent an army
against the French but it was defeated by a small French force at the
battle of St: Thome (also called the battle of Adyar) near Madras. The
importance of this battle lies in the fact that it demonstrated the
superiority of well – disciplined European infantry and European artillery
over the large undisciplined Indian forces.

Then Dupleix attacked Fort St. David. It was bravely defended by

Stringer Lawrence, a brave officer and a good strategist, with the help of
refugees from Madras. The French failed to capture it. The English
attacked Pondicherry but could not capture it.

End of War: The War of Austrain Succession came to an end in Europe

by the Treaty of Aix – la – Chapelle in 1748 and the hostilities of the

77
English and the French in India came to an end. The English got back
Madras in India while the French got back Louisberg in North America.

Significance of War

This war did not bring about any territorial changes in India but otherwise
its significance was great. Firstly, in indicated the great importance of
sea power. Secondly, it showed the superiority of well – disciplined
European forces and Western methods of warfare over large
undisciplined Indian forces and outmoded Indian methods of warfare.
Thirdly, it made it quite clear that India was politically decadent. Fourthly,
it increased the bitterness between the English and the French
Companies. Both had raised forces during the war which they could not
disband after its termination due to mutual jealousies.

7.2.2 Carnatic War II (A.D.1748 – 54)

Causes

(1) Strained Anglo – French relations in India: The first Carnatic

War did not put an end to the Anglo – French rivalry in India. It only
strained further the relations of the employees of the two Companies
who had faced each other on the battlefields. Moreever, they had learnt
that they were strong enough to defeat the Muslim powers of the Deccan
and it encouraged them to interfere in the affairs of the native States.

(2) Disputed successions at Hyderabad and Carnatic: In 1748

Nizam –ul – Mulk Asaf Jah died and there was a dispute for his throne
between his second son, Nasir Jung and his grandson, Muzaffar Jung
(daughter’s son). About the same time there was a dispute about the
throne of Carnatic. The claim of the ruling Nawab Anwar – ud – Din was
challenged by Chanda Sahib, the son – in – law of a former Nawab.
Dupleix decided to profit from this situation. He took up the case of
Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib.

(3) Events. Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib with the French help
defeated Anwar-ud-Din at the battle of Amber in 1749. Anwar –ud –Din
was killed and his illegitimate son, Muhammad Ali, took refuge in the fort
of Trichinopoly. Dupleix wanted Chanda Sahib to press the sieze of
Tiruchinopoly with viogour and capture it as quickly as possible but
Chanda Sahib wasted time in fighting against the Raja of Tanjore.

78
The English gave some help to Nasir Jung and he took the field in 1750.
Muzaffar Jung was defeated and imprisoned. Then the fortune of Nasir
Jung took an adverse turn. He was deserted by his troops and
assassinated. Muzaffar Jung was set free, taken to Pondicherry and
crowned there. He gave £50,000 to the French Company and a jagir
yielding £10000 a year to Dupleix. The French officer Bussy
accompanied him to Hyderabad. Muzafar Jung was killed on his way to
Hyderabad in a chance encounter. Bussy did not place any son of
Muzaffar Jung on the throne declaring that a boy would not prove fit in
the troubled atmosphere of Hyderabad. He placed on the throne Salabat
Jung, third son of Nizam –ul- Mulk Asaf Jah, and himself stayed there to
guard him against all internal and external dangers.

The English were upset by the increasing French influence. The

establishment of Chanda Sahib, the ally of the French, on the throne of
Carnatic was bound to have adverse effect on the English trade since
the hinterland of Madras would be in the hands of their enemies.
Governor Saunders decided to take vigorous measures. Clive was sent
with 200 European and 300 Indian soldiers. He captured Arcot, the
Capital of Carnatic. Chanda Sahib sent about half of his army under his
son Raja Sahib to take back Arcot and Clive was besieged there. The
timely arrival of Murari Rao, a Maratha chief, enabled Clive to defeat
Raja Sahib. Then Chanda Sahib was forced by Major Lawrence to raise
the siege of Trichinopoly. He fled away and was put to death by the Raja
of Tanjore. Thus Muhammad Ali became the Nawab of Carnatic. Dupleix
tried to recover his position but could not do anything. He was recalled in
1754.

Treaty of Pondicherry

Dupleix was succeeded by Godeheu. He arranged the terms of peace

with the English by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1755. Both the
companies agreed not to interfere in the internal affairs of Indian States,
Secondly, they mutually returned the places conquered. The English,
however, were to keep a town in Northern Circars. Thirdly, Bussy was to
remain at Hyderabad.

Comments on the Treaty of Pondicherry

It has been remarked that by this treaty Godeheu sacrificed the French
interests. It can be said against this treaty that it gave the English the
much needed rest before they embarked on the Third Carnatic War. The

79
seven years war started in Europe in 1756 but the hostilities did not start
in India, till 1758 and the English used this interval to establish
themselves in Bengal.

On the other hand, the treaty has been defended by P.E. Roberts.
Firstly, the financial position of the French company had become very
bad. Secondly, the English forces in India were superior in number and
quality. Thirdly, Admiral Watson had arrived with his fleet and strong
reinforcements. It was feared that this force in alliance with the Marathas
might attack Bussy and end the French influence at Hyderabad.
Fourthly, the peace was only provisional and required ratification by both
the Companies at home. That ratification never took place because of
the outbreak of the seven years war and the slight changes suggested in
the draft treaty were never made. The task of Godeheu was to save
what he could and he succeeded well in that work.

Results of Second Carnatic War

The result of the second Carnatic war was that Mohammad Ali, the
friend of the English, became the Nawab of Carnatic, which Nizam
Salabat Jung, the friend of the English remained on the throne of
Hyderabad. The French retained the Northern Circars which they had
secured from Nizam Salabat Jung.

7.2.3 Carnatic War III (A.D.1758 – 1763)

Causes: The Second Carnatic War failed to solve the problem of Anglo
– French conflict in India. The outbreak of hostilities in Europe was
bound to have its repercussion in India also. The Seven Years War
started in Europe in 1756. England and France were ranged on opposite
sides. The Third Carnatic war in India became a part of this war.

Events: The French Government sent Count de Lally as the Governor

and Commander – in- Chief with instructions to oust the English from
India. He was a brave soldier and an incorruptible person but was unfit
for the task. He reached India in April 1758. Immediately after this he
attacked and captured Fort St. David. Then he decided to attack
Madras. He asked the naval commander, d’Ache to give him cover from
the sea, but he did not co-operate with Lally and Lally had to proceed
alone. He wasted some time in Tanjore. He had to wait for the rainy
season to capture Madras. He had conquered almost all the areas
except Madras. He called Bussy from Hyderabad to help him. It was a

80
great military and political blunder. Soon after Bussy’s departure from
Hyderabad, Clive sent col. Forde from Bengal and he captured the
Northern Circars from the French. Moreover, Nizam Salabat Jung joined
the English. Lally attacked Madras but could not take it.

Then the English took the offensive. The English commander, sir Eyre
Coote defeated the French at Wandiwash and took Bussy prisoner. This
cleared the way for the English advance. In 1760 the English captured
the strong fort of Genji and in 1761 Pondicherry was also conquered

Treaty of Paris (A.D.1763): The Seven Years War was brought to a

close by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The French settlements in India
were returned but a restriction was laid that these would not be fortified
again. The French were not to keep troops in Bengal.

Results of the War. The Third Carnatic War ended the military and
political power of the French in India. Henceforth they remained in this
country only as traders. This war broke the power of England’s last
European rival in India. It is true that in 1781 the French landed troops in
India but by that time the English were too well established to be shaken
in India. Thus ended the Anglo – French conflict in the Deccan with the
verdict of victory in favour of the English.

Check your progress

1. The first Carnatic war was an echo of the War ____ in Europe.

2. Treaty of Pondicherry was signed in ______

3. War ended the French military power in India.

Summary

The English and the French had properly established their settlements in
India by 1740 and had become serious rivals of each other. They fought
three wars in India known as the Carnatic wars and by 1763 the
English had completely crushed the French military and political power
in this country.

81
Answers to Check your progress

1. War of Austrian succession.

2. 1755.

3. Third Carnatic War.

82
Unit 8

VELLORE MUTINY

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Vellore Mutiny

8.2.1 Causes

8.2.2 Course

8.2.3 Causes for its failures

Summary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the causes, course and results of the Vellore Mutiny have
been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

 describe the factors responsible for the outbreak of the Vellore

Mutiny.

 discuss the course and results of the Vellore Mutiny.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Rebellions had broken out in many parts of India very soon after the
British rule was established. From 1763 to 1856, there were more than
fifty major rebellions in the country. After suppressing the South Indian

83
Rebellion of 1800-1801, another small uprising broke out in Vellore due
to activities of the British against the Indian soldiers. This incident is
called the Vellore Mutiny.

8.2 VELLORE MUTINY

“The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 was a prelude to the great Mutiny of 1857,
The Vellore Mutiny brought a major crack in the growing British power in
South India.” The above opinion given by a historian of modern period
cannot be minimised or underestimated. After the pioneering attempts
of Kattabomman and the Marudu Brothers, the Sepoys of Vellore raised
the banner of revolt in 1806. It is desirable to discuss the important
causes for the Vellore Mutiny of 1806.

8.2.1 Causes

In the 18th century all the three presidencies had separate armies. The
quality of Madras army was improved by Stringer Lawrence and Robert
Clive. Reforms in the armed corps of the Presidencies were attempted
in 1796 and 1806. The Regulations of 1806 affected the religious
sentiments of the native sepoys which led to the Vellore rebellion. (ii)The
conditions of the Indian sepoys were pitiable and pathetic. (iii)The
Indian sepoys were not happy with their ranks. Promotions were denied
to them. (iv) The sepoys were also not satisfied with their pay. The
English soldiers of the same rank were paid six times higher than a
native sepoy. (v)The oppressive and suppressive attitude of the English
army officers paved the way for the rebellion. (vi) In February 1806, Sir
John Cradeck, Commander-in-chief of the Madras regiments enforced
certain innovations in the army on the advice of the Governor of Madras.
Lord William Bentinck (1803-1807), the Commander-in-chief issued an
order to the soldiers of infantry and cavalry to wear a new turban
(shakos). The new turban was made of the same materials like the old
one, with the broad cloth in iron frame. It was like an European hat.
(vii)Clean shaving was imposed upon the soldiers during their parades
and duties i.e., everyone had to shave the beards. (viii)According to a
regulation the sepoys were ordered to remove all caste marks (applying
Tiruneer or Tirumamam) and carvings. These things greatly affected
their religious feelings. So they rose in revolt in 1806. (ix)The followers
of Tipu Sultan thought that it was very dangerous to their religion and
moreover it would pave the way for Christianisation in Tamizhaham. As
a result they opposed the same tooth and nail.

84
8.2.2 Course

The native soldiers considered these reforms as a deliberate British

attempt to forcible conversion to Christianity. The new turbans were
sent to each regiment. But the sepoys decided to refuse the same. Lt.
Col.Darley the Commanding Officer of the Vellore battalion ordered 29
sepoys to wear the turbans. They refused to wear the turbans. At the
same time the sepoys scolded the officers and even called them dogs.
It greatly infuriated the officers. So some of them were imprisoned.
Some refused to carry the arms also. It was reported to Cradock. In
Wallajabad the sepoys threw away the new turbans. The British
suspected Subedar Venkaya Nair. He was arrested immediately. The
rebels were brought under control.

After the death of Tippu his sons and daughters and other relatives were
kept in captivity in the fort of Vellore (Tippu had 12 sons and six
daughters). The third and fourth sons Mohaideen and Muizudeen were
keenly watching the sentiments of the sepoys from the beginning.
Under these circumstances they have decided to exploit the same.
They planned to crush the Europeans at Vellore and to reinstate the
family of Tippu in Mysore again. But Cradock considered it as a revolt
sponsored by the sons of Tippu Sultan to regain their power.

The events of the revolt took place mostly inside the Vellore Fort. The
total number of sepoys at the Vellore fort was nearly 1800 where as the
Englishmen outside were 400. At 2 A.M. of 10th July 1806 the sepoys
came out of their barracks, broke the arsenal and armed themselves
with swords and guns. They vehemently and vigorously and even more
gallantly attacked the English soldiers in the main gate way and
succeeded in their attempt. The 69th Regiment was attacked and half of
them were murdered in cold blood. The commanding Officer of the 23rd
Regiment Kerras was shot dead.

The news of the occupation of the fortress and the surrounding area
reached the nearest military station at Arcot immediately i.e. at 6 A.M. At
9 A.M. the British forces reached Vellore. The Fort was recovered as
fast as it fell into the mutineers i.e., the whole affair lasted only eight
hours. In the mutiny about 100 Europeans and 300 native soldiers lost
their lives. The sons of Tippu were imprisoned and sent to Calcutta.

85
22.2.3 Causes for its failures

(i)The sepoys had no clear idea about the mutiny. (ii)They were not
supported by the common people during this time. (iii)There was no
nationalist sentiment among the people. (iv) It was an isolated incident.
It was a localised one. It did not spread to other regiments to intensify
the revolt. (v)They were inefficient to organise a revolt in such a way to
attain great victory. (vi) The British Officers were very strong and
sturdy to oppress the revolt in time. Hence they failed miserably
(vii)Another important factor for their failure of the Mutiny was the
plundering attitude of the sepoys. It clearly paved the way for the failure
of the Mutiny.

Check Your progress

1. Vellore rebellion broke out in the year _____

2. Immediate cause of the Vellore rebellion was ______

Summary

After the skirmish the Governor was recalled and the controversial
regulation abolished. An enquiry was conducted by the British to
investigate the root cause of the Mutiny. It goes without saying that the
Vellore rebellion was in many ways an anticipation of the great Indian
revolt of 1857.

Answers to check your progress

1. 1806

2. Sepoys were ordered to remove all religious and caste marks.

86
 BLOCK III

Unit 9 The Political condition of Tamil Nadu in the 19th and

20th Centuries

Unit 10 Contribution of the Christian Missionaries of Tamil

Society and Culture

Unit 11 Freedom Movement in Tamil Nadu

87
Unit 9

THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF

TAMIL NADU IN THE 19TH AND 20TH
CENTURIES

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Political Condition of Tamil Nadu in the 19th and 20th

Centuries

9.2.1 Rule of the British East India Company

9.2.2 Rule of the British crown

Summary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the political condition of Tamil Nadu in the 19th and 20th
centuries have been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

 analyse the political conditions of the Madras Presidency under

East India Company

 assess the political conditions of Tamil Nadu under the British

Crown

88
9.1 INTRODUCTION

The end of the 18th Century saw the end of an era in the politics of
Tamil Nadu. It is indicated by the political event of the formation of the
Madras Presidency in 1801. In 1801, the English East India company
began to rule practically the whole of Tamil Nadu and some adjourning
Telugu and Malabar districts, all of which together constituted the
Madras presidency.

The British rule of the Tamil country as part of the Madras Presidency
lasted for 147 years which can be divided into as earlier period of 57
years (1801-57) when the East India company governed it and the later
period of 90 years (1858-1947) during which the British crown ruled
through its Viceroys from the Indian Imperial capital- first Calcutta and
then (New) Delhi.

9.2 THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF TAMIL NADU IN

THE 19 TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

In sub sections 23.2.1 and 23.2.2, we will touch upon the topics like the
Rule of the British East India Company and the Rule of the British crown.

9.2.1 The Rule of the British East India Company

Till the end of the 17th century the executive and legislative powers of
the company were decided by the crown rather than the parliament. But
in the 18th century the Parliament asserted its authority to guide and
control the prerogative of the crown in matters relating to the company.
The enquiries into the conduct of Clive, and Warren Hastings in India
whetted the parliamentary interest in Indian affairs. Before the
Regulating Act was passed in 1773, the government of the company
was carried on at home by a governor, a commmittee of 24 and the
general court, consisting of subscribers to the company’s stock i.e., its
ordinary members. The English settlement in Madras, like Bombay and
Calcutta, was governed by a president or governor and a council
consisting of senior merchants. Towards the close of the 17th century
the home authorities consisted of a committee called the court of
Directors and the old General court called the court of projection in
council was made supreme. Over the other presidencies in the matters
of war and peace, except in emergencies or on receipt of social
orders from home. The royal Charter of 1774, established the supreme
court which was independent of the governor general -in-council and

89
which exercised Jurisdiction over all the British subjects. Many of the
defects of the Regulating act were corrected by the later Acts of 1781,
1784 and 1786. The Regulating Act made it, Obligatory for the charter
to be renewed every twenty years and accordingly it was renewed in
1793, 1813, 1833 and 1853.

The Charter Act of 1793 was easily passed by parliament. Thereby the
powers of the governor-general to control the affairs of Madras and
Bombay were extended. The governor of Madras was empowered to
over rule his council. The charter Act of 1813 extended the company’s
charter for a further period of twenty years. The trade of which the
company had a total monopoly was thrown open to all British subjects,
except in the case of tea and of China trade.

For the first time provision was made for the education and training of
the company’s servants before entering service and it was laid down that
the company’s writers should have attended the college at Heidelburg,
England. The charter Act of 1833 abolished the company’s monopoly of
trading altogether and upheld the principles of free trade. The Governor
General was also the Governor of Bengal and his control over Madras
became more effective. The council of the Governor-General now
included an additional member called the ‘Law member’ by this Act, Lord
T.B.Macaulay, was appointed the first law member. This act completed
the process of the subordination of Madras to the Governor-General-in
council. Macaulay introduced a measure of liberalism in the working of
the government. He produced the Indian penal code and the criminal
procedure code. He was primarily responsible for the introduction of the
Rule of law in India. He fought against privilege, patronage and
corruption.

An act of 1853 that took away the privilege of a British litigant to appeal
to the Supreme Court in cases where Indians could appeal only to the
Sadr Diwani Adalat and every one was brought under the jurisdiction of
the company’s civil courts. By this Act the number of ordinary members
of the council in Madras was reduced from 3 to 2. The charter Act of
1853 was the last Charter Act. This Act created a lieutenant
governorship of Bengal to look after the administration of that
presidency. It made the Governor-general of India equally superior to
the three presidencies.

In 1857 the Indian Mutiny broke out. An important characteristic of this

Mutiny was that it was confined to regions definitely to the north of the

90
Nizam’s dominions. It did not have its repercussions in the south. It
almost looked as if it did not even reflect the feelings in the south in one
sense it could even be said that given the conditions of those times it
was a misnomer to have called it the Indian mutiny. So far as Madras
was concerned there was not a single incident which could be
considered part of what was happening in the Gangetic Valley. Lord
Harris who was governor of Madras from 28 April 1854 to 28 March
1859 had no problems on hand in connection with the Mutiny. The only
way in which he was busy with the tackling of the mutiny was to send
military personnel and other resources from Madras to Bengal from
where they were distributed to other centres of aggression and
resistance. General James O Neill was the most notable among those
officers who left Madras for North India and noted for the violent and
cruel way in which he put down the revolt around Allahabad. In 1858 the
British Parliament by the Government of India Act took over the
government of the British territories in India from the East India
company. The court of Directors and the Board of Control got abolished
in the process. The secretary of state for India, a new creation, stepped
into the position of the President of the Board of control. The Governor
General became the Viceroy. Otherwise the position of the government
of Madras did not change substantially. From 1858 to 1947 the
Governor of Madras still governed Madras, but under periodically
varying circumstances.

23.2.2 Rule of the British crown

Between 1858 and 1919 when the first major breakthrough in

constitutional development occurred, there were four council Acts which
were so called because they did nothing more than alter the
composition of the governor-general’s council. They were passed in
1861, 1874, 1892 and 1909. The Act of 1861 provided for a
decentralised legislature. The subordinate legislatures were recreated in
Madras and Bombay. The Governor General’s executive council was
enlarged into a central Legislative Council. Six to twelve members were
to be nominated by the Governor General and of them not less than half
were to be ‘non-officials’ meaning persons who were not in the employ
of the crown. This Legislative council was to make laws for the whole of
British India. Indian High courts Act of 1861 combined the Supreme and
Sadre courts and a High court came into existence in Madras with a
chief Justice and not more than 15 judges. The Indian councils Act of
1874 added a sixth member of the governor-general’s council. The
Indian Council’s Act of 1892 increased the number of Additional

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Members for Indian Legislature, who were to be not less than ten and
not more than sixteen. The number in Madras was more than doubled.
Of the ten non-focal members of the Imperial council four were to be
chosen by the non-official additional member of the councils in Madras,
Bombay, Bengal and the North-western provinces and oudh. For the
Madras council the method of selection varied. The city nominated a
member. There were representatives of District Boards and smaller
Municipal Boards met in electoral colleges to select their nominees.
Though there were improvements on the position as it prevailed in 1861,
the elective principle had not been explicitly accepted.

The Indian Councils Act, 1909, known as the Minto-Morley reforms

increased the number of the additional members of the Imperial
Legislative Council to a maximum of 60 and fixed the number of elected
members at 27 and of the 33 nominated members not more than 28
were to be officials. This was the first time the elective principle was
overtly recognised. For the first time also, it introduced the principle of
communal representation in the interests of the Muslims. The Muslims
were recognised as the Major minority group community which felt the
need for separate representation. Discussion on the Budget was not
permitted. The division of the house on important resolution was also
allowed. The Provincial Legislative Councils were also enlarged to have
four members, of whom one was to be an Indian.

This formed in one sense the basis for the non-Brahmin community’s
demand for reservation of seats in the legislative councils formed after
the dyarchy proposals of Montford reforms, ten years later. Madras led
the rest of India paid its share of contribution to political activity during
the second decade of the present century. There was not only the
congress brand of constitutional agitation, either by inspired by the B.G.
Tilak or liberal tradition of G.K.Gokhale or the moderately militant
agitation for ‘Home Rule’ launched by Mrs. Annie Besant but also a
small quota of violent revolutionary activity ending in the murder of
atleast one European officer. Madras did her bit in the matter of co-
operation with the English war effort (1914-18) and there was no serious
local political activity as such till the emergence of the non-Brahmin
movement organised by Theagaraja Chetti and T.M.Nair, who founded
the Justice Party. They were a group of pro-British anti-Brahmin
politicians who though a majority of the population, still wanted
constitutional protection against a minority. The Montford reforms gave
these politicians an opportunity to form a ministry which lasted till the
Swaraj Party in the Congress, which advocated the council entry,

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wrested political initiative from the Justicites by winning the Legislative
council elections of 1926, The latter lost the anti-Brahmin forum to the
Dravidian movement of E.V.Ramasami Naicker and the council entry
programme to the Indian National Congress, and so slowly became
defunct, for it had no more any mission to fulfil. It was too parochial to
ask for national freedom or be concerned about it very much, and too
sophisticated and Anglicised to take to mass movements for social
reform, When the Justice party was in power they passed a few
government orders which provided for communal reservations in the
matter of political appointments. With the beginning of the Non-Brahmin
Movement in the shape of the Justice party in the later part of 1916, a
social situation unparalleled in other parts of India emerged. This
movement was provoked by a number of factors among which the
appearance of Mrs. Annie Besant on the political scene was not the
least.

The Monford Report was published in April 1918. It introduced the

principle of dyarchy and its recommendations were written into the
Government of India Act 1919.

Pursuant to the Government of India Act 1919, elections were held in

Madras in 1920. The franchise was limited, under the Dyarchical system
of government. In the absence of the Indian National Congress, the
Justice Party contested and won the election and formed the
Government in 1919. The party was in power till 1936 with few years
break in between.

Since Thyagaraja chetty refused to form a Ministry, A.Subbarayalu

Reddiar of Cuddalore, became the first chief Minister of Madras under
the Dyarchy in December 1920. In the whole of India, Madras was the
only Province which with the exception of the Punjab made the reforms
work. It was possible since the Justice Party was pro-British. During
their tenure of office they got two Government orders passed both
relating to the greater distribution of government jobs to non-Brahmins.
These attempts to control Brahmins pre-dominance in government
service goes back to 1851, when it was laid down that District Collectors
should divide the principal appointments among several castes, with the
demise of P.Thyagaraja chetty in 1925 the party began to decline. The
pressure of nationalist politics was too much for them.

The 1920 elections, which were boycotted by the Congress, went in

favour of the Justice Party, but the 1923 elections were contested by the

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Swarajists who managed to reduce the Justice majority in the council. In
1927 the Congress won the Madras Corporation elections. The Sir
Simon Commission was a statutory commission which toured India in
1928. The Congress decided to boycott it on the ground that the
commission did not include even one Indian. But the very valuable
report submitted by Sir Simon formed on the basis of the Round Table
Conferences further led to the passing of Government of India Act, 1935.

The Congress session met in Madras in December 1927. In that

session Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the complete independence
resolution and it was passed. But his father Motilal Nehru opposed this
resolution, not in that session, by another which aimed at dominion
status. The role of Tamil Nadu Congress in 1931, the Satyagraha
movement was repetitive and the initiative C.Rajagopalachari playing
Gandhi’s role here are also noteworthy.

The first two Round Table Conferences saw the usual routine run of
politicians from Madras attending. In 1935 the Government of India Act
was passed. The Act contemplated a federal government with division
of powers between the federal and provincial authorities, and a federal
court. Responsible government was introduced in the provinces by this
Act. In fact the Act was implemented only partially i.e., in regard to the
provinces only since the native status refused to join the federation. In
the Madras Province, there was to be a nominated Governor, and a
bicameral legislature. The Governor was given special powers in
respect of law and order, otherwise he was to be guided by the council
of Ministers, the chief among whom was called the Chief Minister. The
Legislative council sat permanently and 1/3 of the members retiring
every three years.

Since it was an Act establishing a Federation, there was division of

powers between the centre and the states. Three lists recorded were
the federal, provincial and concurrent powers. The Provincial list
consisted of law and order, Justice, Forests, police, prisons, local
government, public health, education, agriculture land revenue. etc.
The Federal court had appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts in the
provinces. This Act also reduced the authority of the Secretary of State
for India. Meanwhile in the 1936 elections, the Congress won a
thumping majority. Madras was one of the few states to work this Act
with great distinction under the leadership of C.Rajagoplachariar. It is
generally estimated that his administration of Madras was one of the
best known to the history of the region. The introduction of prohibition

94
and the relief to indebted agriculturists were important legislative
measures adopted by Rajaji. When he introduced Hindi as a
compulsory subject of study, it met with opposition from E.V.Ramasamy
whom he was obliged to arrest.

The Ministry resigned in October 1939 when the British declared that
India was one of the Allies fighting the Axis powers in the Second World
War. The objection was that the announcement was made without the
prior Indian concurrence. Then from 1939, the Governors Lord Erskine
and Sir Arthur Hope carried on the administration assisted by civilian
advisers. This was during the war time; i.e., till the end of March 1946.
The Congress then contested and won the general elections and
accepted office again.

The Indian Independence Act of 1947 led to the grant of Dominion

Status of India from which Pakistan was first partitioned. The last
viceroy Lord Mountbatten continued till June 21, 1948 as the last
Governor-General also. When he laid down office, C.Rajagopalachariar
from Madras became the first and the only Indian Governor-General of
the Dominion of India. He held office till January 1950 when the new
constitution of Republic India was introduced. The first cabinet of
Republic India included Sir. R.K. Shanmugam Chetty from Madras as its
Finance Minister. The constitution of 1950 left the province of Madras
more or less where it was under the 1935 Constitution. This
constitution, changed from time to time by a number of amendments
controls the political status and activities in the region as elsewhere in
India.

Even before the end of the British rule in India, the Madras Presidency
comprising the present Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh was formed to facilitate the administration in the south of
Vindhyas. This amalgamation of four linguistic states, with the exception
of a few princely states, continued even after India got Independence in
1947. While the reorganisation of States was effected on the basis of
the languages the majority population in the regions spoke, it was called
then for the present Tamil Nadu, emerged in 1956 with eleven districts,
namely, Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli,
Thanjavur, South Arcot, Salem, North Arcot, Chengalpattu, Coimbatore
and Nilgiris.

With the restoration of popular ministries in the post-war period, three

cabinets, all under the Congress, held office in Madras State between

95
1946 and 1952. The first general election under the Constitution of India
was held in 1952. The successive Chief Ministers in this period were
Sri. T.Prakasam (1946-47), Sri Omandur Ramaswamy Reddiar (1947-
49), and Sri P.S. Kumaraswamy Raja (1949-52). The Congress was
returned to power in the general elections of 1952, 1957 and 1962. The
15 years of Congress rule during this period took place under the
cabinets headed by Rajaji (1952-54), Sri K.Kamaraj (1954-63), and Sri
M.Bhaktavatsalam (1963-1967). In the general elections of 1967 the
DMK provided the leadership and the Party swept into power, winning
138 seats in the Assembly out of 234 members. The first DMK Ministry
was formed by Thiru C.N.Annadurai and with Anna’s passing away in
1969, Thiru M.Karunanidhi became the Chief Minister. The DMK was
again elected to power with an improved majority in the general
elections of 1971 but the party went through a major split in 1973 with
the formation of the Anna DMK (ADMK, later All-India Anna DMK or
AIADMK) under the leadership of Thiru M.G.Ramachandran. The DMK-
led Karunanidhi Ministry continued until January 1976 when it was
dismissed by the Central Government during the Emergency. Tamil
Nadu then went into a period of President’s rule - the first in its political
history - which lasted until the general elections in mid 1977. In this
election, the AIADMK won a comfortable majority which it has been able
to retain in the elections of 1980 and 1985 with Thiru
M.G.Ramachandran continuing as Chief Minister since 1977, but for a
brief interlude of President’s rule in 1980 when all non-Congress
ministries in India were forced out of office.

Thus, in the five decades since Independence, the Congress and the
regional parties - DMK and AIADMK - have held power in equal
measure, and the latter continually in the last two decades except for
two interludes of President’s rule. Regional political parties are thus
entrenched in Tamil Nadu. Regionalism has been inspired by, and has
in turn reinforced, a strong sense of cultural and linguistic separateness
and pride. The Dravidian movement, on which the regional politics have
been based, has led to the uplift of hitherto depressed castes and
communities and to a welcome reduction in age-long social inequalities.
It has not led to a wider transformation towards a reasonably egalitarian
economy or polity. While the politics of Tamil Nadu are regional, its
developmental problems are increasingly dependent for their resolution
on inter-State and Centre-State cooperation. In such a context, the
regional parties have tended to play down their original thrust for
autonomy in the exercise of States’ rights and powers. At various times,
one or the other of them have also relied on the Congress and other

96
parties to pursue their mutual rivalries. Conversely, with the weakening
of its all-India base, the Congress has looked to the regional parties for
support in elections both at the State level and to Parliament. This has
been reflected in alliances of convenience in successive elections:
Congress-AIADMK in 1977, 1985, and 1991, Congress-DMK in 1980
and in 1996.

Check your progress

1. _______ Act was passed in 1773

2. The Indian Council Act, 1909, is called the ________

3. _________ was introduced by the Government of India Act,

1919.

Summary

Thus the Madras Presidency was ruled by the British East India
Company upto 1857. But after the Great revolt of 1857 the Crown
administered through its Viceroys. Many changes took place in the
administration. Meanwhile local political parties like Justice Party
emerged in Tamil Nadu to fight against the high caste domination in
society.

Answers to Check your progress

1. Regulating Act

2. Minto-Morley Reforms

3. Dyarchy.

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Unit 10

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIAN
MISSIONARIES TO TAMIL SOCIETY AND CULTURE

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

10.1. Introduction

10.2 Christian Missionary Activities

10.3 Christian Contribution in the field of Tamil Literature

Let us sum up

Key words

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, you will study about the contribution made by Christian
Missionaries to the Tamil Society and cultural development. In the
modern period European Christian Missionaries entered India soon after
the establishment of the East India companias. They intended to
propagate the gospel among the masses. In Tamil Nadu, the
missionaries began this work with great zeal. But the social conditions in
the region changed their mind and they started rendering services to the
people as well as enriching their culture. Consequently, the Tamil
society and culture were greatly improved. These aspects are discussed
in this unit.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to

 discuss the original aim of the European Christian Missionaries.

98
  describe about the Christian missionary activities in the Tamil
Country.

 explain the contribution of Christian missionaries to Tamil

language and Literature.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Christianity secured a foothold in Tamil Nadu even before the

establishment of the British rule. It started taking roots right from the
First Century A.D. and it gained momentum after the advent of the
Portuguese. A number of European missionaries came to Tamil Nadu
and lived with the natives to spread the gospel and to make conversion
to their faith. However, the condition in Tamil Nadu moved them very
much and induced them to work more for the welfare of the people than
for the conversion. The Christian missionaries noticed the ignorance,
illiteracy and poverty of the majority of the people. They not only took
note of stark backwardness in the society but also felt the intensity of the
rigidity and untouchability in the caste system. They became
sympathetic to the people, particularly, to the poor, depressed and
downtrodden and determined to extricate them from this situation. They
took sincere steps towards this cause and this attitude impressed many
in Tamil Nadu. Their concept of equality of all men before God attracted
the people greatly towards them and the equal status offered in the
Christian religion made them to opt for conversion. Thus, it was
voluntary conversions that took place during this period.

The services to the poor and needy by St. Xaviour Francis, Robert De
Nobili, Abbe Dubois, Ziegenbalg, Schultz and Frederick Swartz yielded
fruits and there was a gradual increase in conversions to Christianity. In
this respect, the Madura Mission in the South, the Danish Mission at
Tranquebar and the, Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge
at Madras were the organizations which were carrying on their service
activities in the Tamil Country.

10.2 CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES

In the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th century, Christianity in the
Tamil country was not that much popular as it was in earlier days. This
was due to the religious reform movement in Tamil Nadu. At the end of
the 18th century, Abbe Dubois estimates that the missions had lost two
thirds of their adherents in the course of 8 years and the remainder was

99
Christians only in name. The ruling Chieftains of Tamil Nadu were
hostile to the spread of Christianity and they punished the missionaries
for their conversion activities.

A serious blow to Christianity in the Tamil country was the suppression

of the Society of Jesus in 1773. A still more serious blow to the Christian
cause was inflicted by the persecutions of the Mysore ruler, Tipu Sultan.
The missionaries were expelled from the country and given the choice
between the ‘Honour of Islam and Death’. Besides the political turmoil,
the traditional rivalry of the religious orders too harassed the growth of
Christian Missions. The rivarly between the Jesuits and the Goanese
Missonaries practically affected the progress and prospects of
Christianity.

However, in later times, there were no serious problems to the

missionaries. They were able to carry on with their activities without any
interference. It is very important here to note that there were two types of
missionaries in respect of conversion; one for the lower castes and the
other for the higher castes. A separate group of missionaries called
Pandaraswamigal dealt with low castes while men like Robert De Nobili
styled themselves as sanyasis in the right Hindu style and adopted the
habits of the Brahmins and were attended by Brahmin servants only to
deal with higher castes especially the Brahmins.

In spite of all the missionary efforts, India was a hard soil for sowing their
new faith. Hinduism permeated the whole society for a long period.
Indian social system was such that the missionaries found it difficult to
break through. The caste system, ‘the steel frame’ of Hindu society was
against any change and new set up. The higher castes could not think of
conversions because for conversion meant degradation and disgrace to
their social prestige. Also, the joint family system and the village
communities were so rigid that individual members found it practically
impossible to embrace other religion. After the conversion, the individual
would cease to be a member of the joint family and village community. In
a simple rural set up in those days without the aid and co-operation of
the above mentioned two institutions, the survival of an individual was
almost impossible. Hence, Christianity in the first half of the 19th century
did not grow to the expectations of the missionaries. But at the same
time, the spread of this religion was slow and steady.

Besides, the conduct and bearing of Europeans in the Tamil country was
also an impediment to the progress of Christianity. They took beaf and

100
drinks and often had discourses with the lower classes. The caste
Hindus looked upon the Europeans and called them milechas or mean-
minded people. But Christianity was not without any success among the
lower castes. The missionaries learnt the aspects of Hindu connections
with social and religious life and were interested to have intimate
connections with the customs and conventions of the Hindus. However,
Abbe Dubois was not happy about the life of the converted Christians in
this land. Thus, the social structure in this land was an obstacle to the
spread of Christianity.

In addition to the social and political causes that proved to be stumbling

blocks to the growth of Christianity the policy of the company and the
European community in India were also not in favour of the spread of
Christianity. The authorities of the East India Companies bitterly
opposed the earlier missionaries because they felt that the presence of
the missionaries in this land might have a disturbing effect on the
Indians. The Vellore mutiny of 1806 was ascribed to their activities and
even Munro (The Governor of the Madras Presidency) was against such
activities. Lord Minto also did not appreciate the way in which the
missionaries were working in India.

It may also be said that, the European community in the company was
very much suspicious of the missionary activities in India. Though it
admitted the French Roman Catholic and German Protestant
Missionaries into India, they refused to admit British Missionaries. They
feared that under the guise of the missionaries, British free traders might
break the company’s monopoly of trade between Great Britain and India.
This suspicion continued till 1857.

In the new Charter Act of 1813 granted to the East India Company, the
Parliament of Great Britain opened the doors to all missionaries. Free
influx of Englishmen and free entry of missionaries to preach the gospel
and to impart English education was directly encouraged. Despite all
these efforts of the various missionaries, Christianity did not flourish in
the Tamil country as expected. So it was felt that secular education
should be imparted to the natives. Accordingly, Macaulay and Lord
Bentinck devoted their attention on native education to prepare the mind
of the natives for conversion and this had the desired effect. Education
proved to be a good medium, as it was expected and many became
Christians. Christianity began to thrive slowly after the introduction of
English education since 1841 and education was practically in the hands

101
of the missionaries in the initial stages and the missionaries took great
efforts to spread education among the masses.

In addition, some officials of the company also encouraged the activities

of the missionaries. A contemporary writer, Parameswaran Pillai had
clearly offered the required encouragement to the missionaries which
are indicated in his book, ‘Representative Men of Southern India’. He
cited many instances where the officials of the company co-operated
with the missionaries. Mr. Thomas, Collector of Tirunelveli in 1843, co-
operated with the missionaries in his district in their efforts to spread the
Christian religion along with education. Sir William Burton, a judge of the
Madras Court (1844-57) similarly encouraged missionary activities in the
field of religion and education. Mr. J.F. Thomas, the Chief Secretary to
the Government of Madras (1844-45) provided to the Hindu converts to
Christianity appointments under Government in preference to the
Hindus. Thus, converts were given more opportunities in the field of
education and in government appointments. This gave a great impetus
to the growth of Christianity.

Further, it may also be pointed out that Christianity was the first religion
to redress the grievances of the lower castes. It raised the status of the
downtrodden by offering education and equality. This attracted a great
mass of outcastes to Christianity. Besides, the missionaries had done a
lot for their well-being. In Athur, in Salem District by building houses and
giving a piece of land for their livelihood, the missionaries themselves
took up the responsibility for their good conduct and thus reformed them
by stages. In addition to this, Christianity strove hard to raise the status
of Indian women and widows in particular. Many widow houses were
established and widows were given shelter and protection. They had
established schools for them and enhanced their status and mental
calibre. This made many poor and destitutes to embrace Christianity.

