ADVANCED

PRE SILICON
DEBUGGING AND
POST SILICON
VALIDATION
Expert-Level Top 50 Interview
Questions & Solutions Covering Timing,
Power, CDC, Thermal, and More

By ProV Logic
1. How do you perform fault localization in post-silicon
validation?
Fault localization involves identifying the root cause of failures on
silicon. The steps include:
1. Log Analysis – Reviewing silicon test logs to identify failing
patterns.
2. Shmoo Plotting – Varying parameters (voltage, frequency,
temperature) to analyze failure trends.
3. Scan Chain Diagnosis – Using shift-in and shift-out patterns to
pinpoint scan chain defects.
4. Logical Diagnosis – Running ATPG patterns in simulation to
compare against silicon failures.
5. Layout-Aware Debugging – Mapping failure locations to the
physical layout to identify potential process variations or
manufacturing defects.
Example Case:
If a chip fails only at high frequency but passes at lower speeds, it
might indicate a timing issue due to setup violations or process
variations.
2. What is the role of adaptive test techniques in silicon
testing?
Answer:
Adaptive testing dynamically modifies test conditions based on real-
time silicon behavior to reduce test time and cost while improving
quality.
Types of Adaptive Testing:
Test Skipping: Skipping redundant test patterns based on prior
test results.
Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS): Adjusting voltage levels to
detect marginal failures.
Machine Learning-Based Optimization: Using historical failure
data to optimize test execution.
Example Implementation:
If 95% of chips pass at a nominal voltage, adaptive testing might
reduce test time by skipping lower voltage tests for passing units,
thereby improving throughput.

3. How do you debug scan chain failures in silicon?

Answer:
Scan chain failures occur due to broken connections or stuck-at
faults in scan flops.
Debugging Steps:
1. Shift Pattern Analysis: Apply shift-in and shift-out patterns to
check if the failure is at capture or shift.
2. Chain Segmentation: Divide the scan chain into smaller segments
and isolate the failing portion.
3. JTAG Boundary Scan: Use IEEE 1149.1 TAP controller to diagnose
interconnect issues.
4. Failure Signature Matching: Compare failing scan patterns with
simulation results to pinpoint the faulty flop.
 3. JTAG Boundary Scan: Use IEEE 1149.1 TAP controller to diagnose
interconnect issues.
4. Failure Signature Matching: Compare failing scan patterns with
simulation results to pinpoint the faulty flop.
5. Layout Correlation: Cross-check failure locations with metal
routing to identify potential manufacturing defects.
Example Case:
If scan-in data is correct but scan-out data is incorrect, the failure
could be due to a broken scan connection or a stuck-at-1/0 fault in a
flip-flop.

4. What is an adaptive Shmoo plot, and how is it used in

silicon validation?
Answer:
A Shmoo plot shows pass/fail behavior of a circuit across voltage,
frequency, and temperature variations.
Adaptive Shmoo Plotting:
Dynamically selects critical test points instead of testing all
voltage-frequency combinations.
Uses real-time feedback to refine test patterns and avoid
unnecessary sweeps.
Helps identify marginal silicon dies early in testing.
Example Case:
If a Shmoo plot shows failures only at low voltage, it indicates setup
margin issues. If failures occur at high temperature, leakage current
variations might be the root cause.
5. How do you perform power-aware testing in silicon chips?
Answer:
Power-aware testing ensures that a chip operates reliably under
different power conditions while preventing excessive IR drop or
dynamic power failures.
Key Techniques:
Clock Gating Enablement: Ensuring correct functionality when
portions of the design are power-gated.
Voltage Droop Testing: Running high-power test patterns to
observe power rail stability.
Scan Power Optimization: Using shift power reduction techniques
(e.g., staggered clocking).
Sleep Mode Verification: Testing leakage currents when the
device is in standby mode.
Example Case:
If a chip fails only during scan shifting but works in functional mode,
excessive IR drop during scan shifting could be the issue, requiring
power-aware scan patterns.

6. Explain how JTAG-based silicon debugging works.

Answer:
JTAG (IEEE 1149.1) enables boundary scan testing and silicon
debugging without physical probes.
Debugging Process:
1. Shift in test patterns to boundary scan registers.
JTAG (IEEE 1149.1) enables boundary scan testing and silicon
debugging without physical probes.
Debugging Process:
1. Shift in test patterns to boundary scan registers.
2. Observe response from output pins to check for connectivity
faults.
3. Use embedded TAP (Test Access Port) to access internal
registers.
4. Apply on-chip debug commands to capture failing states during
real-time execution.
Example Use Case:
If a chip fails in a high-speed interface test, using JTAG can isolate
faulty GPIOs by applying boundary scan patterns to individual pins.

