CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION

As per Syllabus (2021-2022) of Tamilnadu Teachers Education University

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (B.ED.,) – First Year – first semester

Dr.N.Mahalakshmi
M.A.,(English).,M.Ed.,M.Sc.,(psychology).,Ph.D.(Education)NET
Assistant professor
Krishnasmy College Of Education for womens
Manapattu, Puducherry.

S.Perundevi
M.Sc.,M.Phil(physics)., M.Ed., .(Education).,M.Sc., (Applied Psychology)
Assistant professor in Physical Science,
CK College of Education,
Jayaram Nagar, Chellankuppam,
Cuddalore.

Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications

Sri manakula Vinayagar Note Book Company
Tindivanam – 604001
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First Edition: March 2022
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 Syllabus
CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION
UNIT – I: EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA, CONSTITUTIONAL
CONTEXT
Education – meaning, definitions, nature, functions and aims; nature of
education as a discipline – types of education; formal, informal and non
– formal; levels of education – pre – primary, primary, secondary, senior
secondary, higher, professional, distance and optional education; Aims and
purposes of education drawn from constitutional provision; Education as a
means of social justice in the Indian Constitution; Constitutional values and
education (Preamble, Fundamental rights and duties); the Right to Free and
Compulsory Education 2010 (RTE) and inclusion; Education in the concurrent
list and its implications.

UNIT –II: UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL DIVERSITY

Social diversity: Meaning and definition – Education for understanding
the social diversity in India – Levels of social diversity: Individual, regional,
linguistic, religious, castes and tribes – Role of education in creating
positive attitude towards diversity – inter disciplinary nature of education
philosophy, psychology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, politics, history;

UNIT – III: EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS OF INDIVIDUALS AND DIVERSE

COMMUNITIES
Universalization of primary education – programmes to achieve
universalization of education: SSA, RMSA, RUSA, integrated education and
Inclusive education; Challenges in achieving universalization of education;
Education for collective living and peaceful living; Four pillars of education
as viewed by Delor’s Commission Report.

UNIT – IV: LANGUAGE POLICY IN EDUCATION

Language policy during the pre- independent and post – independent
India – Language policy as specified in Indian Constitution – Views of great
thinkers on medium of Instruction: Tagore, Gandhi and Vivekananda.

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 UNIT –V: IMPLICATIONS OF EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITIES
Equality of Educational Opportunity; equality in constitutional provisions;
Inequality in schooling, Causes for inequality, discrimination, and
marginalization in education- Types of inequity: caste, gender, class, regions
– Elimination of social inequalities through education – education for
marginalized groups: Dalits, tribal’s and woman.

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1.1.Meaning of education 1
1.2. Definition of education 1
1.3. Nature of Education 2
1.4. Function of Education 3
1. Function of education towards individual – 3
2. Function of education toward society- 4
3. Function of education toward nation- 4
1.5. Aims of Education 5
1.5.1. Education 5
Science Education 5
Work Experience. 5
Vocationalisation 6
Education for National Integration 6
The Common School System 6
I. It should charge no tuition fee. 7
Social and National Service 7
Promoting national consciousness 7
Education for International Understanding 8
Democratic Values 8
1.5.2. Determinants 10
1.6. Nature of Education as a discipline 11
1.7.Types of Education 13
1.7.1. Formal Education 13
Examples of Formal Education 14
Characteristics of formal education 14
Advantages of Formal education: 14
Disadvantages of Formal education: 14
1.7.2. Non-formal Education 15
Examples of Non-formal Education 15
Characteristics of Non-formal Education 15
Advantages of Non-formal Education 15
Disadvantages of Non-formal Education 16

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1.7.3.Informal education: 18
Examples of Informal Education 18
Characteristics of Informal Education 18
Advantages of Informal Education 19
Disadvantages of Informal Education 19
Informal education for instance comprises the
following activities: 19
1.8. Levels of Education 22
a. Pre-Primary education 22
Objective of Pre Primary Education: 22
English Language & Text: 23
EVS (Environmental Studies):  23
General Knowledge:  24
Art & Craft:  24
Work Experience:  24
Rhymes & Action Songs:  24
Story Telling:  24
Co-curricular & Extra-curricular Activities: 24
Field Trip: 24
Individual & Group effort:  25
Objective in primary Education in Indian education
commission 25
Importance of Pre Primary Education: 25
b.Primaryeducation 26
Objectives of primary education 26
c. Secondary education 27
Objectives of secondary education 28
Importance of secondary education 28
Present Scenario of Secondary Education 30
d) Higher secondary education 31
Education structure 31
The major aims of higher secondary education 32
d. Senior Secondary Stage 32