It may be said here that with the establishment of British rule in the Tamil
country in 1801 a new era began in the history of Christianity. Christian
missionaries took advantage of the political power of the English and
took to large scale conversions. People also began to embrace the new
faith motivated by the considerations of material prospects such as
assured jobs, business opportunities and social elevation. Particularly,
the lower order of the society such as the untouchbles were induced to
leave their parental religion in order to erase the stigma of social
inferiority. Further, the humanitarian services rendered by the
missionaries attracted the depressed classes into the fold of Christianity.

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The American Arcot mission was founded in 1853 by the American
brothers Henry. M. Scudder, William. M. Scudder and Joseph M.
Scudder belonged to the reformed church of America. Their work
included preaching of Gospel as well as establishment of dispensaries,
educational institutions, Christian colonies and theological seminaries.
Most of the conversions made by this mission were among the
depressed classes in North Arcot, South Arcot and Chittoor districts.
Christian Mission Hospital and Voorhee’s College at Vellore and Union
Mission Tuberculosis Sanatorium at Arokiavaram are the standing
monuments of the services rendered by this Arcot Mission.

In a similar way, the Church of Scotland started its missionary work at

Madras, the present Chennai. But it concentrated more on educational
services. It established Madras Christian College, which in now
functioning at Tambaram near Chennai and Scott Christian College at
Nagercoil in Kanyakumari region. These two institutions had been
rendering very good services in the field of education.

The Christian contribution to the poor and the orphaned and depressed
classes had continued throughout the nineteenth century. The
missionaries opened many schools and technical institutions for their
welfare. The Basel Mission specialised in this wholesome venture and
provided employment for trained orphans. By these methods they gave
a new hope for the withering orphans and poverty-stricken children of
the Tamil country.

Along with these charitable institutions, a native Christian provident fund

was inaugurated in Madras in 1880 and it offered financial assistance to
many widows and orphans for 20 years. Earlier, a new venture for
helping the poor was initiated in the beginning of the 19th century by the
Jesuits of the Madurai Mission and by the United Free Church of
Scotland, which established agricultural colonies in Adaikalapuram
(Tirunelveli District) and Andheriapuram (Chingleput District)
respectively in later years. Such colonies were established at Dindigul
and other places also. The Annual Report of the Madurai Mission for the
year 1862 stated as follows: “Both female and male orphanages were
opened. The most intelligent were selected to study and others were
sent to two large agricultural farms at Dindigul and Trichinopoly, where
they were instructed in field labour and agriculture and were thus
transformed into a flourishing class. Regularity of life made them
industrious and the industry has placed many of them above want.
Some of them became good mechanics and they were sent to a large

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institute at Madurai where painting, sculpture and carpentry were taught
along with the craft of black-smiths and tin workers. In Trichinopoly they
were taught cigar manufacture. The orphan girls were brought up with
the habits of industry and cleanliness and they also became good
housewives, having also learnt sewing, embroidery, etc”. Its service to
the downtrodden was also exemplary. Free schools and orphanages in
fact, developed self-reliance and character among these poor women.

It is generally said that soap, soup and soul were the three cardinal
principles for the propagation of Christianity, soap for health, soup for
existence and soul for spiritual enhancement. Christians, in general were
the lovers of the sick and rendered yeomen service to the suffering
humanity and thereby attracted their attention. Many hospitals were
established and many missionaries functioned as doctors. Their free
service, their self-sacrificing zeal and unassuming loyalty to the sick won
thousands of people to their side.

By these efforts Christianity in the latter part of the 19th century

prospered and grew in strength. A proper assessment of Christianity in
the Madras Presidency in the latter part of the 19th century will prove
beyond doubt that its increase by the aforesaid benevolent measures
was enormous. According to Dubois the total number of Christians at the
end of the 18th century was roughly 72 thousand. At the end of the 19th
century the total number of Christians were 10,03,854. Between 1800
and 1900, it has increased to 14 times. In the last quarter of the 19th
century, the increase was remarkable. Between 1871 and 1901 the
increase among them was nearly 50% (10,03,854 against 5,45, ‘120).

In the Madras Presidency the converts to Christianity were from the

lower classes of Hindus. Hence, there is no wonder in the remarkable
increase in the number of Christians in the 19th century. It is also to be
noted that a few people from the higher castes in the Tamil Country
embraced Christianity. To the Indian mind, Catholic religion had great
attraction. According to the Census of Madras 1891, out of 863,556
native Christians, 572, 292 were Catholics and only 290, 264 were
Protestant’s. For Brahmins in particular Catholic religion had a great
appeal. Out of 3,697 Brahmins, 3,658 were Roman Catholics and only
39 were protestants. This is mainly because the Catholic church of the
period tolerated and the Protestant church condemned the idea of caste.

Christian religion had to make adjustments and compromises with the

native culture so as to win the hearts of the people. The converts to

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Christianity continued to practice some of their old social practices. They
were allowed to retain their caste identity and to celebrate some of their
old social festivals and ceremonies. Christianity was indianised to that
extent.

The services of the Christian missionaries continued with much vigour

from the later part of the nineteenth century. They took keen interest in
the spread of education and started a number of educational institutions
from elementary to college level as adjuncts to church. The people of the
Tamil Country would not have had the opportunity of getting the benefit
of western culture and modern ideas if they had not the association of
these missionaries. The selfless services of these missionaries
enlightened the Tamils very much.

Also, the missionaries were the pioneers in the filed of female education
and emancipation. They exerted their energies in the amelioration of the
conditions of the oppressed people. They co-ordinated evangelism and
social work to promote the eternal interest of the people. They worked
among the untouchables and tribals and tried to liberate them from their
age-old degradation. In this way, the gospel proved a liberating force for
the lower strata of society. The hospitals, orphanages and old age
homes in many parts of Tamil Nadu not only relieved the sufferings of
these less fortunate people but also attempted to solve the chronic
problems such as poverty, diseases and unemployment. The
educational system introduced by the missionaries brought out
revolutionary changes in the intellectual set up of the Tamil country. It
opened the eyes of the depressed classes to their deplorable conditions
and the necessity to improve themselves through education. The
educational opportunities made the underprivileged classes to advance
rapidly in social scale in later years. It also led these people to develop a
sense of individuality, dignity and self-respect. Further, the activities of
the missionaries induced many upper caste Hindus to take up the task of
uplifting the depressed classes by various schemes.

10.3 CHRISTIAN CONTRIBUTION IN THE FIELD OF

TAMIL LITERATURE

The Christian missionaries who came to the Tamil Country were

primarily interested in the propagation of Christianity. They learnt Tamil
which helped them to serve as a means of communication with the
masses and enabled them to reach the people effectively in their
proselytizing activities. Also, they understood the grandeur of the Tamil

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Language and acquired mastery over Tamil. It is no exaggeration to
state that some of them even excelled the natives in their attainment of
surprising eminence in Tamil. Their literary works bear ample testimony
to their significant contribution to the growth of Tamil Literature. Both
foreign missionaries and native Christians had contributed greatly to the
enrichment of the Tamil language and literature.

The first European scholar who made a noteworthy contribution in the

field of Tamil literature was Rev. Robert de Nobili (1577-1656). He was
an Italian Jesuit missionary who came to Madurai in 1606 and carried on
Christian missionary work in the Tamil country for about 42 years.
Popularly known as “Thathuva Podagar” he was the first to write Tamil
Prose work. Some of his prose works are Gnanopadesa Kandam,
Mandiramalai, Thathuvakkannadi, Yesunathar Charithiram,
Gnanadeepikai and Needhichol. He was also an author of a Tamil
Portuguese Dictionary.

Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg (1683-1719) was the first Protestant

missionary to come to India. He was a German who learnt Tamil and in
1711 completed the translation of the New Testament in Tamil.

Constantius Joseph Beschi (1680 – 1747) was a Jesuit priest from Italy
who came to Tamil Nadu and rendered his services to people in the
early half of the eighteenth century. He was popularly known as
‘Viramamunivar’. He compiled a Tamil Latin Dictionary. His Tamil works
include Paramartha Guruvin Kathai, Vedavilakkam, Vediyar Olukkam
and Thembavani. He can be regarded as the father of modern prose and
modern short stories in Tamil.

Following the footsteps of these missionaries, few more European

missionaries came to the Tamil country to do service to god by offering
help to the poor and needy. It is while doing this service they made their
contribution to the Tamil Language and literature. William Taylor an
Englishmen was a protestant missionary who came to India in 1815. He
translated Athivirarama Pandithar’s Vetriverkai in English and he
prepared a catalogue of manuscripts in Tamil. Another outstanding
Christian missionary was Rev. Dr. Bishop Caldwell (1814-1891). He was
a missionary from London missionary society and he joined in 1841 the
society for the propagation of the gospel. His work, “A comparative
Grammar of the Dravidian Languages” published in 1851 is an unrivalled
work in the field of linguistic studies. Greatness of the Tamil language
was brought out by his research works. His works include, History of

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Tinnevelly, Narkarunai Dyanamalai, Bharathakanda Puradhanam and
Thamarai Thadagam.

Rev. Charles Theophilous Ewald Rhenius (1790-1838) was a German

Lutheran missionary who came to Palayamkottai in Tamil Nadu in 1820.
He translated the New Testment into Tamil and his works include Veda
Udharana Thirattu, Tamil Ilakkana Nool and Tamil Gnana Nool.

Rev. Peter Percival was a Wesleyan missionary who translated the Bible
into Tamil with the help of a Tamil scholar Arumuga Navalar. He brought
out a Tamil - English Dictionary and his collection of about 5000 Tamil
proverbs was published in 1874.

Another missionary from Germany, Rev. Dr. J.P. Rottler (1740-1836)

completed in 1830 the Tamil - English Dictionary work began by
Fabricius. The Scottish missionary Rev. John Murdoch catalogued the
Tamil Christian books upto 1870. The American missionary Rev. Miron
Winslow (1789-1864) complied a Tamil - English Dictionary which was
published in 1862. Another European scholar who enriched the Tamil
Literary studies was George Uglow Pope (1820-1908). He was a British
missionary who translated Tirukkural, Thrivachagam and Naladiyar into
English. He wrote articles and short stories on Silapadigaram,
Manimegalai, Thevaram and Purananooru. His other works include
Tamil Grammar and Bilingual dictionaries, Tamil poetical anthology with
Grammatical notes and a vocabulary. He always liked to be called as
“Tamil Manavan” (Student of Tamil).

There were also a few civil servicemen who contributed to the Tamil
Studies. Francis white Ellis of England collected and edited some palm
leaf manuscripts in Tamil and wrote his commentary on Tirukkural during
the early years of the nineteenth century. Another Englishman Robert
Anderson wrote a Tamil Grammar book, called “Rudiments of Tamil
Grammar” during the same period. H. Stokes in the second quarter of
the nineteenth century translated Kumara Gurupara Thambiran’s
Needineri Vilakkam into English. Besides these Europeans there were
also some Tamil Christians who made valuable contribution to the field
of Tamil Literature. The zeal of the Christian missionaries had a
profound influence on the Tamil Christians. Vedanayagam Sastriyar
(1774-1864) of Thirunelveli belonged to the protestant church. He
composed devotional songs in Tamil and set them to simple tune. His
works are Bethlehem Kuravanji (1800), Chennapattanappravesam

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(1809), Gnanakkummi, Paraparan Malai, Perinbakkadal, Jebamalai,
Arivanandam and Gnana Ula.

Mayuram Vedanayagam Pillai (1826-1889) was another Christian

scholar who authored many works. Pratapa Mudaliyar Charithram,
Needinool, Sarva Samaya Samarasa Kirthanai, Penmathimalai, Suguna
Sundari, Thiruvarul Anthathi, Thiruvarul Malai, Perianayagi Ammal
Pathigam and Sathya Veda Kirthanai were his great works. His Pratapa
Mudaliyar Charithram is a novel written in a prose style and published in
1876. This was the first novel in Tamil.

Henry Alfred Krishna Pillai (1827-1900) was another Christian scholar

contributed greatly to the Christian literature. He edited the Tamil Journal
“Dinavarthamani”. His works include Iratchanya Yathrikam, Iratchanya
Manogaram and Iratchanya Kural. Abraham Pandithar was another
outstanding Christian Tamil scholar rendered a literary work on Tamil
Music and named it as “Karunamirdha Sagaram”.

Apart from these scholars, there were many other Christians who
contributed to the Tamil Literature. The European and Tamil scholars
who had greatly enriched the Tamil Literature were proselytizers and
propagators of Christianity. These noblemen carried on missionary work
and contributed greatly to the society and culture of the Tamil Country.

Let us sum up

In this unit you have learnt about the original intention of the European
Christian missionaries who came to the Tamil Country. Later, after
seeing the conditions here they started serving the cause of the natives
particularly by helping the poor and needy to get medical and
educational assistance. While doing this service, they also richly
contributed to the development of Tamil language and literature by their
scholarly works in Tamil since they understood the classical value of
Tamil.

Key Words

Gospel Soap, Soup and Soul

Roman Catholics Untouchables

Proselytisation Propagation

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 Underprivileged Classes

Check your progress

1. Write a note on the original intention of the European Christian

missionaries who came to the Tamil Country.

2. Explain the Christian Missionary activities in the Tamil Country.

2. Trace the contribution of the Christian Missionaries to the Tamil

Language and Literature

Answers to check your progress

1. Summarise the material in section 10.1

2. Summarise the material in section 10.2

3. Summarise the material in section 10.3

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Unit 11

FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN TAMIL NADU

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Freedom Movement in Tamil Nadu

11.2.1 Pioneer Organisations of INC

11.2.2 Indian National Congress and Madras Leaders

11.2.3 Partition of Bengal

11.2.4 The Emergence and the Role of Muslim League

11.2.5 Swadesi Movement

11.2.6 Home Rule Movement

11.2.7 Reaction in the Madras Presidency on the Rowlatt Act

11.2.8 Khilafat Act Movement and Non Co-operation

Movement

11.2.9 Non Co-operation Movement

11.2.10 Role of workers and Communists in the Freedom

Movement

11.2.11 Boycott of Simon Commission

11.2.12 Neil Statue Satyagraha

11.2.13 All parties Conference and Nehru Report

11.2.14 Civil Dis-obedience Movement

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 11.2.15 Individual Satyagraha

Summary

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this Unit, the causes for the rise of nationalism in Tamil Nadu, the
pioneer organisation of Indian National Congress, and the role of Tamil
Nadu in the Freedom Movement have been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to

 describe the causes for the rise of nationalism in Tamil Nadu

 discuss the pioneer organisations of the Indian National

Congress in Tamil Nadu.

 assess the role played by Tamil Nadu in the Freedom struggle.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

During the later part of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th
century, Indian opinion was getting hardened against the British rule in
India. Tamil Nadu in the early part of the 19th century was not an
integral part of any larger political entity which could be called the
government of India.

The earliest native reaction against the British muting was spearheaded
by Kattabomman and the Marudhu brothers. Another violent but
abortive rebellion broke out in the sepoy regime at Vellore in 1806.
There were sporadic events and organised attempts at national
liberation that were made only after 1885. In the early stages of their
history the British rulers of the company were interested mainly in
exploitation. However in the 19th century some of the liberal-minded
Governor-Generals like Lord William Bentinck and Lord Dalhousie
introduced the occidental ideas and reforms in society and education.
As a result of their new education a new class of elite who in the British

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opinion was a microscopic minority, demanded equal rights for all
Indians in the civil service and administration and later clamoured for
Swaraj. It began with the Indian National Congress in 1885 and the
goal was reached in 1947.

11.2 FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN TAMIL NADU

The Indian war of Independence of 1857-58, though failed, proved very

helpful in arousing the political awakening throughout the country. Its
most important result was the abolition of the misrule of the East India
Company and an Act for the “Better Government of India” was passed in
August 1858. It was followed by the famous proclamation of Queen
Victoria on November 1st, 1858, which ensured the material and moral
improvement of the Indian subjects.

The impact of Western Civilization for centuries aroused new aspirations

and the spread of liberal education meant the beginning of a tremendous
upsurge. Besides English Education, the consolidation of British rule in
India created conditions favourable for the growth of nationalism. The
advent of railway, steamer service and construction of roads created a
new social mobility. It loosened the caste and religious restrictions and
the injunctions regarding taking meals outside the house. The network
of railways helped to link up different parts of the country, which
provided new facilities for contact and communication. Moreover, the
tremendous steam of wealth that flowed from India to Great Britain
resulted in the country’s poverty and recurring famines and caused
unrest against British rule in the country.

In spite of the impoverishment and frustration, public spirited leaders

tried to infuse a new lease of life into the prostrate nation. Their liberal
work gave rise to new religious movements. The educative influence of
the Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, the theosophical society etc., had
helped the spread of liberal ideas towards life and society. The aim of
these religious movements was obviously religious reforms, social
purification and cultural amelioration of the Indians. But in this process
they fostered political consciousness, helping the growth of nationalism.

Madras being the capital of the composite Madras province consisting of

parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, it was but
natural that most of the linguistic journals and newspapers which
promoted nationalism were first published from Madras. The first Tamil
newspaper as such was the Swadesamitran, started by G. Subramania

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Aiyar in 1882; but for some years, it was not regular. The Hindu and the
Swadesamitran were run by the same person till about 1898, when G.
Subramania Aiyar left. In 1904, G. Subramania Aiyar had employed
young Subramania Bharathi as Sub-editor in Swadesamitran. Bharathi
proved himself in due course to be the greatest Tamil poet of
nationalism. Besides he was a gifted writer in Tamil prose as well. The
first political news weekly in the Telugu language was started in the year
1885 which saw the birth of Indian National Congress.

11.2.1 Pioneer Organisations of INC

The most immediate and acceptable provincial forerunner of the Indian

National Congress (INC) was the Madras Mahajana Sabha. It was
founded in March 1884 by a group of educated men. Prominent among
them were G. Subramania Aiyer, P. Rangiah Naidu, M.
Vijayarahavachari, S. Subramania Aiyer, R. Balaji Rao, C.
Vijayarahavachari, A. Ananda Charlu and Salem Ramaswami Mudaliyar.
It provided a forum for the intelligentsia spreading all over the Madras
Presidency. The first conference of the Madras Mahajana Sabha was
held in Madras in December 1884. Its Chairman P. Rangaiah Naidu
suggested that similar conferences should be held every year to express
opinion on important issues affecting the millions of people in India.

The early associations formed were such as the Madras Native

Association, the Madras Mahajana Sabha as well as the Movement. For
Social Reform it prepared the ground for the foundation of the national
organization. Annie Besant says that immediately after the
Theosophical convention held in Madras in December 1884, seventeen
leading figures including S. Subramania Aiyer, P. Rangaiah Naidu and
P. Ananda Charulu of Madras Mahajana Sabha, met in the house of
Ragunatha Rao, the Deputy Collector of Madras, for talks relating to the
formation of a national organization. Besant traces the origin of the
Indian National Congress to this meeting. This house was preserved as
a memorial in Ramakrishna Math Road, Mylapore, Madras, with a tablet
carrying the inscription, “The Indian National Congress Organised here,
December 1884”.

11.2.2 Indian National Congress and Madras Leaders

Afterwards the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885

was a “profoundly significant event in the annals of the Indian
Nationalism”. The contribution of Madras to the spirit of nationalism

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was no less important than that of the other two presidencies, Bombay
and Bengal. In the proceedings and deliberations of the first congress
session the contribution of the Madras delegates was very notable. Out
of the seventy two delegates, nineteen were from Madras. Again, out of
the total number of seventy three speeches, eighteen were made by the
Madras delegates; it means that out of every four speakers there was
always one Madras speaker. G. Subramania Aiyer, a prominent leader
moved the opening and concluding resolutions in this session. In his
first resolution he voiced the nationalist sentiments stressing that
hereafter one should live with great propriety and speak of India as a
nation and express its national aspirations. He requested that a Royal
Commission should be appointed to enquire into the working of the
Indian administration in India. England and the people of India should be
adequately represented thereon and evidence should be taken both in
India and in England.

On their return to Madras the delegates worked to mobilize all classes to

bring pressure upon the government for a gradual transfer of power to
Indians irrespective of class consideration. In order to mobilize the
support of all communal and factional groups in the Madras Presidency
on May 1st 1887 a great public meeting was held in Madras. The Tamil
pamphlets containing the objectives of the Congress was issued by
M.Vijayaraghavachari, of which 30,000 copies were circulated not only in
Tamil land but also in Mandalay, Rangoon, Singapore and the Eastern
Islands where Tamils resided.

The third session of the INC was held at Mackay’s Gardens in Madras
for four days from 27 December 1887. It was presided over by the All
India leader Badruddin Tyabji and its members from Madras included
leaders like T. Madhav Rao, S. Subramania Aiyer, Rangaiah Naidu,
G.Subramania Aiyer, Sabapathy Mudaliar, S.A. Swaminatha Aiyer,
P.Somasundaram Chetty and C. Vijayarahavachari.

The Madras Session of 1887 passed a series of resolutions stressing

the necessity for the expansion of the Imperial and Provincial legislative
councils, for the separation of the judiciary from the executive, for the
opening of higher grade posts in the army to Indians, for the imposition
of higher import duties on finer varieties of cotton fabrics and for the
introduction of a technical educational system in India suited to her
conditions and capable of reviving her indigenous industries. Besides it
set up a machinery for carrying on national propaganda. It formed
standing committees in all states and laid down that their primary duties

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should be “to promote the political education of the people”, by
distributing tracts and pamphlets, by holding public meetings and by
arranging important lectures. The Madras leaders in their deliberations
and speeches insisted that economic and social aspects were equally
important and would serve as strong base for the growth of nationalism.
The session enabled the Congress to become broad based and the
movement gained considerable momentum. It also helped South India
to join the mainstream of the national movements and led to more
participation and active involvement of the city of Madras in every phase
of national movement.

The tenth session of INC met at Madras in 1894, the second of its kind
in Madras. P. Rangaiah Naidu was the Chairman of the Reception
committee. In that session 200 students volunteered to serve 1200
delegates. In this way the students instead of being anglicized
developed a sense of nationalism and patriotism and marched towards
the path of national goals. In the fourteenth INC session held at Madras
in 1898, the third of its kind in Madras, Ananda Mohan Bose in his
presidential remarks observed that parity must be maintained between
the citizens of Britain and India. Moving a resolution of the frontier policy
of Government, G. Subramania Aiyer observed: “All improvements at
home were starved for want of funds wasted in foolish aggression. If the
wars were made for imperial purposes then let Britain pay the cost and
leave Indian money to be spent on Indian needs. This session also
decided to set up a permanent body to discharge the work of the
congress throughout the year by circulating pamphlets in the vernacular
and by sending delegates to the country side to promote the spirit of
nationalism. Accordingly, the Madras provincial congress committee
(MPCC) passed a resolution to spread the objectives of the congress.
The MPCC was organized in 1899 and district conferences were held
from 1899 onwards.

Then five years later in 1903, the congress again met in Madras in its
nineteenth session, the fourth of its kind in Madras. Lal mohan Ghose
presided over the session. The nationalists of Madras organized an
industrial exhibition as a part of the annual session of INC at Madras in
1903. Without dividing on communal lines the Hindus, Muslims and
Christians used to attend these sessions with zeal. The nationalist
leaders of Madras Presidency of this period who were dubbed as ‘strict
moderates’ contributed much to the growth of political awakening and
national consciousness of the masses. In fact in all the three Madras
Sessions of 1894, 1898 and 1903 the Reception committee received

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much popular co-operation. In all those sessions the most notable
contribution was made by the merchants, traders and artisans who
enthusiastically attended all of them. The Nattukottai Chettiars who
were merchants advanced huge funds.

11.2.3 Partition of Bengal

In October 1905 the Province of Bengal was divided into two provinces
by Curzon for administrative convenience but the Indians were hostile to
the partition plan and they thought that it would create permanent
division between the Hindus and Muslims The division of Bengal and its
repercussions brought surprisingly new trend in Indian politics. In the city
of Madras numerous protest meetings were held condemning the
proposed partition. The anti-partition agitation in Madras gathered
momentum among the Tamilians and it contributed to the birth of
Swadeshi Movement, rise of extremism, split in the Congress in the later
years and the formation of Muslim League. These Movements were
accompanied by the redefinition of the goal of Indian nationalism

11.2.4 The Emergence and the Role of Muslim League

During the 19th century the Muslims developed the idea that they
belonged to a separate community distinct from the Hindus. There were
two sections among the Muslims - the majority and orthodox among
them were Sunnis and the other group known as Shias, The Shias were
considered to be unorthodox and heterodox by the Sunnis. The Muslims
hated the British rule for they began to develop the idea that it was the
British who snatched away all their glories, powers and prestige They
regarded that the British were responsible for all their backwardness and
downtrodden status. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Muslims of Madras
issued circular among the inhabitants of Madras and urged the Nizam of
Hydrabad to wage a holy war against the British. Sir Syed Ahamed
Khan championed the cause of the Muslims. He emphasised the
separate interests of the Muslim and advised to his co-religionists to
learn English and to avail themselves of new opportunities. He
established a school, which soon became Muhammad Anglo-oriental
College at Aligarh for educating the Muslims on western lines and
enabled them to compete with the Hindus. With the efforts of the leading
educated Muslims in 1883 was established the Madras Branch of the
Central Muhammedan Association that was founded in Bengal.

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When the I.N.C. was formed, majority of the Muslims refrained from
joining the Congress criticising it as Royal (Bengal) Congress and
developed the fear that the majority Hindus would dominate them and
that would go against their interests in the responsible Government.

The Muslim leaders for the first time began to think about safeguarding
their interests. The Muslims too felt the necessity of an organisation,
which led to the formation All-India Muslim League by Nawab Sallimullah
of Dacca in 1906. It is worthwhile to note that a small group of Muslims
always supported the cause of Congress and helped the Congress in all
their endeavours.

The All India Muslims Educational Conference was held at Madras in

1901, which caused a mild awakening among the Tamil Muslims. The
Muslim Educational Association of Southern India was started in 1902.
In the next decades, the Muslims were motivated to start a number of
educational associations in the cities and the towns of Tamilnadu.

The British tried to create a rift between Hindus and Muslims by

providing separate electorate to the Muslims as per the Minto-Morley
reform of 1909. The Muslim leaders like Agakhan advocated for inter-
racial co-operation and the need for cordial relations between the Hindus
and the Muslims. During the war period the trend and attitude of the
Muslim League completely changed and it began to work with Congress
like brothers.

11.2.5 Swadesi Movement

It is due to the partition of Bengal a vigorous group began to emerge in

Tamil Nadu. The Youth in Tamil Nadu were responsive to the new trend
of political protest and activism. The anti-partition meetings and rallies
were held in different parts of Tamil Nadu. People slowly began to
realize the burden of the British rule. They began to feel that the British
were responsible for the country’s poverty and exploitation of the
masses. The Swadeshi Movement looked like a panacea to the poverty-
stricken masses. In Tamil Nadu V.O.Chidambaram piliai and the host of
others began to show much interest in the nationalist politics and in the
economic improvement of Tamil Nadu. The leaders advised the people
to boycott all foreign goods.

The Congress at its Benares session in 1905 records its emphatic

protest against the partition of Bengal. With the division of Bengal in

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1905 there arose new Movements in the Congress, which demanded the
Congress to take vigorous action against the British. This created great
dissatisfaction within a group of Congressmen and led to a rift and a split
within the Party.

This division among the Tamil Nadu nationalists was brought before the
Congress session held at Calcutta in 1906. It was at this session, the
resolution regarding Swadeshi and boycott was passed The activities of
Tilak, a Maharashtrian leader, gave encouragement to the Tamil
nationalists in shaping their attitude The most prominent extremist
leaders in Tamil Nadu were V.O.Chidambaram Pillai, Bharathi and
Subramania Siva. Between 1906 and 1907 the people of Madras
established three organisations for the promotion of swadeshism. The
industrial association raised small contributions and established
warehouses exclusively for storing and selling swadeshi goods. The
Swadeshi League undertook the job of spreading the principles of
Swadeshism to the masses and the sale of Swadeshi goods.
Balabharath (young) Association issued pamphlets in Tamil and tried to
gain popular support for the progress of the Movement. This Movement
worked successfully in Tamil Nadu and it also paved the way for the rise
of extremism in the country. B.C.Pal, Congress activist’s in Madras in
1907 tour aroused the enthusiasm among the youngsters of Tamil Nadu
to a greater extent. G.Subramania Iyer toured the districts several times
in 1906 and V.O.Chidambarampillai, the Tuticorin lawyer became an
important extremist and started Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in
October 1906 in Tuticorin to run a steamer upto Colombo. He raised a
capital of rupees 10 lakhs and purchased two ships, Galia and Lawoe
and launched on the sea in competition with the British companies.
Subramania Siva along with V.O.Chidambaram Pillai preached the
message of Swaraj and boycott more vigorously among the masses
occasionally urging violent methods. This daring propaganda excited
considerable enthusiasm among the nationalists who readily came
forward to adhere to the call of extremists.

V.O.Chidambaram Pillai and Subramania Siva desired to draw the

workers into the nationalist Movement. The pitiable working and living
conditions of the workers of Coral mills attracted the attention of the
lawyers of Tinnevelly region and nationalist leaders. The participation of
the workers under the leadership of extremists gave a militant character
to the national Movement. The Europeans were surrounded by crowds
of strikers who made them join in the common cry, “Vande Mataram”.

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The government decided to punish the leaders like V.O.C., Siva and
Padmanatha Iyengar who took the side of workers and helped them to
get the increased wages against the wishes of their employers, who
were whites. The Englishmen in the district, including District Magistrate
had begun to tease them in all possible ways. The police arrested the
striking workers and remanded them to custody on charges of
conspiracy against the English. This resulted in the outbreak of riots in
Tinnevelly district under the leadership of staunch nationalists who
believed in extremist politics.

In 1910 a branch of the secret organisation known as the Bharatha’

Matha Association was launched in Tinnevelly and the leading
revolutionaries at that time were V.V. Subramania Iyer and Neelakanda
Brahmachari. The young revolutionaries were however inspired by the
advocacy of VVS.Iyer that violence was the best solution to the country’s
situation and that, ‘young men should be induced to violence’ appealed
to one Sankara Iyer of Shencottah otherwise known as Vanchi lyer. The
collector of Tinnevelly R.W.D.E.Ashe was assassinated by Vanchi Iyer
for having ordered police firing at rioters at Tinnevelly, then he ran for a
while and shot himself dead. Fourteen persons along with Neelakanda
Brahmachari as the first accused were tried and punished. But
V.V.S.Iyer, the mastermind behind the riots escaped from the
prosecution. The murder of Ashe however was an isolated event of
terrorism in Tamil Nadu, which proved the fact that the people were not
willing to give their acceptance to terrorist activities. At this time a great
change occurred at the national level in Indian Politics.

The First World War broke out in 1914 that brought about crucial
changes in the political life and socio-economic conditions of India.
Britain took India to the arena of war, But this war with Turkey had
caused serious excitement among the Muslims in Tamil Nadu and in due
course it led to the strengthening of unity between the Hindus and
Muslims. The Indian National Congress, which met on 28th December
1914 enthusiastically, extended its full support to the British.

After a short while the political activities got weakened because of the
differences between the moderates and the extremists over their policies
and over the methods of implementing their programmes. The
government also threatened the nationalists by suppressing their
activities with an iron hand. It was at this juncture that Mrs. Annie Besant
stepped into politics and the national Movement.

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11.2.6 Home Rule Movement

During the third phase from 1915 to 1918 nationalism took another turn.
Though its impact on the political scenario in Tamil Nadu was not
predominant yet it was full of hectic activity as Mrs. Annie Besant
opened Home Rule Movement, which was aggressive in spirit,
peremptory in demands and critical of the Madras Government’s policies
more than before. At the same time it attracted many north Indians into
its fold.

Mrs. Annie Besant was a wonderful orator, brilliant organizer, a great

editor of newspapers and an undoubted leader of men and women. She
was the editor of New India and Commonweal. Knowing that without
unity self-government was impossible, she advocated the need for unity
through her media organs and speeches. The Home Rule Movement
gained popularity and strength between 1916 and 1917. Lord Pentland,
the governor of Madras undertook repressive measures to curb the
movement. In 1917, Annie Besant was arrested and imprisoned at Ooty
along with her friends Arundale and B.P. Wadia. The arrest of Besant
caused serious repercussion in the country. Protest meetings were held
all over Tamilnadu. The All India Congress Committee demanded the
release of Besant and her followers. She was, however released soon
on instruction from the Secretary of State to the Madras Government.
She was then at the height of her popularity. She was elected President
of the Congress in 1917. In March 1918 of Madurai, Mrs. Besant sent a
deputation consisting of George Joseph, B.V. Narasimha Iyer of Salem
and Manjari Rama Iyer for presenting the case for Indian Home Rule
before the British public. Dr. Varadarajulu Naidu a practitioner of
indigenous medicine was a great Congressman and a noted labour
leader. He visited not only Madurai town but also many places in
Madurai and Ramnad districts as well and delivered lectures in Tamil on
Home Rule and its allied topics.

In the meantime Justice Party was formed in Madras. T.M. Nair and P.
Thyagaraja Chetty attacked Annie Besant and accused her of
‘supporting’ the Brahmins… When Gandhiji came to the political scene,
her power and popularity began to wane.

11.2.7 Reaction in the Madras Presidency on the Rowlatt Act

The reaction in the Madras Presidency on the Rowlatt Act was mixed.
The Justicites openly supported the Act. A section of Congressmen,

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who were called as pro-reformers, though opposed to that Act, did not
support any struggle against the Act. This group included V.S.Srinivasa
Sastri, Sir.S. Subramania Iyer, G.A. Natesan and Sir C.P. Ramasamy
Iyer. But there were many other congress men like V.O.Chidambaram
Pillai, Subramania Bharathi, Subramania Siva and many youngsters like
S. Sathiyamurthi Iyer, Thiru-Vi.Kalyana Sundaram, Dr.P. Varadarajulu,
Rajaji, E.V. Ramasamy who had emerged as leaders who were strongly
opposed to the Rowlatt Act. On an invitation from Kasthuri Ranga
Iyengar, Gandhi arrived at Madras on March 1919 for a 13 day tour to
mobilize support for the Satyagraha. He addressed a large public
meeting at Marina beach on the same day. Gandhi formed a branch of
the Satyagraha Sabha at Madras on 20 March 19th with himself as the
president. He directed the Satyagrahis to take a pledge and adhere to
the true spirit of a Satyagrahi. Rajaji, Sathyamoorthi, Thiru-Vi-ka were
the main signatories in that pledge. It was also decided at Madras, to
observe a nation- wide Hartal for one day to register the protest against
the Rowlatt Act, March 30, 1919 was decided to be the day of Hartal
when all shops would be closed and the Sathyagrahis would condemn
the Rowlatt Act by prayers and a day long fasting. The news was
published as an important item in all leading dailies.

Despite his ill-health Gandhi tourned the southern districts of Madras

Presidency like Tanjore, Trichy, Madurai, Tuticorin and Nagapattinam
and appealed to the huge audience to join the Satyagraha. On 23
March 1919 a working plan was finalized at Madras to be adopted by the
Satyagrahis. Owing to unavoidable circumstances, the day of nation-
wide Hartal was changed to April 1919. Gandhiji left for Bejwada on 30
March 1919. The same day a huge public meeting was organized at
Marina Beach and the message of Gandhi was read by Sathiyamoorthy
in that meeting .This allayed the fears of seven crores of Muslims in
British India. And by the year 1919 the Muslims were confronted with
the Khilafat issue.

11.2.8 Khilafat Movement and Non-Co-operation Movement

The Khilafat Movement was born as protest against the British policy
towards Turkey. Britain’s attitude towards Turkey had far-reaching
implications in India at a time when national movement was gaining
momentum. The developments in Europe hurt the sentiments of
Muslims for they regarded the Sultan of Turkey as the ‘Commander of
the faithful’ and the protector of the Holy places”. In India, the repeal of
the partition of Bengal in 1911 and the governments opposition to the

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proposal for a Muslim University at Aligarh in 1912 made the Indian
Muslim turn anti-British. These developments brought about conciliation
between the Congress and the Muslims.

As already decided the Hartal went on peacefully in the Madras

Presidency on 6 April 1919. According to the special reports of the
Madras Government, all shops remained closed and the curd vendors
from the adjoining villages and rice cake selling woman in the morning
were not seen. In all, the Hartal was a spectacular success. The press
of Madras Presidency voiced their concern over the attack at the
Satyagrahis at Madras on 6 April 1919. They demanded an inquiry
committee to investigate the attack. But the Punjab Massacre added
fuel to the burning fire in Madras. The Mohammadans of Madras were
also equally strongly condemning the government. The Rowlatt Act,
Satyagraha and the Punjab tragedy turned the Madras Presidency very
active in the national mainstream. Many youngsters were attracted to
the national movement during this time.

The Khilafat issue forced the Indian nationalists to launch Satyagraha

again that strengthened the Hindu-Muslim unity which was crystallized
into Khilafat Movement. These developments had their own
repercussions in Tamil Nadu. Many public meetings were organized in
Madras by the Muslims in which speakers were critical of the policy of
the British government towards Turkey. At a largely attended public
meeting of the Muslims held in the Victoria Public Hall, Madras on 17
January 1919, it was resolved to request the British government to
ensure the integrity of the Turkish caliphate. In Madras, Maulana Abdul
Subhan Sahib and Yakub Hasan, the two prominent Muslim leaders took
active part in the Khilafat Movement. The All India Muslim Conference
decided to observe an ‘All India Khilafat Day’ on 17 October 1919.
Posters were pasted in inviting the Hindus and the Muslims to participate
in the programme. Most of the shops in Madras remained closed.
Prayers were conducted in all mosques. In the evening, a procession
was organized which ended at the Marina beach. In Trichy, shops were
closed and fasting and prayers were held. Meanwhile as a mark of
protest, Yakub Hasan resigned his membership in the Madras
Legislative Council, Madras Corporation and the port trust. This
example of Yakub Hasan inspired many others to fallow suit. Moulvi
Zahit Hussain relinquished his title of Sham-ul-ulama.

Hence the All India Khilafat meeting that was held at Allahabad on 1 and
2 June 1920 adopted a four phase Non-Co-operation programme. They

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are 1. Renunciation of titles, 2. Resignation from government service, 3.
Resignation from the police and the military and 4. Non-payment of
taxes. A sub-committee under Gandhis’ Chairmanship was constituted
to implement it. The sub-committee wrote to the Viceroy that if there
was no positive response from the Viceroy, non-co-operation would be
launched on 1 August 1920. Thus Gandhiji served as a bridge between
the Hindus and the Muslims.