7. How do you validate multi-core SoCs post-silicon?

Answer:
Post-silicon validation for multi-core SoCs ensures correct
synchronization, communication, and power management.
Key Aspects:
Interconnect Testing: Validating NoC (Network-on-Chip) traffic
and latency.
Clock Synchronization Checks: Ensuring multi-domain clock trees
align correctly.
Cache Coherency Validation: Running stress tests to check for
cache consistency issues.
Power Gating Tests: Checking dynamic voltage scaling (DVS)
functionality.
 Cache Coherency Validation: Running stress tests to check for
cache consistency issues.
Power Gating Tests: Checking dynamic voltage scaling (DVS)
functionality.
Example Case:
If inter-core communication latency is unexpectedly high, checking
NoC arbitration policies and analyzing interconnect congestion could
help diagnose bottlenecks.

8. How do you perform in-field testing and debug for silicon

deployed in real products?
Answer:
In-field testing ensures long-term reliability and failure detection in
deployed silicon.
Key Techniques:
On-Chip Monitors: Using built-in sensors for real-time voltage,
temperature, and frequency monitoring.
Error Logging & ECC: Implementing Error Correction Codes
(ECC) to detect and correct memory failures.
Remote Debugging with JTAG over IP: Using secure remote
access to analyze failing devices.
Machine Learning-Based Predictive Maintenance: Collecting
usage patterns to predict early failure indicators.
Example Use Case:
If a silicon device in an automotive application experiences
occasional crashes, remote debug logs can help identify transient
faults due to thermal stress.
9. How do you perform root cause analysis (RCA) for
intermittent failures in silicon?
Answer:
Intermittent failures occur sporadically due to marginal design issues,
process variations, or environmental conditions.
Steps for RCA:
1. Reproduce the Failure: Run stress tests (voltage, temperature,
frequency variations).
2. Shmoo Analysis: Identify failure boundaries.
3. Scan Chain Debugging: Check for potential weak or partially
damaged transistors.
4. Statistical Analysis: Use Monte Carlo simulations to correlate test
data with silicon failures.
5. Physical Inspection: Use failure analysis techniques (SEM, FIB, X-
ray, TEM) to examine silicon defects.
Example Case:
If a chip fails only under high-temperature conditions, it could be
due to NBTI (Negative Bias Temperature Instability) aging effects in
PMOS transistors.
10. What are the key challenges in High-Speed IO (HSIO)
post-silicon validation?
Answer:
High-speed IO interfaces (e.g., PCIe, USB, DDR, SerDes) require
strict timing, signal integrity, and jitter analysis.
Answer:
High-speed IO interfaces (e.g., PCIe, USB, DDR, SerDes) require
strict timing, signal integrity, and jitter analysis.
Challenges & Debugging Methods:
1. Jitter Measurement: Using oscilloscopes and BERT (Bit Error Rate
Testers).
2. Eye Diagram Analysis: Checking for voltage and timing margins
in signal transitions.
3. Signal Integrity Issues: Identifying crosstalk and impedance
mismatches.
4. BER Testing: Ensuring reliable data transfer across different
silicon process corners.
5. Clock Recovery Debugging: Verifying PLL (Phase-Locked Loop)
and clock synthesis circuits.
Example Case:
If a PCIe link fails to establish at Gen4 speeds but works at Gen3,
analyzing equalization settings and transmitter de-emphasis levels
could help identify signal integrity issues.

11. What are the different defect classes in semiconductor

manufacturing, and how do they impact silicon testing?
Answer:
Defects are classified based on their impact on functionality and
testability:
1. Systematic Defects:
Example: Lithography misalignment, metal shorts due to
process variations.
Impact: Affects multiple dies in a wafer, causing correlated
failures.
 Example: Lithography misalignment, metal shorts due to
process variations.
Impact: Affects multiple dies in a wafer, causing correlated
failures.
2. Random Defects:
Example: Particle contamination, oxide breakdown.
Impact: Affects isolated dies, requiring redundancy
strategies.
3. Parametric Defects:
Example: Variation in transistor threshold voltage (Vth),
leakage current.
Impact: Causes marginal timing failures.
4. Aging-Related Defects:
Example: Electromigration, BTI (Bias Temperature Instability).
Impact: Causes performance degradation over time.
Example Case:
If multiple chips fail at a specific metal routing location, it suggests a
systematic lithography issue, requiring DFM (Design for
Manufacturability) optimizations.