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e. Higher education 33
f. Professional / technical education 33
g. Distance Education 34
Open and distance learning in India 34
h. Optional 35
i) Undergraduate Stage 35
ii) Postgraduate Stage 35
iii) Special educations 36
iv)Adult education 36
v) Vocational Education & Training: 36
Home schooling in India 37
Certificate and Diploma programs: 37
Teacher Education 37
1.9. Aims and purposes of education drawn from
constitutional provision 38
1. Free and Compulsory Education: 38
2. Education of Minorities: 39
It lays down: 39
3. Language Safeguards: 39
4. Equality of Opportunity in Educational Institutions: 39
5. Instruction in Mother -Tongue: 40
6. Promotion of Hindi: 40
Hindi accepted as the Official Language of India as
laid down by the Constitution in following words: 41
7. Women’s Education: 41
The Constitution makes the following provisions under
different articles: 41
1.10. Education as a mean of social justice in Indian
constitution 41
Main Features of Indian Constitution 42
The great bulk of the Indian constitution is due to several
factors. 43

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Second main feature of the Indian constitution
is that it is a federal constitution. 43
1.11. Constitutional values and education 45
(A) Preamble of the Constitution 45
Forty-second Amendment 45
(B) FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 47
Kinds of fundamental rights 47
(1) Right to equality (Arts. 14-18). 47
(2)Rights to freedom. 47
(3) Rights against exploitation (Arts. 24 and 25) 48
(4) Rights to freedom of religion (Arts. 25-28) 48
(5) Cultural and Educational rights (Arts. 29-30) 48
(6) Right to constitutional remedies (Arts. 32-35) 48
Right to Education (Arts. 21-A) 48
Importance of fundamental rights: 49
(C) Fundamental Duties in Indian Constitution 50
Why fundamental duties are important? 51
(D) Directive Principles of State Policy in The Indian
Constitution 52
The Directive Principles may be classified into 3 broad
categories: 53
53
(1) Socialistic Directives 53
(2) Gandhian Directives 53
(3) Liberal intellectual directives 53
Significance of Directional Principles of state Policy: 54
The significance of directive principles
issummarized as follows: 54
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY 55
ART 39. Certain principles of policy to be followed
by the State.- 55
ART 39A. Equal justice and free legal aid.- 56
ART 40. Organisation of village panchayats.- 56

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ART 41. Right to work, to education and to public
assistance in certain cases.- 56
ART 42. Provision for just and humane conditions of
work and maternity relief.- 56
ART 43. Living wage, etc., for workers.- 56
ART 43A. Participation of workers in management
of industries.- 56
ART 44. Uniform civil code for the citizens.- 57
ART 45. Provision for free and compulsory education
for children.- 57
ART 46. Promotion of educational and economic
interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
other weaker sections.- 57
ART 47. Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition
and the standard of living and to improve public health.- 57
ART 48. Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry.- 57
ART 48A. Protection and improvement of environment
and safeguarding of forests and wild life.- 57
ART 49. Protection of monuments and places and
objects of national importance.- 58
ART 50. Separation of judiciary from executive.- 58
ART 51. Promotion of international peace and security.- 58
Challenges to fulfill the Constitutional Obligations 58
(i) Freedom 58
(ii) Justice 58
(iii) Equality 59
(iv) Fraternity 59
1.12. Right to Free and Compulsory Education 59
Right to Education Act (2009) 59
a) Implementation and funding of RTE 59
b) Status of Implementation of RTE 60
RTE and inclusion 60
Obligation to provide free and compulsory education 61

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(i) Clubbing of children with disabilities with other
disadvantaged groups 61
(ii) Neighbourhood criteria 63
(iii) Lack of enabling environment 64
Inclusive Education Programmes 65
The objectives of the component are : 66
1.13. Education in the concurrent list and its implications 67
Conclusion 69
Questions 70
I one mark 70
II five mark 70
III ten mark 70