The Prominent leaders undertook extensive tours of the Tamil districts to

popularize and strengthen the Khilafat movement. In response to the
invitation of Yakub Hasan and Rajaji, Gandhi and Shaukat Ali came to
Madras on 12 August 1920. The two leaders visited many places in
Tamil Nadu. But the government tried all possible methods to stem the
tide of Khilafat movement. Srinivasa Iyengar, Kasturiranga Iyengar,
Vijayaraghavachariar, M.K. Acharya, S.Satyamurti, Narayana Chettiar
and Krishnasamy Sharma extended their support to the Khilafat
movement. The movement had a temporary decline in the country when
the Moplah revolt broke out in Malabar.

In August 1921 the movement gained momentum during the later half of
1921, but the government of British India responded by resorting to
severe repressive measures. It prohibited public meetings and deprived
the people of their elementary right of speech.

11.2.9 Non-Co-operation Movement

Meanwhile the Congress under the leadership of Gandhi refused to

enter the legislative council or to co-operate with the British in any
manner. C.Rajagopalachariar was one of the most important
representatives of the Congress in Tamil Nadu. The non-co-operation
movement greatly attracted the middle class intellectuals, lawyers,
doctors, teachers, journalists and writers and professional politicians.
They were willing to go to jail and to meet the lathi charge. Many
students came forward to participate in the non-co-operation movement.

In pursuance of the Congress resolution about the non-co-operation

movement, L. Narayana Iyer of Madurai boycotted legal practice.
George Joseph, S.D. Krishna Ayyangar and Sundaramaiyer were the
other lawyers who left their profession on the grounds of Non-Co-
operation. George Joseph withdrew his children from their schools. To
spread the non-co-operation message among the masses, a
propaganda sub-committee consisting of Thiru.Vi.Ka, Balambal, Abdul

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Majid Shanar, T.S.S. Rajan, Rajaji and others was formed by the
Madras Provincial Congress Committee. They toured throughout Tamil
Nadu for preaching the programme of non-co-operation and the
implementation of the same. As a mark of protest, the non-co-operators
violated the forest laws. They disobeyed the forest regulations in
Trichinopoly, Nellore and Cudappa. No doubt, this programme had
given an opportunity for masses to display their strength and unity.

Within a short time, the visit of the Prince of Wales was announced. On
13th January 1922, the Prince visited Madras, when non-co-operation
movement was in full swing. Though the boycott of the prince was not a
part of the non-co-operation programme, the congress utilized the
opportunity to forge unity among the forces opposed to the British Raj
and the day was observed with hartals. Between 1921 and 1922 the
non-co-operation movement had thoroughly roused the country by its
non-violent programme. Gandhi visited Madras again in April, 1921. He
appealed to the Hindus to help the Muslims and work for the promotion
of Hindu Muslim Unity.

After the incident of Chauri Chaura, Gandhi decided to suspend the

movement. He was sentenced to six years imprisonment. However
Gandhiji and Indian National Congress had to appreciate the whole
hearted support extended by the Muslims during Khilafat and Non-co-
operation movement in India in general and Tamil Nadu in particular.
Meanwhile, the Khilafat activities ceased, after the signing of the treaty
between Britain and Turkey.

11.2.10 Role of Workers and Communists in the Freedom

Movement

The factory workers did not wage economic struggles alone. They did
not remain isolated from the rest of the society. They were slowly
brought into vortex of Nationalist policy by the Congress activists and
others. Some of the early founders of the Madras Labour Union like
Thiru.Vi.Ka were active Congress leaders. Gradually anti-colonial
sentiments began to grip the minds of the factory workers. M.
Singaravelu, a lawyer in Madras played a significant role in spreading
communist philosophy in Tamil Nadu where he first started his political
career. Thiru.Vi.Ka organized protest meetings against Jalianwala Bagh
tragedy and gave up his legal practice in response to the call given by
Gandhi. In the non-co-operation meetings, a large number of workers
participated. A part of procession started from the labour union office

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under the leadership of V. Chakkarai. The workers carried crescent
flags, banners and placards bearing catchwords.

11.2.11 Boycott of Simon Commission

Meanwhile the British Government appointed the Simon Commission

which consisted of white men as its members to review the working of
the reforms as introduced by the Act of 1919. It had to collect the views
of the different communities and the Indian National Congress in order to
recommend the Government of India for granting of self-government to
natives. The Congress at its annual session held in Madras, 1927
decided to boycott the commission through out the country on the arrival
of the commission wherever the commission visited, they were greeted
with black flags, the placards and banners with the words “Simon go
back” When the commission visited Bombay on 3 February 1927, hartal
was observed in the Madras city on that day and police opened fire. In
that incident three persons lost their lives. The commission visited India
for the second time on 11 October 1928. When the commission reached
Madras the day passed of peacefully. But in Madurai a meeting was held
in which Padmasini Ammal appealed to the people not to co-operate
with the commission. This anti-Simon agitation showed the political
advancement of the Indians and it further made them to realize that by
maintaining unity they could achieve their goal of freeing India with any
amount of difficulty.

11.2.12 Neil Statue Satyagraha

The most important Satyagraha undertaken by the nationalists in Tamil

Nadu was the Neil Satyagraha. On 11 August 1927, Subbarayalu Naidu
and Mohammed Said both the natives of Madurai, dressed in Khadi,
started from the TNCC office armed with axes and hammers to destroy
the statue. They succeeded in breaking a portion of the sheath of the
sword in the hands of Neil’s statue and hoisted the National Flag. Two
satyagrahis made speeches about the atrocities committed by Neil on
Indian people during the mutiny. Immediately satyagrahis were arrested
under section 427 IPC and were sentenced to six months rigorous
imprisonment. Salem Ankachi Ammal, Cuddalore Anchalai Ammal and
her daughter Ammakkanu Ammal also participated in the movement.
They were also arrested for the same. Mrs.Lakshmi Ammal was arrested
and imprisoned for seventeen days in connection with this satyagraha.
In the mean time, in order to continue the satyagraha, the Tamil Nadu
Congress Committee formed an executive committee consisting of

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Hiralal Shat, Thirumalacharia, Srinivasa Varadhan and Padmasini
Ammal. It also passed a resolution asking the government to remove the
statue immediately. But the Government did not pay heed to the
Congress demand. Hence the satyagraha continued. Papers like the
Swarajya, Swadesamitran, Tamil Nadu and The Hindu contributed
significantly to the promotion of the satyagraha. But the satyagraha
was suspended in December 1927 due to the Congress annual session
in Madras. Though the Satyagrahis failed in their attempt to remove the
statue, it was later removed by the Congress ministry in 1937.

11.2.13 All Parties Conference and Nehru Report

In October 1927 the AICC passed a resolution that all the political
parties in the country should convene a conference and appointed a
committee under the presidentship of Motilal Nehru to draft an agreeable
constitution for India. The committee invited all leading political
organisations in India Dr.M.A.Ansari, was elected as the president of the
conference. The committee submitted draft constitution popularly known
as Nehru Report which recommended dominion status and responsible
government in the provinces. Attempts were made to give fair
concession to the minorities especially the Muslims in India. But the
members of the conference wanted to get complete independence for
India. They passed this historical resolution in the Lahore session of the
Indian National Congress held under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru
on 26 January 1930 declaring Purna Swaraj or the complete
independence of India with a pledge and solidarity expressed by the
people.

11.2.14 Civil Dis-Obedience Movement

The political climate in the country was conducive for launching the Civil
Disobedience Movement. The working committee of Congress met at
Ahmedabad on February 1930 and authorised Gandhi to organise civil
disobedience at a time and place of his choice. Gandhi started his civil
disobedience campaign by defying the salt laws in the country and this
movement led by Gandhi was popularly called as Satyagraha. With the
return of Gandhi to active politics, Rajaji gained control of Tamilnadu
Congress Committee. He drew up the plan for Salt Satyagraha in Tami
Nadu on the Gandhian model and successfully organised it. On 13 April
1930, a party of about a hundred volunteers headed by him began its
much publicized march to Vedaranyam where he prepared to scrape the
salt from the adjoining swamps without seeking government permission.

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Rajaji and his followers were arrested and Rajaji was sentenced to 6
months simple imprisonment and a fine of 2000 Rupees was imposed
on him. The other Congress leaders, namely K.Santhanam,
Vedarathinam Pillai and T.S.S. Rajan were arrested. The Swarajist
under the leadersehip of T.Prakasam and Nageswara Rao organised
salt Satyagraha in the Marina Beach in Madras and they too were
arrested and convicted. The Congress’ objective of independence was
not well received by the various sections of Muslims. In Madras, Muslim
public opinion was set against the Congress move. Yakub Hasan Sait
severed his connection with the Congress as he advocated dominion
status instead of complete independence. However, the Civil
Disobedience Movement in the Presidency went into full swing. The
Movement was principally characterized by the illegal manufacturing of
salt, boycott of foreign cloths and the British goods, of liquor and toddy
and of the legislatures and the census. It is significant to note that no
prominent Muslim leader took an active part in the civil disobedience
movement. This time Rajaji and Yakub Hasan Sait did not join hands to
make the movement a success.

The Indian National Congress did not lose confidence. It invariably

began to lead the movement to success with all intensity and integrity.
They refused to pay taxes and boycott foreign products. Tiruppur
Kumaran became the martyr of this movement. He hold the flag high in
his hand and shouted, “Long Live Gandhiji, Vande Mataram”. The police
did not arrest them. They charged him with their lathis. But Kumaran
stood like rock with the flag in his hand. The police beat him over the
head again and again. His head being broken blood began to flow from
it. Kumaran fainted and fell on on the ground. But he was still holding the
flag fast in his hand saying Vande Mataram. They took him to the
hospital where he died there in 1931. This incident like the Jaliyanwallah
Bagh episode served to kindle the unquenched nationalist fervour of
the Tamils.

11.2.15 Individual Satyagraha

Another programme of the freedom struggle in Tamil Nadu was

individual satyagraha. Individual satyagraha was started between 1940
and 1941. This was to show India’s protest against the conduct of war in
the name of the people and its object was achieved in a fairly successful
manner. At that juncture, to satisfy the Indian, the British Government
sent a parliamentary delegation under Stafford Cripps to offer more
responsible Government for India. But it failed to satisfy both the

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Congress and the Muslim league. In 1942 the Congress working
committee met at Wardha and resolved that British rule must end in
India immediately. The All India Congress Committee Session at
Bombay approved the Quit India Resolution Gandhi declared that the
people should free India or die in their attempt. Gandhi was arrested.
The arrest of Gandhi caused serious disturbances throughout India.
Hartals and processions were held all over India. But the movement
soon became violent. Public meetings were held throughout the country
demanding the release of Gandhiji and many Congress volunteers were
arrested in Madras, Madurai and Trichy. The Government tried to crush
the movement and the Congress organisations throughout India were
banned. In the Quit India movement the depressed class leaders also
participated in significant numbers.. The arrest of depressed class
nationalists must have prompted V.I.Munusami Pillai, one of the
spokesmen of the Depressed Classes who pleaded with the government
of Madras to release as quickly as possible the leaders and their
followers who participated in the movement.

In the meantime, Netaji founded a new political party called Forward

Bloc, a branch of the party was organised by Muthuramalinga Thevar in
Tamil Nadu. In the meantime, during the second world war Netaji tried
to achieve India’s freedom with the help of axis powers and he
concluded military alliance with Nazi leaders of Germany and Tokyo, the
dictator of Japan. The activities of the Forward Bloc were under heavy
suspicion and the British Government banned the party in June 1942. In
Tamil Nadu Muthuramalinga Thevar the leader of the Forward Bloc was
arrested and was imprisoned for the entire period of Second World War.
He was released only in September 1945. The Congress set up an
Indian National Army Defence Committee under Bhula Bai Desai and
the opening of INA trials in Madurai. Hartal was observed in Madurai.
There were demonstrations in the country during February 1946 when
Captain Rashid, of the INA was sentenced.

A large number of women and men participated in the freedom struggle.

Among them Padmasiri Ammal, Singaravelu Chettiar, Va.Ve.
Swaminatha Iyer, Thiru. Vi.Ka. E.V.Ramasamy, and a host of others are
noteworthy and any Tamilian should not fail to give a permanent place in
his heart as long as Tamil Nadu persists in this regard. At last we got
independence on 15 August 1947.

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Check your progress

1. Indian National Congress was founded in _______

2. The Muslim Educational Association of Southern India was

started in _______

3. Bengal was partitioned in ______

4. ______ was born as protest against the British policy towards

_______

Summary

Thus the political and administrative reforms of many leaders found

expression in the formation of the organisation and movements like the
Madras Native Association of 1852, Madras Mahajana Sabha in 1884
followed by the Indian National Congress in 1885. The Tamil leaders
like V.O.C, Subramania Siva and Bharathi were dissatisfied with the role
of the Congress. Hence they joined the extremist faction to preach and
practice terrorism as a means to achieve the goal. In the concomitant
development like the Home Rule agitation, Non-Co-operation
Movement, Salt Satyagraha and Quit India Movement, Tamil
participation appeared so active and agile.

Glossary

Madras Mahajana Sabha : formed in 1884

MEASI : Muslim Educational Association of South India

Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company : Started by V.O.C.

Answers to Check your progress

1.1885

2.19905

3.1902

4.Muslim League, Turkey

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 BLOCK IV

Unit 12 Socio-economic, Religious and cultural conditions of

Tamil Nadu between the 18th and 20th centuries

Unit 13 Self-Respect Movement

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Unit 12

SOCIO-ECONOMIC, RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL

CONDITIONS OF TAMIL NADU BETWEEN
THE 18TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

STRUCTURE

Overview

objectives

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Socio- economic, religious and cultural conditions of Tamil

Nadu between the 18th & 20th centuries

12.2.1 Social Condition

12.2.2 Economic Condition

12.2.3 Religious Condition

12.2.4 Cultural Condition

Summary

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the Socio-economic religious and cultural conditions of Tamil

Nadu between the 18th and 20th centuries have been discussed in
detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

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  assess the socio-economic conditions of Tamil Nadu between
the 18th and 20th centuries

 describe the religious and cultural conditions of Tamil Nadu

between the 18th and 20th centuries.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

By the end of the eighteenth century the foundation of the British rule
was firmly laid in India and Tamil Nadu in particular. Together with the
establishment of the British political supremacy the storm of the western
culture and civilization began to rage violently in the country. It affected
the evolution of Indian society and culture. The expansion of the British
Raj and the advent of western ideas in India gave rude shock to our
ancient religious and social organisation. Towards the close of the
eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century we were passing
through a critical and unparalleled stage of transition. On the one side,
there were the conservatives who clung to the superstitious and lifeless
rigidity of traditions. They sought to strengthen the forces of orthodoxy.
On the other hand, there was gradually rising in social prominence a
group of educated Indians lured by the western ideas.

They looked to the west for guidance and inspiration and advocated an
extreme radical policy. Between the two extreme groups mentioned
above, arose such moderate persons who desired to proceed forward
more cautiously. They came to the conclusion that their culture and
religion were in splendour and excellence. They sought remedy for the
day by social and religious reforms. So they paved the way for the
social and cultural reform in the Tamil country.

12.2 SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, RELIGIOUS AND

CULTURAL CONDITIONS OF TAMIL NADU BETWEEN
THE 18TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

In the following subsections 25.2.1 to 25.2.4 we will touch upon the

topics like Social Condition, Economic Condition, Religious Condition
and Cultural Condition.

12.2.1 Social Conditions

The Tamil country nursed and nurtured a mixed society consisting of

various social groups. Their culture, religion, aptitude, habits, beliefs,

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etc. shaped by natural and artificial forces have a bearing on rural and
village life. The society at large was found as a heterogeneous body.
Its various components like the Brahmin, Nayak, Naidu, Nadar,
Mukkulathor, Chettis, Vellalas, Kaikolas, Sourashtras, Mudaliar,
Bharatavar, Pandaram, Yadavar, Kuravar, Vannan, Paraiyar, Pallar,
Chakiliya, and the like stood at different steps of the social ladder with
due appropriation and identity. The Brahmins were a literate and priestly
class and were held in high esteem in the society. Their place of
habitation was known as ‘Agraharam’. The Ayyankars and Saiva groups
are there among them. The former are Vaishnavites and the latter are
Saivites who claim superiority in the Brahmin community. The Nadars
claim Kshatriya origin in the Tamil country and they are highly
industrious and enterprising. Chettis of different denominations like the
Valayal Chetty and Nattukottai Chetty were noted for trade and business
inclinations. The Naidus and Mudaliyars are probably migrants and
engaged in business and educational professions respectively. The
Nayaks of Telugu origin were engaged in agriculture and warfare. In the
Tamil society they had been held in high social esteem and occupied
high posts like commanders in the army. They were the one time rulers
of the Tamil country and are said to have to come from the Vijayanagar
country as commanders of the Vijayanagar army. Having settled almost
permanently, most of them turned to agriculture.

The Vellalas were high caste Hindus. Their strict vegetarianism and
systematic way of life enabled them to maintain a kind of exclusiveness
in the Tamil Society. They were popularly known as ‘Pillaimar’ and
found scattered throughout the country in isolation as land lords. They
also enjoyed high political influence and held the posts of village
‘kanakkar’ and village ‘munsiff’. Among them various divisions are there
like Konku Vellalar and Isai Vellalar. Yadavar or Konar formed another
social group in the country. They are a sect of Thirumal worshippers
with cattle rearing as their main occupation. The social groups of
Kaikolas and Sourashtras were engaged in weaving in the Tamil
country. The Kaikolas were the natives of the Tamil country and most of
them lived in Kanchipuram, Arani and Salem. The Sourashtras were the
migrants who came and settled down in an area situated within the city
limits of Madurai. Maravas commonly known in the surname of Thevar
(Mukkulathor) emerged as an important peasant community in the Tamil
Country. Besides these people there were many groups of craftsmen
engaged in architecture, sculpture, masonry, carpentry, jewellery etc. At
the extreme bottom of the society there were many sons of the soil in the
name of slave communities. They were attached to the lands of the

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land lords and were subjected to all sorts of ill-treatment. They also
occupied themselves in employment indispensable to all the other social
groups found everywhere in the country. Different social groups used to
observe various ceremonies mostly related to their caste, customs and
religious practices. The observance of the former paved the way for the
social ceremonies and the latter for the religious ceremonies.

(i) Social Ceremonies

India is famous for religious ceremonies and social celebrations. As per

the directives of the “Hindu Dharmastastras” it is one’s religious
obligation to purify one’s mind and body from the moment of birth and
death. This should be done through the observance of purificatory rites
called Samskaras. According to the Hindu law givers there are six
important samskaras. They are (a)pumsavana (male producing
ceremony) (b)namakarna (name giving) (c)anna prasana (food giving)
(d)upanayana (wearing sacred thread) (e)vivaka (marriage) and
(f)emachatanku (funeral ceremonies). These were costly ceremonies
and mostly meant for those who had sufficient means and leisure in life.
Hence these Brahminical fabrications were commonly observed by the
Brahmins and the high caste Hindus.

The funeral ceremonies of the various communities also differ. The

Muslim and Christians put the corpse in the coffin and bury the
deceased in the burial ground meant for them. Most Hindus cremate the
corpse, if the dead is a married one. Others are merely buried. The
ashes of the burnt corpses are usually taken and dissolved in rivers
(usually on the 10th day after death). The kith and kin usually, ladies sit
around the corpse and weep by muttering a peculiar type of song known
as oppari. The ceremonies are done by the dead persons eldest son.
The latter’s head is shaved who then lits to the funeral pyre. At the
return of the year ‘devasam’ (annual offerings to the death person) is
celebrated. This is performed by the sons to their parents (both father
and mother).

(ii) Position of Women

Position of women in the society is a matter of great controversy even

among the modern scholars. It is said that in the Vedic India she was
the master of the house and absolutely free from seclusion. Elite women
received education of high order. In the South she was allowed to eat
in the company of the husband. Some of them led a life of content.

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Women of the upper classes in certain areas enjoyed equal involvement
in administration. In the later period a large number of them were
absorbed in domestic works and some of them found time to cultivate
arts and sciences. They enjoyed more freedom than their counterparts
of the lower levels. The Queen had the freedom to advise their kings on
matters of common welfare. Polygamy was common among the kings
and the wealthy classes, during the Vijayanagar period and later women
came to be enslaved by age old traditions. Dowry system with all its
evils came to exist. The evil practice of extracting exorbitant amount as
dowry emerged among the affluent sections of the society. To a large
extent the lands constituted the dowry. The then existed dowry system
took different dimensions to attain its present shape.

The rite of Sati or women burning themselves on the funeral pyres of

their husbands existed among the high castes. This ordeal which
women were forced to undergo was found here and there and mostly in
Tanjore and Trichirappalli districts. But it was not totally absent in the
southern districts like Madurai and Ramnad. It is said that when
Kizhavan Sethupathi died, his forty seven wives appeared on the scene
to observe sati. This was mainly encouraged to prevent widows from
committing adultery. They performed this rite under the pretext that the
widow volunteered it. In the Madras Presidency the abolition of Sati was
first proposed by G.M.Lushington (1799-1819) who was a magistrate at
Tanjore in 1813 and Trichy in 1819. He recommended its suppression
telling that it was a barbarous practice. By the time various missionary
societies in India and England evinced great enthusiasm in curbing this
practice. In the light of this development the company’s administration
passed the Regulation XVII of 1829 prohibiting Sati. On the strength of
this regulation S.R.Lushington the then Governor of Madras declared the
practice of Sati, of burning or burying alive the widows of Hindus illegal
and punishable in the criminal court. Thus the evil practice gradually
disappeared.

Child Marriage: The evil custom of child marriage prevailed almost

among all the sections of the people. The child marriage also had a
sanction from Manu. The proper age for the marriage of the Hindu girl
was fixed between 8 and 10. She should get married before she
matured. The law givers imprecate terrible curses on parents who kept
their unmarried daughters at home who had attained the age of puberty.
After her marriage she possessed no individual rights and thoughts. The
will of the husband became the unwritten laws at home. She should
worship no god but her husband though he happened to be a drunkard,

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sadist or wife-beater. Child marriage once enforced became the social
order of the day and the high caste Hindus even improved the codes by
increasing the incidence of the marriages. In due course, it paved the
way for the development of ‘Babies Marriage’. What is worst about child
marriage was the tragic widowhood of girls in childhood. Widows were
not allowed to marry again and child widows grew up to be a burden to
themselves and to others. The plight of the Indian widows was an
unhappy feature of orthodox Hinduism. Her life was indeed extremely
deplorable. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar took up the cause of widows.

Another notable social reformer of the day was G.Subramania Iyer

(1885-916) a founder member of the English Journal, The Hindu. He
performed the re-marriage of his daughter Sivapriyammal who became a
widow at the age of twelve. The marriage was held on 31st December
1889 at Bombay and it coincided with the Bombay session of the Indian
National Congress. Many important personalities like Charles Bradlaugh
a British M.P., M.G. Ranade, R.Raghunatha Rao and B.M.Malabari were
present G.Subramania Iyer and his family faced severe opposition from
the orthodox Hindus. Yet he set a good trend of implementing social
reform first at home and later in the Madras Presidency.

The reformers began to expose that child marriage was the root cause
of increase in the number of child widows. So they took measures to fix
the age of consummation to marriage and persuade the Government to
pass legislation in this regard. The widow remarriage gained momentum
when Behramji Malabari (1852-1912) a reformer from Bombay took up
the issue. Malabari toured various parts of India to enlist public opinion
in this regard. Thus he made widow re-marriage a national issue which
began to attract the attention of the Government.

It is interesting to note that the Muslims had given full rights of equality to
widows. They were allowed to marry again. About the marriage of
widow the Quran says re-marriage was considered as fresh marriage
and the majority of Prophet’s wives were widows. The influence of Hindu
culture is clearly visible on the social status of Shia widows, because,
the Shias are extremely averse to divorce and widow remarriage. The
effect of modern education, western civilisation and economic situation
forced them to change their old conservatism and follow the new
freedom of thoughts and liberal views. Yet it became a Herculean task
for the social workers of modern India to put an end to the injustice done
to women.

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The prominent social reformer Periyar EVR too championed the cause
of emancipation of women and did remarkable service in this field. In
1928 under EVR’s Presidentship, the South Indian Social Reformer’s
conference was held at Madras. EVR in his presidential address said
that education of women was essential to establish an enlightened
society. His wife Nagammai also actively participated in all his activities
until her death in April 1933. She was a symbol and representative of the
women’s cause. In 1920, the Self Respect Movement (SRM) launched
by him condemned the existing system of marriage and aspired for a
total change in the system. Mr. Haribulas Sarada introduced a bill in the
Legislative Assembly and the Government which favoured social
reforms gave approval to the Bill only in 1929. Subsequently, the
Justice Party in power passed the Child Marriage and Age of Consent
Bills prescribing marriageable age for girls as 14 years. Both the bills
faced opposition from orthodox Hindus and Muslims. They pointed out to
hundreds of ladies who assembled at meetings and conferences
including conservative Marwari ladies whose resolutions in support of
the measure he held were rewarding. Of the opinion solicited by the
Government on the Bill 58 supported out of 87.

Dr. (Mrs.) Muthulakshmi Reddi, some progressive minded Brahmins and

the self-respectors supported the Bill. They also condemned the
sanatanists and orthodox Brahmins of Thanjavur and Trichy Districts,
who revolted against the Bill. The Muslim community too criticised the
Bill since they considered it as it is against the basic tenets of Islam.
But progressive Muslim girls made representation to his Excellency, the
Viceroy and the Tamil newspaper Dravidian appreciating their
attempts.

The Bill became an Act on 1st October, 1929 and came into force on 1st
April 1930. This Act also called the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929
and fixed the age of marriage for male as 18 and female as 15 years.
Though the Sarada Act was intended to stamp out scourge, it is a matter
of common knowledge that the enactment was honoured more in its
breach than in its observance. However as per the Comparison Report
for the years between 1921 and 1931 there were 175 widows in every
1000 females in 1921 and the figure had fallen to 155 in 1931. Thus this
Act is a milestone in the social history of India.

Female Infanticide: Another evil was female infanticide. Infanticide

was the custom of killing girls at birth. The female child unborn and born
was un welcome to such an extent that the parents were even willing to

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kill them. Various methods like poisoning the milk, strangling, gagging,
burning alive or even drowning were used to do away with female
babies. The prevalence of female infanticide was due to the following
factors; (i) Parents hesitated to shoulder the responsibility of a female
child because they were considered more a liability than an asset.
Unlike the male, the female child had to be provided with a suitable
husband of equal rank and to defray the extravagant cost of the wedding
ceremonies, female infanticide was resorted to (ii)Casteism formed
another factor to be reckoned within female infanticide. By convention
women were not given in marriage to men of lower castes. This
compelled them to practice female infanticide. The steady growth of
this evil forced the British administrators to take some preventive
measures. The Government directed caste headmen and social
reformers to find out ways and means of eradicating it. Caste
conferences and meetings were organised to discourage this practice.
Providing financial assistance to parents with female children was also
considered. Two regulations were passed by the government to
suppress infanticide. During the first half of the nineteenth century a few
British officials took an active role in abolishing female infanticide. In
1890, the Infanticide Act (Act III) was passed which required for its
working a special Police Surveillance of the suspected. Even today, it is
sporadically reported that the so-called educated people kill their female
child in the womb itself by abortion after confirming the sex through a
medical device.

Abolition of Devadasi System: The word devadasi means a servant

or slave of God and girls were dedicated to Gods for external service.
Devadasis were popularly known as dancing girls, because their chief
duty was to dance in front of the idols during processions and pujas.
These devadasis seem to have held a considerable position in Tamil
Nadu. In the 19th century these devadasis enjoyed royal patronage in
Tanjore, Pudukottai and other places.

In the first quarter of the 20th century some enlightened personalities of

Tamil Nadu raised the question of the services of devadasis in the
temple because their presence was considered as a nuisance to
worshippers. In 1900, M.Ramachandra, the Secretary of the Arya
Mission, Conjeevaram openly protested against the devadasi system
indicating that the devadasis converted the place into a place of vices.
It is due to the pressure of the press, public, the efforts of the social
reformers and a despatch was issued by the Secretary of State for India
on 18th September 1912. Dhadabai Naoroji introduced the Protection

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of Women and Girls Bill in the Legislative Council of the Governor
General and separate provisions were provided to prohibit the practice
and dedicating minor girls or removing them from British India and to
other places with the intention of dedicating them to idols. There were
about 20,000 devadasis in the Madras city during 1927 and these
devadasis had an association in Madras and it denounced the practice
of employing them for entertainment and accused those who made them
victims of immoral trade.

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddi who was associated with this community,

voiced against this pernicious custom. She wanted to do away with the
practice, despite much opposition in the Legislature. She organised
meetings in different centres of Madras Presidency. The Women’s
Indian Association and its official publication Stri Dharma were the main
agencies for the propaganda work against the evil system of dedicating
girls as devadasis. She gathered support not only from the public but
also from the devadasi community, various women’s Associations and
many men Associations. In 1927 these associations urged
Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddi to adopt legislation to put an end to the system
of dedicating young women and girls. Accordingly a conference of
devadasis was held at Chidambaram on 8th July 1927 under the
Presidentship of Singaram Pillai. Another meeting was organised at
Coimbatore by the Manimekala Sangam, a Devadasi Women’s
Association on 2nd November 1927 under the presidentship of
Chowdhari V.Konambal. In addition to that there were so many
community Associations which held meetings to support legislation
against Devadasi system.

But a large number of Devadasi community people opposed the

measures of Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddi and others for the abolition of
Devadasi system. When Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddi put forward the motion
on 4th November 1927 in the Madras Legislative Council to stop the
system of dedicating girls and young women to Hindu temples for
immoral purposes, the Devadasi community opposed this tooth and nail.
Immediately after the resolution, majority of the devadasis in Madras
and other parts of the presidency raised their protest by organising
meetings. In 1927 T.Doraikkannamal, the Secretary of the Madras
Devadasi Association took the lead and protested against the resolution
of Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddi and instigated all the devadasis to send
sample memorials to the concerned authorities. The memorial popularly
known as the “Devadasi Memorial of 1927” was submitted to
C.P.Ramaswami Ayyar, the Law Member Government of Madras

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A.Ranganatha Mudaliar and the Minister of Development Department.
In the memorial the devadasis stated that they were not prostitutes.
The basic principle of the system was service to God and their life was
like saints. Hence, abolition of Devadasi system would be a danger to
religion. Not only that, their property would be affected and their cultural
heritage also would be undermined. They also stressed the government
to give them educational facilities through which their future could be
made better. At last by the undaunted will and perpetual persuasion of
Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddi the Bill was passed into law on 1st February
1929, which was called as the Madras Hindu welcomed by majority of
the devadasis because it made them owners of lands. Though the Act
of 1929 provided the right of holding and enjoying the inams, the
devadasis did not stop the practice of prostitution and dedication of girls
as devadasis. At last the Bill was passed into Law in November 1947.
Thus the social stigma of Devadasi system was done away with and the
society was purified and its dignity raised.

Suppression of Brothels and Immoral Traffic : Besides dealing

with the evils of Devadasi system, social reformers raised the issue of
prostitution in the Madras Presidency. To draw the attention of the
Government towards the extant social evils, a number of meetings were
organised by women’s organisations and other social service
organisations in Madras. Edith Gray, one European social reformer
studying the phenomenon of prostitution travelling all over the world
came to Madras on 13 December 1924. She delivered a lecture at the
Gokhale Hall in which she elaborated on the evils of traffic in women and
children. The representatives of Women’s Indian Association who
participated in the meeting were inspired by the lecture delivered by
Edith Gray and decided to do something to combat this evil. As a result
the Madras Vigilance Association was formed in 1925.

It is due to the efforts of the Justice Party during the Subbarayan’s

ministry, the Bill for the Suppression of Brothels and Immoral Traffic
was introduced in the Council on 5 September 1928 and passed on 28
March 1930 as an Act of 1930. This act was put into effect in Madras
city from 1 April 1932. It was extended to Madurai, Coimbatore and
Erode. But no arrangements were made for preventing the girls
rescued from such brothels from taking to prostitution again. The
newspapers repeatedly expressed the urgent necessity of the
establishment of rescue homes for their welfare. Official collusion and
apathy and other related factors presented hurdles in the enforcement of
Law.

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Dowry: Another social evil that crept into the society was Dowry
system. Literally the word Sridhan means women’s property in the
Hindu Law. Women’s right to retain and dispose of property has been
recognised in the law.

The concept of dowry, Sridhan, bride-price and dower and their

meanings reveal the fact that they had been conceived in the beginning
as an economic security for the women. But these economic and social
practices gradually degenerated into the dangerous evil of dowry
compelling the society and the government to take preventive and
eradicative measures.

Side by side it could be seen that remedial measures were also taken
during this period. The Marriage Reform League was organised in 1913
but its seed was sown about eight years earlier. The Anti-Dowry League
was launched at the first session of the Madras Students Convention in
1914. All unmarried members had to pledge that they would not accept
dowry. Similar leagues were started in Northern India too. The social
reformers passed drastic remarks on this custom, Raja Ram Mohan Roy
did raise his voice against it. He felt that society should not restrict the
liberty of women. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and Vivekananda opposed
dowry. Gandhiji vehemently opposed this system. He advised girls that
they should rather remain spinsters all their lives than to be humiliated
and dishonoured by marrying men who demand dowry. He found dowry
marriages “heartless”. Again he said that the only honourable terms in
marriage are mutual love and mutual consent. In Tamil Nadu persons
like Maraimalai Adigal, Thiru V.Kalyana Sundaranar. Periyar E.V.R.,
Muthulakshmi Reddi and others tried not only to prevent the dowry
system but also to do reforms for female upgradation. Bharathi and
Bharathidasan took efforts to eradicate the evil practices of dowry in
Tamil Nadu through writings. After a long period, the Madras
Government introduced the Madras Marriages Bill of 1946, prohibiting
the acceptance of money and gifts. In June and July 1946
representations were received from certain residents of Tanjore and
Vizagapatnam districts as also from the Salem conference held under
the presidentship of C.P.Ramasami Ayyar (13 March 1946) urging the
government to frame legislation in order to prohibit payment of dowry in
marriage or valuable security demanded.

Women’s conferences had been incessantly demanding the enactment

of Law that prohibited the dowry menace. As a result the Government
introduced a Bill in 1951. This bill prohibited property movable given or

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agreed to be given in consideration of a woman given in marriage. In
order to rectify the defects of the bill of 1951 another Bill of 1958 was
introduced. According to this Bill dowry is any property or valuable
security demanded given or agreed to be given to one party to a
marriage. Again this act was amended in 1961 and was called as the
Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act of 1961. The act states that any
person giving or taking or abating of dowry should be punished with
imprisonment for a term of six months which may extend to two years
and a fine of rupees 10,000/- or with the value of dowry. Again this act
was amended and was called as the Dowry Prohibition (Amendment)
Act of 1986. The Act of 1986 clearly stated that the imprisonment may
extend to five years and in addition to the term of imprisonment, a fine of
Rupees 15,000/- or the amount of the value of such dowry whichever is
higher is also to be imposed.

Between 1939 and 1986 the State and the Central Government have
passed laws and thereby tried to curb crimes against women. The
modern educated women have resentment against the institution of
dowry. They have developed several revolutionary ideas about the
system of family and marriage. But all the efforts seem to have
produced very little effect on the eradication of dowry.

Abolition of Purdah System : In Medieval India, with Muslims’

invasions of the country, Purdah for women came into regular
practice. Purdah means covering the whole body with thick cloth while
going outside the house. This is aimed to protect the modesty of
women. Women became gradually conscious that the institution of
Purdah was not necessary in the society. Towards the end of the
nineteenth century G.Subramania Iyer Editor of the Hindu significantly
observed that “Purdah is necessary to protect the moral purity of
women within the four walls of the home is absurd in theory as it is a
gross libel of Hindu women”. The enlightened reformers of the
nineteenth century also preached against the Purdah system and its
harmful effects. But till the end of the nineteenth century the institution
of Purdah was scarcely shaken. In the twentieth century, the citadel of
Purdah began to be seriously breached. The Swadeshi Movement, the
Home Rule Movement, the Non-co-operation Movement and the Civil
Disobedience Movement gave a great stimulus to the Anti-Purdah
Movement in India and Tamil Nadu in particular. The partition of Bengal
in 1904-1905 and the Swadeshi Movement for the first time drew women
out from the seclusion of their homes and inspired them to take an
interest in public affairs. Purdah was adopted by certain classes of

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upper Hindu society chiefly in North India. The educated ladies began to
hate the age long and injurious Purdah system and freed themselves
besides making ceaseless efforts against it and did a lot in doing away
with it.

Property Right to Women: The Hindu law did not permit women to
enjoy property rights on par with men. This inhuman treatment had
enslaved women. At a Tirunelveli District Self Respect Conference held
on 28 November 1927, Periyar E.V.R. as a President pleaded the
government to give equal rights to women like men to inherit or possess
properties as that would make them economically independent.

The Self Respect Movement had maintained that in all walks of life, the
women were in no way inferior to men and could fight for their equal
rights on par with men. Besides it advocated family planning as a way
out for women’s freedom. While upholding the cause of women, it had to
face opposition from different parts of Tamilnadu.

Women Welfare Schemes: After Independence the Government of

Tamil Nadu has evinced much interest in the welfare of women. The
Tamil Nadu government under K.Kamaraj, the Chief Minister opened
several Primary Schools and High schools. The girls also benefited from
it.

In 1954 the Government established a Women’s Welfare Department. In

1955 the Directorate of Women’s Welfare was formed, and in 1972 it
was renamed as Directorate of Social Welfare, to cater to the need and
pay special attention to the problems of women. The D.M.K. and
A.I.A.D.M.K. the offshoots of the Dravidian Movement formed ministries
from 1967 onwards and have been ruling the state till date. It was in the
rule of the Dravidian parties in Tamil Nadu, a number of welfare
programmes were started. The Mother Teresa University was started in
1984. Under the Moovalur Ramamritam Ammaiyar Ninaivu Thirumana
Nithi Uthavi Thittam, Rs.10,000/- is given to the economically poor
brides whose annual income is below Rs.12,000/- per year. Under Dr.
Dharmambal Ammaiyar widow Remarriage Assistance Scheme
Rs.7000/- is given to the economically and socially hard-pressed
widows to get their daughters married.

Mahalir Mandrams have been organised to bring together the women of

rural areas cutting social and economic barriers. Service homes have
been constructed for the welfare of economically backward women

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widows and deserted wives. Under Girls Marriage Assistance Scheme,
financial assistance is given to the Marriage of Orphan girls. The
Anjugam Ammaiyar Ninaivu Thirumana Uthavi Thittam gives assistance
of Rs.10,000/- for inter-caste marriages. In the memory of Dr.
Muthulakshmi Reddi under Mahaperu Uthavi Thittam, Rs.500/- each
is given to poor pregnant women during confinement and after delivery.