12. How do you perform dynamic power analysis in post-

silicon testing?
Answer:
Dynamic power issues can cause IR drop, performance degradation,
and failures under high switching activity.
Key Methods for Dynamic Power Analysis:
1. On-Chip Power Monitors: Measure real-time power fluctuations.
2. IR Drop Testing: Use scan patterns with high toggle rates to
analyze voltage droops.
Key Methods for Dynamic Power Analysis:
1. On-Chip Power Monitors: Measure real-time power fluctuations.
2. IR Drop Testing: Use scan patterns with high toggle rates to
analyze voltage droops.
3. Thermal Imaging: Identify localized heating due to excessive
power consumption.
4. VCD-Based Power Estimation: Compare simulation-based VCD
(Value Change Dump) files with silicon measurements.
Example Case:
If high-speed functional tests fail but low-speed tests pass, it
indicates excessive dynamic power causing voltage droop, requiring
clock gating optimizations.

13. Explain the impact of Electromigration (EM) on silicon

reliability and how to detect it in post-silicon validation.
Answer:
Electromigration occurs when high current densities cause metal
interconnect degradation over time.
Detection & Mitigation:
1. Aging Tests: Running high-temperature, high-current stress tests.
2. Resistance Monitoring: Measuring increasing resistance over
time.
3. Failure Signature: EM failures typically cause open circuits or
increased signal delays.
4. Design Solutions: Using wider metal traces, redundant vias, and
current-aware routing.
Example Case:
If a chip's performance degrades over months of usage, checking
EM-induced resistance changes in critical paths could help identify
reliability concerns.
14. How do you validate clock domain crossings (CDC) in
post-silicon?
Answer:
CDC bugs occur when signals transfer between different clock
domains without proper synchronization.
Validation Techniques:
1. Glitch Detection: Using oscilloscope waveform captures.
2. Metastability Testing: Running stress tests with small clock
frequency offsets.
3. Jitter Injection: Adding controlled clock jitter to evaluate
metastability margins.
4. Functional Coverage Metrics: Checking FSM transitions across
clock domains.
Example Case:
If a FIFO-based CDC interface loses data intermittently, the issue
could be due to incomplete handshake or metastability in
synchronizers.

15. What are Soft Errors, and how do you detect them in
silicon chips?
Answer:
Soft errors are transient bit flips caused by cosmic rays or alpha
particles interacting with silicon.
Detection & Mitigation:
1. ECC (Error Correction Code): Detects and corrects bit flips in
memories.
2. Parity Bits: Used in registers to detect single-bit errors.
3. Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR): Running three copies of a
critical logic block and voting on the correct output.
4. Accelerated Radiation Testing: Using neutron beam testing to
simulate space conditions.
Example Case:
If a DRAM experiences random bit flips under normal operation,
ECC logs can help identify high-energy particle-induced errors.

16. How do you validate the effectiveness of scan chain

compression in silicon testing?
Answer:
Scan chain compression reduces test time and data volume while
maintaining high fault coverage.
Validation Metrics:
1. Compression Ratio: Ratio of scan chain reduction vs. test quality
loss.
2. Fault Coverage Retention: Ensuring fault coverage remains
above 98%.
3. Shift Power Reduction: Comparing power consumption with and
without compression.
4. Silicon Debug: Running ATPG patterns to verify decompressed
scan responses match expected outputs.
Example Case:
If compressed scan patterns cause timing failures, adjusting scan
clock skew and decompressor balancing might be needed.

17. How do you validate the robustness of a chip under

extreme environmental conditions?
Answer:
Chips must be tested for temperature, voltage, and humidity
variations to ensure reliability.
Robustness Validation Techniques:
1. HTOL (High-Temperature Operating Life): Running chips at 125°C
for extended hours.
2. Temperature Cycling: Exposing chips to rapid temperature
changes.
3. ESD Testing: Applying electrostatic discharge to check protection
circuits.
4. Bias Temperature Instability (BTI) Stress Test: Measuring
transistor degradation over time.
Example Case:
If a chip fails only after prolonged high-temperature operation, it
might be due to NBTI-induced Vth shifts in PMOS transistors.
18. How do you debug a failing scan chain in post-silicon
testing?
Answer:
A failing scan chain indicates an issue with shift, capture, or scan-
enable operation in DFT.
Debugging Steps:
1. Scan Chain Integrity Check: Use scan dump patterns to verify
shift register functionality.
2. Stuck-at Fault Testing: Run SAF (Stuck-At Fault) ATPG patterns
to detect broken scan elements.
3. TDR (Test Data Register) Check: Verify that scan-in and scan-out
values match expected responses.
4. Clock Skew Debugging: If shifting fails at high speeds, analyze
clock domain crossings.
5. Partial Scan Isolation: Divide scan chains into smaller groups and
test independently.
Example Case:
If a scan chain fails intermittently, increasing scan clock pulse width
might resolve setup and hold time violations.

