Pillar and Roof Span Design for
Underground Stone Mines
Alan A. Campoli
Respec
Special thanks to
P. E. Christensen, G.S. Esterhuizen, & J.S.L. Morgan
Where Will Your Next Surface Quarry Be?
It’s becoming increasingly difficult in most locations to permit new quarry operations
Photo Credit: The Gazette, Christian Murdock
Today’s Reality
Seemingly unaware of the amount of sand, gravel, aggregate,
and cement they consume, people are increasingly opposed to
quarry development.
One senior industry official observed that state and federal
permitting is difficult, but manageable; however, local action and
approvals are full of uncertainty.
Environmental groups, local activists with the power of
internet communication, and social media are opposing almost all
quarry development now more than ever.
Options???
OPTION NO. 1 May affect downstream business
Abandon the market
OPTION NO. 2 Depending on logistics, transportation can be
Transport sand, gravel, competitive
and aggregates from
sources farther away Assumes you can get permits “farther away”
“It’s not that California doesn’t have enough
sand and gravel. But as development has
sprawled, quarries or potential quarry sites
that were once in sparsely populated areas
are now surrounded by people — who don’t
want the attendant noise, pollution and truck
traffic.”
What About Going Underground?
OPTION NO. 3 Continues life at existing industrial facility
Going underground // Although still expect opposition
Reduces some of the impacts of a surface facility
Can be a competitive option if the geology extends deeper
than the surface can access within existing permit area
Undergrounds Operations are Widespread
What Do I Need to Know?
Primary questions
1 2 3 4
Geology Anomalies Geotechnical Groundwater
Question:
› What pillar size is required to allow safe extraction of stone?
?
Pillar Size Dictated by Two Requirements:
Pillar strength should be
sufficient to support the
overburden load
Pillar Size is Dictated by Two Requirements:
Pillar load should not result in
unstable ribs that pose hazard to
mine operations
Designing Stable Pillars….
› What is pillar strength?
› What is pillar load?
› What margin of safety is required
between strength and load?
Research Approach
› Observe pillar performance in operating stone mines
› Develop understanding of stability issues
› Conduct engineering analysis
› Develop design procedure
Operating Mines Included in the Study
Pillar Performance in Operating Mines
› All pillar systems observed were successful in
supporting the overburden – NIOSH did not see
any collapsed pillar systems
› NIOSH found a small number of single failed
pillars in otherwise stable layouts
Factors Contributing to Pillar Instability
Pillar Bisected by Large Angular Discontinuity
Factors Contributing to Pillar Instability
Failing along angular discontinuities
Factors Contributing to Pillar Instability
Pillar failure along large discontinuity
Factors Contributing to Pillar Instability
Overloaded pillar is “hour-glassing”
Factors Contributing to Pillar Instability
Thin weak bands result in
progressive slabbing of
pillar ribs
Onset of Rib Instability
Rib slabbing can start when the pillar stress exceeds 10% of intact rock strength
Pillar Strength Determination
› Use classic pillar strength equation: rock strength, width, height
› Account for large angular discontinuities
› Effect of weak bands not included – needs specialized analysis
w0.30
S = k 0.59
h Parameters determined
from observed pillar
performance
Rock strength factor
k = 0.92 x UCS x LDF
Large discontinuity factor
Pillar Stress Determination
› Assume full overburden load is carried by the pillars
› Pillar stress in a regular array of pillars is given by:
Overburden stress
Pillar stress =
1 − extraction ratio
› If pillar layout is irregular numerical models can be used to
determine pillar stress
What Safety Factor to Use?
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑆𝐹 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Determining an Adequate Safety Factor
Active layouts
Disused layouts
Failed single pillar - overloaded
Failed single pillar– angular
discontinuity
Determining an Adequate Safety Factor
10.0
Width to height ratio limit = 0.8 9.0
Recommended area for design
8.0
7.0
6.0
Factor of Safety
5.0
Safety factor limit = 1.8
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Width-to-height ratio
S-Pillar Software for Pillar Design
S-Pillar software does all calculations and checks for limitations of the method:
S-Pillar Software
Pillar Design Guidelines
› Understand rock properties:
⁄ Rock strength
⁄ Large angular discontinuities
⁄ Weak bedding bands
› Width-to-height ratio > 0.8
› Calculated Factor-of-safety > 1.8
› Use S-Pillar for calculations
Limitations of Pillar Design Method:
› Empirically developed design method – only
applicable for similar conditions as those used
to develop the equations:
⁄ Flat lying stone deposits in Eastern and
Midwestern US
⁄ Similar mining dimensions
⁄ Good quality rock mass (RMR > 60)
⁄ Weak clay bands should not be present
Roof Span Stability
› 68% of roof spans are in range of 40 ft to 50 ft
› About 49% of mines use regular roof bolting
› All mines have experienced roof instability
› Main stability issues:
⁄ Stability of bedded roof beams
⁄ High horizontal stress
Roof Span Stability
High risk of instability (>80%) if first roof beam less than 10% of span
Roof Span Stability
Unsupported roof beam 3ft thick in 50 ft wide headings. Ratio 17:1
Roof Span Stability
Horizontal stress driven failure
…regardless of first roof beam thickness
Roof Span Stability
…can occur at any depth of cover
At 150 ft depth of cover..
Roof Span Stability
Direction of headings parallel to
major horizontal stress
Mine layout to
accommodate high
Narrow cross cuts horizontal stress
Cross cuts are offset
Roof Span Design
› Understand rock properties:
⁄ Parting planes in roof
⁄ Horizontal stress
⁄ Orientation of joint sets
› Select roof horizon
› Select mining direction
› Selection of roof span
› Pillar layout modification
› Monitor and verify
Conclusion
• NIOSH guidelines based on actual pillar
and roof span performance in US stone
mines
• Stable mine layouts can be designed with
good understanding of rock being mined
Roof support methodologies for
Underground Stone Mines
Alan A. Campoli
Respec
Headed Rebar Grade 60
⁄ 1 1/8 inch forged head
⁄ Yield strength
» 5/8 inch (no. 5) 18,600 lb
» 3/4 inch (no. 6) 26,400 lb
» 7/8 inch (no. 7) 36,000 lb
Polyester Resin Cartridge
Surface control
Seven Strand Non-Tensioned Cable Bolts
⁄ .6 inch - 30 tons
⁄ .7 inch - 60 tons
Fully Grouted Cable Bolt
⁄ Polyester anchor
⁄ Polyurethane or silicate grout
⁄ Fracture sealing
⁄ Rock strength
46
Friction Stabilizer
⁄ 12 to 20 tons
Expandable
⁄ Water pressure
⁄ Hydraulic
⁄ Electric
Umbrella tubes
49
Umbrella tubes
50
Props
⁄ Extendable
⁄ 40 to 70 tons
Grout Injection
› Polyurethane
⁄ Rock reinforcement
» Duel component
» 10,000 psi compressive strength
⁄ Leak sealing
» Single component
» Hydrophobic foam
› Silicate
⁄ Foam
⁄ Grout
› Acrylate
⁄ Water sealing
⁄ Super low viscosity
Steel Ribs
Conclusion
› Problem areas can be identified by geologic
mapping.
› Numerous roof support options are available.
› Support methodology must be compatible with
geologic conditions.