Old women, unable to work, are given old age pension, one free meal
under Midday Meal Scheme, besides attending to their clothing, health
care etc. The government also has taken various measures for creating
more job opportunities for women. The government has announced a
subsidy of Rs.30,000/- for mechanised ploughs. Of the total allotment of
subsidies 10 per cent is exclusively earmarked for women farmers.

(iii) Depressed Class Movement

As in other parts of the country, the Christian missionaries were the first
to champion the cause of the depressed communities of Tamil Nadu like
the Adi Dravidas. Missionary agitation for the vindication of their civil
and legal rights was laudable. Mainly due to their efforts the depressed
castes obtained several educational concessions and land ownership.

Of course, the changes it introduced in the land revenue administration

did affect Dalits, but these changes did not improve much their socio-
economic status. American historian John C.B. Webster observed that a
few of the enlightened intellectuals from the depressed castes like
C.Ayothidas Pandithar of Madras took up the cause of their own
people. C.Ayothidas was a great Tamil scholar. His writings reveal a
person well acquainted with Sanskrit, Pali, English and of course Tamil.
He seems to have been well read in the philosophical thought of
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and Christianity. He founded the
Advaitananda Sabha in 1870 in the Nilgris, the Dravida Mahajana
Sangham in 1881 and Chakya Buddhist Sangham in 1898 in Madras. It
was due to his efforts a conference of the Dravida Mahajana Sangham
was held on 1 December, 1891 at Ooty. Resolutions were passed
demanding civil rights, educational concessions, removal of certain
objectionable rules in the Jail Manual and the employment of these
people in the Government services including that of village
administration. In 1892 the depressed caste leaders of Madras formed
another organisation Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha. Both the Dravida
Mahajana Sangham and the Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha worked
together in the matters of common interest of the depressed castes.

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The work of the depressed caste leaders in conjunction with that of the
Christian missionaries bore fruit. The government of Madras accepted
the demands of the depressed caste leaders and issued favourable
orders in the form of G.O.Nos.1010, 1010(A), Revenue dated 30
September, 1892 and G.O.No.68, Education dated 1 February 1893
(hailed as the Magna Carta of Panchama education). Between 1891
and 1935 forty conferences and meetings were held in different parts of
the Madras Presidency and the various problems of the depressed
castes were discussed publicity.

Further, the enlightened depressed caste leaders in Madras realised the

need for launching journals through which they could ventilate their
grievances to the Government, formulate favourable public opinion and
of course educate their own brethren about their pitiable plight. Between
1869 and 1916 about a dozen magazines were run by the depressed
caste leaders themselves. Suriyodayam - 1869, Panchama-1871,
Dravida Pandithan (later Dravidian)-1885, Andor Mitran-1886;
Illaravolukkam 1898; Puloga Vyasan-1900; Tamilan 1907; Dravida
Kokilam 1907; and Tamilpen 1916. In the columns of these
magazines writers like C.Ayothidas pandithar, A.P.Periyasamy Pulavar,
Pandit Muniasamy, Rettamalai Srinivasan, John Rethinam, Muthuvira
Pavalar, Tirumathy K.Sivapparameswari criticized casteism,
communalism, Brahmanism, Manu Dharma, etc. They also took up
cudgels against social evils that were rampant in Hindu society.

Ayothidas did much for the reconstruction of the history and culture of
the Adi-Dravidas through intensive research and study. His research
convinced him that the Pariahs of Tamil Nadu were the original
inhabitants of this region and that their ancestral religion was Buddhism.
Ayothidas was more than convinced that the problems of the Pariahs
could not be resolved without constructing a counter-tradition which
could explain the history and culture of Dalits. In this respect Ayothidas
was a forerunner of B.R.Ambedkar.

The example of Ayothidas was emulated by a host of equally eminent

Dalit intellectuals like G.Appadurai, Masilamani, Rettamalai Srinivasan,
J.S.Kannappan, M.C.Raja, Mayor Swaraj, Mayor Sivashanmugam Pillai,
Munisamy Pillai and Balagurusivam. They worked untiringly for the uplift
of the depressed castes and for the promotion of their self-respect and
self consciousness long before the Justicites and Self-Respectors.

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In the matter of social reform and social protest movements of the 19th
century the Dalit intellectuals were the pioneers in Tamil Nadu. As early
as in 1909 these leaders focussed their view through C.Ayothidas and
placed their demand for communal representation in the Governor’s
Executive Council, Army Medical, Police, Railway and Educational
services and Municipalities in accordance with the population of all the
major communities in the Madras Presidency. It was the caste-Hindus
who were not prepared to concede communal representation to the
depressed castes. Thus long before the formation of Dravidian parties
such as the Justice Party (1916), the Self-Respect Movement (1925)
the Dravidar Kazhagam (1944) the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam(1949)
the Dalit intellectuals and Dalit leaders of Tamilnadu had raised their
political voice for social justice even in the 19th century.

(iv) Social Reform Movement

The nineteenth century marked a brilliant epoch in the history of India

and Tamil Nadu in particular. It produced radical changes in the
different sections of national life. It has been generally portrayed as an
era of awakening. The progress of English Education broke the isolation
of the Indians and brought them into contact with the west. The new
education graded the Indians to begin the process of self-criticism and
social reform. With a new spirit of rejunuvation of the cultural life of
India, a number of reform movements appeared, and most of them were
piloted against the rampant social abuses of the society. They tried to
modernize the social life of the country.

A chapter on Brahma Samaj operating in Madras had its main object to

give up all distinctions and amalgamate the different branches of the
same caste. Kesab Chandra Sen undertook missionary tours to
Bombay and Madras. His lectures and the proceedings of the Seminars
were published in a monthly called Thattuva Bodhini. Sridharalu
Naidu, Secretary of Brahma Samaj presented a memorandum to the
Viceroy to pass legislation for the removal of caste disabilities. As a
result of it, the Caste Disabilities Act was passed in 1850. This gave an
impetus to the Hindu Reformist Movement. Another important social
reformer was Vedanayagam Pillai a literateur of outstanding merit. He
wrote Sarva Samaya Keerthanai. All religious poems of his were meant
to achieve religious harmony. In 1878 he wrote Prataba Mudaliar
Charitram the first Tamil novel. He composed some hymns
accommodating all religions. Next came Gopala Krishna Bharathi
another literary genius of deep social concern. He composed Nandanar

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Sarithira Kirthanaigal. In his work, he stressed the importance of class
struggle as a way out for social emancipation. Another social reformer
Madhavaiah (1872-1925), though he belonged to the Telugu Brahmin
community took earnest efforts for abolishing caste system through his
writings.

Vaikunta Swami (1803-1851): Vaikuntaswami was a saint and socio-

religious reformer. He was a Nadar by caste and born in 1803 at
Thamaraikulam in Cape Comorin. His original name was Mudi Soodum
Perumal and was popularly known as Muthukutti Swamy. It is said that
without much schooling he started his career Sexton. in the
L.M.S.Church of the place. The Travancore Government put them to a
state of enslavement and disrespect. This became a rallying point for his
turning into a rebel and reformer. His aim was to bring recognition to
his community in the society. He appealed to Nadars to worship Vishnu
and Siva instead of traditional Gods and deities in a tribal way. Many
people became his disciples and followers.

He stood for communal equality and social harmony as well as Hindu

brotherhood. To elevate the Nadars to the status of clean caste, he
advised them to take bath twice or thrice daily and vegetarian food
alone. With awe and admiration for this leader, people called him by the
names of ‘Ayya’ Ayya Vaikundar and Vaikuntaswami. Vaikuntaswami
formed a fellowship of the Nadars known as Anpukkudi whose
members were known as Anpukkudi Makkal. The members of the
fellowship consisting of 700 families had their first settlement at
Muttapathi near Cape Comorin. Their settlement was called
Anpukkudiyiruppu. He hated the existing social system, dominance of
rituals and priesthood. So the caste people got enraged.

At their instigation the Travancore State arrested Vaikuntaswami and

took him to Suchindram and Trivandrum to undergo trial and ordeal.
Preachings of Vaikunda Swami were in the form of prophesy, which are
compiled under the title Akilakharattu and Arul Nool. This
compendium consists of his religious and social teachings.

Socio-religious Teachings: His Religious Teachings are as follows:

a)The unseen god is love and He holds the flag of love (Anpukodi),
b)Remove rituals as well as decorative and costly form of worship, c)use
sandal, white sand and water for prayers, d)There is no need for a priest
as intermediary to worship God, e)Repeat the prayer as recited by the
leader, f)Discard village deities and remove animism, g)Prohibit money

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gift (Kanikkai) to God, h)Promote charity and i)Start prayer cells in
different villages.

Vaikuntaswami composed a common prayer. His adherents found it

easy to follow without the assistance of a priest or intermediary.
Vaikuntaswami attempted to contribute a reformed religion to his
community with a common communal collective prayer. Besides
Vaikuntaswami advised his followers to practice charity i.e.
Ayyadharmam, to take Alms and feed the poor, to take care of the
disabled and uncared for like orphans, widows, aged destitute and
handicapped by establishing shelter homes called Chinna chali; to
extend help to the marriage of poor girls and establish rural centres of
medicine, to establish schools for the spread of education and to provide
and protect tanks for the use of the society.

The attempt of Vaikuntaswami was to create awareness among the

oppressed about the social inhibitions. But his reform movement did not
receive wide recognition. However the teachings of Vaikunta are
reformatory and progressive to be followed by the hapless people. A
similar reform wave was gaining ground in the northern part of the Tamil
country as initiated by Ramalinga Adikal.

Ramalinga Adikal (1823-1874): Ramalinga Adikal is also called as the

Arul Prakasa Vallalar and Saint Ramalingar. Vallalar was born on 5th
November 1823 at Maruthur near Chidambaram in the north Arcot
District. He had spiritual experiences from his childhood. He lost his
parents in his boyhood and so he could not receive formal education.
Ignoring his longing for spiritual life he was sent to Sabhapathi Pillai of
Kancheepuram for education. Vallalar had no interest in studies and
returned to spend his times in temples in and around Madras. He spent
his time in silence and solitude and underwent spiritual and mystical
experiences. At the age of 23 he returned to his native village and
stayed at Karunkuli. From 1858 to1867 he had a life of penance at
Karunkuli. Karunkuli life made him a Sanmargi and became Arul
Prakasa Vallalar. Then he went to Vadaloor to continue his life as
Sanmargi and transmitted his socio-religious teachings into action.

Teachings of Vallalar : (i)Form of God is light-fire (Arulperunjothi).

(ii)Physical body is the spiritual temple and the eternal light as
represented in the inner-self of individuals. (iii) There are seven screens
between inner self and eternal light. (iv) love is the master key to
spirituality (v)Religious ceremonies and worship of village Gods and

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deities are meaningless. (vi) Avoid idols, incense, music and intermedia
in worship. (vii)Suddha Sanmarga alone has performance in life.
(viii).Samarasam helps the realisation of truth of all religions.
(ix).Meditation is a form of prayer, (x).Discipline of Senses, discipline of
Jiva, Discipline of Atma and Discipline of Action are the four means for
Sanmarga. Vallalar wished every individual to rise as Sanmargi.
Compassion and non-killing are the basic principles of Sanmarga.
(xi)Human society in the world must be of universal brotherhood and an
assemblage of sanmargas alone can realise it. (xii).A righteous society
leads to universal brotherhood for which love and compassion are the
foundations. (xiii) Jubilous ceremonies are meaningless and waste.
(xiv) love and Grace are more useful than Yogas and Dhyanas. (xv)
Human spirit is permanent and so the body as the body of spirit after
death can be given burial instead of cremation. (xvi)Hunger and poverty
are the greatest ills of society. (xvii)Good services are to be rendered to
eliminate the ills of poverty and hunger.

His mission was to establish brotherhood of man and fatherhood of God.

He saw caste creed and religious bickerings against his mission. He
condemned caste system as rubbish and considered the caste
distinction and caste-based sastras childish. He started the three
organs: a) Samarasa Suddha sanmarga satya Sangham. b) Satya
Dharma Sala and c) Satya Gnana Sabha with a clarion call that all paths
are towards one goal and let the world thrive through unity. His mission
marked a mile-stone in the religious history of Tamil country. But his
Divine message did not reach far and wide as he could not get a brilliant,
dynamic and western oriented disciple like Vivekananda of
Ramakrishna.

Ramakrishna Mission

Ramakrishna Mission marks the synthesis of the Ancient and Modern

forces and forms the great Social and Religious Movement of the 19th
century. Ramakrishna Parama Hamsa after whom the mission is
named was a poor priest in a temple near Calcutta. Ramakrishna
without any formal education led a spiritual life and kept a deep faith in
the inherent truth of all the religions. He lived and died as a secluded
spiritual devotee and was known to a small group of people. He
appeared on the scene to correct the immoral values from undermining
Hinduism.

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Narendra Nath Dutta, afterwards, called as Swami Vivekananda (1863-
1902) was popular among the disciples of Ramakrishna. By sheer dint
of his learning, eloquence, spiritual fervour and wonderful personality he
gained a band of followers from princess to peasants. He visited
Madras in 1893 and got a group of loyal and devoted disciples.
Following his Madras visit in the same year he went to the U.S.A. and
attended the famous “Chicago Parliament of Religions at Chicago”.
From that day onwards the teachings of Ramakrishnan as interpreted by
Vivekananda came to be recognised as a world force. Ramakrishna
Mission and Monasteries were established in different centres of the
U.S.A. in 1894. After the return of Vivekananda, they spread all over
India. Again he came to Madras in 1897. Now he stood for radical
reformation which rested on education and spiritual rejuvenation. He
supported the widow remarriage and the ‘Age of Consent Bill’. He
wanted to revive the Hindu society on the American model.

Theosophical Society: Brahmanical supremacy posed a serious threat

to Hinduism even during the days of Buddha. The same became an
important impediment to reforms in the Tamil Country during the 18th
and 19th Centuries. The friendly gesture of the Tamils chanced the Irish
lady Mrs.Annie Besant to associate herself with the Theosophical
society and to make laudable contribution to the Tamil Society. The
Theosophical Society was founded by Madame- H.P., Blavatsky and
Col. H.S.Olcott in the U.S.A. in 1875. They came to India in 1879 and
1886 respectively and established their headquarters at Adayar in
Madras. However, its real success in India was due to Mrs.Annie
Besant who joined the Society in 1889 and settled in India in 1893.

Annie Besant upheld the glories of Ancient India and urged the people to
return to that ancient glory. She also regarded the four Varna system
(caste system) as the ‘best that’ was ever organised but condemned
rapid growth of castes in contemporary Hindu Society as they stood
against National Unity. In 1904 she founded the Madras Hindu
Association to accelerate the advancement of Hindu religion and
society on national lines in harmony with the spirit of Hindu civilization.
With the formation of Hindu Association, Theosophy came to be one of
the outstanding reform movements in the Tamil Country. By 1905 she
considered the four varna ideal and the caste system hopeless and
worked to form an opinion in favour of change. His repudiation of caste
system made her unpopular among the orthodox who did not want to
lose their traditional domination due to any change in the social set up.

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(v) The Dravidian Movement

The Socio-economic transformation of the nation under the domination

of the British in the 19th and 20th centuries undermined the strength of
the caste system. Enactment of legislations like Charter Act of 1833,
Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850, Special Marriage Act of 1872
and the Special Marriage Amendment act of 1923 also contributed their
due share for the same. Diffusion of western concepts and values of
life questioned the age-old undemocratic social set up and the deep-
rooted caste supremacy. Despite these developments, the oppression
and the exploitation of the unprivileged classes in the hands of a few
higher castes continued unchecked. Brahmins outnumbered the non-
Brahmins in the governmental service by virtue of their long tradition of
learning. As the spiritual heads, they were indispensable to the staunch
Hindus. Again, the Brahmins appeared unavoidable to the
administration headed by the aliens and the locals. The castes like the
Vellalars and the Mudaliars were assigned a lower status despite their
western education and advanced economic condition. In the meantime,
other castes like the Maravar and Kallar and Vanniyar remained totally
ignorant. Attempts were made to start associations by the
disadvantaged castes in Tamil Nadu. In 1909, P.Subramanian and
N.Purushotham Naidu attempted to form ‘The Madras non-Brahmin
Association’. Its first aim was to extend economic assistance to the
intelligent non-Brahmin students to pursue their studies in India and to
fetch them job opportunities in the government. Next it wanted to help
them learn various industries in foreign countries to start foreign like
industries in their native land. These measures were aimed at improving
the status of the non-Brahmin communities in the Madras Presidency.
But they could not get popular support and able leadership to start the
Association. This failure did not end the emergence of such
associations in the future. In 1912 a few non-Brahmin Government
servants to get fair deal in the government appointments started an
association in the name of ‘Madras United League’. In its annual
meeting it was renamed as The Madras Dravidian Association with
special emphasis to infuse self-respect in the non-Brahmins. In June
1916, the Madras Dravidian Association started The ‘Dravidian Home’
for the aspiring non-Brahmin youths to go for higher studies from the
schools and colleges of the Madras Colleges. This offered a rare
opportunity to the non-Brahmin youths to unite themselves into a
powerful group. This organisation also developed a non-Brahmin feeling
in them and proved instrumental in shaping the Justice party which was
in its incubation stage.

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The non-Brahmins felt oppressed due to the dominance of the
Brahmins. It is said that the Brahmins who formed 3 per cent of the
Madras population dominated the socio-religious life of the majority non-
Brahmin population. Among the literate the Brahmins formed about 75
per cent. They also monopolised 97 per cent of the gazetteer posts and
65 per cent of the non-gazetteer posts in the presidency. On the other
hand majority among the non-Brahmin population developed contempt
against the Home Rule and Self-Government clamoured by Brahmins. It
had its culmination in the formation of the South Indian Peoples
Association on 26 November 1916. The non-Brahmin leaders outside
the Congress like Thyagaraya Chetty and T.M.Nair were the originators
of this Association. It was intended to protect the interest of the non-
Brahmins. In its historic ‘Non-Brahmin Manifesto published in 1916 the
agony of the non-Brahmins were expressed eloquently. Along with that,
the need for Communal representation was also stressed instantly.

Besides the ‘South Indian Peoples Association’, some non-Brahmin

associations like the Vanniakula Movement in the North Arcot and South
Arcot districts and the Adi Dravidar Mahajana Sabha were also started.
To fight against political and social injustice, P.Thyagaraja Chetty and
T.M.Nair urged all the non-Brahmin communities to forget their
differences and stand together to get equal place in the society. They
also formed the ‘South Indian Liberal Federation’ and in 1917 it was
renamed as ‘Justice Party’. It had its first conference at Coimbatore on
20th August 1917. In 1918 T.M.Nair demanded the voting list based on
caste and communities. The electoral committee consisting of
V.S.S.Srinivasa Sastri and S.N.Banerji rejected his demand. So the
Justice Party refused to accept the recommendations of the electoral
committee. To solve the problem a meeting was held at London
attended by representatives of all the parties. By the time T.M.Nair died
and he was replaced by K.V.Reddy Naidu, as the leader of the
representatives. The outcome of the meeting was the appointment of
Meston Electoral Committee. The Meston Voting Committee submitted
a report and the Justice Party accepted it and explained this report as
the ‘Meston Award’. The committee recommeded the Government to
give more representation to the backward people and to extend the
voting right. The Meston Voting Committee submitted a report and the
Justice party accepted it.

Justice Party: K.V.Reddy Naidu, one of the founders of the Justice

party explained the aim of the party as ‘attainment of social equality and
abolition of untouchability’. T.M.Nair expressed ‘political, social and

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moral equality of the non-Brahmins with the Brahmins of the presidency,
as the goal of the Justice party. Sir Thyagaraja Chetty explained the aim
of the party as ‘educate the non-Brahmins to get their due share of
Government service and political power in proportion to their strength
and significance.

The caste Hindus extended their full support to the Justice party to end
the Brahmin domination. In 1919, the Congress refused to contest the
election in 1920. But the Justice party found an opportunity to capture
power and check the Brahmin influence. The British on the other hand
found a chance to keep the Home Rule League under check by
favouring the Justice party. Hence the party shot into prominence.

(i) The greatest achievement of the Justice party was the issuance
of its communal G.O’s. The Justice party in the Council passed
a resolution to increase the proportion of posts in government
offices held by the non-Brahmins. On the basis of this resolution
the Justice ministry issued its first communal G.O. in 1921. It
secured sufficient representation to non-Brahmin Communities in
Government service. The second communal G.O. issued on
15th August 1922 appeared more significant than the first one.
This assured communal reservation to non-Brahmins in public
appointments. In 1924, the Panagal ministry established the
Staff Selection Board to implement the communal G.O. This
setup became the first of its kind in India and became the fore-
runner of the Public Service Commission formed in 1929.

(ii) Women were given the right to vote on the same basis of men by
an act of 1921. The degenerated Devadasi System which gave
room for the physical exploitation of women was abolished by a
law passed on 1st February 1929.

(iii) The Hindu Religious Endowment Act of 1923 was passed to

eliminate corruption in the religious endowments and constituted
committees for the management of temple properties.

(iv) The Industries Act passed in 1922, helped to expand industries

and promote technology. This act was mainly because of the
initiative taken by K.V.Reddi Naidu and was intended to bring
minimum return for the capital investment.

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 (v) The Justice Ministry imparted Primary Education through fee
concessions, scholarships and introduced mid-day meal scheme.
There were large number of downtrodden parents, who could not
provide mid-day-meal to their children, if they attend school. The
mid-day meal scheme of the Justice party stood to the
advantage of the children of the downtrodden parents.

(vi) The indigenous system of medicine was given due

encouragement. To help the poor the poramboke lands were
given to them as house sites and land pattahs were also given
for them.

(vii) To expand higher education, Andhra University was opened in

1925 and the Annamalai University in 1928.

(viii) The ministry succeeded in its attempt to appoint District Munsiffs,

independent of the High Court.

The piece of legislation that the Justice ministry framed then and there
proved relevant to the needs of the Tamil Society. Socio-economic
transformation of the Tamils formed the Central theme of the legislation
of the Justice Administration. Altogether the vulnerable non-Brahmin
struggle had its culmination in the formation of the Self-Respect
Movement.

Temple Entry: Another dominant social evil that prevailed among the
people in the name of religion was prohibiting the Depressed Classes to
enter into the temples, to secure access to public roads, tanks and
wells. The members of the Nadar community were also prevented from
entering into the temple on the grounds that they indulged in the
profession like toddy-tapping and it was considered one of the
Panchama pathagas (five Great-sins). One Mooka Nadar tried to enter
into the Meenakshi Amman Temple, in Madurai in vain. The self-
respectors began to take up the issue and decided to put an end to
these inhuman practices by securing access to temples, public roads,
tanks and wells. They formed a Self-respect Satyagraha committee in
Thanjavur under the Secretaryship of Karaikudi R.Chinnaian to enlist
activists and volunteers for launching satyagraha throughout Tamil
Nadu. Even though they failed in their attempt they were able to give
wide publicity to these social disabilities through their publications
Kudiarasu and Justice and they even demanded a royal
proclamation to put and end to this evil. The Nadar temple entry

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movement that occurred in places like Kamudhi and Ramnad were
brought to the notice of the Privy Council but the desired judgement
was not given. Gandhiji appealed to the people to give up this practice
and leaders like Kelappan of Malabar, EVR and Dr.P. Subbarayan also
gave clarion call to remove all these evils for the betterment of India.
Dr. P.Subbarayan proposed to introduce a Bill in the Legislative Council
of Madras in 1932, but sanction was refused on the ground that its
implications were far-reaching and hence not feasible for enactment by a
Provincial legislature. Another Bill introduced by Ranga Iyer also proved
to be a failure.

Meanwhile the Self-respectors from different parts of Tamil Nadu took an

active part in asserting the low-caste Non-Brahmin rights to enter into
the temples. In 1937 C.Rajagopalachari became the Premier of Madras
and the Congress Party during his premiership passed Malabar Temple
Entry Act in 1938, by which the temples in Malabar were thrown open
to the Depressed Classes. Under the inspiring leadership of Rajaji, the
Premier of Madras, the Tamil Nadu Harijan Sevak Sangh once again
began to start Temple Entry campaign in Tamil Nadu under the
leadership of V.Vaidyanatha Iyer in Tamil Nadu. They held public
meetings in many places in Tamil Nadu and advocated the programme
of Temple Entry. Temple Entry conference was also held in Madurai on
13th June 1939 at Victoria Edward Hall, Madurai.

On 8th July 1939 a group of people numbering six belonged to

Depressed Class community inclusive of one Nadar, under the
Presidentship of A.Vaidyanatha Iyer, President of the Harijan Sevak
Sangh and L.N.Gopalasamy the Sangh’s Secretary made their entry
into the Sri Meenakshi Amman temple, Madurai. Nobody opposed the
temple entry party and it was really a historic occasion to see a change
in the attitude that occurred among the orthodox section. But the
movement was not without opposition N.Natesa Iyer, the President of
the Varnashrama Swarajya Sangh, Madurai sent a telegram addressed
to the Private Secretary to His Excellency, the Governor of Madras and
requested him to intervene in this matter and prevent Depressed
Classes from entering into the temples. He also sent a telegram to
Gandhiji that the temple was opened to Harijans in defiance of the public
opinion. N.Natesa Iyer and K.R.Venkatrama Iyer were not willing to
accept the reforms within the Hindu society and they said that the
Meenakshi temple was desecrated and polluted and demanded that
Samprokshanam (purification ceremony) be performed in the temples
opened to the Depressed Classes. At this juncture the Government of

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Madras under the Premier of Rajaji on 11th July 1939 published a Bill
which was to be introduced in the August meeting of the Legislature. It
was called the Madras Temple Entry Authorisation and Indemnity Bill.
The Bill after having gone through the due process sent to the Viceroy
Lord Linlithgow who gave his assent on 4th September 1939 and it was
published for general information as Act No.XXII of 1939. Accordingly
this Act popularly known as the Temple Entry Act granted the civil rights
of opening temple to all the sections of the people and it also stated that
no person should suffer any civil or criminal penalty or disadvantage by
reason of anything done in connection with such entry and worship.

As a result of this Act many temples like Meenakshi Amman Temple,

Madurai, Kudal Alagar temple, Sri Sundararaja Perumal temple,
Valayampatti, Melur Taluk, Madurai district, Sri Brahadiswara temple,
Tanjore. Sri Tirukutalanatha Swami Temple, Courtallam, Tirunelveli
district and Kasi Viswanatha Swami temple, Tenkasi, Tirunelveli were
all opened to all.

Health: During the British rule in India, some steps were taken for the
maintenance and improvement of public health and facilities were
provided for medical relief. After independence and the transformation
of the state into a welfare state, the public health of the nation became
a matter of fundamental importance. Greater attention is being paid to
health publicity, propaganda and family planning. It may be seen there is
a progressive increase in the plan outlays on medical education. The
Unani, the Homeopathy, and the Allopathic system are promoted
Medical sciences improved for the past few decades. Advanced medical
facilities an made available for treating T.B.Leprosy, Cancer and the
sexually transmitted diseases. The Christian Medical Hospital, Vellore,
the General Hospital, Appollo Hospital, Madras, Rajaji Hospital, Madurai
the cancer Institute, Adyar and Kancheepuram the Central Leprosy
Teaching and Research Institute Chingleput, Kovai Medicals,
Ramakrishna Mission Hospital, K.G.Hospital Coimbatore, Meenakshi
Mission Hospital, Arvind Eye Hospital, Madurai really are catering to the
people in a greater way. Besides there are district headquarters
hospitals, Government dispensaries and primary health centres to look
after the people. Thus the Government and the private hospitals are
doing laudable services for the welfare of the people.

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12.2.2 Economic Conditions

The Impact of the British rule can be broadly periodised thus: the period
upto the 1870s, ending with the devastating famine of 1876-78; the
period from 1880 to the end of World War I; and the period from 1919
to independence, chiefly marked by the impact of the Great Depression
and World War II. With this periodisation as an aid, we examine the
impact of colonial rule, beginning with the agrarian economy.

The impact of colonial rule on productive forces in agriculture was rather

complex. To begin with, the considerable weakening of local authority
engendered by British rule, the resultant confusion and the oppressive
land revenue burden (especially with declining grain prices) meant, up to
the 1850s, little expansion-and quite possibly some decline - in the area
cultivated, and also in the availability of other inputs, most importantly
irrigation. Until towards the end of the nineteenth century, the British did
not pay much attention to irrigation. This was followed by an
expansionary second phase, roughly from 1880 to the end of World War
I. During this period, major irrigation works were taken up in the Tamil
districts, mostly on the Cauvery but also on the Palar-Cheyyar,
Ponnaiyar and Vaigai (1890s). The Public Works Department was
established in 1852 in the Madras Presidency with irrigation as its main
concern, and the thousands of tanks in the ryotwari areas of the
Presidency came under its authority. The work of the PWD was,
however, severely limited by resource constraints, and could not
compensate for the decline in tank systems in Zamindari areas caused
by the erosion in the political authority of zamindars and their lack of
interest in maintaining the tanks. With increase in irrigated area from the
projects of the 1870s to 1890s, and relative political and economic
stability, the area cultivated increased by 26 per cent between 1880 and
1904, and the value of crop production by 35 per cent. More important,
the cropping pattern was changing. Between the 1880s and the 1920s,
the proportion of the area under commercial crops in the Tamil districts
rose from 4 per cent to 12 per cent of total area, and from a little less
than 10 per cent to about a quarter of gross sown area. Foodgrains
such as rice and inferior cereals like cholam and cumbu continued to be
important, but commercial crops, especially cotton and groundnut, were
rapidly increasing in extent.

The trend of increase in cultivated area, under both food and non-food
crops, did not, however, continue into the third phase beginning at the
end of World War I. Between 1920 and Independence, while expansion

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in irrigation (contributed to mainly by the Cauvery-Mettur Project of the
1930s and the Periyar system, and by a significant increase in well-
irrigation in Coimbatore, Salem and North Arcot districts) led to an
increased area under paddy and commercial cropping, area under
millets and pulses declined.

As a result of the British rule in India the peasantry became very

poor and land revenue so high. There was stagnation and deterioration
in agriculture. A large number of old Zamindars were ruined in Bengal
and Madras. Most of the industries were affected. The village industries
were in a chaotic condition.

(i)Agriculture

Agriculture was the main occupation of Tamil Nadu. When the British got
assess meat on the Indian Territory they wanted to organise the territory
into divisions so that they could have effective control and at the same
time collect the revenue from the people. Since India was an agricultural
country they concentrated on the land tax that formed the major source
of income. The British government took some measures on land
revenue administration.

Land Revenue Systems: In the Tamil Country land was the main, of all
the social and political activities. Similarly the revenue derived from the
land formed the main source of State’s income. In India the land revenue
settlements became a synthesis of various conflicting forces and
circumstances. At the same time in the Tamil country it became a
synthesis of different influences. It is interesting to see that when the
introduction of permanent settlement marked the end of all the problems
connected with the land settlements in the other presidencies, in the
Tamil country it marked the beginning of new problems. The country
passed through various trials and tribulations with the experimental
systems like’ Zamindari and Poligari settlements. At last it adopted the
Zamindari settlement for its survival. This unsteadiness was mainly due
to people’s passion to preserve the indigenous system intact The
English endeavour to introduce a uniform system of land revenue
administration was aborted by the enormity of problems existed in the
Tamil Country. The situations made the British to realise that in the
matter of land revenue administr-ation of the Tamil Country suitability
was more important than uniformity.

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A variety of tenures with local peculiarities prevailed in the country
rendered the state’s attempt to form a fair settlement difficult. Under
such circumstance the interest of the cultivator was found at stake. The
poor tillers were subjected to oppression and arbitrary collection of
revenue by unprincipled renters. Assessment was neither based on
fertility of the soil nor the exact extent of the area under cultivation.

Frustrated by such a situation the Company authorized the Board to

lease the villages to head inhabitants for a period of three or five years.
Thus a Quinquennial Settlement was experimented. Under the
Quinquennial settlement system a portion of the produce was deducted
for ‘Swatantran’ and cost of cultivation. The rest was equally divided
between the government and the ryots, working of this mechanism
highly affected the unwanted agents like Poligars. The Poligars affected
in turn created everywhere a scene of confusion. They threatened the
ryots to forgo the settlement. Prompted by such anarchy the
Government appointed a commission to study the problem and suggest
a solution. The Commission in its report submitted in August 1796
suggested a Ten year settlement with the poligars. Hurdis, the Collector
of Madurai was entrusted with the responsibility of implementing the
Commission’s recommendations. For convenience of assessment he
divided the lands into ‘Nanja’ and ‘Punja’ (canal fed land and rain fed
land) and fixed the land tax as 50 per cent of the gross produce of both
the lands. The local chieftains like the Poligars were highly dissatisfied
with this state measure, The Zamindars and Poligars who were charged
with the responsibility of collecting the revenue got agitated. They
reacted with the help of their army and created destructive feuds with the
villages. State attempt to subdue the feuds found expression in the
South Indian Rebellion of 1801. The alien rule suppressed the rebellion.
But the suppression of the rebeIlion could not find a proper solution to
the burning problem of land revenue settlement. The problem continued
as a cry for the moon. Under such circumstances the Company
developed the idea of Zamindari system as it was a success in Bengal.

Zamindari System: Zamindari system was one of the measures

adopted by the English East India Company to make sure of the land
revenue. The term Zamindar denoted mainly the landed gentry who
were also the local bosses. The need for creating a cadre of Zamindars
became a historical necessity. Under the system the sanads specifying
the terms of permanent settlement were granted to the proprietors. The
assessment was declared permanent. The rent fixed was related to land
revenue only. It did not relate to other sources of income like excise and

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customs. Two thirds of what was collected at the time of assessment
was fixed as state’s share. It was decided that the claims of the
Zamindars and mittadars upon the ryots should not exceed the
customary rates. The ryots were to be issued with pattas stipulating the
area of cultivation and the amount of tax they had to pay. If the ryots
failed to pay the tax the Zamindars could not confiscate property. On the
other hand if the Zamindar failed in remitting the contracted amount to
the’ government, it could confiscate his estate. The affected tenants and
the lords were free to approach the court of law.

The system in its implementation could not safeguard the interest of the
peasants. The Zamindars exploited the ryots without any rhyme or
reason. They wielded economic control in their localities. On the part of
the administration it was an abject misuse of power. The small holdings
of the tenants were grouped into estates and sold them to the highest
bidders; the system transforms a few rich individuals into lords over
villages, and also promoted some unqualified persons to the rank of
Zamindars.

Village Lease Settlement: The Tamil village communities developed

their best traditions through the ages, the land revenue settlements that
the government tried then and there stood detrimental to their traditions
which the people did not want to give up. In the light of this truth
expecting the promotion cf unity among the people, growth of peace and
prosperity in the county and the possibility of avoiding .the corrupt
Tahsildars, the Government favoured the Village Lease Settlement.
However, its main purpose was to minimise the state expenses, avoid
the hurdles and riddles found in the collection of revenue and to help the
ryots and the other village functionaries to pursue the occupation of
cultivation. But quite against the expectations, grievances stood to
cripple the interest of the ryots and renters and also the resources of the
state. Hence the Court of Directors directed the Madras Council to
implement the Ryotwari Settlement.

Ryotwari Settlement: The English experimented with different forms of

land revenue settlement and finally decided in favour of Ryotwari
system. It was imple-mented in 1814 on an experimental basis. Then,
based on the direction of the Board of Revenue Thomas Munro (1820-
1827) extended it over the entire country.

Under the Ryotwari system the ryots enjoyed absolute right over the
lands they obtained from the government on an agreement. The ryot’s

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right over the land was confirmed by the agreement. The ryot was at
liberty to increase or reduce the area of cultivation as well as to keep
sub tenants by leasing out the land partly or wholly. The tenant thus
possessed the land should remit the tax without dues. In the case of
dues the government as the land owner enjoyed the power of eviction.
Under the ryotwari system waste lands were to be treated as circar
property, and they were assessed if they were brought under plough.

Under the ryotwari system lands were surveyed and their boundaries
were fixed up by the qualified demarcators, field surveyors and
classifiers. Survey officials were empowered to settle the survey
disputes and clear the doubts of the ryots, Field registers were
maintained in the district cutcheries.

On the recommendation of the Board of Revenue ryotwari system was

improved upon in 1818. The ryots were given the freedom to take lands
and also free to sell or lease out or mortgage their lands to others
without the fear of anyone’s interference. As per the improvement act it
was decided to make settlement with all persons who had a hereditary
right on their holdings. Provision was also made to reduce the rates in
the case of over assessment. Unproductive lands were made tax free.
The practice of forced cultivation was also cancelled. The ryots were
permitted to complain to collector against exaction and file suits in the
Zillah courts against over assessment.

The ryotwari system was originally designed to give protection to the

ryots against the corrupt official proceedings and the oppression of the
native agents. In that sense it could eliminate local middlemen. But at
the same time the power of the revenue servants greatly expanded.
They were given the discretion to decide about the quality of land and
the rate of assessment.

The system led to the growth of agricultural indebtedness. The peasants

borrowed the needed money from village money lenders for cultivation
and to pay taxes. Their condition grew from bad to worse during the
period of depression extended from 1810-1830. The prices of
agricultural products declined sharply. But remission could not be
availed to tackle the situation. Altogether the ryots became poverty
stricken and debt ridden and fell an easy prey to famines and pestilence.
However the tillers preferred it as it made them real owners of the land
and free from many a previous harassment.

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In Tamil Nadu 87 per cent of the people were dependent on agriculture.
The geographical setting also provided favourable conditions like the
tropical climate, fertility of the soil and perennial irrigation. But the people
in stead of becoming richer and richer became poorer and poorer. The
records also admit that the government’s agricultural policies were
defective and that they were the bone of contention and caused
frustration in the masses in the event of failure of crops. The government
did not come to their rescue and famine and starvation spread widely in
the land. But at the same time the government organised exhibitions at
places like Madurai 1885, at Coimbatore, Salem, and North Arcot in
1886 at Salem in 1889. The objective was to enlighten the masses to
know the latest methods on agriculture. But they did not fulfil the needs
of the peasants. The government pursued another method of conducting
experiments in its farms and research-stations were opened in the
places like Madurai in 1889, at Coimbatore in 1918 to spend minimum
expenditure and maximum benefit. But it also failed. Again the
government took another method of giving loans and advances to the
agriculturists.

When the first Indian National Congress was held at Bombay in 1885,
P.Rangaiah Naidu a Madras delegate moved a resolution to take
necessary steps for eradicating poverty. The congress continuously
stressed the need for eradicating poverty in the country.