19. What are IDDQ tests, and how do they help in detecting
defects?
Answer:
IDDQ (Quiescent Supply Current) tests detect leakage-induced
faults in low-power states.
Key Defect Types Detected by IDDQ:
1. Gate-Oxide Breakdown: Causes excessive leakage due to thin
oxide failure.
2. Bridging Faults: Shorts between power and ground increase
static current.
3. Defective Transistors: Partially conducting transistors exhibit
abnormal IDDQ levels.
4. Floating Nodes: Uninitialized floating nodes lead to leakage
current variations.
Example Case:
If IDDQ is unexpectedly high, using IR thermal imaging can help
pinpoint the leakage hotspot.

20. How do you validate and debug a PLL (Phase-Locked

Loop) in silicon?
Answer:
PLLs are critical for clock generation, and failures can lead to clock
jitter, lock failures, or drift.
Validation & Debugging Methods:
1. Lock Time Measurement: Check how quickly the PLL locks after
power-up.
2. Jitter Analysis: Measure cycle-to-cycle and period jitter using an
oscilloscope.
3. Loop Filter Stability: Verify loop bandwidth and damping ratio to
ensure stability.
 2. Jitter Analysis: Measure cycle-to-cycle and period jitter using an
oscilloscope.
3. Loop Filter Stability: Verify loop bandwidth and damping ratio to
ensure stability.
4. Spread Spectrum Compliance: Ensure that frequency modulation
aligns with EMI regulations.
5. Supply Noise Sensitivity: Inject supply noise and measure PLL
robustness.
Example Case:
If PLL fails to lock intermittently, adjusting loop filter capacitance
can help stabilize VCO oscillations.

21. How do you validate a SerDes transceiver in post-silicon

testing?
Answer:
SerDes (Serializer/Deserializer) links require low jitter and high signal
integrity for reliable data transmission.
Validation Techniques:
1. BER Testing: Measure bit error rate (BER) across different data
rates.
2. Eye Diagram Analysis: Ensure open eye patterns without
excessive ISI (Inter-Symbol Interference).
3. Equalization Tuning: Adjust TX pre-emphasis and RX equalization
settings.
4. Loopback Testing: Use internal and external loopbacks to isolate
issues.
5. Channel Loss Characterization: Verify signal integrity over long
PCB traces.
Example Case:
If high BER occurs at high speeds, increasing TX de-emphasis can
compensate for channel loss.

22. What are advanced ATE (Automated Test Equipment)

debug strategies for post-silicon failures?
Answer:
ATE systems are used to test wafer and packaged silicon under
automated conditions.
Debug Strategies:
1. Fail Capture & Scan Dump: Store failing test vectors for pattern
analysis.
2. Adaptive Test Techniques: Dynamically adjust test parameters
based on real-time silicon behavior.
3. Shmoo Plot Analysis: Sweep test voltages and frequencies to
detect margin failures.
4. Pin-Level Debugging: Use ATE pin mapping to locate failing I/Os.
5. Tester-Per-Pin Timing Calibration: Ensure accurate skew
compensation across multiple test channels.
Example Case:
If a high-speed interface fails only on ATE but works in the system,
load-board signal integrity issues should be checked.
23. How do you detect and analyze hot spots in silicon?
Answer:
Hot spots indicate localized heating due to excessive power
dissipation.
Detection Methods:
1. Thermal Imaging: Use an IR camera to detect heat anomalies.
2. Joule Heating Analysis: Identify excessive current density
regions using EDA tools.
3. EM Stress Testing: Monitor power rails for degradation over time.
4. On-Chip Temperature Sensors: Compare on-die sensor readings
with external thermal profiles.
5. Hot Spot Relocation: Modify metal routing and heat dissipation
techniques.
Example Case:
If hotspot temperatures exceed 125°C, thermal vias and copper heat
spreaders should be added.

24. How do you debug a failing memory BIST (Built-In Self-

Test) in silicon?
Answer:
Memory BIST is used to test embedded SRAM, DRAM, and NVM
structures.
Debugging Approaches:
1. March Test Failure Analysis: Identify the failing address pattern
(March C-, March Y, etc.).
 1. March Test Failure Analysis: Identify the failing address pattern
(March C-, March Y, etc.).
2. Redundancy Allocation Check: Verify spare row/column
replacement strategies.
3. Voltage Sensitivity Testing: Apply Vmin-Vmax sweeps to detect
marginal cells.
4. Retention Time Testing: Ensure DRAM cells hold data for required
refresh intervals.
5. Pattern Sensitivity Analysis: Detect aggressor-victim coupling
effects in adjacent cells.
Example Case:
If failures occur under low-voltage conditions, adjusting word-line
boosting levels can improve retention.

