RUI-BIO 225

CELL,
PROKARYOTE AND EUKARYOTE CELLS

1.0 Definition of Cell

Cells, the fundamental units of life, are classified into two main types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The cell theory
states that all living organisms are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and function, and all
cells arise from pre-existing cells. Prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles,
while eukaryotic cells, like those in plants and animals, possess these structures.
1.1 Cell Theory
i. All living organisms are composed of cells: This means that everything from bacteria to humans is built
from cells.
ii. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function: Cells are the smallest units that can carry out all life
processes.
iii. All cells arise from pre-existing cells: New cells are produced through cell division, which was initially
discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them after cells in monasterie
2.0 Prokaryote cell
A prokaryote less commonly spelled procaryote is a single-celled organism whose cell lacks a nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles. The word prokaryote comes from the Ancient Greek (pró), meaning 'before',
and (káruon), meaning 'nut' or 'kernel'. In the earlier two-empire system arising from the work of Édouard
Chatton, prokaryotes were classified within the empire Prokaryota. However, in the three-domain system, based
upon molecular phylogenetics, prokaryotes are divided into two domains: Bacteria and Archaea. A third
domain, Eukaryota, consists of organisms with nuclei.
Prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, and lack nuclei, mitochondria, and most of the other distinct organelles
that characterize the eukaryotic cell. Some unicellular prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, form colonies held
together by biofilms, and large colonies can create multilayered microbial mats. Prokaryotes are asexual,
reproducing via binary fission. Horizontal gene transfer is common as well.
Molecular phylogenetics has provided insight into the evolution and interrelationships of the three domains of
life. The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects two very different levels of cellular organization;
only eukaryotic cells have an enclosed nucleus that contains its DNA, and other membrane-bound organelles
including mitochondria. More recently, the primary division has been seen as that between Archaea and Bacteria,
since eukaryotes may be part of the archaean clade and have multiple homologies with other Archaea.
Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and similar than eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not enclose their
genetic material within a nucleus.

2.1 Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic cells have different characteristic features. The characteristics of the prokaryotic cells are mentioned
below.
1. They lack a nuclear membrane.
2. Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent.
3. The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.
4. The histone proteins, the important constituents of eukaryotic chromosomes, are lacking in them.
5. The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.
6. The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.
7. They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of reproduction involves conjugation.

2.2 Prokaryotic Cell Structure

A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the genetic material is present in a region in the
cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A prokaryotic cell structure is as
follows:
 1. Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to the cell wall. It helps
in moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps in the attachment of cells to nutrients and
surfaces.
2. Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
3. Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles and is a gel-like
component.
4. Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit of substances in the
cells.
5. Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
6. Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion of a cell.
7. Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
8. Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in reproduction.
9. Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is present.
A prokaryotic cell lacks certain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi bodies.

2.4 Prokaryotic Cell Diagram

The prokaryotic cell diagram given below represents a bacterial cell. It depicts the absence of a true nucleus and
the presence of a flagellum that differentiates it from a eukaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic Cell Diagram illustrates the absence of a true nucleus

2.5 Components of Prokaryotic Cells

The prokaryotic cells have four main components:
Plasma Membrane- It is an outer protective covering of phospholipid molecules which separates the cell from
the surrounding environment.
Cytoplasm- It is a jelly-like substance present inside the cell. All the cell organelles are suspended in it.
DNA- It is the genetic material of the cell. All the prokaryotes possess a circular DNA. It directs what proteins the
cell creates. It also regulates the actions of the cell.
Ribosomes- Protein synthesis occurs here.
Some prokaryotic cells possess cilia and flagella which helps in locomotion.

2.6 Reproduction in Prokaryotes

A prokaryote reproduces in two ways:
 Asexually by binary fission
 Sexually by conjugation

2.6.1 Binary Fission

1. The DNA of an organism replicates and the new copies attach to the cell membrane.
2. The cell wall starts increasing in size and starts moving inwards.
3. A cell wall is then formed between each DNA, dividing the cell into two daughter cells.
2.6.2 Recombination
In this process, genes from one bacteria are transferred to the genome of other bacteria. It takes place in three
ways-conjugation, transformation, transduction.
 Conjugation is the process in which genes are transferred between two bacteria through a protein tube
structure called a pilus.
 Transformation is the mode of sexual reproduction in which the DNA from the surroundings is taken by
the bacterial cell and incorporated in its DNA.
 Transduction is the process in which the genetic material is transferred into the bacterial cell with the
help of viruses. Bacteriophages are the virus that initiates the process.