When the Justice Party came into prominence it took several measures
for the welfare of the peasants. Land Mortgage Banks Act 1925, Madras
Money Lender’s Bill 1932, Madras Co-operative Land Mortgage Bank
Act 1934 Agriculturists Loan Act 1935 Madras Debtors Protection Act
and Estates Land Act 1936 were passed far the welfare of the peasants.
The Justice government to improve the conditions of the agriculturists
opened Agricultural Research Extension Centre and Agricultural
Education - a new paddy breeding station at Aduthurai in Tanjore in
1922; sub-stations were also opened on the recommendation of the
Royal Commission on Agriculture. A separate section was established in
1925 for Agricultural Engineering. The Cotton Transport Act was passed
in 1925 to control import of inferior quality of seeds into the protected
areas. The Department of Agriculture also published leaflets. As a
preliminary step to an extensive programme of developing marketing
facilities for crops and husbandry products, the government established
a provincial marketing board in 1934. The Justice Party government in
the Madras Presidency by enacting certain laws served the interests of
peasants and tenants to an extent.

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Agriculture has improved in harmony with the green revolution. Tractors
have been introduced in the place of wooden ploughs. High yield seed
varieties fertilizers, pesticides, plant protection measures, dry farm
techniques etc., are made available even to the illiterate farmer. So
production has been increased by and large in the country.

(ii) Irrigation

Irrigation, particularly dam irrigation plays a significant role in the

development of agricultural economy of any nation. The agriculture of
Tamil country depended mainly on rivers like the Cauvery, the Vaigai,
the Tamiraparani and the minor rivers like the Palar, the Ponniar, etc.
After the arrival of the British, they took efforts towards improving the
existing irrigation projects. However concrete steps were taken
immediately after Independence. The following nine schemes were
taken up by the government namely Lower Bhavani, Manimuthar, Mettur
Canal Scheme, Cauvery Delta Drainage Scheme, Araniar, Amaravathi,
Vaigai, Sathanur and Krishnagiri. The irrigation projects have been
classified into three categories, major irrigation schemes, middle sized
irrigation schemes and minor irrigation schemes. The major schemes
covered an area of more than a lakh of acres, the middle sized schemes
covered between 10,000 and 1,00,000 acres and minor schemes less
than 10,000 acres. The majority of the schemes in Tamil Nadu fell
under the minor irrigation schemes expected to benefit 3.7 lakhs of
acres while the remainder of two schemes was to benefit 8 million acres.
The Lower Bhavani Project was the biggest project sanctioned at the
end of 1947 by the Government. The cost of estimation was Rs.10
crores. Manimuthar Project was formed in November 29, 1950 and that
was the first largest irrigation project in Tirunelveli district. Mettur Canal
Scheme was sanctioned in 1949. Located in Salem District, it was
managed by the Mettur Township Committee. Next scheme is the
Cauvery Delta Drainage Scheme. This scheme consisted of twelve key
schemes intended to retain drainage submersion in the Cauvery Delta.
Araniar Reservoir Project was yet another irrigation project. It was
formed in Tiruvalluvar Taluk of Chingleput District in the year 1951 by
Thiru K.Bhaktavatsalam, then Minister for Public Works. Vaigai
Reservoir is located near Andipatti village in Madurai District and its
construction commenced in January 1954. It was built across the Vaigai
River. It was proposed to irrigate 20,000 acres. Sathanur Reservoir is
located in Sathanur village in North Arcot District. This reservoir was
designed across the river Ponniar. In 1947, Krishnagiri Reservoir

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Project was investigated and it was sanctioned in 1954. The project was
first opened on 10 November 1957.

The major sources of irrigation are canals, tanks and wells. During the
British regime the upper and lower anaikats (dams) across the Cauveri
and Coleroon. Periyar Project, the Mettur and Pykara projects were
constructed. Of the projects undertaken after 1947 the Jundah,
Parambikulam-Aliyar, Periyar and Papanasam, deserve worthy of
mention. Power generation has increased by leaps and bounds.

After independence the Five year plans, River five year plans, valley
projects and the 20 point programmes have been successfully
inaugurated. In our country we are following planned economy.

Animal husbandry forestry, industries, power transport, education,

medical services, housing, water supply etc. have received adequate
treatment for development in all the plans. In 1975 a new project for
socio-economic rejuvenation of the nation was inaugurated by our Prime
Minister Mrs.Indira Gandhi known as 20 point programme. It is an annex
to five year plans. It covers various areas including society and
economy. Even during the seventh five year plan great impetus was
given to education, agriculture and industry. Now in every walk of life
great interest is taken by the Government to improve the conditions of
the society.

Labour Kisan Party: The communists in India and Tamil Nadu gave
importance not only to the labourers but also to the peasants and tried to
organise them. Singaravelu was the first communist leader to think in
terms of organising and uniting both the labourers and the Kisans
(farmers). He started the Labour and Kisan party of Hindustan in 1923.
The work started by Singaravelu was strengthened by Amir Hyder
Khan’s concrete programme to organise the Kisans. To this a galaxy of
eminent leaders may be added, the names like Kandasamy, Annaji
M.U.Sundaram, Jambunath Kaushik, and others who also made
noteworthy contribution. The period between 1923 and 1947 could be
considered as the period when the foundation of the peasant proletariat
units and solidarity was laid by the communist party of India in Tamil
Nadu. Singaravelu said that the hardships of the peasant could be
minimised by implementing the communist ideology and also by
adopting scientific methods of cultivation. And also the expenses of the
peasants during the time of famine caused innumerable hardships to the

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peasant and that could be minimised by implementing the communist
ideology and also by adopting scientific methods of cultivation.

Around this period Amir Hyder Khan began to show keen interest in
organising the kisans of Tamil Nadu. Amir Hyder Khan was in Madras in
1931 and he felt the need for a better organisation of the peasants and
the workers. Kudiyanava Munnetra Sangam was founded by Amir
Hyder Khan. But the British government banned the Communist Party
of India and its organisations in 1934. At this juncture, the Communist
allied themselves with the Congress Party and formed the Congress
Socialist Party. The Congress Socialist Party played an important role in
carrying on the anti-imperialist movement. This helped the unification of
the trade union movement as well as the development of kisan and
students movements. B.Srinivasa Rao of Karnataka was a dedicated
worker. When he came to Tamil Nadu he was ignorant of Tamil
languagge. Particularly since 1935 his contribution to the peasant
movement of Tamil Nadu was signficant.

He worked with S.U.Ghate and Jeevanandham who took up the cause

of the labourers. On April 11, 1936 the first Conference of the Tamil
Nadu Socialist Party was organised in Salem. On April 21, 1937, he
formed a North Arcot Kisan Society and started a District Ryots
Association at Tinnevelly. While the Communist and the Congress
Socialists were busy organising the peasants in the kisan sangams the
government on its part wanted to do something to the peasants. The
Madras Agricultural Relief Bill was introduced in the Assembly in
December 1937 with the concurrence of the council. The object was to
help the indebted agriculturists by reducing the debts. The sabha’s
agitation was carried on for better wages at different places. In January
1946 the Pro-congress land-owners formed a New Association at
Mannarkudi called the Agriculturist Welfare Association. The
association decided to offer increased wages to labourers. As a result of
this, many labourers went over to their side Unrest broke out in February
1946 among the agricultural labourers. Thus the year 1947 was a
period of unrest and disquiet so far as the kisans of Tamil Nadu was
concerned.

Co-operative Society : In the rise and growth of the co-operative

movement in the Madras Presidency, the Nicholson’s Report of 1895
and subsequent passing of the Co-operative Movement Credit
Societies Act of 1904 forms an important phase. After correcting certain
defects of the Act of 1904, the government of India had passed another

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Co-operative Credit Societies Act of 1912. Meanwhile Madras urban
bank was established in 1905 for financing the co-operative societies
that were financing throughout the presidency. By the turn of the
twentieth century the emergence of co-operative movement in Tamil
Nadu seemed to have been an economic necessity. Its main object was
to provide cheap credit to agriculture.

The Co-operative Movement had to take an organised form from 1920

onwards. Upto 31 March 1931 there were six hundred and thirty four
such societies in the Madras Presidency. Meanwhile, the world wide
Depression of 1929-30 had also its adverse effects on the Indian
economy. Because of the economic depression, the government
transferred the Depressed Class co-operative societies to the control of
the Co-operative Department on 1 July 1932. In order to examine the
progress made in the co-operative movement in the Presidency, the
government appointed a committee. On the recommendation of the
committee the Madras Co-operative Society Act VI of the 1932 was
passed. The Congress Party appointed a committee in 1939 with Sir
T.Vijayaraghavachari as chairman to examine the problems that
confronts co-operative movement in the Madras presidency as a whole.
The committee suggested to improve the working of Agricultural credit
societies, land mortgage banks, central bank, marketing societies,
supervising unions, cotton industries and the need to organise and
strengthen the co-operative societies. In 1940 there were 2163
Depressed Class Co-operative Credit Societies functioning under the
control of the co-operative Department in the Madras Presidency.

Labour Problems and Factory Legislations: The emergence of the

modern industries created labour problems. The same phenomena,
which operated in the western countries in the earlier phases of the
Industrial Revolution, began to appear in India. The owner of the Indian
cotton mills had to compete with the British mill owners in Indian markets
and, hence, they tried to keep the prices to cloth at competitive levels.
To keep the price down they paid the labour low wages, made them
work for longer hours and gave employment to women and children at
very low wage. The government had no sincere desire to protect the
labour against the oppressive conditions imposed by the mill owners.

The labour movement and labour organisations and their subsequent

country- wide agitation compelled the government to take steps to
improve the deplorable conditions of the workers. Many important acts
were passed. On the recommendations of the Factory Commission of

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1908, the Factory Act of 1911 was passed. It limited the working hours
of children and women to seven and eleven hours respectively and
provided for a compulsory rest for half an hour. In India, the Factory Act
of 1911 was amended in 1922 and fixed the 10 hours of a day and 60
hours a week and also strictly prohibited. In Tamil Nadu the
communists were the pioneers in organising the labour movement Non-
communists like Annie Besant took up the initiative in organising the
labour movement in Tamil Nadu. She took much interest in helping the
cause of the workers. A Central Labour Board was formed at Madras in
1918. It paved the way for the formation of the Madras Labour Union in
1918. Wadia, an associate of Besant became the president of Madras
Labour Unions and Kesava Pillai, Thiru Vi.Ka were its vice-presidents.
Its’ aims were to improve the condition of the labour and to bring about
legislation for fixing a minimum wage. They played a constructive role in
organising the labourers. They arranged labour meetings and tried to
mobilise the labourers of the mills of Madura, Coimbatore and other
regions. During the period of world war, the living conditions of workers
was deplorable. They lived in dark and little damp dungeons. The
immediate impact was the employment of women and children during
the night. Again the factory act was amended in 1923 and 1926, when
minor changes were made mostly for administrative purposes. In 1923,
the Workmen’s Compensation Act was passed in India. It provided
compensation to the workers for death and certain types of injury. In
1929 a royal commission was appointed to investigate the condition of
labourers including their health and standard of living. On the
recommendation of the commission, Workmen’s Compensation Act of
1933 and the Indian Factories Act of 1934 were passed. By virtue of
this Act Children below the age of 12 were forbidden from working in
factories. Adults were to work for 48 hours per week to this was the
progressive involvement of the South Indian liberal Federation, which
came forward to redress the grievances of labourers in Madurai. The
workers went on at different places.

The Trade Dispute Act was passed in 1934, for settling disputes
between the mill management and labourers. In 1936, the payment of
wages Act was passed to regulate the payment of wages to the workers.
This was followed by the Indian Mines Act. In 1948 the Coal Mines
Provident Fund and Bonus Scheme Act were passed to make
provisions for the mine workers to get Provident Fund and Bonus.
Besides these acts YMCA, the Social Service League and Depressed
Classes Mission society and other philanthropic associations have been
endeavouring to improve the conditions of the labourers in many places.

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When the Congress Committee came to power in the Madras
Presidency in 1937 various committees were appointed to investigate
the conditions of the labourers in the industrial areas and suggest the
needed measurements

The Employees State Insurance Act of 1948 was passed to do labour

welfare work. The Industrial Dispute Act of 1947 was passed to make
provision for the appointment of workers committee and conciliation
officers to settle industrial disputes. This was followed by the passing of
a new Factories Act and the Employees State Insurance Corporation
Act. The Labour Department in the State under the Commissioner for
Labour looked after the welfare of the labourers in the State.

Women workers had their own grievances. In the total labour force
employed in agriculture, there was a high percentage of female and child
labour. There was wage discrimination between men and women. So
the government took some welfare measures for the welfare of women.
The first Factory Act was passed in 1881. The Second Factory Act of
1891 was favourable to the cause of women workers. For the first
time the working hours of women were limited to 11 hours per day and
the night work was prohibited for women. A welfare measure introduced
by the Justice Government in favour of working women was Maternity
Benefit Act of 1935 to provide job security and wage security. The
children Act (Pledging of Labour) was passed in 1933 by the
government which banned the employing of children below 15 years of
age

(iii) Industry

The whole of the nineteenth century was a period of peaceful

exploitation of the economic resources of India by the British for the
furtherance of their imperialist cause. The birth of the Swadeshi
movement was a shot in the arm of economic nationalism and a group of
economic nationalists like G.Subramania Iyer, A.C.Sen, advocated the
industrial development of India. They held the British responsible for
the industrial backwardness of the country and created awareness
among the Indians about it.

Among the many demands of the economic nationalists the demand for
the creation of a Department of Industry under the Director of Industries
in every Province of British India was the most important one.
Accordingly the Department of Industries in the Madras Presidency

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came into existence with effect from 1 April 1914. The first World War
had its own effects on the economic conditions of India.

The Indian Industrial Commission, appointed in 1916 was “instructed to

examine and report upon the possibilities of further industrial
development in India and to submit its recommendations “The
Commission in its report of 1918 pointed out that there was a great
demand for developing Indian industries. Thus the creation of the
Department of Industries in Madras Presidency and the appointment of
the First Indian Industrial Commission vindicated the demand of the
Indian nationalists for the active involvement of the Government in
India’s industrial matters. The Industry was made as a Transferred
subject under the control of Indian Ministers by the Montford Reforms
Act 1919.

The Provincial Government in Madras under the Justice Party passed

the State Aid to Industries Act in 1923. It empowered the Government to
assist the establishment and development of industries in this
Presidency in various ways like the grant of loans, the guarantee of
each credits, overdrafts or fixed advances with banks, subscription for
shares and debentures and grants on favourable terms of land, raw
material, firewood or water. It provided for the constitution of a Board of
Industries to assist the Government in dealing with the applications for
the grant of State aids”. The establishment of the Bureau of Industrial
and Commercial Information marked the beginning of a systematic and
organised attempt of the Government in promoting industrial growth in
the Province. Industrial Exhibitions in the districts and as Provincial level
were conducted regularly. The Bureau also rendered technical
assistance regularly.

Though Industry made a Transferred subject since 1920 by the

Montford, fiscal control was still maintained by the Government at the
Centre. The World economic depression of 1929 had its own effects on
Indian economy. The Madras Presidency with the rest of the world
passed through a period of unprecedented economic depression and
like all producers of primary products suffered severely from the fall of
price. In 1930, section 9 of the State Aid to Industries Act was amended
to empower the Government to grant loan’s to a concern upto of
Rs.40,000/- even if it exceeded 50 per cent of the value of its net
assets.

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After the Government of India Act of 1935 came into operation the
Congress Government in Madras enlarged the State Aid to Industries
Act by enacting the Madras Act XIII of 1937. Its section 6(c) provided for
(1) the grant of subsidy to cottage industry and (2) subsidy to conduct
research or purchase of machinery and clause 20 Empowered the
Government to assist the village industry. Thus a new orientation was
given to the industrial policy of the Province by giving encouragement
to cottage and village industries. The one industry that witnessed a
consistent growth in the Madras Presidency was the cotton industry.
The number of cotton mills during 1930-31 was 23 with 5,034 looms and
753,520 spindles and it rose to 56 with 5.623 looms and 1,371,002
spindles in 1940. After the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939
the national movement in India became more vigorous and the demand
of complete independence dominated the other issues.

During the II World War, the existing industries in the Madras Presidency
became active. The index of industrial activity moved up from 114 in
1939 to 120.5 in May 1945. The number of workers from 1,751,137 in
1939 to 2,520,000 in 1944. Thus the Second World War had its own
effects on the industrial policy of the British India.

Madras is an important centre of industries and industrial studies. The

following are the important industries in Tamil Nadu: They are; The
Integral Coach Factory, Perambur, Madras, The Standard Motor
Company, Madras, Ashok Leyland Company, Madras, The Heavy
Vehicles Factory, Avadi, Madras, T.I.Cycles Factory, Ambattur,
Madras, The South India Viscose, Sirumugai, Coimbatore district, The
Neyveli Lgnite Corporation, South Arcot, Salem Steel Plant, The
Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing co., Ltd., Kottagiri (Ootacamund),
The Madras Refineries Ltd., Menali, Madras, The Indian Rare Earths
Industry, Manavala Kurichi, The Surgical Instruments Plant, Madras, The
Atomic Power Plant at Kalpakkam and T.V.S.Company at Madurai.

The establishment of Industrial Corporations such as the State

Industries Promotion Corporation of Tamil Nadu (SIPCOT), Tamil Nadu
Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO), Tamil Nadu Industrial
Investment Corporation TIIC) Small Industrial Development Corporation
(SIDCO) etc., facilitate the growth of the Industries.

The soil and climate of the country is congenial for the progress of
various industries. Research institutes for the food and technology, fish,
glass and ceramic, tobacco, drugs, electro-chemicals, pharmaceuticals,

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textiles, automobiles, etc. have been established. Coimbatore is the
centre of Textile mills. It is known as the Manchester of South India.
twenty-four per cent of the total spinning capacity of the country is with
Tamilaham. The Central Leather Research Institute at Madras was
founded in 1953. There are more than 600 tanners in the state. Most of
them are in Dindigul and Vaniyambadi.

The Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute, the

development centre of the Central Mechanical Engineering Institute and
a unit of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) all
function at Madras. A wing of the Central Electro-chemical Research
Institute, functions at Karaikudi. The Information Planning and
Analysis group of the Electronics Commission of India functions at
Madras which connects research in computerised information systems.

The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has established a

Tuberculosis Chemotherapy Centre and Cancer Research Institute at
Madras. The Central Leprosy Teaching and Research Institute at
Chingleput is an advanced centre, recognised by the WHO as a
reference centre. The King Institute of preventive Medicine at Guindy is
engaged in bacteriological research and offers post graduate courses of
study in micro-biology. It supplies prophylactic vaccines, freeze, dried
small pox vaccina, tetanus, and toxoid and blood items. The Indian
Institute of Astrophysics functioning at Kodaikanal is an advanced wing
of the Indian Meteorological department. Under the auspices of the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) an operational
programme in crop and livestock development is conducted at
Kodaikkanal. There is a fishing research institute at Mandapam camp.
Porto Novo has a Marine Biology research station of the Annamalai
University. A sugar-cane breeding research institute functions at
Coimbatore. The I.C.A.R. had advanced a munificent grant for the
establishment of a Horticulture Research Station to be established at
Yercaud. Cottage industries also receive state patronage and flourish in
their magnitude in Tamilaham. Kanchipuram, Arni and Sinnalapatti
(near Dindigul) are noted centres of silk industries. Sivakasi, Sattur,
Elayirampannai, Kovilpatti etc. are important centres of the matches
industry. Many sugar industries have been established to meet the
demand for sugar.

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(iv)Transport

A significant development has taken place in the field of Transport. A

contemporary road map indicates 52643 kilometres of surfaced road and
21530 kilometres of unsurfaced roads running within the state. Bus
service in the state has been nationalised. There are about fourteen
Bus Corporations operating in Tamil Nadu. However private buses are
also functioning.

On the naval traffic Madras and Tuticorin are major ports; Madras,
Cuddalore, Nagapatnam and Tuticorin are harbours with fishing
facilities. Landing and berthing facilities are available at Ennore, Porto
Novo, Point Calimre, Mallipatnam, Mandapam, etc. Meenambakkam is
an international airport. There are aerodromes at Trichy, Coimbatore,
Madurai, Ramnad, Tanjore and Vellore.

(v)Famine and Relief Measures

The evils of famine and pestilence are known to humanity from the very
beginning of the settled life of man. Such cruel hand of the famine had
been stretched forth against the Tamils with regular intervals.

The Madras famine of 1781 was a highly devastating one. The human
agony on account of this famine was further aggravated by the
subsequent invasion of Hyder Ali. The famine lasted for four years. State
relief measures could not reduce the gravity of the famine. Hence it
directed the people to migrate to other parts of the country. The famine
of 1790 lasted for two years. It mainly ravaged the northern districts of
Tamil Nadu. There existed a state of anarchy in the country due to mal-
administr-ation backed by plundering. Many people fell an easy prey to
this occurrence. The famine of 1805-7 also mainly affected the-northern
districts including the city of Madras. It is estimated that about 20000
people lost their lives in they famine in the Madras city alone. The Tamil
country became a worst hit to the famine of, 1876- 78. It was the most
terrible in point of view of intensity and duration. Government could not
carryout the relief measures in time. It is reported that in a single year
more than five million people died of famine. The entire country was
found under starvation and destitution. People were found everywhere in
self-starvation with collapsed stomach and sunken cheeks. Thousands
of men fled to Ceylon leaving their wives and children. Such
occurrences had taken place during 1891- 1892, 1920 and 1936 also.

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Periodical out break of famine in the Tamil Country presented horrid and
hideous scenes. People were always in distress. It is due to disastrous
effects of famine people of the affected areas were forced to eat leaves
and roots of plants which were injurious to their health. During the
famine of 1876-78 people had nothing to eat. Even the roots were hard
to find. They were crushed and washed thrice or four times for two days
and then eaten. People of villages and towns flocked in crowds to the
city. Thirty, to fifty percent of the cattle died. Thousands took flight to
distant places. People ate boiled or roasted bamboo rice, Palmyra
kernel, Tamarind and mango seeds, seeds of various grasses and even
grain stored in the ant-holes. It is due to starvation and destitution
peoples gatherings gave the appearance of flocks of skeletons or
ghosts. The acute water scarcity made them to extract water from deep
wells by means of Coconut shells.

Relief Measures: Occurrence of famine and the adoption of famine

relief measures were very common. But an organised attempt to
formulate general principles of famine relief was felt necessary by Lord
Lytton (1876-1880) In view of that he appointed a Commission headed
by general Sir. Richard Strachey. The Commission submitted its report
in 1880 with the following recommendations.

1.It said that it was the duty of the-state to offer relief in times of famine.
Relief was to be in the form of work of permanent utility for the able
bodied men and distribution of food or money to the aged and infirm.

2.Relief was to be provided by suspension and remission of land

revenue and rents and offer of loans for purchase of seeds, grain and
bullocks.

3.To prevent wastage and extravagance in affording relief the local

authorities were asked to bear a large share of the cost involved.

4.In order to meet the heavy unforeseen expenditure caused by famine it

was decided to constitute the “Famine Relief and Insurance Fund” by
contributing fifteen million rupees every year. Based on the
recommendations, in 1883 Famine Code was formulated. That became
a guide to’ various Provincial Famine Codes. As per the principle of the
Madras Famine Code to, mitigate the evils of famines the Government
opened many relief centres to feed the old and the sick. It is estimated’
that about one lakh of people were fed daily. The Zamindars of North
Arcot and Madurai also established such centres, where an average of

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thousand people were fed daily. The Madras Government granted large
remissions of land tax and rents and advances for purchase of seeds,
manure and bullocks. Under the scheme the last grade government
servants could enjoy a small hike in their pay.

After the famine’ of 1896- 97 James Lyall Commission was appointed. It

fully approved the Principles of 1880 Commission. Another Commission
was appointed in 1900 under Sir Antony Mac Donnel. It also approved
the principles of 1880, but stressed the early suspension of land revenue
and rents and early distribution of advances for the purchase of seeds,
grain and cattle. It recommended the appointment of a Famine
Commissioner in every province to adopt relief measures on an
extensive scale. It also recommended (a) to give preference to local
Works in a village, (b) to utilize non-official assistance on a large scale in
the matter of distribution of relief, (c) Establishment of Agricultural Bank
and (d) Extension of irrigation works.

Based on the recommendations of the Mc Donnel Commission the

Madras government made public charity indiscriminate. To eliminate
those who were not in need of relief wage was reduced from one to half
pound of grain and the wage was given everywhere in cash instead of
land. It also revised the upward wages of famine labour. Relief
measures were offered in the form of advances to the tillers and revenue
remission to the extent of 150 lakhs of rupees. Extension of railways
always served as an important means of famine relief by facilitating
transport of grain to the affected places. Independent India started to
develop the nation through the launching of Five Year Plans. Poverty
eradication programmes and famine relief measures hitherto undertaken
at times of necessity came to be attached with the Five Year Plans as a
solution to the problem on a permanent basis.

12.2.3 Religious Conditions

In the religious sphere the south excelled the north. The Tamil country in
the south contributed much for the promotion of modern Hinduism. At
one time the onward march of Buddhism and Jainism in the Tamil
country went unchecked. It threatened the very existence of Hinduism.
Hence its saints and seers evolved a new type of Bhakti to liberate
Hinduism from the clutches of the evils like ritualism and sacrifice. Their
tireless efforts once again made it the religion of the masses. The
Bhakti movement mainly gifted by the Siva Nayanmars and Vaishnava
Alwars came as a solution to the problem. It created a mystic effect for

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the spiritual awakening and for its renaissance of Hindu faith. Hinduism:
The Vedas, the Tirumurais and Nalayira Divyaprabandham are
respected by the pious Hindus. A number of gods like Siva, Vishnu,
Minakshi, Lakshmi and Saraswathi are adored. Minor gods and devas
like Surya, Varuna, Agni, Yama, Kubera, etc., also get a place in the
Hindu pantheon. Grama devada in the villages and Kula devada in the
family circles are popular. A few such local deities are Kali, Maari,
Angalamman, Virabhadra, Madurai Veeran, Muniyandi, Pandimuni,
Jatamuni, Kottaimuni, Draupati, etc.

Saiva Siddhantha Philosophy is based on Agamas. This philosophy of

the Tamil Saiva Siddhantha was first formulated by a Meikanda deva.
Umapathi Arulandi and Sivachariar are some of the Saiva Sastries. The
Siddhars belonging to one school of thought of Saiva Siddhanta were
very active to resist the growth of Islam and Christianity. They gave a
definite philosophy to be followed by its adherents as Siva is the source
of all enlightenment. To popularise this philosophy, Siddhantha sastries
established monasteries at important centres of the Tamil country. They
also performed rituals as prescribed in their Agamas. Festivals were
organised. Tamil literary luminaries like Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai
played a key role to promote the cause of Saivism. Among them the
spread of Christianity and the promotion of western education that
gained momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries, stood in the forefront.
Another development in Saivism was the growth of Veera Saivism. Its
adherents worshipped Siva in the form of Linga. The Lingayats gave
respect to 63 Nayanmars of the Tamil country.

Vaishnavism : According to Monier Williams, Vaishnavism, is a religion

of faith and law. It is a wing of Bhakti movement which was represented
by 12 Alwars. In the south Vaishnavism was promulgated by Ramanuja
and Madhavacharia. The Vaishnavites of the Tamil country were the
followers of Ramanuja. They are divided into two hostile sects - the
Vadakalai and Thenkalai or the school of northern learning and the
school of southern learning. Frictions and quarrels between the two
schools were very common. In 1780 there arose a quarrel in regard to
the recitations of certain hymns in the Triplicane temple. In 1830 there
was a feud regarding some ceremonies. In 1863 trouble arose when the
vadakalai put their namam over the Nathamuni shrine at Srirangam. In
these events one of the rival sects approached the court of law for
favourable decision. In fact both the sects were displeased with the
verdict of the Provincial High court and appealed to the Privy Council at
London. Besides these factions there is a sub-section in the Vaishnava

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group known as satani. Satani is a vaishnava creed and satanis were
minor religious group in the Tamil country. The word satani is a
vulgarised from of Sattadawn, which means one who does not wear
sacred thread and festivals were organised and celebrated to mobilise
public support. They helped to kindle religious fervour among the
adherents.

Islam: The contact of Islam with Tamizhagam occured during the early
middle ages. The Muslim settlers and local converts came to be known
as Sheikhs or Shaiyads. Existence of a mosque in Trichy with an Arabic
inscription of early character substantiates this fact. The Muslim
settlements in the Tamil country throughout the Vijayanagar rule and
the Nayak period maintained close association with their natives.

Because of the influence of Hinduism there were the following divisions

in the Muslim society. 1. The Labhais, 2. Ravuttar 3. Marakkayar. 4.
Mappillai. The Muslims are highly religious. The Koran to them is more
than life itself. They worship Allah five times a day. On the festive
occasions they visit the famous darghahs at Nagore, Trichy, Kollidam.
Parangipettai. The five cardinal tenets of Islam are known as the five
pillars of Islam. They are 1.One God 2.prayer 3.Alms giving 4. fasting
and 5. pilgrimage to Mecca.

Islam in contact with Hinduism produced many secular sects like Sufism,
Sikhism etc. Sufism advocates Bhakti marga in its approach to Allah.
The local Muslims are Hindu in their cultural way of life. Their manners,
customs, dress and food habits are native in character. Their marriage
ceremonies also closely resembled with the Hindu. They celebrate the
following festivals. 1. NewYear’s day 2. Moharam 3. Miladinabi,
4.Ramzan 5.Bakrid.

Christianity: Christianity is one of the religions in South India. Most of

the Christians found here are local converts. The following are the
various sects of Christianity. 1. Catholicism 2. Protestantism. 3.
Evangelical Luthernism and 4.Anglicanism. The above sects have
established their hold over Tamizhagam. These missionaries have
dedicated themselves to the propagation of religion and public service.
The service rendered by them in the field of education, health, orphan
care, etc., deserve to be chiseled in letters of gold. Calm and
affectionate, humble and service oriented, the missionaries get a
dignified place in the contemporary history of Tamizhagam.

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It is believed that St. Thomas came to India to preach Christianity.
During the Nayak period the missionary work was well organised.
Schools for training priests were established at Madurai, Dindigul and
Kodaikanal. The local Christians are a blend of the Hindu and Christian
culture though alien by faith, they closely follow the Hindu manners and
customs, food and dress habits, marriage and ceremonies.

They celebrate the following festivals. New Year Day, Good Friday,
Easter Sunday, Holy Cross Day, Mary’s Birth Day, Christmas and New
year’s Eve. The native impact is so heavy on the Christian institution that
an attempt was made to Indianize the catholic church without much
result. Congregation instead of kneeling, oil lamps instead of candles,
use of incense and arati, praying with folded hands, dhotis, angavastras,
etc. instead of the priests vestments were advocated. But these
reforms have not been universally approved and followed in India.

Impact of Christianity: Contact with the west and the impact of British
rule have left a profound dose of European culture on our institutions.
Particularly the impact of Christianity on Tamizhagam cannot be
underestimated or minimised. The Christian Missionaries came to the
Tamil country with the sole aim of converting the people to Christianity.
Hence they introduced Christianity for the perpetuity of the empire”. The
Introduction of English language paved the way for them. It is very
obvious from the account of Abbe Duboi that the Christians had
variously endeavoured to introduce their word by persuasion. It is due to
the impact of Christianity many depressed classes were converted to
Christianity. They embraced Christianity for their protection against
social discrimination. But they maintained their caste system and
religious customs. During the company rule, it did not favour the spread
of Christianity. Munro was against the activities of the Christian
missionaries During his governorship, he did not encourage their
aims and aspirations in the country. Another important impact of
Christianity was abolition of sati, the age old social customs and some
other religious ceremonies. The idol worship was condemned and
criticised by all. It inspired liberal minded men like Raja Ram Mohan Roy
who gave stiff opposition to Sati. Finally it was abolished. The English
education was highly responsible for many social and religious reforms
in the Tamil country. These contributions were due to the efforts of the
Christian missionaries.

In the economic field the missionaries did a lot. In Salem district they
distributed land for landless. Appointments were given to the people of

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Christian faith in the beginning and later on they were extended to many.
Many colonies were established in Tamil Nadu. Particularly such
colonies were established at Dindigul.

12.2.4 Cultural Conditions

Culture has attained a cosmopolitan character in contemporary times.

A significant development took place in the field of culture during this
period. It is desirable to discuss here the various aspects of culture in
contemporary period.

(i) Education

Madras is an important centre of higher education in the country. Sir

Thomas Munro was highly responsible for the introduction of western
education in Madras. In those days Vedic Schools were conducted by
the elite groups. The Muslims had their own Madarasas. Apart from
them, the Protestant Missionaries had established their first schools at
Madras, Tanjore, Cuddalore and Trichy. The Court of Directors also
gave some grants to the Schools in Madras. The Education
Commission of Munroe recommended the creation of two principal
schools for each district. In 1826 the Board of Public Instruction was
established. It created 14 district schools and 81 taluk schools.

Lord Ellenburough created the University Board in 1840 to study the

possibilities of establishing colleges. As a result, the Presidency College
was established at Madras in 1859 In 1853 the Government of Madras
approved the formation of a collegiate Department which developed into
the University of Madras. The Department of Public Instruction was
created in 1854. In 1866 Girls schools were established for the first time
in Madras. By 1938 all subjects except English were taught in Tamil in
Schools.

Tamil was introduced as medium of instruction in Colleges on an

experiment basis in 1955. At present in most Government Colleges both
the media (Tamil and English) are offered, option is given to the aided
colleges in this regard. The first college for training teachers was
established at Madras by Dr.Andrew Bell at the end of the 18th Century.

Universities: The University of Madras was founded by the Act of

Incorporation, XXVII of 1857. It was subsequently reorganised by the
Indian University Act No.VII of 1904, the Madras University Act of 1923

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and the Amending Acts of 1929, 1937, 1940, 1941 and 1966. The
University offers courses in Arts, Science, Oriental Learning, Commerce,
Law, Medicine, Teaching, Veterinary Science, Technology and Fine
Arts.

The Annamalai University was founded in 1928 at Annamalai Nagar

near Chidambaram by Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar. The University is
offering courses in Arts, Science, and Indian languages, Education, Fine
Arts, Agriculture, Engineering, Technology and Marine Biology.

Madurai Kamaraj University came into existence in 1965. There are 92

colleges under this University. An Agricultural college with a research
institute at Coimbatore was founded in 1909. In June 1975 it became
the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. The other Universities are as
follows: Manonmaniam Sundaranar University (Tirunelveli),
Bharathidasan University (Trichy), Bharathiyar University (Coimbatore),
Anna University of Technology (Guindy, Madras), Tamil University,
Tanjore, Annai Theresa University for Women, Kodaikanal.

In tune with the U.G.C. Programme to accord autonomous status to

colleges, in the state many have been given autonomous powers. Free
education at the secondary school (S.S.L.C.) level was introduced in
1964-65. It was extended upto the Pre-University level in 1969-70. The
Gandhigram (Dindigul Taluk) Rural College was exalted to the position
of a Rural University in 1975. There is a Sainik School at
Amaravatinagar, Udumalpet for defence studies. There are Police
Training Colleges at Coimbatore, Vellore and Madras. In 1947 a Special
Armed Police and Military Police were established.

Girl’s Education: In the history of traditional India girl’s education was a

neglected chapter. The caste dominated society always viewed
education as a good thing to their male children to come up in life. To
their females, they gave an education within the four walls of their
houses to promote chastity, charity and purity in them. The evils inflicted
upon women through the ages kept them in seclusion and subjected to
various types of ill-treatment. For the first time in the history of Indian
education a systematic attempt along the line of girls’ education was
tried by Munroe in 1826. He saw that in India education was confined to
the devadasis (temple girls) as a complement to their profession. To
the others, reading and writing were almost unknown. Under such
circumstances the Christian missionaries in the course of their itinerary
for the propagation of the faith saw the agony of women in the society on

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account of their illiteracy. As a solution to the problem they started
schools for females. According to the Woods Despatch of 1854 there
were 256 girl’s schools in the country comprising of day schools, night
schools, boarding schools and schools for depressed sections. In the
Tamil country about 10,000 girls were found in the missionary schools.
The findings of the Woods Despatch could insist on the active
government support to girl’s education. In 1880 the Inspectress of girl’s
schools was posted to supervise and suggest ways and means for the
promotion of girl’s education. Mrs. Isabel Brander was the first
Inspectress of schools appointed in 1880 to encourage female
education. The Hunter Education Commission of 1882 suggested to
give special encouragement to girl’s education out of provincial funds.
Altogether these measures could see the growth of female education
This had brought in a change since the beginning of the second quarter
of the 20th century. The number of female educational institutions of all
categories increased. They also began to seek admission in the
professional colleges of the state. Now the Tamil society attained
maturity to the extent of sending female children even to the overseas
for higher education and for employment.

(ii) Growth of Judiciary

India has been accustomed to a peculiar form of judicial system with no

legal code and record of legal usage. Justice was administered by a
hierarchy of courts headed by the emperor’s Sabha as the highest court
of appeal. Disputes like question of dividing property were submitted to
the arbitration of relatives of headmen of the caste. If an amicable
understanding did not arrive at the first instant, then the master would be
left to the decision of a Panchayat. Suppose the caste customs formed
the subject of dispute, then the settlement devolved upon the heads of
the castes. However, it is said that the form of judicial procedure in India
appeared less complicated than that of Europe.

There are references in the Dharma Sastras, Neeti Sastras and the
Manu Sastras about the administration of civil and criminal justice in
India. Men and women who are proved to have committed adultery or
violated caste customs would be sentenced to a heavy fine quite beyond
of their reach. If the guilty were unable to pay the fine then it would fall
on their nearest relatives. Highway robbery was punished with
mutilation, and murder was punished by death. The Brahmins enjoyed
exemption from death punishment even if they committed the crime of

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murder. The system has undergone a complete change since the British
rule in the country.

Madras happened to be one of the earliest English settlements in India.

Immediately after establishing this settlement the Company’s
administration started the court called Choultry Court with limited
jurisdiction. It was meant for dealing with the petty civil and criminal
cases. Establishment of Fort St. George in 1640 marked a milestone
development in the Company’s administration. The jurisdiction of its
Choultry Court was also extended.

The Court Judicature stood as an innovation in the history of the Indian

Judicary. Hence in support of the Court of Judicature the Government
set up the Mayor’s Court in 1687 with the Mayor and the Alderman as
judges. To hear the appeals from these three Courts (Choultry Court,
Court of Judicature and Mayor’s Court) the Governor-in-Council acted
as the final Court of appeal.

The Court of Recorder was introduced as an experimental measure in

the Company’s judicial administration. It was the creation of the Board
of Control of the English East India Company. This Court was presided
over by the Recorder, who was empowered to try the cases of the
Indian inhabitants within the urban limits of Madras. The Madras Bar
Association is one of the biggest Bar Associations in India. The Court of
Recorder was abolished in 1800. Following the abolition of the Court of
Recorder, for the administration of civil justice a hierarchy of courts
were organised in 1802. Similarly to dispense with criminal justice,
Magistrate and Assistant Magistrate Courts and Circuit Courts Faujdari
Adalat (Governor-in-Council) were organised.