25. How do you ensure secure silicon against hardware

Trojans or side-channel attacks?
Answer:
Hardware security is critical to prevent unauthorized access and
data leaks.
Security Validation Techniques:
1. Side-Channel Analysis: Monitor power and EM emissions to
detect unintended leaks.
2. Scan Chain Obfuscation: Prevent scan-based attacks by
encrypting scan data.
3. Tamper Detection Circuits: Implement self-destruct mechanisms
upon detection of external probing.
4. Hardware Root of Trust (RoT): Use secure on-chip keys and PUFs
(Physically Unclonable Functions).
Example Case:
If unexpected power consumption spikes occur during cryptographic
operations, it may indicate leakage from a side-channel attack.

26. How do you analyze and fix hold time violations in post-
silicon testing?
Hold time violations occur when data arrives too early before the
next clock edge.
Debugging Steps:
1. Silicon Path Tracing: Identify failing timing paths from silicon logs.
2. Clock Phase Adjustment: Shift clock edges to increase hold
margin.
3. Delay Cell Insertion: Add buffers in the failing paths to delay
signal arrival.
4. Low-Voltage Testing: Verify hold robustness at worst-case
process corners.
5. Dynamic Voltage Scaling Impact: Ensure adaptive voltage
changes don’t cause hold failures.
Example Case:
If hold failures only occur at low voltages, inserting minimum-sized
inverters can help increase data delay.
27. How do you diagnose and fix high-speed bus failures in
post-silicon validation?
Answer:
High-speed buses (PCIe, DDR, USB, etc.) can fail due to signal
integrity issues, skew, or timing mismatches.
Debugging Steps:
1. Eye Diagram Analysis: Check timing margins and inter-symbol
interference (ISI).
2. Bit Error Rate (BER) Testing: Identify error rates at different
speeds.
3. Jitter Measurements: Analyze cycle-to-cycle and random jitter.
4. Crosstalk Diagnosis: Use TDR (Time-Domain Reflectometry) and
S-parameter analysis.
5. Voltage and Frequency Scaling: Verify performance across
corner cases (PVT testing).
Example Case:
If PCIe Gen4 fails at 8 GT/s but works at 5 GT/s, adjusting
equalization settings can improve the signal.

28. What are DFT techniques used to reduce test time in

silicon validation?
Answer:
Efficient Design for Testability (DFT) improves test coverage while
minimizing time.
Key Techniques:
1. Scan Chain Compression: Reduces shift cycles via XOR-based
compressors.
2. At-Speed Scan Testing: Detects transition faults at the operating
frequency.
3. BIST (Built-In Self-Test): Embedded logic and memory BIST
reduce test dependency on ATE.
4. Test Point Insertion: Adds control points to reduce pattern count.
5. Adaptive Test Flow: Dynamically adjusts tests based on wafer-
level defect rates.
Example Case:
Using 150x scan compression can reduce scan test time from 2 hours
to 10 minutes.

29. How do you analyze power droop and dynamic IR drop in

silicon?
Answer:
Power integrity issues cause timing failures due to voltage drops.
Analysis Methods:
1. On-Chip Voltage Sensors: Measure real-time IR drop across
cores.
2. VDD Shmoo Testing: Sweep voltage to find failure thresholds.
3. Decap Capacitor Placement: Add decoupling capacitors to
reduce transients.
 cores.
2. VDD Shmoo Testing: Sweep voltage to find failure thresholds.
3. Decap Capacitor Placement: Add decoupling capacitors to
reduce transients.
4. Package-Induced Droop Analysis: Validate VRM (Voltage
Regulator Module) response.
5. Current Profile Extraction: Use EMIR (Electromigration & IR drop)
simulations.
Example Case:
If power droop occurs during peak workloads, increasing on-die
capacitance can help stabilize VDD.

30. How do you debug and optimize a failing DDR4 memory

interface?
Answer:
DDR4 failures can be caused by timing violations, crosstalk, or power
fluctuations.
Debugging Steps:
1. Read/Write Eye Training: Ensure clean data eyes with correct
margining.
2. DQS-DQ Timing Skew: Align data and strobe signals.
3. Vref Calibration: Adjust VrefDQ and VrefCA levels.
4. On-Die Termination (ODT) Tuning: Minimize reflections and
impedance mismatches.
5. EMI and Ground Bounce Analysis: Reduce signal noise affecting
memory read/write operations.
Example Case:
If DDR4 fails only at high temperatures, increasing refresh rates can
prevent retention failures.
31. How do you validate an SoC’s security features in post-
silicon testing?
Answer:
Security validation ensures that an SoC is resistant to attacks and
vulnerabilities.
Key Validation Techniques:
1. Side-Channel Attack Testing: Monitor power signatures during
crypto operations.
2. Scan Chain Security Check: Ensure no test mode leaks sensitive
data.
3. Secure Boot Verification: Validate root-of-trust (RoT) integrity.
4. Hardware Trojan Detection: Compare post-silicon behavior with
golden RTL reference.
5. JTAG Protection Tests: Ensure JTAG fuses are disabled in
production mode.
Example Case:
If an attacker extracts AES keys via power side-channel leakage,
adding random clock dithering can mitigate the risk.