2.7 Examples of Prokaryotic Cells

The examples of the prokaryotic cells are mentioned below:

2.7.1 Bacterial Cells

These are unicellular organisms found everywhere on earth from soil to the human body.
They have different shapes and structures.
The cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan that provides structure to the cell wall.
Bacteria have some unique structures such as pili, flagella and capsule.
They also possess extrachromosomal DNA known as plasmids.
They have the ability to form tough, dormant structures known as endospores that helps them to survive under
unfavourable conditions. The endospores become active when the conditions are favourable again.

2.7.2 Archaeal Cells

Archaebacteria are unicellular organisms similar to bacteria in shape and size.
They are found in extreme environments such as hot springs and other places such as soil, marshes, and even
inside humans.
They have a cell wall and flagella. The cell wall of archaea does not contain peptidoglycan.
The membranes of the archaea have different lipids with a completely different stereochemistry.
Just like bacteria, archaea have one circular chromosome. They also possess plasmids.

3.0 Eukaryotic Cell

The Eukaryota or Eukarya, organisms whose cells have a membrane-bound nucleus.
All animals, plants, fungi, seaweeds, and many unicellular organisms are eukaryotes. They constitute a major
group of life forms alongside the two groups of prokaryotes: the Bacteria and the Archaea. Eukaryotes represent a
small minority of the number of organisms, but given their generally much larger size, their collective global
biomass is much larger than that of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum, and
the Golgi apparatus. Eukaryotes may be either unicellular or multicellular. In comparison, prokaryotes are
typically unicellular. Unicellular eukaryotes are sometimes called protists. Eukaryotes can reproduce
both asexually through mitosis and sexually through meiosis and gamete fusion (fertilization).

3.1 The Nucleus & Its Structures

Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, which
means the cell’s DNA is surrounded by a membrane. Therefore, the nucleus houses the cell’s DNA and directs the
synthesis of proteins and ribosomes, the cellular organelles responsible for protein synthesis. The nuclear
envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus. Both the inner and
outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers. The nuclear envelope is punctuated with
pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The
nucleoplasm is the semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus.
Furthermore, chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the genetic material. In
prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear
structures.
Eukaryotic Nucleus:

The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance called the nucleoplasm.The nucleolus is
a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs.The boundary of the nucleus is called the
nuclear envelope.It consists of two phospholipid bilayers: an outer membrane and an inner membrane.The nuclear
membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.Nuclear pores allow substances to enter and exit the
nucleus.

3.2 Other Membrane-Bound Organelles

i. Mitochondria: the powerhouses that generate energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.
ii. Endoplasmic reticulum: modifies proteins and makes lipids.
iii. Golgi apparatus: sorts, tags, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids.
iv. Peroxisomes: break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.
v. Vesicles and vacuoles: store and transport molecules within the cell.

Animal Cells Versus Plant Cells

While all eukaryotic cells contain the aforementioned organelles and structures, there are some striking
differences between animal and plant cells. Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do
not. The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells while lysosomes
take care of the cell’s digestive process.

Animal Cells
Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells.Animal
cells have centrioles, centrosomes, and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not.

In addition, plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and other specialized plastids,
whereas animal cells do not. The cell wall protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell
while the central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing
environmental conditions. Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out photosynthesis.

Plant Cells

Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and plastids used for storage, and a large central
vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.

Key Points
 Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells and have a “true” nucleus, membrane-bound organelles,
and rod-shaped chromosomes.
 The nucleus houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes.
 Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production; the endoplasmic reticulum modifies proteins and
synthesizes lipids; and the golgi apparatus is where the sorting of lipids and proteins takes place.
 Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids and detoxify
poisons; vesicles and vacuoles function in storage and transport.
 Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes while plant cells do not.
 Plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and other specialized plastids, whereas
animal cells do not.
Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes involves alternating between haploid (one set of chromosomes) and diploid
(two sets of chromosomes) phases. Haploid gametes (sperm and egg) fuse to form a diploid zygote, which grows
into an organism. This organism then produces new haploid gametes through meiosis, ensuring genetic diversity.
Research suggests sexual reproduction might be an ancient trait in eukaryotes. Studies show that even organisms
previously thought to be asexual, like certain parasites and amoebae, may have a sexual cycle. This implies that
the ability for sexual reproduction could have been present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.