In 1801 a Supreme Court was set up at Madras. Appeal from this Court
went to the king-in-Council. The two notable landmarks in the judicial
administration of British India were the codification of laws and the
establishment of High Courts. The Indian High Courts Act was passed in
1861. As per this Act, the Madras High Court was established in 1861 in
the place of the Sadar-Diwani-Adalat of 1772 and the Supreme Court of
1801.

This High Court was inaugurated on 15th August 1862. Till

independence the Madras High Court was presided over by the English
Judges. He was succeeded by P.V.Rajamannar to be the first Indian
Chief Justice of the Madras High Court. As per the constitution of the

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Indian Republic the High Court Judges are appointed by the President of
India and the High Court is under the control of the Supreme Court at
Delhi.

(iii) Press

The Portuguese were the first to bring the printing instruments to South
India in 1556. In 1578 the first Tamil Book was printed. There was no
considerable programme in the printing industry till 1711. The
Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. After this change took place
in this field. The first newspaper ‘Madras Courier’ was put into
circulation in 1785.

In the 19th century more than 50 newspapers and periodicals were

published. Tamil Idazh (1831) was the first Tamil periodical which was
published by the Christian Missionaries. Dinavardhini (1856), and
Janavardhini (1870) were the earliest of Tamil weeklies and monthlies.

The year 1870 is a land mark in the history of the Tamil Press. It began
as weekly, became a tri-weekly in 1853 and daily since 1889. In 1897
G.Subramanya Iyer founded the Swadesamitran in Tamil as a weekly.
The Hindu, Swadesamitran, Desabhaktan founded in 1905 (by Thiru-
vi-ka), etc. acted as the organ voice of the Congress. The Navasakti,
Congress, Murasoli and Dinakaran, Theekkadir (Communist),
Viduthalai, etc., are a few to mention.

There are many weekly fort-nightly, monthly, quarterly and annual

periodicals in circulation. Some specialised agencies are dealing with
Science (e.g. Kalaikkadir), Literature (Senthamil Selvi), Religion
(Dharma Chakram) Woman (Mangai), humour (Ananda Vikatan),
Cinema (Pesum Padam), Kokulam, and Ambuli Mama, (children)
Astrology (Jodhidhmani), Commerce, education, etc. Further,
Universities, colleges and other educational institutions publish their own
magazines.

The following other contemporary dailies published within the State are:
The Hindu, (English), The Indian Express (English), Dinamani,
Dinamalar, Swadesamitran, Dina Thanthi, Navasakti, Dinakaran,
Murasoli, Alai Osai, Anna, Malai Murasu. The following are the
popular periodicals in Tamil: Kumudam, Ananda Vikatan, Rani, Kalki,
Kungumam, devi, Kalkandu, Bommai, Kalaikadir, Tughlak, Mangai,
Pesum Padam, visitor, Gokulam.

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(iv) Growth of Modern Tamil Literature

In the twilight of the 19th century a host of scholars and philosophers

appeared on the cultural horizon of the land. They paved the way for the
growth of modern Tamil Literature.

Ramalinga Adigal (1823-1874) was a philosopher of immense value

whose concept of ‘Samarasa Sarmamarga’ fore-told the ideal of’
Universal Church’, His Tiruvarutpa is a compendium of modern Hindu
thought. Dandapani Swamigal also called Tiruppuhal Swamigal or
Murugadasar (1839-1898) wrote the Pulavar puranam and came in the
authentic line of the author of the Tiruppuhal.

Virama Munivar wrote Tembavani, Veda Vilakkam, Vediyar Olukkam

and Chatur Agarathi. He prepared a Portuguese Tamil Latin dictionary
and a Tamil Latin-Dictionary.

Winslow prepared a Tamil dictionary during this period, Many Tamil

scholars greatly helped him. Coldwell wrote the Comparative
Grammar of Dravidian Languages. Virasamy Chettiyar wrote the
Vinodarasa Manjari, H.A. Krishna Pillai (1827-1900) wrote the
Rakshanya Yattirai an adaptation in verse of John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s
Progress. V.P.Subramaniya Mudaliar (1857-1946) wrote not only the
Ahalihai Venba but also translated the first part of Milton’s Paradise
Lost and called it Swarkka Nikkam.

Prose: Christian Missionaries in particular, to propagate their faith they

started writing books and pamphlets in Tamil. Father Schultz had
translated the “Garden of Paradise” into Tamil. Ziegenbalg translated
the Bible into Tamil. Viramarthanda Thevar had translated the
Panchatantra into Tamil verse. Tandavaraya Mudaliar adopted the
Marathi version of the Paanchatantra. Kadambari was translated by
M.Natesa Sastri. Mritchatantra and Kautilyam were translated by
Kadiresan Chettiyar (1887-1953). Sakuntalam was translated by
Maraimalai Adigal and R.Raghava Iyengar. Dasakumara Charitram
was translated by N.Balarama Iyer. Translated and adaptations of
Shakespeare became a fashion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Dr.U.V.Swaminatha Iyer (1885-1942) was dedicated to the collection
and edition of the Tamil classics. He wrote the biography of his teacher
Minakshi Sundaram Pillai and an autobiography.

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Arumuga Navalar (1822-79) of Ceylon edited the Periya Puranam,
Tirukkural, Sethu Puranam and many other works. C.W.Damodaram
Pillai, the first graduate of the Madras University published Kalittogai,
Chutamani Tolkappiam, etc. Pinnathur Narayanasamy Iyer (1862-
1914) edited the Narrinai with his notes. E.V.Anantarama Iyer edited
the Kalittogai in 3 volumes with Nachchinarkkiniyar’s commentaries in a
masterly manner.

N.M.Venkatesamy Nattar wrote commentary on the Tiruvilaiyadal

Puranam of Paranjothi and the Ahananuru - the latter in collaboration
with Venkatachalam Pillai of Karandai. K.Vadivelu Chettiyar (1863-
1936) wrote a special gloss on the kural. C.R.Narayanasamy Mudaliar,
who patronised many Tamil scholars, wrote a few works, but published
many like Tanjai vanan kovai and Iraiyanar Ahapporul.
S.Bavanandam Pillai, a Police Officer and a patron of Tamil scholars
edited the Tolkappiam and the Yapparumgalam etc.
V.O.Chidambaram Pillai (1872-1936) was a great Tamil scholar. He
edited the Tolkappiyam with Ilampuranar’s commentary. S.Vaiyapuri
Pillai (1891-1956) wrote not only a History of Tamil Literature but edited
a number of works.

Poetry: It was the poetical tradition that underwent significant changes

in form and content. M.Ramalingam Pillai of Namakkal played a
significant role in this respect. His poems are reputed because they
somewhat resemble Bharathiyar’s. Achlambikai of Cuddalore wrote the
Gandhipuranam and the Tilakar Manniyam; in these works the theme
was revolutionary politics. Subramanya Bharathi (1882-1921) of
Ettaiyapuram, was a great poet by any standard. His poems fall into
three categories, the nationalist patriotic effusions, the stray occasional
verses and the larger pieces which may be called mini-epics. He gets a
dignified place in modern Tamil literature. His contributions are;
Panchali Sabadam (Darupati challenge), Kannan Pattu (Songs on
Krishna), and Kuyil Pattu (Songs on Cukoo), Bharathi Ambattam.
Desika Vinayakam Pillai (1876-1954) translated the poems of Fitty
Gerald’s Omar Khayyam’ and Sir Edwin Arnold’s Light of Asia. He is
familiarly known as Kavimani. Somasundara Bharathiar (1879-1950)
was a great poet, his poems are very attractive and instructive in many
respects. Navanitha Krishna Bharathi (1889-1950) was yet another
great poet. He wrote Ulagiyal Vilakkam. It gladdens the hearts of
classicists.

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R.Raghava Iyengar (1870-1948) the author of the Pari kathai was
basically a poet, and the Kathai will stand the test of time. Bharathidasan
was an admirer of Subramanya Bharathiyar. He was a reformist and
revolutionary poet. His popular contributions are; Kudumba Vilakku,
Pandian Parisu, Irunda Veedu, Kadala Kadamaya and Manimekalai
Venba. Among the poets of popular fame Papanasam Sivan,
Kalyanasumdaram of Pattukkottai, Subbu of Kothamangalam, Narayana
Kavi of Udumalai, Ramaiahdas of Tanjore, Kavi Na Balasubramanian,
Ka.Mu. Sheriff, Kannadasan, Suradha and Vairamuthu may be
mentioned. Prof. A.Srinivasaraghavan, K.V. Jagannathan, Somu,
Vanidasan etc are also among the note-worthy poets. Kannadasan
a born cinema lyricist lived to become the poet laureate with the
government of Tamil Nadu.

Novels: The Novel was an unknown form of literature to the Tamils, in

fact it was so, for all the Indian literatures till introduced by Western
writers. Arumuga Navalar wrote simple and exemplary prose.
Vedanayakam Pillai’s (1826-1889) fame rests most securely on the
Pratapa Mudaliar Charitram as the first novel in Tamil. B.R.Rajam
Iyer (1875-1898) was the real father of the Tamil novel who died young.
He had not only written the Kamalambal Charitram but edited the
Prabaddha Bharatha.

A Madavaiah (1872-1952) wrote the Padmavathi Charitram, Tillai

Gonvindan, Vijayamarttandam, Muthu Meenakshi, Kausikar short stories
and an adaptation of Othello as Udayalan. Besides a farce-Lieut Panju
He may be said to have been the father of the short story in Tamil.

Pandit S.N.Natesa Sastri (1839-1906) was a prolific writer. His novels

were Dikkarra Iru Kulandaikal, Dinadayalu and Komalam
Kumariyanadu. His short stories were; “Dakkanattuppurva Kadaigal”
and “Tuppariyum Danavan”. He may be called the father of the
detective fiction in Tamil. Rangaraju was another great name in Tamil
fiction. His Rajambal, Chandrakantha etc. are still read with great
interest. Vadavur Doraiswami Aiyengar was a greatly talented writer
who created characters easily remembered and true to life. Arani
Kuppusamy Mudaliar was devoted to popular entertainment and he
liberally borrowed from G.W.M.Reynolds. With ‘Kalki’ or Krishnamurthy
(1879-1954) Tamil fiction entered a new field. He wrote in an easily
readable and pleasant style. His popular contributions are; Kalvanin
Kadali, Sivakamiyin Sabatham, Ponniyin Selvan. Pudumaippittan
(1906-1948) and T.J.Ranganathan have handled the short story

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satisfactorily. Rajagopalachari’s short stories are extremely effective,
largely because of the force of the theme and the natural simplicity of
the style. Thiru Vi.Kalyanasundara Mudaliar, a journalist, labour leader,
nationalist and Tamil scholar has great force of character and his
writings reveal a great variety of interest. Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950)
translated the Sakuntalam. He wrote the Somasundarakkanchiakkam
on the occasion of his teacher Somasundara Naicker’s death. Novel
and story-telling became more and more popular with M.Varadarajan,
N.Parthasarathi, Akilan, Chandilyan (Bhashyam Iyengar),
T.K.Srinivasan, Jeyasirpiyan, Marutan, S.A.P. Subbu of
Kothamangalam, K.V.Jegannathan, Jayakanthan, R.S.Ramayya,
Janakiraman, Sujatha, Lakshmi, Sivasankari, Indumati, Anuthama and
a host of others. The Pon Vilangu of N.Parthasarathi, Vengaiyin
Maindan and Pavai Vilakku of Akilan, Yavana Rani, Kadal Pura and
Raja Thilaham of Chandilyan etc are chosen pearls in Modern Tamil
Literature.

Drama: In the last quarter of the 19th century Tamil dramatic literature
became rich and profuse. A great pioneer in this P.Sundaram Pillai
wrote the Manonmaniyam a play in blank verse on the model of the
Eligebetham playwrights. P. Sambanda Mudaliar, a city civil court judge
in Madras was the first to write a stage-worthy Tamil plays in spoken
Tamil. He wrote a large number of plays, more than sixty. His famous
play was Lilavathi Sulochana. He was himself an actor and he started
the Suguna Vilasa Sabha an amateur theatre.

V.G.Suryanarayana Sastri who taught Tamil in the Madras Christian

College was a poet, dramatist, historian of language, novelist, journalist
and editor and grammarian of the art of drama. His famous
contributions are; Pavalar Virundhu, Manavijayam, Rupavathi,
Kalavathi. He called himself as Paritimar Kalaignar (a literary
translation of Suryanarayana Sastri). N.Balarama Iyer (1875-1943)
wrote a tragedy in Tamil the Dasarathan Thavaru and Valli Iaraniyam.
Jalajalochana Chettiar, the disciple of V.G.Suryanarayana Sastri wrote
his Sarasangi. Sankararadas Swamigal rendered unforgettable
services in this respect.

C.N.Annadurai has rendered remarkable service in the field of Tamil

Drama. He was a great orator both in English and Tamil. He made
public speaking as a wonderful art. He was a prominent writer. His
Velaikkari and Or Iravu are known for his subtle satire and sublime

186
thoughts. To him stage was a means to ridicule social evils and to
propagate his principles and beliefs.

Apart from these developments, journals and reformist-literatures pave

the way for the development of Tamil literature. The Tamils conquered
the spoken English word to a remarkable degree. The inimitable
C.P.Ramaswamy Iyer, and the silver-tongued orator Srinivasa Sastri are
not easily forgotten by those who had read them even once.

(v) Architecture and Scuplture

Architecture and sculpture took a fine shape in the contemporary

Tamizhagam. Modern architecture is brought under the following
divisions. (1) Domestic architecture (priests houses bungalows,
palaces etc.). (2) Religious architcture (temples, churches, mosques).
(3) Governmental architecture (administrative buildings). (4)
Recreational architecture (theatres, sports, arenas, museums, libraries
etc. (5) Architecture of welfare and education (educational
institutions, hospitals, etc.), and (6) Commercial and industrial
architecture (banks, transportation, communication, buildings, etc.)

The Thendral, Poompozhil, Tiruvarangam, Anbu, Kanchi etc. at Madras

residences for the ministers of Government of Tamilnadu are the best
examples of the first type. They are very spacious and beautiful
residential houses. The other buildings of the same type are: (1) the
palace of the Raja of Chettinad at Madras, (2) Raj Bhavan at Guindy,
and (3) the Nawab’s palace at Chepauk. The following are the fine
examples of the second type; (1) The Vivekananda Rock Memorial at
Kanyakumari, (2)Rajaji memorial, (3)Gandhi Mandapam, (4)Kamaraj
Memorial, (5)Valluvar Kottam and (6)Anna Square at Madras.

The Secretariat, Ezhilagam, Kuralagam, at Madras and the Collectorate

offices in district headquarters, the Ripon building at Madras and the
Madurai Corporation building are the Governmental buildings with fine
architecture.

Examples for the recreational architecture are the Rajaji Hall and
Kalaivanar Arangam at Madras, Thangam Theatre at Madurai,
Geethalaya theatre at Coimbatore are very spacious and fine theatres.
The sports avenues in the Annamalai University, Y.M.C.A. Sports arena
and the M.A.Chidambaram Cricket Stadium at Madras, the Stadiums at
Madras, Madurai and Coimbatore, the Government museum at Madras

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are very beautiful and attractive in many respects. The University
Library at Chepauk, the Connemara Library at Madras and the Libraries
of Annamalainagar and Palkalainagar (Madurai) are the best examples
for the construction of libraries.

Archives of Tamil Nadu at Egmore, Y.M.C.A. College at Nandanam, Sri

Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya at Coimbatore, Alagappa College at
Karaikudi, the Senate buildings, University Building, Centenary building
at Chepauk, the buildings of agriculture, engineering and technology at
Annamalai Nagar, Presidency College and Pachaiyappas College at
Madras, the buildings of the Madurai University, Nachimuthu
Polytechnic at Pollachi, P.S.G.College of Engineering and Technology
the General Hospital at Madras, Erskine Hospital at Madurai (Now Rajaji
Hospital) etc., are the best specimens of the architecture of welfare and
education. Chola Hotel, Hotel President, Hotel Sri Lekha, Hotel Savera
at Madras and Pandyan Hotel at Madurai are the best examples for the
Architecture of welfare.

Among the examples of the modern type of architecture, the L.I.C.

buiding, E.V.R. Maligai, Oxford University Press office, Reserve Bank of
India in Madras, etc. deserve worthy mention. (1) the flyover in the Anna
Salai at Madras. (2)the two tier overbridge at Tirunelveli, (3)the circular
overbridge at Coimbatore, (4) the Pamban bridge at mandapam, (5) the
Coleroon Railway Bridge. Most of the above edifies are built with stone,
bricks, wood, iron, steel, concrete etc. A school of sculpture flourishes
at Mahabalipuram under the patronage of the Government of Tamil
Nadu. The Pumphuhar art gallery, Kattabomman Kottai at
Ponchalankurichi etc. are centres of modern sculpture. Ganapathi
Sthapati (sculptor) of Tamil Nadu is the chief architect of the Hindu
temples, which are built at New York, Chicago and Pittsburg in the
United States of America.

In the contemporary period many statues have been erected for national
leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajaji, K.Kamaraj and
local leaders like E.V.Ramaswamy Naicker, C.N.Annadurai and others
which are found throughout Tamil Nadu in important cities and villages.
No doubt Madras is the city of statues. The Marina beach lodges the
statues of Tamil poets and scholars. They are very attractive and
elegant.

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(vi) Dance and Music

Dance, music and acting are the sciences which along with literature,
are expected to depict the fundamental right rasas (flavours), viz., lova
(kadal), courage (viram), loathing (veruppu) anger (kopam) mirth,
terror (bayam) pity (irakkam) and surprise (Viyappu). A prolonged
and arduous training is to be given to a dancer, she or he has to control
and learn the movements of legs, arms, face and the whole body.
Bharata explains 108 Kavanar (primary poses). Out of which 32 are
angaharas (difficult poses). In it he has mentioned 13 head poses; 36
for the eyes; 9 for the neck; 37 bastas (hand poses); and 10 for the
body.

Folk Dance: Tamil villages appeared as the cradles of the country’s

traditional art forms. Arduous life of the rural masses through the ages
paved the way for the onset of that cultural composition. They illustrate
their own life style and experiences comprising of joy and despair in
various forms, Achivements, adversities and accomplishments of the
village folk are well represented in their art forms. This cultural
contribution of the rural folks had greater influence upon Tamil literary
divisions. Folk dances form one of the folk arts. Karakattam, Kavadi,
Pallu, Natakakirtanai, Therukkuttu, Puravi Attam, Chilampattam,
Mayil Attam, Kummi, Koothu, Pommalattam are some of the
important folk dances.

Music: Music is the source of inspiration to mind and soul which keeps
one away from pains and problems of physical life. In the human history
music continuously plays a vital role since the very existence of man. It
forms an integral part of the artistic life of the Tamils and a fascinating
chapter in the history of Tamil fine arts. Musical traditions of the country
were kept preserved throughout the Tamil country under the Vijayanagar
rule. It had a change under the Vijayanagar rule. It had a change with
the decline of the Vijayanagar. It is due to the lack of patronage the
musical tradition started to turn towards the liberal patronage of the
Nayaks and the Marathas. Achyattappa Nayaka (1580 to 1614) was a
great lover of music. He donated the entire village of Melathur to
promote music. His son Regunatha invented new Ragas (tune) like
“Jayanthasana and Talas”. Even after the establishment of Maratha rule
in Tanjore cultural traditions of the city continued as before. Shaji the
son of Ekoji (1684-1712) donated the village of Shahji Puram for the
promotion of music. His brother Sarabhoji (1712-1728) donated two
Agraharas-Thiruvengadu and Thirukkadiyur for the promotion of music.

189
His successor Tulajaji I (1728-1736), Popularised Hindustani Music in
Tamil country. With the accession of Tulajaji II in 1763 the Golden age
of the Karnatic music started. In the 18th and 19th centuries the Musical
Trio (Trinity) Tyagaraja (1767 to 1847) Muthuswamy Dikshidar (1775 -
1834), and Syama sastri (1763-1837) by their new Ragas and styles
offered new life to the carnatic music. Following the trinitiecs, the Tamil
country was blessed with a galaxy of excellent musicians and
composers like the Tanjore Quartette - Vadivelu, Ponnayya, Chinnayya
and Sivananthan.

Chemmankudi Seenivasa Iyengar and Chambai Vaithya Nathiyar

contributed considerably to make music a living force and a reality.

Folk Music: Hindustani and Carnatic Music gained influence among

the affluent sections of the society who found rest and leisure to enjoy
them. But those unprivileged sections who were found at the lowest ebb
could not understand and appreciate them. Such socially secluded and
religiously ignored sections found comfort in simple local songs
attributing agonies and scornful life to fate or destiny. Folk Music is
nothing but the spontaneous overflow of the emotions of the oppressed
depicting their adventures and adversities of life which they have in the
society along with their kith and kin. The lullabies and lamentation
songs denote the customs and behaviour of the folk community. Kulavai
and similar songs sung during agricultural operations and other such
occasions make the folk to forget the aridity and monotony of fatigue.
Temmanku songs are to invite Lord Muruga to help the folks as they are
in distress. They are used as a medium to convey the contemporary
events to the folk which they grasp with their common sense.

Thoothu, the Tamil term means message of a person sent to another

through a messenger. Virali Vidu Thoothu stands for the exchange of
message between the estranged through the Virali. Communications
and messages were exchanged between kings. The works of
Subradeepa Kavirayar’s Kolappa Nayakkan Virali Vidu Thoothu,
Saravana Perumal Kavirayar’s Sethupathi Virali Vidu Thoothu,
Marimuthu Pillai’s Chidambareswarar Virali Vidu Thoothu,
Kumaraswami’s Chendalankaran Virali Vidu Thoothu are some of the
important works of the 19th century. This piece of Tamil literature
explains some of the evils found in the society, especially among the
high castes. Kuravanji is a kind of literature ofthe sooth saying women of
the Kurava community. In Tamil literature there are more than 40 such
works. They may be known in the name of hero or heroine or in the

190
name of the place of the hero. Sarpendra Pupala Kuravanchi and
Meenakshi Ammai Kuravanchi,, Thirukkuttala Kuravanchi and
Thiruvarur Kuravanchi are some of the important works.

(vii) Archaeology

In the field of archaeological studies the State Department of

Archaeology and the Department of Ancient History and Archaeology of
the University of Madras have rendered remarkable service. The
pioneers in the field were Robert Bruce Foot, Sir Mortimer Wheeler, V.D.
Krishnaswami and others. In addition to them the following persons
have contributed much to archaeology. (1) Dr.T.V.Mahalingam
(2) Dr. K.V.Raman (3) K.R.Srinivasan (4) K.V.Soundararajan and
(5) Dr. R.Nagasamy. A number of valuable data relating to the pre-
historic and proto-historic period of our history have been brought to
light. The State Department of Archaeology under the direction of Dr.
R.Nagasamy has brought to light a number of wonderful monuments.

(viii) Tourism

In 1971 the Tamil Nadu Tourism Development Corporation was

constituted by the Government. We have a dot of rich tourist potential
centres for tourist attractions in our State. The rich historical and cultural
heritage of the land in a background of 3000 years of history acts as a
stimulus to tourist development. Transport facilities are provided for the
tourists to visit the spots. During 1971 about 38,000 foreign tourists
visited Tamil Nadu. Many steps have been taken by the Government
and the Corporation to improve tourism in our State.

Check your progress

1. Sati was abolished in the year _____

2. Prataba Mudaliar Charitram was written by ______

3. Caste disabilities Removal act was passed in the year _______

4. Andhra University was opened in the year ______

5. Kudiyanava Munnetra Sangam was founded by _________

191
Summary

The fight against imperialism and colonialism and the declaration of

independence at the national level and the challenge of non-Brahmin
awakening against Brahmin dominance in the Tamil country had left an
overwhelming influence on the socio-cultural life of the people in the
20th century.

Glossary

Anbukkudi : A fellowship of the Nadars

Ahilathirattu : Social and religious teachings of Vaikunta Swamigal

Sanatanists : Those who believe Caste system and ritual worship

Samarasa Sanmarga : Philosophy of Ramalinga Adikal

Sati : Women burning themselves on the funeral pyres of their

husbands.

Purdah : Covering the whole body with thick cloth.

Devadasi : Servant or slave of God.

Domestic Architecture : priest house, bungalows, palaces, etc.

Nanja : Canal fed land

Punja : Rain fed land.

Answers to check your progress

1. 1929

2. Vedanayagam Pillai

3. 1850

4. 1925

5. Amir Hyder Khan

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Unit 13

SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Self-Respect Movement

Summary

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the social reform measures taken by Periyar E.V.R. who was
a founder of the Self-respect Movement to eradicate the social evils in
the Tamil country have been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

 State the achievements of Periyar E.V.R.’s Self-Respect

Movement for Social advancement.

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The Self-Respect Movement represented the non-Brahmins backward

reaction against high-caste domination in the working of the society. It
aimed at liberating the society from the evils heaped upon it by the
religious customs and caste systems with a view to gaining for the
downtrodden people a status of equality and dignity.

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13.2 SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT

‘The Self-Respect Movement owed its origin to the Tamil resurgence

and the opposition to Brahmin hegemony”. The Tamil renaissance of
the 19th century, worked out by the European scholars like Caldwell and
G.V. Pope and the Tamil luminaries like Maramalai Adigal and Mayuram
Vedanayagam Pillai brought the ancient glory to limelight. The socio-
economic transformation of the region as contributed by the English
Administration and Missionary work had gone to enlighten different
communities whose progress and development, among other things that
were blocked by the Brahmin hegemony.

The Vaikkam hero E.V.Ramaswamy Naicker (1879-1973), popularly

known as E.V.R. was the founder of the Self-respect Movement. He
was born at Erode and educated in a local school. He had no inclination
for his studies but took uncommon interest in the lot of the poor and
untouchables. To know the explanation for their misery he studied
critically the religious texts and went to the shrine in the north and found
the sages and saints. He saw all of them covering their criminal
aptitudes under the veil of spiritualism. He came home and decided to
work for the liberation of the country, reconstruction of the society and
eradication of untouchability.

E.V.R. joined the Congress in 1920, to make the country independent, to

make the people rationalists by abolishing caste system and to make
Brahminism non-existent in the world. But he came to learn latter that
the congress was the centre of Brahmin domination. The communal
outlook of Brahmins was further confirmed by the Gurugulam
controversy of 1925.

At Sermadevi a Gurugulam Ashram to foster national unity was run by

the Congress fund. But the president of the Ashram V.V.Subramania
Iyer enforced the worst form of communal discrimination against non-
brahmins and the untouchables in regard to the food, clothing and
accommodation. EVR refused grant from Congress fund to the
Gurukula. In 1924 he led the Vaikkam Satyagraha organised by Gandhi
for the temple entry of the Harijans. But in 1925 he broke with Gandhi
with the allegation that he supported Varunashrama Dharma and left the
Congress. In 1925 Periyar founded the Self-respect Movement. The
major aims of the movement were 1.End the exploitation in the name of
God and Religion. 2. Promotion of rational thinking, self-respect and
self-confidence in the people. 3. Destruction of the age-old institutions of

194
caste, religion, princely order and Zamindari system and 4.Eradication of
the evils of untouchability, inequality and distinction based upon status
and sex.

Ramanathan, a one time follower of Gandhi, assisted Periyar to take the

movement to the midst of the suppressed sections. E.V.R. frequently
toured the country, organised meetings, led demonstrations and
published news papers. Its first state conference was inaugurated by
the Independent Chief Minister Dr. B.Subbarayan at Chengalpet in 1929
and presided over by W.P.A. Soundara Pandia Nadar. In the meetings
held at Madurai, Chengalpet and Virudhunagar resolutions were passed
against casteism, untouchability and capitalism. Large number of
Hindus, Muslims and Christians participated in the conferences. In
1931-32 EVR, visited Egypt, Russia, France, Spain, Germany, Portugal
and England and studied the way of life of those people. He realised
that poverty was the root cause of all the social evils. On his return he
propagated Fourteen Points Social Manifesto. The Justice party
accepted the same and decided to introduce them. In 1938 E.V.R. was
elected as the President of the Justice Party. In 1942 Rajaji made the
study of Hindi compulsory in schools E.V.R. being the champion of the
Dravidians rase in protest of Rajaji’s language reform and headed are
agitation known as Anti-Hindi agitation assisted by C.N.Annadurai. At
this juncture taking advantage of the Justice Party’s decline in
importance and defeat in the election of 1937 these Dravidian leaders
(E.V.R. and C.N.A.) re-organised this party in Dravida Kazhakam in
1944. In its Salem Conference of 1944, the party adopted the slogan of
a separate Dravida Nadu comprising Tamil Nadu. Andhra, karnataka
and Travancore-Cochin states. In the party conference at Tiruchirapalli
its functionaries the ‘Dravida Writers Association’, ‘Dravida Students
Association’ and ‘Black Shirts’ were organised. The movement attracted
educated youth like C.N.Annadurai whose gift of literate tongue won
gradual success. The highly flourishing Dravida kazhagam had a
sudden fall in 1948 because of the 72 year old leader married his 28
year old disciple. Maniyammai was the private Secretary of E.V.R. At
age of 72 he married her. This act of EVR among other causes created
confusion in the party and caused the loss of confidence of the party
followers in the leader. A group of followers headed by C.N.Annadurai
opposed and criticised this action, left the party and formed the Dravida
Munnerttra Kazhagam in 1949. Thus in 1949 the Dravida Kazhagam
was split into Dravida Kazhagam and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.

195
The Dravida Kazhagam stood for the promotion of progressive politics
and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam for active politics. In 1952 an
organisation was registered for the propagation of self-respect
principles. In 1962 the idea of a separate state was given up. In 1971
Superstitioas Eradication Conference was held at Salem. At this
conference pictures and idols of Gods were insulted. The movement to
its credit had the publications like Kudiyarasu, puratchi and Viduthalai.

The Self-respectors encouraged inter-caste marriages and widow re-

marriages and avoided Brahmin priests at their marriages. Later the
Hindu Marriage Act of 1967 granted legal sanction to the Self-Respect
Marriages. This schism in the mother Kazhakam made it and its leader
very weak. However he was continued to be loved and honoured by his
ascendants and descendants till he breathed his last on 24th December
1973 at the age of 94.

The Dravida Munnettra Kazhagam headed by C.N.Annadurai gained

popular support and won the general election of 1967. This regional
party thus came to power in 1967 after defeating the National Party. It
had a split in 1972. In that year M.G.Ramachandran a famous film actor
and a political disciple of C. N. Annadurai left the D.M.K. and formed the
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra kazhagam (A.I.A.D.M.K.). The
Congress was defeated in the 1967 election. Since then the D.M.K.
and its offshoot A.I.A.D.M.K. are holding power alternately.

Check your progress

1. Self-Respect Movement was launched by _____

2. In ______ superstitious eradication conference was held at

Salem.

Summary

Thus “Periyar EVR “the prophet of the new age, the Socretes of the
South Asia, Father of the Social Reform Movement, arch enemy of
ignorance, superstition, meaningless customs and base manner, lived
as an important leader of the Tamil country.

Answers to Check Your Progress

1. Periyar EVR

2. 1971

196
 BLOCK V

Unit 14 Congress Ministry

Unit 15 D.M.K. & A.I.A.D.M.K.

Unit 16 Socio Economic and Educational Developments in

Tamilnadu

197
Unit 14

CONGRESS MINISTRY

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Congress Ministry

14.2.1 Rajaji Ministry

14.2.2 Kamaraj Ministry

14.2.3 Bhaktavatsalam Ministry

Summary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the progress of Tamil Nadu under the Congress regime is
dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

 explain the career and achievements of Rajaji for the welfare of

the state

 describe the service-rendered by Kamaraj in promoting the Tamil

Society.

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14.1 INTRODUCTION

The Indian National Congress dominated the political scene of Tamil

Nadu from 1937 to 1967. Imperialism moved into retreat and
nationalism gained ascendancy. This period of struggle for freedom
produced two outstanding leaders one representing the Aryan elite and
the other the Dravidian peasantry. There were Rajaji and Kamaraj who
were destined to give leadership to the state as well as the nation in
troubled times. Both were ardent patriots yet political rivals. In their bid
to uplift the masses from poverty, Rajaji favoured private enterprise,
while Kamaraj favoured a democratic socialism.

14.2 CONGRESS MINISTRY

When Tamil Nadu became free of British Control as a result of the Indian
Independence Act, passed by the British Parliament in July 1947, O.P.
Ramaswami Reddiar (of South Arcot District) was the Chief Minister of
Madras. His ministry continued till April 1949.

O.P. Ramaswamy Reddiar was succeeded by P.S. Kumaraswamy Raja

of Rajapalayam. He carried on till the general elections of 1952. It was
during his ministry that India became a Republic. In 1952 the First
General Elections were conducted as per guidelines of the Indian
Constitution.

14.2.1 Rajaji Ministry

At that time the congress did not have a majority in the Madras
Legislative Assembly, ‘even though it claimed the support of the eight
independents. Many attempted to persuade Rajaji to accept the
leadership of the Legislature Party, but he refused to do so, and he was
not a member of either house of the Legislature. Rajaji at last agreed to
form a ministry and to enable him to do so he was nominated to the
Legislative Council by the Governor who also invited him to join the
ministry. This ministry was formed immediately after the first general
elections. Rajaji held office from 1952 to 1954 – with great distinction.
His cabinet members were: 1.M. Bhaktavatsalam, 2. A.P. Shetty, 3. C.
Subramaniyam, 4. K. Venkatasamy Naidu, 5. N. Ranga Reddi, 6. M.V.
Krishna Rao 7. R. Ranganaiah Naidu 8. Raja Shanmuga Rajeswara
Sethupati, 9. M.A. Manickavelu Naicker, 10. K.P. Kuttikrishnan, 11. N.
Sankara Reddi, 12. S.P.P. Pattabiram Rao, 13. T. Sanjeevayya, 14. k.

199
Rajaram Naidu, 15. Mrs. Jothi Venkatachalam. He not only revived the
old policies which guided him in 1937 but also enunciated new ones.

The Family Planning Programme was adopted during his period to

control the geometrically increasing population of the country. Rajaji
was the guardian of Hindi at first. In 1953 the D.M.K. Party launched a
new agitation demanding the renaming of Dalmiyapuram (a northern
name) into Kallakkudi (a Tamil name). Later on he was to become an
ardent advocate of English.

In 1954 Rajaji formulated an educational policy which considered, the

pursuit of hereditary crafts as at least a part time learning a satisfactory
way of solving unemployment as well as some educational problems. It
was called Kula Kalvi Thittam. The most important thing that happened
during the ministry of Rajaji was the formation of Andhra Pradesh.

The basic educational system of Rajaji was understood as an attempt to

revive the ancient Varnashrama tradition. So there was strong
opposition in the state. As a result his ministry fell and K. Kamaraj
became the leader of the Legislature.

14.2.2 Kamaraj Ministry

Kamaraj rose from the ranks in the pre-independence Tamil Nadu

Congress under the guideship of S. Satyamoorthy. His political guru
was S. Satyamoorthy. He had the double advantage of being
acceptable to the All India Congress politicians as an ardent
Congressman and of being a hard-core non-Brahmin acceptable even to
E.V. Ramasamy Naicker and those of his school of politics.

In April 1954, the Kamaraj Ministry began functioning. He had great

influence in Union Government of India led by Nehru. Further he had a
natural flair for political maneuvering which earned him a reputation as a
trouble shooter. He had the following members in his cabinet:
1. M. Bhaktavatsalam, 2. A.P. Shetty, 3. P. Paramaesvaran,
4. C. Subramaniam, 5. Raja Shamuga Rajeswara Sethupati,
6. M.A. Manickavelu Naicker, 7. S.S. Ramasamy Padayachi. His
ministry lasted till 1957

The Second General Elections were conducted in 1957. The Congress

got a crowing success by taking 151 (out of 205) seats in the Assembly.
Once again K. Kamaraj, popularly known as ‘Karma Virar’ formed

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ministry. His cabinet consisted of the following members:
1. M. Bhaktavatsalam, 2. C. Subramaniam, 3. P. Venkataraman,
4. P. Kakkan, 5. V. Ramayya, 6. M. A. Manickavelu Naicker, 7.Mrs.
Lourthammal Simon. During this period great impetus was given to a
planned economy. A significant development took place in the field of
industry. Free education for all had been provided up to the S.S. L.C.
standard. Mid-day Meal Scheme was introduced in the states for school
going children.

Single Teacher schools were established wherever necessary in Tamil

Nadu. All villages were covered by this scheme. An Industrial Estate
was set up in Guindy, Madras. Periyar EVR began to see that in
K.Kamaraj, a non-Brahmin Chief-Minister the Brahmin domination was
likely to be ended. The Third General Elections were conducted in 1962.
In Madras the Congress got majority and K. Kamaraj formed the
ministry. It was in this election that the D.M.K. emerged as a strong
opposition party by securing 50 seats in the Assembly. The Ministry of
K. Kamaraj included the following members: 1. M.Bhaktavatsalam,
2. Mrs. Jothi Venkatachalam 3. R. Venkataraman, 4. P. Kakkan
5. V. Ramayya, 6.Sarkarai Manradiyar, 7. G. Buvarasan, 8. M .S. Abdul
Samad. During this period many developmental works were undertaken
for the progress of Tamil Nadu.

‘K’ Plan: The fall in the percentage of polls in the Third General
Elections led leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and K. Kamaraj to chalk out
a programme to revitalise the party. It was called “Kamaraj Plan”.
Kamaraj himself had to set an example by leaving office and taking to
party work as President of the Congress. Many Congress V.I.Ps like
Morarji Desai, S.K. Patil, Jagajivan Ram, Biju Patnaik, C.B. Gupta, Dr.
Jivaraj Mehta and Bakshi Gulam Mohammad resigned to take up their
party work in the country. From 1964-67. K. Kamaraj was the ‘King-
Maker’ of India. Then in 1963 a new ministry headed by M.
Bhaktavatsalam came in and it lasted till 1967 when the general
elections were held.

14.2.3 Bhaktavatsalam Ministry

The Bhaktavatsalam ministry consisted of the following members: 1.Mrs.

Jothi Venkatachalam, 2.R. Venkataraman, 3.P. Kakkan, 4.V.Ramayya,
5.Nalla Senapati Sarkarai Manradiyat, 6.G. Bhuvaragan, 7.S.M. Abdul
Samad

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During the Bhaktavatsalam Ministry the anti-Hindi agitation was
launched i.e. in January-March 1965. The agitation was spearheaded
by students and supported by most people in the state. It turned out to
be violent on the part of the agitators. Everywhere there was chaos and
confusion. This Government took stern and severe action against the
agitators. A tardy promise by Lal Bahadur Sastri (L.B. Sastri became
the Prime Minister of India after the death of Mr. Nehru in May 1964)
ended the agitation. It is due to monsoon failure a severe famine swept
across the country. The anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 and the rise in price
of rice were considered chiefly responsible for the fall of the Congress in
the next general elections. In 1966 the First World Tamil Conference
was held at Kulalampur in Malaysia.