32. How do you debug and analyze clock domain crossing

(CDC) issues in post-silicon testing?
Answer:
CDC issues occur when signals cross between asynchronous clock
domains.
Debugging Methods:
1. Glitch Analysis: Use scope-based clock probes to detect
metastability.
2. FIFO Depth Monitoring: Ensure proper FIFO level
synchronization.
3. Handshake Debugging: Verify 2-phase or 4-phase handshake
operation.
4. Failure Signature Correlation: Analyze if failures are data-
dependent or random.
5. On-Chip Oscilloscope (OCO): Monitor CDC paths dynamically.
Example Case:
If metastability occurs at high-speed data transfer, adding double-
register synchronizers can improve reliability.

33. How do you diagnose and fix a failing on-chip power

management unit (PMU)?
Answer:
PMU failures affect voltage regulation, power gating, and DVFS
(Dynamic Voltage Frequency Scaling).
Debugging Approach:
1. Load Regulation Testing: Ensure stable voltage under varying
loads.
2. Power Mode Transitions: Validate transitions between active,
idle, and sleep modes.
 1. Load Regulation Testing: Ensure stable voltage under varying
loads.
2. Power Mode Transitions: Validate transitions between active,
idle, and sleep modes.
3. Leakage Current Measurement: Detect unintended power draw
in standby states.
4. Voltage Ripple Analysis: Identify noise in switching regulators.
5. Failure Signature Logging: Correlate power failures with specific
workloads.
Example Case:
If voltage droop occurs during wake-up, increasing soft-start
capacitor values can improve stability.

34. How do you debug on-chip non-volatile memory (NVM)

failures?
Answer:
NVM (Flash, EEPROM) failures can be caused by retention loss,
programming errors, or endurance wear-out.
Debugging Steps:
1. Program/Erase Cycle Testing: Verify endurance across 100K+
cycles.
2. Retention Testing: Check data stability under high-temperature
baking tests.
3. Charge Pump Analysis: Ensure wordline programming voltages
are within spec.
4. Read Disturb Check: Validate memory cells against over-read
effects.
5. Error Correction Code (ECC) Validation: Verify single-bit error
correction mechanisms.
Example Case:
If Flash memory fails at low temperatures, adjusting wordline
boosting voltages can improve write reliability.

35. How do you test and debug RF circuits in a silicon chip?

Answer:
RF circuits require precise signal tuning and noise suppression.
Validation Techniques:
1. S-Parameter Testing: Measure gain, return loss, and impedance
matching.
2. Phase Noise Analysis: Validate LO (Local Oscillator) stability.
3. Harmonic Distortion Testing: Detect non-linearity-induced signal
distortion.
4. Antenna Matching Verification: Ensure proper impedance
matching at GHz frequencies.
5. Power Amplifier Efficiency Check: Optimize PA biasing for
maximum efficiency.
Example Case:
If RF signal strength drops unexpectedly, tuning antenna matching
networks can reduce transmission loss.

36. How do you debug functional failures in an SoC using scan

dump analysis?
Answer:
Functional failures in an SoC can be random or deterministic,
requiring a structured debug approach.
Debugging Process:
1. Capture Scan Dumps: Extract internal states using DFT scan
chains.
2. Compare with Golden Signatures: Identify mismatches against
expected scan vectors.
3. Trace Back to RTL Source: Map failing scan cells to RTL registers.
4. Identify Clock/Reset Issues: Check for gating, glitches, or
metastability.
5. Use ATPG Simulations: Recreate failures using Automatic Test
Pattern Generation (ATPG) tools.
Example Case:
If scan dumps show a mismatch in state machine registers, improper
clock gating could be the root cause.

37. How do you validate and debug a multi-core processor’s

cache coherence?
Answer:
Cache coherence ensures consistency between multiple processor
caches.
Validation Techniques:
1. MESI Protocol Check: Verify Modified, Exclusive, Shared, Invalid
states.
2. False Sharing Analysis: Detect cases where different cores
modify adjacent cache lines.
 1. MESI Protocol Check: Verify Modified, Exclusive, Shared, Invalid
states.
2. False Sharing Analysis: Detect cases where different cores
modify adjacent cache lines.
3. Cache Snooping Monitoring: Ensure proper response to invalidate
(INV) and flush requests.
4. Stress Testing with Memory Benchmarks: Use synthetic multi-
threaded tests.
5. Performance Counters & Event Logging: Capture coherence-
related stall events.
Example Case:
If cache invalidations increase latency in a NUMA system, tuning
cache eviction policies can improve performance.