Check your progress

1. When Tamil Nadu became free from the British Control ______
was the Chief Minister of Madras in 1947.

2. _____ was the first General Elections were conducted as per the
guidelines of the Indian Constitution.

3. Kula Kalvi Thittam was introduced by _______

Summary

It is evident that the Congress dominated the Tamil politics and society
upto 1967 A.D. Under the Chief Ministership of Rajaji, Kamaraj and
Baktavatchalam sufficient measures were taken for the development of
the Tamil society.

Answers to check your progress

1. O.P.Ramaswami Reddiar

2. 1952

3. Rajaji

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Unit 15

D.M.K. & A.I.A.D.M.K.

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

15.1 Introduction

15.2 DMK (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam)

15.3 AIADMK (All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam)

Summary

Glossary

Answers to check your progress

OVERVIEW

In this unit, the role and work of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and
the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam for the development of
Tamil Nadu have been dealt with in detail.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to

 explain the role played by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam for

social advancement and economic development of the Tamil
country under the Chief Ministership of Annadurai and
Karunanidhi.

 describe the role played by the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam for the socio-economic development of the Tamil
Country under the Chief Ministership of M.G.Ramachandran and
Selvi J.Jeyalalitha.

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15.1 INTRODUCTION

As a result of the Indian Independence Act, passed by the British

Parliament in July 1947, the Tamil country became free from the British
Control. From 1937 to 1967, the Congress party dominated the politics
of Tamil Nadu. From 1967 onwards the Dravidian parties have been
the ruling parties in the Tamil country.

15.2 D.M.K. (DRAVIDA MUNNETRA KAZHAGAM )

The off-shoots of the non-Brahmin or the Dravidian Movement, Dravida

Munnetra Kazhagam and its off spring. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam are the major non-Congress political parties of Tamil Nadu
from 1960’s onwards. In the fifth general election held in 1967 in Tamil
Nadu DMK won the elections and formed the ministry under the Chief
Ministership of C.N.Annadurai in 1967. He was in power from 1967-
1969. The D.M.K. Ministry under his stewardship had introduced
several welfare measures for the development of Tamil Nadu. It was
during his period that the Madras State was Christened as Tamil Nadu.
The Self-Respect Marriages promoted by Periyar E.V.Ramasamy was
for the first time made legal by a legislation passed during this period to
encourage inter-caste marriages. Encouragement was given to the
couple thus married by issuing a Gold medal and to promote the
government secular credential in all government’s institutions and
establishments, the portraits of Gods and Goddess were done away
with. Maintaining the two language formula Hindi was withdrawn from
the curriculum and Hindi teachers who were thrown out of employment
as a result of this measure were rehabilitated.

After the death of C.N.Annadurai, M.Karunanidhi became the Chief

Minister of Tamil Nadu from 10.2.1969 to 31.1.1976. It was during this
period efforts were made to put an end to the practice of untouchability
in Tamil Nadu. A Backward Class Commission was set up in 1971. As a
result of this, a scheme was introduced to give free education upto the
college level for the economically backward people, which was a
success.

Karunanidhi introduced a novel administrative measure known as the

Manuneedhi Scheme. According to the scheme the officials have been
directed to visit villages, listen to people’s complaints and find quick
remedies. Every month as many as 1,500 villagers were interviewed by
the officials for redressal of their grievances.

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Another notable step towards Socialism was the decision that no family
shall possess more than 15 standard acres of land. Regular pattas were
issued in respect of 40,000 acres. Pattas were also issued to seven lakh
landless agriculturists involving several lakhs of acres, besides the grant
of housing land to other one lakh persons. To boost the agricultural
production, a “Green Revolution” programme was started in the State.
The D.M.K. government gave top priority to this programme.
Karunanidhi wanted to provide shelter to the slum-dwellers and he
implemented this measure. The Tamil Nadu’s Slum clearance Scheme
has become a model par excellence for the rest of the country.
Sarvodaya leader, Jaya Prakash Narayan, who had inaugurated the
Kotturpuram tenement project (1972) described the slum clearance
venture of Tamilnadu as a “Fine monument to the service of the lower
sections of our urban society”. Leaders felt that the government has truly
been treading into the path of Mahatma Gandhi. President V.V. Giri was
highly impressed by the activities of the Slum Clearance Board in Tamil
Nadu. He said that Tamil Nadu “leads the rest of India” in affording
housing facilities to the common man.

Another important reform was the abolition of beggary. On the eve of his
48th birthday in June, 1971. Karunanidhi executed a concrete scheme to
“remove beggars from the social fabric” and provide avenues to
rehabilitate them. He raised a Begger Rehabilitation Fund. The
collections aggregated to 1.09 Crores. Then he scarted the Lepers
Rehabilitation. Homes were opened, each with accommodation for 400-
500 members. Medical and surgical treatment came to be met out of the
funds. They were also helped to acquire skills according to their
individual aptitudes. The inmates received vocational training in skills
such as mat-weaving, tailoring, shoe-making, carpentry and poultry-
keeping.

Karunanidhi next turned his attention to the task of emancipating the

pullers of hand-rickshaws. One man pulling fellowman seated in a
carriage, just to earn a few paise for his daily bread “is an insult to the
human personality”. On his 50th birthday, 3, June 1974, he banned the
plying of hand-rickshaws on road, offering every puller a cycle rickshaw
instead and 301 cycle rickshaws were distributed to the rickshaw pullers.
For each hand-rickshaws surrendered, a flat sum of Rs.200 was paid as
compensation. Also, Free Eye Camps were started in Tamil Nadu. One
lakh eye patients were given treatment during 1972-73 and 2,000
cataract operations were for formed in a single camp.

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The DMK government turned its attention to public works also. The
cleaning of the Cooum River was started by the D.M.K. Government with
a view to giving clean atmosphere to the city of Madras. The first stage
of the Cooum improvement project was inaugurated by Anna in
September 1967. The D.M.K. Government’s relations with labour can be
described as excellent. The nationalization of bus transport brought the
transport workers and the Government closer together. Karunanidhi
appealed to mill-owners to deal labour with sympathy and
understanding.

Further, the Tamil Nadu Government reduced the rate of sales tax from
7% to 3.5% in the case of edible oils and pulses. The 13 Point
programme for the rehabilitation of the physically handicapped in the
State was announced. The educated among them were provided with
jobs and the uneducated were given financial assistance. Another
significant move was that Tamilnadu made great strides in solving the
problem of unemployment among the technically qualified graduates.

Also, legal sanction was accorded to “Self-respect” or “Social”

marriages. These were marriages celebrated without any paraphernalia
of elaborate rituals. Fifty-one such marriages were celebrated in a
colony of poor people on the occasion of the 51st birthday of Chief
Minister Karunanidhi, a majority of them between different castes. The
Government had awarded gold medals to those who had married
outside their caste. Orders were also passed that Archanas (Pujas) in
temples in the State were to be conducted in Tamil. To this effect,
circulars were duly sent by the Hindu Religious and Charitable
Endowment Board on the advice of the Government.

Other measures of social reforms include the compulsory representation

for Harijans on the Temple Trust Boards. Karunanidhi was determined to
level up the status of Harijans and give them the political and social
equality. The D.M.K. both at the party and government levels, was
resolute in bringing about a casteless society in Tamil Nadu. But
practically speaking it was a very difficult task and there were many
hurdles in implementing such measures.

In 1996 elections, DMK was again voted to power and M. Karunanidhi

became the Chief Minister. During his period since 1996, significant
developments were witnessed by various fields. Many welfare schemes
and improvement programmes were drafted and introduced by the
government to uplift the poor, downtrodden and depressed classes.

206
Health care programmes were introduced to protect the people from
diseases. Public Health was given due attention. Public works were
undertaken in a large measures and flyovers and over bridges were
constructed all over Madras City. This considerably reduced the traffic
hazards in Madras. He introduced the concept of bringing the villages
within the fold of modernisation by plying Mini Buses between the major
cities and villages of Tamil Nadu. He planned to put Tamil Nadu on the
Information Technology map (IT) of India and the world by initiating
efforts to establish an IT park at Taramani - namely the Tidel Park.
Many more schemes like “Ulavar Sandhai” for the sale and promotion of
agricultural and farm products, establishment of Samathuvapuram for
the well being of people and promotion of harmonious living with other
communities, educational concessions to the needy, and benefit
schemes to the workers and Government employees are contributions of
the government during 1996-2001 under M. Karunanidhi’s leadership.

15.3 AIADMK (ALL INDIA ANNA DRAVIDA MUNNETRA

KAZHAGAM)

From 30th June 1977 to 18th February 1980, founding a new party
called All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, M.G.Ramachandran
came out successful in the election of 1977 and formed the ministry as
Chief Minister and was in power till 18th February 1980. In the second
spell also he was the Chief Minister from 8th June 1980 to 14th February
1985 and for the third time and for a short period of more than two
years he was in office till 12th February 1987. For more than a decade
the Government of Tamil Nadu had witnessed and stood benefited by a
series of welfare measures introduced by M.G. Ramachandran, Chief
Minister of Tamil Nadu. It was during this period yet another Backward
Class Commission was instituted. And on the basis of the
recommendations made by this Commission the reservation for the
Backward Class was increased to 50 per cent. During 1986-87 about 14
crore Rupees was spent for Housing development programme scheme
for B.C. A special component plan for the development of Adi-Dravidas
was also launched during this period. An integrated development for
both child and women were also launched under the Chief Ministership
of M.G. Ramachandran. About 118 crores were earmarked for the child
care for the year 1986-87. To cap it all in 1.7.1982 Chief Minister’s Noon
Meal Scheme was launched as Major Project in Tamil Nadu. As a result
of this, lakhs of poor children have been benefited. Reforms in Tamil
alphabets conforming to the reforms introduced by Periyar
E.V.Ramasamy were introduced. Efforts were also made to make each

207
and every village Self-sufficient with atleast a few infrastructural facilities
like drinking water, road, primary health centres, etc.

Efforts were also taken to develop both Agriculture and Industries of the
state. Electric charges were exempted for the small peasants; Income
tax exemption was also given to peasants holding lands upto 20 acres.
The Tamil Nadu Industrial Investments Corporation was set up to
promote Small Scale Industries. Efforts were taken up during the period
for the development of education and the plan outlay for it was increased
to Rs.534 crores. During 1985-86 Higher education was encouraged.
Bharatiar, Bharathidasan, Tamil University, Mother Therasa University,
Alagappa University were set up in Coimbatore, Trichy, Kodaikanal and
Karaikudi respectively. Besides formal education, the Non-Formal
education also received encouragement during this period. Efforts were
made to achieve development in the production of electricity. In 1986
about 5 lakhs huts were provided with electricity in Tamil Nadu. New
Bus Routes were introduced and a substantial increase in the plying of
buses was also effected. For effective village administration the
traditional village posts were abolished and in that place V.A.O.’s were
appointed. It was during this period the Harijan Welfare Department was
rechristened as the department of Adi-Dravidas.

After the death of M.G.R, V.N. Janaki was made the Chief Minister of
Tamil Nadu during January 1988. She held the position for a short spell.
Then in 1989, M. Karunanidhi became the Chief Minister after the
elections and his government also carried on its administration for a
short period.

In the 1991 election, the AIADMK won majority seats and J.Jayalalitha
formed the government as Chief Minister. During her period from 1991
to 1996 remarkable developments were witnessed in various spheres of
human activity. There was an appreciable industrial growth in Tamil
Nadu as a result of the establishment of industries in many parts of
Tamil Nadu. Around 45 new industries were started with a capital of
12,936 crores. She expanded the departments of Agriculture, Education,
Police, Fisheries, Dairy development, Social Welfare, Backward classes,
Commerce and Revenue. She wanted quick redressals for the
grievances of the common man. Her prime aim was that the common
man should benefit from her administration. So every department was
geared up to meet the needs and demands of the people and the whole
administration was made to function smoothly and efficiently.

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During this period the Government had taken steps to make
improvements in the Anna Square, at marina a memorial for the great
leader of Tamil Nadu and former Chief Minister DR C.M.Annadurai and
DR. Ramachandran. Fine embellishments and illuminations made the
hall mark of this square. Also, a memorial was constructed by the
Government of Tamil Nadu in Sriperumpudur, near chennai for the
former Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi who was assassinated at
this place in 1991. A 12 acre land was assigned for this purpose and this
was seen as a magnificent gesture of Tamil Nadu Government to the
Indian national leader.

During this five year period the Chief Minister had encouraged the
development of Tamil language and culture. she wanted to restore the
glory of the Tamils. In January 1995, she organised the Eighth World
Tamil conference in Thanjavur in a grand manner and 1101 scholars
and lakhs of Tamils all over the world thronged to Thanjavur for this
function. It was a grand function the like of which had not been
witnessed by anybody in the recent past. She made elaborate
programmes to improve the state as well as the conditions of the people
of Tamil Nadu in all possible ways.

The Fisheries department was also improved by her measures.

Community Hall and houses for the fisher-folk and financial assistance
to deserving fishermen families were her gifts to the fisher-folk of Tamil
Nadu.

Ms. J.Jayalalitha also contributed a lot to the development of games and

sports in the state. Many new stadiums like the Nehru stadium and
playgrounds were constructed during her time in various places in Tamil
Nadu. Medals and awards were given to sports persons.

During her period there was a remarkable increase in foreign

investments in Tamil Nadu’s industrial sector. She prepared the ground
to project Tamil Nadu as a fertile ground for foreign investments. As a
result many foreign organisations in varied fields like Car manufacture,
Food and Fertilizer production started the industrial operations in Tamil
Nadu. Her Government was also instrumental in effective planning and
helping the many poor and downtrodden people like the Backward
classes and Adi-Dravidas. It was for this purpose that the Government
had offered opportunities for them to develop small scale industries and
cottage industries to earn their livelihood. Throughout Tamil Nadu roads

209
were constructed and every village was connected to urban centres by
transport facilities and every village was blessed with electricity facilities.

There was a significant growth of education and teachers were recruited

by a Board to serve in educational institutions and merit was given due
recognition. Many new schemes and programmes were introduced for
the welfare of women, children, labourers and others. Cradle Baby
scheme, ban on female infanticide, child labour eradication scheme and
a few more schemes were introduced for the protection of children in
general and female children in particular.

During this period, women were given due recognition and welfare
schemes were drafted to improve their position. Dalit girls were given
free education and facilities were provided to women for higher
education. Poor women marriage scheme was another significant
programme which was a boon to many women. Further, All Women
Police Stations were established to solve problems concerning women
which was a pioneering effort.

Mass Literacy Campaign (Arivoli Eyakkam), a house for each family,

reservation for Dalit Women in educational institutions and employment,
creation of Temple Administration Board, Temple maintenance
protection scheme, pension scheme for Oduvars, Krishna Water
Scheme and other welfare schemes were the contributions of the
government during 1991-96 under the leadership of J.Jayalalitha.

Check your progress

1. ______ was the founder of the D.M.K.Party

2. When C.N.Annadurai became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu,

the Madras state was redesignated as ______

3. Valluvar Kottam was constructed by _______

4. __________ founded the new party called Anna Dravida

Munnetra Kazhagam.

5. Cradle Baby Scheme was introduced by _______

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Summary

Thus the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the All India Anna Dravida
Munetra Kazhagam have ruled the Tamil country from 1967 onwards.
They rendered remarkable service for the social advancement and
economic development.

Glossary

DMK : Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

AIADMK : All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

Noon Meal Scheme : launched by M.G.Ramachandran

Rain water harvesting system : launched by Selvi. J.Jeyalalitha

Answers to check your progress

1. C.N. Annadurai

2. Tamil Nadu

3. M. Karunanithi

4. M.G. Ramachandran

5. Selvi. J. Jeyalalitha

211
Unit 16

SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN

TAMILNADU

STRUCTURE

Overview

Objectives

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Condition of Society in the Twentieth Century

16.3 Impact of British Rule on Society

16.4 Educational Development

16.5 Economic Condition

16.6 Progress of Education, Press and Social Reforms after

Independence

16.7 Development of Tamil Nadu in the Later Part of the Twentieth

Century

16.7.1 Governments and Programmes

16.7.2 Social Aspects

16.7.3 Economic Aspects

16.7.4 Cultural Aspects

Let us sum up

Key words

Answers to check your progress

212
OVERVIEW

In this unit you will read about the social, economic and cultural
developments in Tamil Nadu in the twentieth century. These
developments in the British period upto 1947 and in the Post-
Independence period are discussed. The successive governments’
polices programmes and measures in bringing about welcome changes
in socio-economic and cultural spheres and various unique social,
economic and cultural aspects in the later part of the twentieth century
are narrated in this unit.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to

 narrate the condition of the Tamil Society in the twentieth

century.

 describe the impact of British Rule on Society.

 trace the Educational development.

 explain the Economic Condition

 give an account of the progress of education, Press and Social

Reforms after Independence.

 discuss the Governments’ Policies and Programmes in the later

part of the twentieth century.

 sketch the social, economic and cultural aspects in the later part
of the twentieth century in Tamil Nadu.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

The English East India Company established its rule over a considerable
part of India by about the close of the eighteenth century. In 1801, the
presidencies of Bengal, Bombay and Madras were formed and the
administration was carried on by the English officials with the assistance
of the Indians at the lower levels. During the period of the company’s
rule and Crown’s rule since 1858 in the nineteenth century the English
administrators did everything for the benefit of their own country and
paid little attention for the welfare of the natives. But there were a few

213
exceptions such as Lord William Bentinck and Lord Curzon whose
periods were marked with remarkable improvements in the fields of
social reforms and local self-government. There was also a notable
development in the fields of education, communication and public works.

However, economic development during this period was far from

satisfactory. The native arts and indigenous crafts were on the decline.
Agricultural prosperity in the whole of India was an unheard of
phenomenon. Though England greatly prospered due to the Industrial
Revolution, it never wanted to share it with the colonial India. The trade
and commerce were also the monopoly of the imperialists who rarely
permitted Indian merchants to flourish in their business activities.

India also witnessed during the nineteenth century severe famines every
now and then. Epidemics like Cholera and Plague too periodically took
a toll of lives in hundreds and thousands in various parts of India. Setting
up of Famine Commissions and introduction of ameliorative measures
and schemes to improve moral and material conditions of India were all
carried on by the imperialists as and when the need arose. But they
proved to be ineffective and inadequate to meet the necessary demands
of the masses of the sub-continent. Tamil Nadu, a part of the great sub-
continent presented during this century a pale picture as in other parts.

In the social and religious fields, Tamil Nadu witnessed significant

developments. Social and religious reforms carried out by various noble
persons in the nineteenth century remain uniquely in the history of Tamil
Nadu. People like Saint Ramalingaswami and Vaikundaswamy prepared
the ground for a movement which aimed for religious harmony and
social equality.

Since the middle of the nineteenth century, there was also the
development of nationalist tendencies among the people. The
development of communications, public works and education made the
people to become aware of the developments all over the world. The
English education made the cream of the Indian population to take note
of the great events such as the Glorious Revolution of England, The
American war of Independence and the French Revolution. The
introduction of printing press made miracles everywhere. There was a
general awakening everywhere in India and the Indian National
Congress, Madras Mahajana Sabha and Madras Native Association and
their activities worked wonders and the Indian Independence struggle
picked up its momentum by this period. Tamil Nadu experienced all

214
these developments in the nineteenth century and with this background
score, it entered into the twentieth century to play a greater role in the
history of India.

16.2 CONDITION OF SOCIETY IN THE TWENTIETH

CENTURY

In the twentieth century the caste system had been an important feature
of the Hindus. It has its merits as well as defects. Several saints and
reformers have condemned the caste-system. The most distressing evil
of the caste-system was ‘untouchability’. Though legislations have done
a lot for the abolition of untouchability, the evil crept in every now and
then and disturbed the peace in many places in Tamil Nadu. As in the
past the society has the four fold division in the caste system as
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. In each caste there were
several subcastes. The rigidity of the caste-system continued in some
parts of Tamil Nadu.

The Brahmins were once at the top of the social ladder. But due to the
constitutional provisions and government policies, social justice and
equality were given priority over other aspects. Hence, all are
considered equal before law. There are Tamil speaking Brahmins,
Telugu and Marathi speaking Brahmins. Vijayanagar rule in Tamil Nadu
and Maratha rule in Tanjore brought the Telugu speaking and Marathi
speaking Brahmins respectively. Once, Marathi speaking Brahmins were
found in large numbers in government services. But their number
dwindled in course of time due to their migrations from here to other
parts of India. Among the Brahmins, the worshippers of Siva were
designated as Iyers and the Worshippers of Vishnu were designated as
Iyengars. The Iyengars were again divided into ‘Vadakalai’ and
‘Thenkalai’ sects. Those who follow Sanskrit scriptures in their religious
worship are said to belong to Vadakalai sect and those who follow Tamil
scriptures like Nalayira Divya Prabhandam for religious worship are said
to belong to Thenkalai. The controversy of the Vadakalai and Thenkalai
Iyengar Brahmins continues even to day.

The Brahmins once lived in agaharams, mostly very near temples. In the
present day, there are no separate residential quarters for them. They
formed about three per cent of the total population. But in Tanjore district
they constituted a considerable section of the population. By their
intelligence and hard work, once the Brahmins occupied a large number
of posts in Governmental service. But, the non-Brahmins began to

215
compete with the Brahmins and now they were also found in good
position. In the beginning of the twentieth century. the British supported
the non-Brahmins against the Brahmins, for their own survival in this
land.

In the earlier centuries, the ‘untouchables’ were the lowest rung of the
social ladder. Between the highest Brahmins and the lowest
‘untouchables’ were the majority of the people, divided into a number of
castes varying in social ranks. Next to the Brahmins, the Vellalas
occupied the highest position in society. There are a number of castes
like the Maravars, Kallars, Vanniars, Yadavas, Odayars etc. Mention
must be made about Telugu speaking castes in Tamil Nadu. The
Reddiars, Naidus, Komati Chettiars and Devanga Chettiars are the
important Telugu speaking castes.

The Adi-Dravidas, Cobblers, Scavangers, etc., were said to constitute

the untouchables in Tamil Nadu. The Adi-Dravidas are Tamil speaking
people. But the cobblers and scavengers are Telugu speaking people. In
earlier days, they lived in separate quarters outside the towns and
villages. The high caste people shunned the presence of the
‘untouchables’. They were regarded as ‘unseeables’. That means even
their very sight caused pollution. The ‘untouchables’ were not allowed to
draw water from the wells of caste Hindus. But by social legislation and
constitutional provisions such discriminations were abolished. However,
a few cases of discrimination are reported every now and then in certain
places.

Next to Hindus, the Muslims are numerous. The Muslim population

definitely increased owing to Muslim rule over Tamilagam in the early
periods. Most of the Muslims in Tamil Nadu speak Tamil. But some
Muslims speak Urdu. There are also Sunnis and Shias among the
Muslims on sectarian ground. Inter-marriages among these groups are
generally prohibited. The Ravuthars are also divided into groups. Each
Muslim group or division in general has its own Quarters and Mosques.
Arabic is taught in the Madras as and Koran is recited only in Arabic.

It was only in the modern period that Christianity attracted a

considerable number of people. At present, Christians form more than
five percent of the population of Tamil Nadu. The Missionaries in the
nineteenth century exerted themselves for the spread of Christianity and
also for the spread of western education. There are both Catholic and

216
Protestant Christians in Tamil Nadu. The Anglo-Indians, the vestiges of
British rule, are also Christians.

While dealing with the social conditions mention must be made about
the communal conflicts. Unlike North India, Hindu-Muslim conflicts had
been rare in Tamil Nadu. In 1882, a Hindu-Muslim riot occurred and
such occurrences are stray incidents. In the Southern districts of Tamil
Nadu, the Maravas and the Nadars came into conflict with each other in
the earlier years. Houses were burnt and men were killed on both the
sides. In Madras city, clashes have occurred between the Valangai and
Idangai castes. But these incidents were termed as stray and were not
regular occurrences. In the later part of the twentieth century incidences
of communal conflicts were reported. But they were contained and were
not allowed to assume serious proportions.

16.3 IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE ON SOCIETY

British rule in India caused great changes in Indian society. Tamil Nadu
experienced these changes and the Tamil society benefited very much
by these changes. The Caste System lost much of its rigidity. The
spread of Western system of Education, uniform civil and criminal codes,
growth of towns and cities, development of industries communications
and railways brought about significant changes in the society. Caste
rules were not observed in hotels, hospitals, schools, colleges and other
public places. In big towns and cities all communities began to live
together. In government quarters caste distinctions could not be
observed. Though the rigidity of the caste system began to decrease,
caste consciousness gradually developed. This can be seen in the non-
Brahmin and self-respect movements and caste organizations in several
parts of Tamil Nadu.

The British rule indirectly encouraged the non-Brahmins to rise in the

society against the Brahmins. The Justice Party founded in 1916
opposed the Brahmin domination and demanded due share for the non-
Brahmins in government service. The Justice Party was organized by
“Sir Thiagaraya Chetty and T.M. Nair”. The Justice Party succeeded in
securing the due and greater representation for the Non-Brahmins in
various institutions and organisations. During its rule in Tamil Nadu, it
passed two orders relating to representation fo non-Brahmins in
government service and extension of Franchise to women.

217
Justice Party’s cause was greatly supported by Periyar E.V.R. who
attacked the Brahmin domination. He waged a war against religion,
caste-system and all the superstitious beliefs. He was a rationalist. The
Justice party, Periyar and his movements such as self-respect
movement and Temple Entry movement were responsible for the
attainment of proper representation for the non-Brahmins in Government
service and their equality in the soceity. The Brahmin domination
continued throughout the Nineteenth Century but in the Twentieth
Century, conditions had changed. When the English came to know that
most of the Terrorists during 1907-1912 were Brahmins, they began to
support the non-Brahmin movement in Tamil Nadu.

16.4 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

During the British rule, the imperialists engaged the Brahmins in great
numbers for their administrative purposes. The Brahmins learnt Sanskrit
and the Vedas in the Patasalas. Tamil was taught to everyone in the
native schools. In the Madrasas, Arabic and Islamic principles were
taught. The Saivite Mutts encouraged the study of Saivite literature and
Saiva Siddhanta Philosophy. The Christian Missionaries started several
schools in various parts of Tamil Nadu and spread education among the
poorer classes. They have done valuable service to the cause of
education. Infact, the poor and downtrodden were offered education by
these missionaries.

The Christian missionaries and some of the enlightened administrators

of the British rule continued their contribution in the field of education.
Consequently, the Twentieth Century witnessed remarkable progress in
the field of education. More number of schools and colleges came into
being. Many universities were established in many parts of India. In
Tamil Nadu, the Annamalai University came into being in 1929. It is a
unitary and residential university, the first of its kind in South India. Raja
Sir Annamalai Chettiar, the founder for the Annamalai University, will be
ever remembered for his valuable services to the cause of education in
general and to, Tamil and Tamil Music in particular.

Western education prepared the people for intellectual and social

renaissance. Bharathi, the greatest Tamil poet of the twentieth century,
expressed progressive ideas. He condemned female servitude and
aimed at social justice for all. Education was no longer the privilege of
the higher classes. It was thrown open to all. Even dress and manners
underwent changes. Western education also developed national

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consciousness which led to the freedom movement. The educated
middle class played a vital role in almost all spheres of human activity.

16.5 ECONOMIC CONDITION

As in the past, agriculture had been the main occupation of the people of
Tamil Nadu. From very early times, the rulers and the people had
evinced great interest in irrigation works. Quite often, failure of the
monsoon affected the peasants. Floods and storms during the rainy
season also caused much havoc to life and property of the people.

Government had many sources of income. Land revenue had been the
main source of income to the Government. Besides the land revenue,
income-tax was collected. The British monopolised the manufacture of
salt. The export of raw materials and the import of finished goods from
England brought about the decline of native industries which were once
thriving greatly. The native weavers were thrown into misery, since they
were not required to meet the demands of sophisticated men and
women. Those who lost their professions during this period took to
agriculture, which was also not profitable. In the later half of the
Nineteenth Century, few Industries developed. The manufacture of
Aluminium utensils was a new industry. Tanning was not a new industry.
Experiments proved the possibilities of making chrome leather of good
quality. Hence, shoe, boots and other articles of leather were made. The
Madras Chrome leather Limited and the like entered into an agreement
with the Government for Chrome tanning. During the First World War, it
was of great use and it catered to the demands of the people. The
Government developed the jail industry also. The convicts were trained
in the use of ginning machines. Carpentry and wood work were
developed by the Government which started industrial schools for
training. Trade and commerce developed. Modern means of
communication did much for the furtherance of industries, trade and
commerce. The First World War gave an impetus to industrial
development and this development met the war demands. The Second
World war created conditions favourable for the maximum utilization and
increase in the capacity of Indian industries. Several new industries also
came into being.

Also, it may be pointed out here that experts in the respective fields were
invited to contribute to the economic development. Planned economic
development was envisaged by M. Visveswarayya. The Indian National
Congress set up a National Planning Committee to inquire into the

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possibilities of planned economic development in India and to suggest
practicable schemes for this purpose. In 1941, the Government of India
set up a number of Reconstruction Committees. In 1944, a Department
of Planning and Development was created and in the same year,
provincial Governments were instructed to prepare their plans for post-
war development. In 1950, the Planning Commission was set up by the
Government of India. The Five Year Plans prepared by the Planning
Commission contributed to the development of India and Tamil Nadu
was very much benefited due to these plans in various fields.

Another important development was the introduction of legislations in the

field of labour. The Indian Trade Union Act (1926), the Mines Act (1935),
Workers Compensation Act etc., were periodically passed. The acts
were intended to protect the interests of workers. Similar legislations
were made for social welfare activities.

The rise of the new commercial classes is an important feature of this

period. The Dubhashis who were the agents of the East Indian Company
received a commission of 2% to 5% in all the transactions. The
Dubhashi earned a lot and they spent the money for charitable
purposes. In this connection, Pachiayappa Mudailiar stands unique by
his charitable endowments all over Tamil Nadu.

During the period under survey, Tamils went to foreign countries for
betterment in their life. They went to Ceylon, Malaya, Singapore, Burma
and South Africa. They went mainly as plantation workers. Some,
however, were businessmen, and they developed trade in overseas
countries and amassed wealth. Tamils worked in the Tea plantation of
Ceylon, Rubber plantation of Malaya and in Mines of South Africa. Some
settled down in those countries while others returned home with their
savings. But after the dawn of Independence in those countries the
Tamils were put to several hardships. In Ceylon the recent immigrants
became stateless. From Burma, during and after the Second World War,
many Tamils returned home. Tamil Nattukottai Chettiars who were very
prosperous in Burma, suffered a lot. The position of the Tamils in South
Africa had also been deplorable. As South Africa followed the policy of
racial segregation, the Tamils were put to severe hardships and suffered
like other black people.

Before Independence, industrial growth in Tamil Nadu was not

satisfactory. The First World War exposed the industrial backwardness
of Tamil Nadu. “The colonial Government had to promote industry for

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meeting the war supplies. Improved irrigation was made available by the
construction of upper and lower Anaikuts on the river Kaveri and also by
the construction of Periyar Dam. The economy in the Tamil country was
in bad shape at the time of country’s Independence. The per capita
income of the people was very low as was the standard of living of the
people. Agricultural production was low, rendering it necessary to import
food grains. There were hardly any modern large scale industries. On
the whole the economic condition of the land was not bright”.

But after the Independence, efforts were taken by the state government
to develop the industries. The Development of the basic industries, the
capital goods industries, the intermediate goods industries and the
consumer goods industries had been remarkable after independence.
The factories in 1962 numbered 4307. The number increased to 6458 in
1973-74. There was a corresponding increase in factory employment
also. There was a significant development in Tamil Nadu in Cotton
Textiles, Sugar, Cement, Minerals, Fertilizers, Lignite, Handlooms, etc.
Electric power generation also increased to a remarkable level.

In the years between 1950 and 2000 large scale industries in the field of
engineering, fertilizers, chemicals, paper, soaps, cement were
established. There were over 230 engineering industries, 106 fertilizers
and chemical industries and 100 other industries in the other fields
during the period 1950 - 70. The value of production in the sector of
handicrafts also increased from Rs.75 crores to Rs. 250 crores in 1971.
Industries for manufacture of electric motors and pumpsets came up in
the private sector in Coimbatore and in and around Madras.

16.6 PROGRESS OF EDUCATION, PRESS AND SOCIAL

REFORMS AFTER INDEPENDENCE

Madurai University was established in 1966. The Radhakrishnan

Commission’s Report on University Education and the
Lakshmanaswamy Mudaliar Commission on Secondary Education
surveyed the progress and later suggested methods for improvement.
The three language formula in the educational system came to be
adopted and the schools in Tamil Nadu followed this pattern. Technical
education and job-oriented education were given due importance in
Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University was already in existence.
New Universities were started at Coimbatore, Trichy and Tanjore. In
general, the number of schools and Colleges has increased. Free
education free-mid-day meals, a large number of scholarships and other

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concessions encouraged the parents to send their children to school.
Particularly, the Noon-meal scheme introduced by the Tamil Nadu
Government attracted many children to schools.

Muslim education, from the beginning was confined to Koran. Slowly,

they got over this prejudice and more and more Muslims began to come
forward to receive western education. The various commissions which
were appointed to review the progress of education emphasised the
need for Muslim education. Due importance and encouragement were
given to the education of Muslims after Independence.

The post-Independence period witnessed development among workers

also. Education and employment opportunities for women in Tamil Nadu
with the improved social status of women and their claims to educational
opportunities received greater recognition since independence. Several
Colleges and several departments have opened numerous vocational
opportunities for educated and uneducated women. They competed with
men in all spheres of human activity which were once closed to them.

The Five Year Plans had given special importance for improvement in
education in Tamil Nadu. The Literacy percentage in Tamil Nadu
increased to 39.46% indicating the remarkable progress in education in
the State. A school was established almost in every village having more
than 300 population and compulsory education was introduced for boys
and girls in the age group of 6 to 16 and 11.94% of the children were
estimated to attend schools in the later part of the twentieth century.
People began to read books written in Tamil.

In the twentieth century, Subramania Bharathi’s writings inspired

everyone. They touched the national sentiment and advocated the spirit
of social reforms. His Panchali Sabatham and Kuyil pattu were the best.
Bharathi Dasan’s poems against social evils were also widely read.
Vedanayagam Pillai was a great writer of Novels. B.R. Rajam was
considered as the real father of the Tamil Novels. The vista of Tamil
fiction was opened with Kalki R. Krishnamoorthy. His was a pleasant
and readable style. His historical novels are popular even to-day among
the Tamils, Kalvanin Kadali, Sivagamiyin Sabatham and Ponniyin
Selvan were his most famous contributions.

As regards the press in the twentieth century there was a significant

growth of the press in Tamil Nadu. Newspapers as mass media played
their role in influencing the opinion of masses and consequently, the

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course of events. The Hindu played a very important role in the 19th and
20th Centuries. The followers of the Dravidian movement brought out
‘Dravidan’ in Tamil and ‘Justice’ in English. ‘Desabhakthan’.
Swadesamithran, ‘New India’, ‘The Hindu’ were the important
newspapers which instigated the people during the freedom struggle.
The vernacular press played an equally important role in the socio-
political life of the Madras Presidency. ‘Dinamani’, ‘Dinathanthi’,
‘Dinamalar’, ‘Murasoli’ ‘Malai Murasu’ are some of the important dailies.
Among weeklies ‘Kumudam’ and ‘Anandavikatan’ Kalki, Kalaimagal
were popular among people.

Social reforms were the important aspects during the ninetieth and
twentieth centuries. Slave trade was abolished in 1907 by the British.
The Child Marriage Restraint Act popularly called the ‘Sarada Act’ fixed
the age for the marriage at 14 for girls and 18 for boys. The Act was
amended in 1938 to make its provisions more rigorous. Another civil
institution called Devadasi System was prevalent in Tamil Nadu. Social
reformers like Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy and Periyar took pains to put an
end to this system in the early half of the twentieth century.

Periyar who was a great social reformer of the twentieth century

launched Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu. Periyar was known to
Tamil Nadu as a staunch champion of Non-Brahmin caste. Despite his
orthodox family background, self respect was his passion. He led the
‘Vaikom Satyagraha’ in 1924. The objectives of the Satyagraha was to
secure for the untouchables the right to use the roads running near the
temple and entry into the temples which were denied by the caste
Hindus. He fought for this cause and won and hence he earned the
name Vaikom hero. This was the first victorious campaign in the whole
of India against untouchability. The aims of Self-Respect-Movement
were to uplift the Dravidians and, to expose the Brahmin tyranny and
deceptive methods by which they controlled all spheres of human
activity. Periyar denounced ritual caste marriages. He himself conducted
many marriages without any rituals. Such marriages were known as
‘Self-Respect Marriages’. Until his last days Periyar was preaching
rationalism.

While private individuals had been fighting for the cause of poor and
downtrodden the Government through its progressive legislations, aimed
at Social Justice. Children’s Act of 1960 aimed at providing for the care,
protection, maintenance and welfare of the neglected children. The
Untouchability offences Act of 1955, punished those who observed

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untouchability. Dowry prohibition Act, 1961 aimed at removing the social
evil of dowry. These measures though passed by the Government of
India, were applicable to the State Government also. They were
enforced effectively by the Government of Tamil Nadu for the welfare of
the people with the aim of introducing social justice in this land.

16.7 DEVELOPMENT OF TAMIL NADU IN THE LATER

PART OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

In subsections 16.7.1 to 16.7.4 we will touch upon the topics like

Governments and Programmes, Social Aspects, Economic Aspects and
Cultural Aspects.

16.7.1 Governments and Programmes

After the attainment of Independence, Tamil Nadu was under the rule of
the Congress Party. Leaders like T. Prakasam, Rajaji, Kamaraj and
Bhakthavatsalam carried on the administration of the state very
efficiently. Five Years Plans and schemes of the State improved the
state greatly and Tamil Nadu was one of the outstanding States in the
whole of India. During this period, agriculture flourished. Industries also
developed. Economic growth was significant and educational
development was notable. Social welfare programmes of the
Government improved the conditions of the people. There was a
remarkable development in all spheres of human activity. Congress rule
in the state continued till 1967.

In the General Elections of 1967, the Congress party which was in

power since 1947 was defeated and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(DMK) formed the Government. On 6, March 1967, C.N. Annadurai was
sworn in as Chief Minister, after resigning his seat in the Lok Sabha. He
changed the name of Madras State as Tamil Nadu. Hindi was withdrawn
from schools and the two language formula (English and Tamil only) was
made the official policy. Self-respect marriages were made legal and the
ration rice was sold at one measure per rupee in the cities of Madras
and Coimbatore for a few months. The Second World Tamil Conference
was held in grand manner at Madras and Tamil as official language
received a great fillip. After 18 months in office with great contributions to
his credit, C.N Annadurai passed away on 3, February 1969. The D.M.K.
then chose M. Karunanidhi to succeed the late leader in office in 1969.
His Government continued till 1976 and the declaration of emergency

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made the DMK to be out of office. In the 1977 general elections, All India
Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam was voted to power.

M.G. Ramachandran inaugurated the A.I.A.D.M.K. Government in Tamil

Nadu on 30th June 1977. The great Matinee Idol had become the
acclaimed leader of Tamilnadu. He was in power till 1987. After his
demise, V.N. Janaki was the Chief Minister for some-time and M.
Karunanidhi became Chief Minister after the election of 1989. In 1991
General Elections A.I.A.D.M.K. was voted to power with J. Jayalalitha as
the Chief Minister and carried on its administration till 1996. In the
General Elections of 1996, the DMK won the majority seats, formed the
government and carried on its administration.

During the later part of the twentieth century, both the DMK and AIADMK
parties had been contributing to the pre-eminence of the State as well as
to the welfare of the people. While the D.M.K. sat in opposition benches
in the State Legislature from 1957 to 1967, its leaders-Anna,
Karunanidhi and Nedunchezhiyan had spoken unanimously of the
greatest importance of the implementation of socialist measures. In
1967, as soon as the D.M.K. was voted to power, it applied itself to the
task of working out a series of welfare measures. A new department was
formed to look after the backward classes. During 1969-76, as Chief
Minister, Karunanidhi ordered the formation of a Backward Classes
Commission for Tamil Nadu to recommend the ways and means of
improving the lot of the poor, the helpless and the downtrodden.
Decision was taken to extend free education to all students upto the pre-
University Course in colleges.

Karunanidhi introduced a novel administrative measure known as the

Manuneedhi Scheme. According to the scheme the officials have been
directed to visit villages, listen to people’s complaints and find quick
remedies. Every month as many as 1,500 villagers were interviewed by
the officials for redressal of their grievances.

Another notable step towards Socialism was the decision that no family
shall possess more than 15 standard acres of land. Regular pattas were
issued in respect of 40,000 acres. Pattas were also issued to seven lakh
landless agriculturists involving several lakhs of acres, besides the grant
of housing land to other one lakh persons. To boost the agricultural
production, a “Green Revolution” programme was started in the State.
The D.M.K. government gave top priority to this programme.
Karunanidhi wanted to provide shelter to the slum-dwellers and he

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implemented this measure. The Tamil Nadu’s Slum clearance Scheme
has become a model par excellence for the rest of the country.
Sarvodaya leader, Jaya Prakash Narayan, who had inaugurated the
Kotturpuram tenement project (1972) described the slum clearance
venture of Tamilnadu as a “Fine monument to the service of the lower
sections of our urban society”. Leaders felt that the government has truly
been treading the path of Mahatma Gandhi. President V.V. Giri was
highly impressed by the activities of the Slum Clearance Board in Tamil
Nadu. He said that Tamil Nadu “leads the rest of India” in affording
housing facilities to the common man.

Another important reform was the abolition of beggary. On the eve of his
48th birthday in June, 1971. Karunanidhi executed a concrete scheme to
“remove beggars from the social fabric” and provide avenues to
rehabilitate them. He raised a Begger Rehabilitation Fund. The
collections aggregated to 1.09 Crores. Then he started the Lepers
Rehabilitation. Homes were opened, each with accommodation for 400-
500 members. Medical and surgical treatment came to be met out of the
funds. They were also helped to acquire skills according to their
individual aptitudes. The inmates received vocational training in skills
such as mat-weaving, tailoring, Shoe-making, carpentry and poultry-
keeping.

Karunanidhi next turned his attention to the task of emancipating the

pullers of hand-rickshaws. One man pulling fellowman seated in a
carriage, just to earn a few paise for his daily bread “is an insult to the
human personality”. On his 50th birthday, 3, June 1974, he banned the
plying of hand-rickshaws on the road, offering every puller a cycle
rickshaw instead and 301 cycle rickshaws were distributed to the
rickshaw pullers. For each hand-rickshaws surrendered, a flat sum of
Rs.200 was paid as compensation. Also, Free Eye Camps were started
in Tamil Nadu. One lakh eye patients were given treatment during 1972-
73 and 2,000 cataract operations were per formed in a single camp.

The DMK government turned its attention to public works also. The
cleaning of the Cooum River was started by the D.M.K. Government with
a view to giving clean atmosphere to the city of Madras. The first stage
of the Cooum improvement project was inaugurated by Anna in
September 1967. The D.M.K. Government’s relations with labour can be
described as excellent. The nationalization of bus transport brought the
transport workers and the Government closer together. Karunanidhi

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appealed to mill-owners to deal labour with sympathy and
understanding.

Further, the Tamil Nadu Government reduced the rate of sales tax from
7% to 3.5% in the case of edible oils and pulses. The 13 Point
programme for the rehabilitation of the physically handicapped in the
State was announced. The educated among them were provided with
jobs and the uneducated were given financial assistance. Another
significant move was that Tamilnadu made great strides in solving the
problem of unemployment among the technically qualified graduates.

Also, legal sanction was accorded to “Self-respect” or “Social”

marriages. These were marriages celebrated without and paraphernalia
of elaborate rituals. Fifty-one such marriages were celebrated in a
colony of poor people on the occasion of the 51st birthday of Chief
Minister Karunanidhi, a majority of them between different castes. The
Government had awarded gold medals to those who had married
outside their caste. Orders were also passed that Archanas (Pujas) in
temples in the State were to be conducted in Tamil. To this effect,
circulars were duly sent by the Hindu Religious and Charitable
Endowment Board on the advice of the Government.

Other measures of social reforms include the compulsory representation

for Harijans on the Temple Trust Boards, Karunanidhi was determined to
level up the status of Harijans and give them the political and social
equality. The D.M.K. both at the party and government levels, was
resolute in bringing about a casteless society in Tamil Nadu. But
practically speaking it was a very difficult task and there were many
hurdles in implementing such measures.

During 1977-87, M.G. Ramachandran was the Chief Minister at Tamil

Nadu. M.G. Ramachandran who was most affectionately called as
M.G.R. by the people of Tamil Nadu took a pledge that his government
would be free from corruption and every endeavour would be taken to
wipe out corruption at all stages of public life. He was determined to give
clean and good government to the people of Tamil Nadu. He received
great support from the people. As Chief Minister of Tamilnadu his
achievements were laudable. He conducted the Fifth World Tamil
Conference at Madurai in 1980 in the most spectacular manner. Tamil
scholars from a large number of countries were invited. A separate
University called Tamil University was started at Thanjavur exclusively
for the Tamil language and its development. He established a centre for

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hoary Tamil art and culture in the Secretariat. This enabled the world to
have an idea of Tamils and their culture at a glance. He ordered for the
introduction of language reforms brought about by E.V. Ramasamy
Naicker in the official usage.

M.G.R. wanted for Tamil Nadu a rightful place in technological

achievements. So he dedicated a university in the name of Anna. He
started three new universities in the names of Bharathiar, Bharathidasan
and Dr. Alagappa at Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli and Karaikkudi
respectively. In order to commemorate the International Women’s year
he started a separate University for Women at Kodaikanal in the name
of Mother Theresa. College teachers in Tamil Nadu were given security
of service when P.U.C. was shelved as a result of introduction of plus
two in school in 1979. The Autonomous status was granted to a number
of renowned colleges in the interests of academic excellence.

M.G.R. always stood for the cause of the poor and the downtrodden and
also farmers and labourers. So, he gave prime importance to agricultural
sector. His aim was that the evil of starvation and famine must be
removed in the State. Arrangements were made for the supply of best
seeds, ploughing implements and agricultural credit to the farmers.
Electric consumption charges for the purpose of irrigation was drastically
reduced. Industrial centres were opened. A large newsprint paper
factory was commissioned at Pugalur near Karur in Trichy District.
Asbestos roofing sheets and A.C. pipes were manufactured in the public
sector company at Mayanur (Trichy District). Many industries during this
period undoubtedly improved the economic condition in Tamil Nadu.

The A.I.A.D.M.K. Government also improved drinking water facilities. It

had become the motto of the Government and M.G.R. took that problem
as a challenge. Separate departments such as Water Board and
Drainage Board were created. He took extraordinary effort for the Telugu
Ganga Project to meet the drinking water needs of the Madras City.
People of Adi-Dravida Community were given many concessions during
the Chief Ministership of M.G.R. They were provided with more
opportunities for their improvement. In the internal administration,
M.G.R. improved its efficiency. Some of the districts were bifurcated for
better administration.

Another important contribution of M.G.R. was that he introduced the

scheme of “Chief Minister’s Nutritive Meal Programme”. The aim of the
scheme was that school going children should possess good health,

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strength and stamina. But some poor parents could not afford this due to
their hand to mouth existence. So M.G.R.’s scheme was very useful and
many lakhs and Lakhs of children were benefited by this scheme. The
U.N.O. commended the aims and objectives of this scheme. In the
subsequent times this scheme was extended to the High school
students also. Along with mid-day meals, children were also provided
with books and notebooks. Free supply of footwear to children was yet
another scheme of M.G.R.’s Government.

M.G.R. took sincere efforts in solving the ethnic problem in Sri Lanka.
Thousands of refugees were provided with amenities in a number of
camp centers in Tamil Nadu. His appeal to the then Prime Minister Rajiv
Gandhi had borne fruit in the form of “Indo-Sri Lankan Agreement” and
the historic document was signed on 29 July, 1987. The refugees who
migrated to Tamil Nadu earlier returned gradually to their native land,
when peace was restored in their areas.

V.N. Janaki was made the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu during January
1988, after the demise of M.G.R. She held the position for a short spell.
Then in 1989, M. Karunanidhi became the Chief Minister after the
elections and his government also carried on its administration for a
short period. In the 1991 election, AIADMK won majority of seats and
J.Jayalalitha formed the government as Chief Minister. During her period
from 1991 to 1996 remarkable developments were witnessed in various
spheres of human activity. There was an appreciable industrial growth in
Tamil Nadu as a result of the establishment of industries in many parts
of Tamil Nadu. Around 45 new industries were started with a capital of
12,936 crores. She expanded the departments of Agriculture, Education,
Police, Fisheries, Dairy development, Social Welfare, Backward classes,
Commerce and Revenue. She wanted quick redressals for the
grievances of the common man. Her prime aim was that the common
man should benefit from her administration. So every department was
geared up to meet the needs and demands of the people and the whole
administration was made to function smoothly and efficiently.

During this period the Government had taken steps to make

improvements in the Ama Square at mairna, a memorial for the great
leader of Tamil Nadu and former Chief Minister DR.C.N. Annadurai and
Dr. M.G. Ramachandran. Fine embellishments and illuminations were
made the hall mark of this square. Also, a memorial was constructed by
the Government of Tamil Nadu in Sriperumpudur, near chennai for the
former Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi who was assassinated at

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this place in 1991. A 12 acre land was assigned for this purpose and this
was seen as a magnificent gesture of Tamil Nadu Government to the
Indian national leader.

During this five year period the Chief Minister had encouraged the
development of Tamil language and culture. she wanted to restore the
glory of the Tamils. In January 1995, she organised the Eighth World
Tamil conference in Thanjavur in a grand manner and 1101 scholars
and lakhs of Tamils all over the world thronged to Thanjavur for this
function. It was a grand function the like of which had not been
witnessed by anybody in the recent past. She made elaborate
programmes to improve the state as well as the conditions of people of
Tamil Nadu in all possible ways.

The Fisheries department was also improved by her measures.

Community Hall and houses for the fisher-folk and financial assistance
to deserving fishermen families were her gifts to the fisher-folk of Tamil
Nadu.

Ms. J.Jayalalitha also contributed a lot to the development of games and

sports in the state. Many new stadiums like Nehru stadium and
playgrounds were constructed during her time in various places in Tamil
Nadu. Medals and awards were given to sports persons.

During her period there was a remarkable increase in foreign

investments in Tamil Nadu’s industrial sector. She prepared the ground
to project Tamil Nadu as a fertile ground for foreign investments. As a
result many foreign organisations in varied fields like Car manufacture,
Food and Fertilizer production started their industrial operations in Tamil
Nadu. Her Governments was also instrumental in effective planning and
helping the many poor and downtrodden people like the Backward
classes and Adi-Dravidas. It was for this purpose that the Government
had offered opportunities for them to develop small scale industries and
cottage industries to earn their livelihood. Throughout Tamil Nadu roads
were constructed and every village was connected to urban centres by
transport facilities and every village was blessed with electricity facilities.

There was a significant growth of education and teachers were recruited

by a Board to serve in the educational institutions and merit was given
due recognition. Many new schemes and programmes were introduced
for the welfare of women, children, labourers and others. Cradle Baby
scheme, ban on female infanticide, child labour eradication scheme and

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a few more schemes were introduced for the protection of children in
general and female children in particular.

During this period, women were given due recognition and welfare
schemes were drafted to improve their position. Dalit girls were given
free education and facilities were provided to women for higher
education. Poor women marriage scheme was another significant
programme which was a boon to many women. Further, All Women
Police Stations were established to solve problems concerning women
which was a pioneering effort.

Mass Literacy Campaign (Arivoli Eyakkam), A House for each family,

Reservation for Dalit Women in educational institutions and employment,
creation of Temple Administration Board, Temple maintenance
protection scheme, pension scheme for Oduvars, Krishna Water
Scheme and other welfare schemes were the contributions of the
government during 1991-96 under the leadership of J.Jayalalitha.

In 1996 elections, DMK was again voted to power and M. Karunanidhi

became the Chief Minister. During his period since 1996, significant
developments were witnessed in various fields. Many welfare schemes
and improvement programmes were drafted and introduced by the
government to uplift the poor, the downtrodden and the depressed
classes. Health care programmes were introduced to protect the people
from diseases. Public Health was given due attention. Public works were
undertaken in a large measure and flyovers and over bridges were
constructed all over Madras City. This considerably reduced the traffic
hazards in Madras. He introduced the concept of bringing the villages
within the fold of modernisation by plying Mini Buses between the major
cities and villages of Tamil Nadu. He planned to put Tamil Nadu on the
Information Technology map (IT) of India and the world by initiating
efforts to establish an IT park at Taramani - namely the Tidel Park. Many
more schemes like “Ulavar Sandhai” for the sale and promotion of
agricultural and farm products, establishment of Samathuvapuram for
the well being of people and promotion of harmonious living with other
communities, educational concessions to the needy, and benefit
schemes to the workers and Government employees are contributions of
the government during 1996-2001 under M. Karunanidhi’s leadership.

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16.7.2 Social Aspects

No country in the world has hundreds of castes and communities in its

society like India. Caste is an undesirable factor in the contemporary
society. But it is deep-rooted. Though untouchability and
unapproachability have been erased from the social fabric by various
legislations, the idea of caste has not disappeared. A contemporary man
is still conservative and archaic at home. He prefers to marry a girl only
from his own community. Exceptions are rare. So still the Indian society
in general is caste-oriented. In the educational circle the society is
divided into five parts consisting of forward class, backward class, most
backward class, scheduled caste and scheduled tribes. In the so-called
forward class also poverty is not absent. The multifarious castes
distinguish themselves by their instinctive marriage and funeral
ceremonies, dress, habits, food habits and ornaments. The various
castes are divided into Sub-castes. For instance the Brahmins have
divisions like Smarthas and Vaishnavites. The latter are further divided
into Vadakalais and Thenkalais. The Vellalar are divided into four groups
viz., Kongu-Vellalar, Solia-Vellalar, Pandya Vellalar and Tondai Mandala
Vellalar. Among the Chettiars there are Nattukottai Chettiars, Telugu
Chettiyars, Kannada Chettiyars and others. Mudaliyar, Vanniyar,
Padaiyachi, Maravar, Kallar, etc., are some of the popular caste groups.
Among the Telugu speaking communities the Kavarai, Kamma or
Kammavar, Reddi, Golla, Komati or Arya Vaishyas etc., may be noted.
The Muslims are divided into Labbai, Ravuthar, Marakkayar, Mapillai
etc. There are Christians who are local converts. The Anglo-Indians are
also Christians. So there are so many divisions and subdivisions and
sects and sub-sects in the caste groups.

Most of the high castes perform the marriage functions even to this day
with so many rituals. In spite of the sophistication of life styles and ultra-
modern practices, old customs and practices were followed by most of
the caste groups. Nichayathartham (betrothal), Kasiyartra (mock
pilgrimage to Kasi or Banaras), Malaimatral (the bride and groom
exchanging garlands), Vivaham (the groom tying the holy thread called
tali around the bride’s neck), nalangu (Applying sandal, kumkum, etc.,
on the newly wedded couples’ faces) etc. are the usual practices in a
marriage function. These functions are performed on the auspicious day
of the marriage. These practices are followed mostly by other Hindu
Communities also.

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The funeral ceremonies of the various communities also differ. The
Muslim and Christians put the corpse in the coffin and bury the same in
the burial ground meant for them. The Hindus resort to burial and
cremation. After cremation, the ashes are dissolved in holy rivers.
Sixteenth day ceremony is observed by the Hindus (usually on the
sixteenth day after death). A peculiar type of song, known as ‘’oppari’’ is
being sung to mourn the death. At the burial ground, the ceremonies are
done by the dead person’s eldest son. Women are not permitted to take
part in these ceremonies. For one year, the family members of the
deceased person avoid all festivals and functions.

Like other societies, Tamil Society has also been beset with many social
evils. But some were on the decline. Social evils like, sati, child-
marriage, female infanticide, untouchability, bonded labour etc., had
been eradicated by the government by legislative measures. The 20
Point Programme introduced by Indira Gandhi condemned the bonded-
labour system. The Child Marriage Restraint Act fixed a minimum
marriageable age for both the sexes. According to the Untouchability
(offences) Act 1955 none can be denied entry into temples or hotels and
none can be forbidden to take water from public wells, tanks or taps.
Many more legislative measures were introduced to eradicate the evils
of the society. Yet, numerous evils in social traditions continue to exist.

The age-old joint-family system and the adherence to Varnasrama

dharma had also declined. In an age of cosmopolitan attitude, even the
Brahmins and other orthodox Hindus started adopting the modern life
styles and sophisticated practices such as wearing of western types of
dresses and following western habits in their day to-day life in the
society. Now-a-days the Brahmins freely mix with other people. Men
usually wear dhotis, shirts, banyans, underwear’s, etc. Others just have
cloth tied around their waist. The elite usually prefer pants, shirts etc.
Elite and highly placed people put on full suit of the western type. Gold,
silver, diamonds, pearls, Corals, etc., are used for making jewels.
Women are generally fond of flowers and other embellishments.

The food of the people generally includes rice, vegetables, fruits, milk
and milk products. Rice, ragi, cholam, cumbu and wheat form the staple
food. The Brahmins, a few Vaishyas and Saiva Vellalars are
vegetarians. Other communities are normally non-vegetarians. There
are changes in food habits according to the economic status of the
people.

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Due to the efforts of the world organizations and welfare groups women
are given equal importance and cases of discrimination are not much.
Women are given equal opportunities and status by the society and the
constitution. Women are the custodians of society’s culture. They protect
the age-long traditions in food and dress, traditions and habits and
ensure the preservation of these aspects of indigenous culture from
decline and disintegration. Women are cradles of civilisation. There is
also a rapid increase in women’s organisations. But institutions to
protect women from domestic harassment had not much increased. The
evil of dowry still persists in spite of strict vigil, efficient measures and
stringent legislations.

As regards migration trends, there is an increase in the migration of

people towards cities on account of education, employment and other
opportunities. Better comfort and a good standard of living also attracted
people in rural areas to urban life. Political change, growth of cinema,
press, and education and development activities considerably changed
the rural life. They developed greater contact with the outer world. New
political ideas and scientific knowledge entered the rural world through
different media. The Tamil cinema is responsible for the social change in
rural areas. Education inculcated the spirit of social unity to the extent
possible. The action programmes of Periyar E.V.R. had a telling impact
on people’s attitude towards untouchability. The inter-action between the
different communities increased and their social behaviour also came
into closer contact. Social isolation is gradually broken. Common political
programmes helped to mellow down caste tensions. The common fields
in public offices and educational institutions provided chances for dilution
of caste barriers and eradication of untouchability. The destruction of
caste barrier through education became quite apparent. Rural areas
produced increased number of educated elites. There is great rush for
white collared jobs. There are some people who do not have regard for
dignity of labour. Some feel that the governmental jobs are superior and
safer.

In the later part of the twentieth century, the lot of the Harijans has not
been fully improved. However, their progress had been steady.
Labourers’ and workers’ organisations improved the position of the
scavengers and the agrarian labourers. Generally, the socially
oppressed are in the process of change for the better. The economic
imbalances had serious impact on society. The steady rise in prices
helped the increase of poverty, and begging and rag picking became the
profession of the poor and downtrodden and a way of living for them.

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Prohibition of begging had very little impact and Beggar homes created
for rehabilitation did not serve any purpose since the beggars were not
interested to change themselves. Orphanages and destitute homes were
also there performing their functions to the extent possible.

The people give much importance for public health and Medical science
had advanced well in the recent past. Advanced medical facilities are
available for treating some of the chronic diseases. It may be said that
people in general, have awareness towards hygiene, sanitation and
public health.

16.7.3 Economic Aspects

Occurrence or absence of rainfall determines the agricultural economy

of Tamil Nadu. The industrial development and trade are also the other
important factors which determine the economy of Tamil Nadu. The river
Cauvery is still the deciding factor in the economic affluence of Tamil
Nadu. During the period of first Five Year Plan the nine major irrigation
projects in Tamil Nadu were executed. Multipurpose projects helped in
power production. Major and minor irrigation schemes were widened.
Intensive and extensive methods of agriculture multiplied food
production. The 20 Point Programme of Indira Gandhi had been
successfully implemented. In agriculture, industry, communications,
transport, power production etc., a thorough change has taken place
with the advent of the Industrial Revolution.

In the Five year plans during the later part of the twentieth century, all
efforts were undertaken, to incrcane agricultural production. The
Prambikulam Aliyar project and other projects were completed. Animal
Husbandry, forestry, rural industries, power, transport, education,
medical services, housing, water supply etc., were considerably
developed during this period. Unemployment, illiteracy and poverty
problems were also taken up as challenges and the government tackled
them to the extent possible.

In the interests of the people and the state, the government paid best
possible attention to the development of agriculture. A kind of “Green
Revolution” took place in Tamil Nadu. In many of the places the time old
wooden ploughs pulled by oxen, have been replaced by tractors. The
State Government took keen interest in modernising and mechanising
agriculture. High yielding seed varieties, fertilizers, pesticides and other
facilities were extended to the farmers. Prior to 1947 many irrigation

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projects were undertaken by the British Government. After 1947, the
Kundah project, Parambikulam-Aliyar Project and Papanasam Project
were undertaken to improve the irrigational facilities. Power generations
had also increased by leaps and bounds. In spite of the number of
multipurpose projects, self-sufficiency in hydro-electric power has not
been reached. Failure of monsoon and shortage of power supply
challenged industries and they retarded industrial progress in Tamil
Nadu. Whenever the monsoons fail the state depends upon Kerala and
Karnataka for power supply for the ever-growing industries.

The following Corporations were started in Tamil Nadu to give fillip to the
industrial development. They are State Industries Promotion Corporation
of Tamil Nadu (SIPCOT), Tamil Nadu Industrial Development
Corporation (TIDCO), Small Industries Development Corporation
(SIDCO), Tamil Nadu Industrial Investment Corporation (TIIC) and
TANSI. The Central Leather Institute at Madras, the National
Metallurgical Laboratory at Madras, the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research at Madras, the Central Electro Chemical Research
Institute at Karaikudi, the Surgical Instruments Plant at Madras and the
Fishing Research Institute at Mandapam eloquently bear testimony to
the development of Tamil Nadu.

Perambur Integral Coach Factory, Tircuchi Heavy Boiler Plant, Bharat

Heavy Electricals Ltd., Neyveli Lignite Corporation, the Standard Motors,
Ashok Leyland Ltd., at Ennore, Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, the T.I.
Cycles of India, the Tube Products of India, a large number of textile
industries at Coimbatore, a rayon factory at Sirumugai in Mettupalayam,
the Salem Steel Plant, tanneries in Dindigul and Vaniyambadi, the
Hindustan Photo Films Co. Ltd., at Kothagiri (Ooty), the Madras,
Refineries Ltd., at Manali in Madras the match industries in Sivakasi,
Sattur and Kovilpatti, Silk Industries at Kanchipuram, Arni and
Sinnalapatti and a large number of other industries would speak
volumes about the industrial development of Tamil Nadu.

Transport system in Tamil Nadu had developed greatly during the later
part of the twentieth century. Most of the bus services in the State have
been nationalized. The following Corporations worked day and night to
cater to the needs of the people of Tamil Nadu during the period under
study. The Pallavan Transport Corporation, Thiruvalluvar Transport
Corporation, Thanthai Periyar Transport Corporation, Pattukkottai
Azhagiri Transport Corporation, Pandiyan Transport Corporation, Cholan
Transport Corporation, Cheran Transport Corporation, Jeeva Transport

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Corporation, Deeran Chinnamalai Transport Corporation, Marudu
Pandiyar Transport Corporation, Rani Mangammal Transport
Corporation, Kattabomman Transport Corporation, Nesamani Transport
Corporation and Annai Sathya Transport Corporation would speak
volumes about the good transport system in Tamil Nadu. Madras and
Tuticorin are the major harbours of Tamil Nadu. Madras, Trichy,
Coimbatore, Salem, Madurai, Ramnad, Tirunelveli, Tanjore and Vellore
are well connected by transport and communications system. Madras is
the headquarters of the Southern Railways and as a capital city and
metropolitan town it is rated as one of the popular cities in the world.

16.7.4 Cultural Aspects

Tamil Nadu has been known for its glorious cultural past. Culture has
attained a cosmopolitan character in contemporary times. In the second
half of the 20th century a host of scholars and philosophers appeared on
the cultural horizon of Tamil Nadu. Bharathidasan was a reformist and
revolutionary poet. He was an admirer of Subramanya Bharathiyar. His
masterpieces like ‘Pandyan Parisu’ and ‘Kudumba Vilakku’ were
famous. Sivan of Papanasam, Kalyanasundaram of Pattukkottai, Subbu
of Kothamangalam and Kannadasan were popular poets T.P.
Meenakshisundaram, Ra.Pi. Sethu Pillai, Swami Vibulanandar,

V.G. Suryanarayana Sastri, Swami Vedachalam alias Maraimalai Adigal,

N.M. Venkatasamy Nattar, T.V. Kalyanasundara Mudaliyar (Thiru.
Vi.Ka.) and a large number of poets and scholars of the twentieth
century along with many others had contributed to Tamil language and
literature. Their impact is felt even in contemporary times.

The theatre in Tamil Nadu was in the form of “Koothu”. “Theru Koothu”
was popular before 1950. But the renaissance of modern theatre began
with Sambanda Mudaliar of Pammal, Sankaradas Swamigal, Nawab
T.S. Rajamanickam and others who contributed much in this field. Most
popular in the theatre during the middle of the twentieth century were
Nawab T.S. Rajamanickam and the T.K.S. Brothers. S.D. Sundaram,

S.V. Sahasranamam, K. Balachandar, Sivaji Ganesan, M.G.

Ramachandran, Manohar, ‘Cho’ S. Ramasamy and others were also
involved in theatre activities before the advent of Television. The names
of M.G. Ramachandran and Sivaji Ganesan stand prominently in film
history.

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Novel and story telling became popular with Kalki Krishnamoorthy, M.
Varadarajan, N. Parthasarathy, Akilan, Sandilyan, K.V. Jagannathan
Tamilvanan, and a number of others. The ‘Pon Vilangu’ of N.
Parthasarathy, ‘Partiban Kanavu’, ‘Sivagamiyin Sabadam’, ‘Kalvanin
Kadali’, and ‘Ponniyin Selvan’, of Kalki. ‘Yavana Rani’ and ‘Raja
Muthirai’ of Sandilyan, are the outstanding works in modern Tamil
Novels.

Popular weekly journals ‘Ananda Vikatan’ was founded by S.S. Vasan,

the founder of the Gemini Studios. ‘Kumudam’, ‘Kalki’, ‘Kalaimagal’,
‘Mangai’, ‘Amudasurabi’, ‘Rani’, ‘Bommai’, ‘Thuglak’, ‘Kalaikadir’,
‘Sentamil Selvi’, ‘Pesum Padam’, ‘Gokulam’, ‘Jothishamani’, ‘Deepam’,
‘Kungumam’, ‘Thai’, ‘Idhayam Pesugiradu’ and ‘Dharmachakram’
encouraged reading habits among the people of Tamil Nadu.

Among the newspapers, The Hindu, The Indian Express (both in

English), Dina Thanthi, Dinamani, Swadesamitran, Navasakthi,
Dinakaran, Murasoli, Dinamalar, Alai Osai, etc., had been popular
dailies. There are a number of weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly and
annual periodicals in circulation. Universities, Colleges and other
educational institutions publish their own magazines. According to 1973
census there were 915 news media, 92 dailies, 4 fortnightlies and 123
weeklies. The Tamil press stands in the fifth place in the country.

Madras, the District headquarters and most important in Tamil Nadu

towns is a center of higher learning in Tamil Nadu. Tamil was introduced
as the medium of instruction. At present in most of the Colleges both the
media are offered. The Madras University, the Annamalai University, at
Chidambaram, Madurai Kamaraj University, the Bharathidasan
University at Trichy, Bharathiyar University at Coimbatore, Anna
University at Guindy, Tamil University in Thanjavur and a Women’s
University at Kodaikanal and Manonmaniam Sundaranar University at
Tirunelveli had been rendering educational service in Tamil Nadu. Arts,
Science, Oriental Learning, Commerce, Law, Medicine, Engineering,
Veterinary Science, Forestry, Fishery, Technology, Fine Arts and many
more departments in these institutions had been imparting knowledge to
the learners.

The Gandhigram (Dindigul Taluk) Rural College was exalted to the

position of a Rural University in 1975. Autonomous status was given to a
number of Colleges in Tamil Nadu. Free education scheme was
extended upto the pre-University level in 1969-70. There are police

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training colleges at Coimbatore, Vellore and Madras. Distance Education
also plays an important role in the educational agenda and thousands
and thousands of students are benefited from this mode of education
introduced in the universities. All the Universities in the State are having
wonderful books for Research activities. As a result, many M.Phils., and
Ph.Ds were produced. Quality education and academic excellence had
been the motto of the government and educational administrators.

“What is needed is a revolution in education which in turn will set in

motion the much desired social, economic and cultural revolution”. The
Kothari Commission of 1966 recommended many indispensable
measures for reform in education and they were introduced by the
government for academic excellence.

Development of art and architecture has been another notable aspect in

the cultural scenario. Modern architecture can be divided under the
following heads:-

1. Domestic architecture (Private houses, palaces etc).

2. Religious and secular architecture (temples, churches, mosques,

etc.).

3. Governmental architecture (administrative buildings).

4. Recreational architecture (theatres, arenas, museums, libraries

etc.),

5. Architecture of welfare and education (educational institutions,

hospitals etc.) and

6. Commercial and Industrial architecture (banks, transportation,

communication buildings etc.)

The Government Estate buildings in Tamil Nadu, the palace of the Raja
of Chettinad at Madras, the Governor’s palace (Raj Bhavan) at Guindy,
the Nawab’s palace at Chepauk etc. are the examples of the first type.
The Vivekananda Rock Memorial at Kanyakumari, Rajaji Memorial,
Gandhi Mandapam, Kamaraj Memorial, Valluvar Kottam, Anna Square
and M.G.R. Square at Madras etc. are examples of second type. Among
the governmental buildings are the Secretariat, Ezhilagam, Kuralagam
etc., at Madras and the Collector’s Offices in District headquarters, the

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Ripon Building at Madras, Corporation building at Madurai etc. The
Rajaji Hall, Kalaivanar Arangam, Music Academy and Annamalai
Mandram at Madras, Theatres and auditoriums in several parts of Tamil
Nadu are the examples of recreational architecture. The stadiums at
Madras, Coimbatore and Madurai, the Government Museum at Madras,
Archieves of Tamilnadu at Egmore, The Senate House of Madras
University, Pandyan Hotel at Madurai, Chola Hotel at Madras etc., are
the best masterpieces of architecture. L.I.C. Building, Periyar Buildings
and Reserve Bank at Madras deserve worthy of mention for their
architectural styles. The fly-over in the Anna Salai (Mount Road) at
Madras, the two tier over bridge at Tirunelveli, the circular overbridge at
Coimbatore, the Pamban bridge at Mandapam, the Coleroon Railway
Bridge etc are noted for their scientific construction. Architecture in
contemporary times is more secular than religious as in the past. A
school of sculpture flourishes at Mamallapuram under the patronage of
the Government of Tamilnadu. The Poompuhar art gallery,
Kattabomman – Kottai at Panchalamkurichi etc. as centers of modern
sculpture. Many statues have been erected for national leaders like
Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlar Nehru, Rajaji, Kamaraj and Dr. Ambedkar
and for local leaders and scholars like E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, C.N.
Annadurai, Karunanidhi, and M.G. Ramachandran. Along side the
Marina beach the statues of Tamil poets and scholars, wereerected to
commemorate their great services to the society.

The glory of the past is brought out by archaeological studies. Madras is

the headquarters of the Southern Circle of the Archaeological Survey of
India. This along with the State Department of Archaeology and the
Department of Ancient History and Archaeology of the University of
Madras had rendered memorable services in the field of archaeological
studies. A number of valuable data relating to the pre-historic and
protohistoric period of Tamil Nadu have been brought to light. The State
Department of Archaeology under the direction of Dr. R. Nagasamy and
others had brought to light a number of wonderful monuments.

One of the outstanding aesthetic practices of man is music. Music is an

inseparable aspect of Tamil life. In the field of music a considerable
progress had taken place in Tamil Nadu. From cradle to grave music is
governing human lives. A traveller passing through the country–side
listens to the group song of maidens in their rustic jobs. In music, there
are two schools, viz., the Carnatic and Hindustani. Western Music is also
popular in contemporary times. Bharatha natya Sastra is an authority on
dance and music. Apart from the sophisticated art of music based on

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swaras and ragas, a number of folk songs are also famous. Villupattu,
Katha-Kalatchebam, Nalangu, Kuravanji etc., are famous folk songs.
There are a large number of musical instruments, both indigenous and
Western. Violin, Clarinet, Cornet, Piano and Mouthorgan are the
Western Musical instruments. M.S. Subbulakshmi, M.L. Vasantakumari,
D.K. Pattammal, K.B. Sundarambal, Balamurali Krishna, T.R.
Mahalingam and many others are very famous in the field of music.

Along with music, dance also developed. Bharathanatyam, Kuchipudi,

etc., are performed almost every now and then in many cultural
institutions. Tribal dances also exist even to this day. The dancers
undergo a prolonged and arduous training. He or she has to control and
learn the movements of legs, arms, face and the whole body. Many
dance performances are being conducted in different parts of Tamil
Nadu Kummi. Kolattam, Poykkalkudirai, Karagattam, Oyilattam,
Devarattam, Silambattam, Kavadi etc. are famous arts.

Next to Bombay and Calcutta, Madras had been an important centre of

the film industry. M.G.R. was the first Tamil matinee-idol to receive the
national honour for best acting in 1971. In the past fifty years the
industry has taken various subjects for treatment. Social themes are
high-lighted in cinemas. In order to encourage the production of quality
pictures the National awards and State Awards for films were
established. Among the artists M.K. Theagaraja Bhagavathar, P.U.
Chinnappa, P. Bhanumathi, S. Varalakshmi, Sivaji Ganesan, Gemini
Ganesan, S.S. Rajendran, M.R. Radha, V.K.Ramaswamy,
M.N. Nambiar, P.S. Veerapa, Savithri, Padmini, B. Sarojadevi,
Manorama, T.A Mathuram, N.S. Krishnan and a good number of others
got a dignified place in the history of Tamil Cinema. N.S. Krishnan,
Danal Thangavelu, Nagesh and Chandrababu were the best
Comedians. Cinema has played a ‘heroic’ role in the politics of
contemporary Tamil Nadu. Its impact on contemporary history has been
tremendous. Radio is also having equal impact on the people of Tamil
Nadu. Much more than radio, the television is having tremendous impact
upon the people of Tamil Nadu. The television station at Madras was
inaugurated in 1975. Its tower is the second tallest in India.

Tamil Nadu is a significant place in the tourist map of India. Tourism

brings out the glory of Tamil culture. The Tamil Nadu Tourism
Development Corporation was constituted in 1971. The State
Government spends much on publicity by providing attractive and
informative brouchers, picture cards, colour films etc. Transportation and

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accommodation facilities are provided by the Department, ranging
according to the economic status of the tourists. During 1971 about
38,000 foreign tourists visited Tamil Nadu. Tourist centers, no doubt,
reflect the culture and civilization of the Tamil people and tourism
department, plays a very good role in the tourism development.
Undoubtedly, tourism potentials in Tamil Nadu attract tourists from all
over the world and by this the government gets a substantial amount of
revenue all the time.

Let us sum up

In this unit, you have read about the socio-economic and cultural
developments in Tamil Nadu during the twentieth century. In the British
period upto 1947, there was not a substantial development in the above
spheres. But significant improvement and progress were witnessed in
the later part of the twentieth century. Social harmony, economic growth
and cultural excellence marked the Tamil Nadu scenario in the Post-
Independence period. Government’s measures, policies and
programmes improved the condition of the poor, down-trodden and the
depressed classes. Public works, communications, agricultural and
industrial development, growth of education and culture elevated the
image of Tamil Nadu. By these activities Tamil Nadu stands as one of
the outstanding states in India.

Key words

Vanniyars

Komati Chettiar

Devanga Chettiyars

Dubhashis

Slave Trade

Sarada Act

Vaikom Hero

Self-Respect Marriages

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 World Tamil Conference

Indo-Srilanka Agreement

Cradle Baby Scheme

Ulavar Sandhai

Samathuvapuram

Tamil Univeristy

Radhakrishnan Commission’s Report

Chief Minister, Nutritive Meal Programme

Check your progress

1. Describe the Condition of Society in the Twentieth Century.

2. Discus the Impact of British Rule on Tamil Society.

3. Trace the Educational Development in Tamil Nadu during the

British rule.

4. Give an account of the Economic Condition of Tamil Nadu till

1947.

5. Trace the Progress of Education and Social reforms in Tamil

Nadu during 1947-2000.

6. Write a note on the Press in Tamil Nadu during 1947 – 2000.

7. Describe briefly the Government’s Policies and Programmes

during 1950-2000.

8. Sketch the Social, Economic and Cultural aspects which were

developed in Tamil Nadu during the later part of the twentieth
century.

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Answers to check your progress

1. Refer section 16.2

2. Refer section 16.3

3. Refer section 16.4

4. Refer section 16.5

5. Refer section 16.6

6. Refer section 16.6

7. Refer section 16.7.1

8. Refer sections 16.7.2 to 16.7.4

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PLAGIARISM REPORT

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