38. How do you analyze and debug on-chip electromigration

(EM) issues?
Answer:
Electromigration (EM) causes metal interconnect degradation over
time.
Debugging Methods:
1. Current Density Check: Ensure metal layers follow design limits
(Jmax).
2. IR Drop Analysis: Identify high-resistance paths causing power
grid failures.
3. Thermal Profiling: Locate hotspots that accelerate metal
migration.
4. Aging Simulations: Use foundry EM models to predict failure
rates.
5. Layout Optimization: Increase wire width or add redundant vias
to reduce stress.
Example Case:
If power rails show increased resistance over time, using thicker
metal layers (M9 instead of M6) can mitigate EM failures.

39. How do you validate and optimize clock tree synthesis

(CTS) in post-silicon testing?
Answer:
Clock tree issues can cause skew, jitter, and hold violations.
Validation Techniques:
1. Measure Skew Using On-Chip Probes: Ensure skew is within
target bounds (e.g., <100ps for GHz designs).
2. Clock Jitter Analysis: Use PLL-based jitter counters for real-time
tracking.
3. Power-Aware Clock Analysis: Identify dynamic IR drop affecting
clock buffers.
4. Dynamic Frequency Scaling (DFS) Checks: Validate clock
switching stability.
5. Glitch Detection Using High-Speed Oscilloscopes: Capture
unwanted clock transitions.
Example Case:
If skew increases at higher temperatures, adding temperature-
compensated buffers can stabilize the clock network.
40. How do you debug failures caused by process variations
in an SoC?
Answer:
Process variations impact device speed, power, and yield.
Debugging Process:
1. Speed Binning Analysis: Classify chips based on performance
differences.
2. Silicon Correlation with PVT Corners: Validate timing across slow
(SS), typical (TT), and fast (FF) corners.
3. Adaptive Voltage Scaling (AVS) Testing: Measure optimal
voltage for each die.
4. Ring Oscillator Frequency Check: Monitor intra-die process
variability.
5. Temperature and Aging Effects Analysis: Ensure stability over
device lifetime.
Example Case:
If some chips fail at nominal voltage, implementing dynamic voltage
scaling (DVS) can compensate for process variations.

41. How do you validate the robustness of an SoC’s reset

architecture?
Answer:
A poorly designed reset network can cause unknown states, glitches,
or power-up failures.
Validation Methods:
1. Reset Propagation Timing Check: Ensure resets arrive
synchronously.
2. Glitch-Free Reset Validation: Monitor reset transitions using on-
chip capture circuits.
3. Cold vs. Warm Reset Testing: Verify both power-on and
software-initiated resets.
4. Asynchronous Reset Synchronization: Ensure reset de-assertion
is controlled.
5. Scan-Based Debugging: Use scan chain analysis to check reset
register states.
Example Case:
If a core fails to boot after a warm reset, verifying reset de-
assertion timing can help diagnose the issue.

42. How do you analyze and fix yield issues in a high-volume

silicon production process?
Answer:
Yield analysis ensures high manufacturing efficiency.
Debugging Steps:
1. Pareto Analysis of Failure Modes: Identify top failure
contributors.
2. Wafer Map Analysis: Detect spatial defect patterns.
3. Process Window Validation: Ensure fabrication tolerances align
with DFM rules.
 contributors.
2. Wafer Map Analysis: Detect spatial defect patterns.
3. Process Window Validation: Ensure fabrication tolerances align
with DFM rules.
4. Defect Density vs. Parametric Yield Study: Correlate functional
vs. parametric failures.
5. Statistical Process Control (SPC) Techniques: Identify lot-to-lot
variations.
Example Case:
If yield drops below 85%, analyzing wafer-level defect distribution
can reveal process inefficiencies.

43. How do you debug failures caused by excessive leakage

current in low-power designs?
Answer:
Excessive leakage leads to higher power consumption and thermal
issues.
Debugging Techniques:
1. Measure Standby Leakage at Different PVT Conditions: Identify
temperature-dependent behavior.
2. Isolate Power Domains: Check power gating efficiency.
3. Reverse-Bias Substrate Control: Adjust body bias voltages.
4. MOSFET Gate Oxide Integrity Check: Identify oxide breakdown.
5. Use Deep-NWELL or SOI Techniques: Reduce substrate leakage.
Example Case:
If leakage increases in deep sleep mode, verifying power switch
integrity can pinpoint the issue.
44. How do you validate an SoC’s functional safety
mechanisms (ISO 26262)?
Answer:
Functional safety ensures compliance with automotive/industrial
reliability standards.
Validation Approaches:
1. Fault Injection Testing: Introduce controlled failures to test
system response.
2. Self-Test Mechanisms Validation: Verify BIST for critical safety
components.
3. Watchdog Timer Integrity Check: Ensure correct timeout
handling.
4. Dual-Core Lockstep Verification: Compare execution between
redundant cores.
5. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA): Identify single-point
failures.
Example Case:
If an automotive SoC fails transient fault tests, implementing error-
correcting logic (ECC, CRC) can improve safety.

45. How do you debug failures in a chip’s PLL (Phase-Locked

Loop)?
Answer:
PLL failures impact clock stability, jitter, and frequency locking.
Debugging Techniques:
1. Lock Time Measurement: Ensure PLL locks within spec limits.
2. Jitter Spectrum Analysis: Identify random vs. deterministic jitter.
3. Loop Bandwidth Adjustment: Optimize PLL response time.
4. Power Supply Noise Sensitivity Check: Reduce supply-induced
jitter.
5. Temperature Stability Testing: Ensure proper operation across
thermal variations.
Example Case:
If PLL fails at high frequencies, increasing loop filter capacitance
can improve phase stability.

46. How do you debug timing violations in an SoC post-

silicon?
Answer:
Post-silicon timing violations occur due to process variations, IR drop,
or incorrect constraints.
Debugging Process:
1. Silicon vs. STA Correlation: Compare measured timing with
signoff STA reports.
2. Path Delay Measurement Using DFT Scan Chains: Use transition
delay fault (TDF) patterns.
3. On-Chip Ring Oscillator (RO) Frequency Analysis: Detect local
process variations.
4. Voltage Drop (IR) Impact Analysis: Check if violations occur
under dynamic loading.
Example Case:
If hold violations increase at high temperature, tuning clock skew
can mitigate them.

47. How do you validate and debug voltage droop in an SoC?

Answer:
Voltage droop (IR drop) causes timing failures and functional
instability.
Validation Techniques:
1. On-Chip Voltage Monitors (OCVMs): Measure real-time VDD
fluctuations.
2. Current Transient Analysis: Capture droop events using high-
bandwidth oscilloscopes.
3. Decoupling Capacitor Placement Check: Ensure sufficient local
bypass capacitance.
4. Power Grid Analysis: Identify high resistance paths affecting
supply integrity.
5. Clock Frequency Scaling Test: Check droop effects under
different workloads.
Example Case:
If a CPU core crashes at peak load, increasing on-chip decaps (MIM
caps) or power rail width can help.
48. How do you debug soft errors (SEUs) in memory arrays of
an SoC?
Answer:
Soft errors (Single Event Upsets, SEUs) occur due to cosmic rays,
alpha particles, or radiation effects.
Debugging & Mitigation Methods:
1. Fault Injection Testing: Use heavy-ion or neutron beams to
recreate errors.
2. ECC (Error Correction Code) Syndrome Analysis: Identify
common error patterns.
3. Scrubbing Rate Optimization: Ensure memory refresh and error
correction frequency is optimal.
4. Process Node Dependence Analysis: Smaller nodes (e.g., 7nm,
5nm) are more susceptible.
5. Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR): Evaluate redundancy
effectiveness in safety-critical designs.
Example Case:
If soft errors spike in deep space applications, using radiation-
hardened memory cells (DICE latch) improves reliability.

49. How do you validate and debug clock-domain crossing

(CDC) failures in post-silicon testing?
Answer:
CDC failures occur due to metastability, missing synchronizers, or
incorrect handshaking.
Debugging Techniques:
1. On-Chip Metastability Counters: Measure failure rates under
stress conditions.
2. Glitch Detection in Synchronizers: Capture unwanted transitions
using high-speed logic analyzers.
3. Asynchronous FIFO Depth Monitoring: Check if read/write
pointers drift under load.
4. Jitter-Induced Failures Analysis: Test stability under varying
clock phase shifts.
5. Scan Chain-Based Debugging: Validate flop-to-flop transitions
using ATPG patterns.
Example Case:
If a FIFO in a multi-clock domain system drops packets, ensuring
proper gray-coded pointers can prevent data corruption.

50. How do you analyze and debug thermal hotspots in a

high-performance SoC?
Answer:
Thermal hotspots degrade performance, reliability, and cause
electromigration failures.
Debugging Methods:
1. On-Chip Thermal Sensors (OTC) Readout: Identify localized high-
temperature regions.
2. IR Thermography: Use infrared cameras to detect uneven
heating.
 1. Dynamic Frequency Scaling (DFS) Analysis: Ensure proper
thermal throttling activation.
2. Package & Heat Sink Efficiency Check: Validate TIM (Thermal
Interface Material) application.
3. Hotspot-Aware Floorplanning Analysis: Distribute high-power
blocks to reduce heat concentration.
Example Case:
If a GPU core throttles frequently, optimizing heat sink contact and
adding metal heat spreaders can improve thermal dissipation.
 Excellence in World class
VLSI Training & Placements

Do follow for updates & enquires

+91- 9182280927