UNIT-II
UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL DIVERSITY 71
2.1. Introduction 71
2.1.1. Diversity 71
2.2. Concept of Social Diversity 72
2.2.1. Meaning and Definition of Social Diversity 72
2.2.2. Dynamics of Social Diversity 73
2.2.3. Dimensions of Social Diversity 73
Intrapersonal Aspect 74
Interpersonal Aspect 74
Cultural and Cross-cultural Aspect 75
2.3. Levels of Social Diversity 76
1. Individual Diversity 76
Classifications of individual diversity: 77
Causes of Individual Differences: 77
Educational Implications of Individual Differences: 78
2. Regional Diversity 79
Regionalism in India 79
Reasons for regional disparity 81

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Regions in India: 82
Causes of Regional Diversity 84
Causes of regional diversity 84
Role of Education in Eliminating Regionalism 84
Impact or Effects of Regionalism 85
Negative (Disadvantage) 86
3. Linguistic Diversity 87
Causes of Linguist 87
i) Psychological causes 87
ii) Historical causes 87
iii) Geographical causes 88
iv) Economic causes 88
v) Political causes 88
vi) Social causes 88
Role of Education 88
4.Religious Diversity 89
Religious Diversity 90
Challenges in Religious Diversity 93
Causes 93
Role of Education 94
5. Caste Diversity 94
Meaning of caste 95
Definitions of Caste system 95
Characteristics of caste system 95
Origin of caste system 97
Demerits of caste system 99
Changes in the Caste System 100
6. Tribal Diversity 101
Education for Understanding Social Diversity 102
2.4. Role of education in creating positive attitude
towards diversity 103
2.5. Interdisciplinary nature of education 104
1. Education and philosophy 105

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2. Education and Sociology 105
3. Education and psychology 105
4. Education and economics 105
5. Education and History 105
6. Education and Political Science 105
7. Education and Anthropology 106
Questions 106
II ten mark 106

UNIT III
EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS OF INDIVIDUALS AND DIVERSE
COMMUNITIES 107
3.1 Introduction 107
3.2. Universalization of Primary Education in India 107
1. Universalization of Provision 107
2. Universalization of Enrolment 108
3. Universalization of Retention 108
4. Universalization of Participation 108
5. Universalization of Achievement 108
3.3. Efforts to taken to provide Universal primary Education 109
3.3.Programmes to Achieve Universalisation of Education 110
Children Benefited 111
Right to Education 112
The RTE Act provides 112
3.4. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) 113
3.4.1.Aims of SSA 114
3.4.2. Objectives of SSA 114
3.4.3. Main Features of SSA 115
3.4.4. The components of SSA include 115
3.5. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) 118
3.5.1. Objectives of RMSA 119
Challenges in achieving Secondary Education 119

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3.5.3.Implementation mechanism of the scheme: 120
3.6. RashtriyaUchatar Shiksha Abhiyaan (RUSA) 120
Components of RUSA 120
3.6.1.Objectives of RUSA 121
3.6.2. Salient Features of RUSA 122
3.6.3. Challenges in achieving RUSA 122
3.7. Integrated Education 123
3.7.1. Salient Features of Integrated Education 124
3.7.2. Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) 124
3.8. Inclusive Education 124
3.8.1. Salient Features of Inclusive Education 126
3.8.2. Benefits of Inclusive Education 126
Differences between Integrated and Inclusive Education 127
3.9. Challenges in achieving Universal Elementary Education 127
(a) Policy of Government 127
(b) Administration of Education 128
(c) Inadequacy of Money 128
(d) Shortage of Trained Teachers 128
(e) School Buildings 128
(f) Unsuitable Curriculum 129
(g) Wastage and Stagnation 129
(h) Social Evils 129
3.10. Education for collective living and peaceful living 129
3.11. Delor’s Commission Report: 131
The Four Pillars of Education 131
Revisiting the Four ‘Pillars of Learning’ 133
Learning to know 133
Learning to do 133
Learning to live together 134
Learning to be 134
Pillars of Learning for Reorienting Curriculum Objectives 135
Conclusion 136
Questions 137

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UNIT IV
LANGUAGE POLICY IN EDUCATION 138
4.1. Introduction 138
4.2. Language policy during pre independent 138
4.2.1. Gurukula system of Education 138
Methods of Teaching 138
Teacher 139
Discipline 139
Educational Implications 139
1. Pride in civilisation and culture 139
2. Discipline and pupil teacher relationship : 139
3. Subject of studies: 140
4. Teaching Methods : 140
5. All round development of child: 140
6. Equality of opportunity: 140
7. Education for self- sufficiency: 140
8. Commercial education and vedic mathematics : 140
Merits of Vedic Education 140
Demerits of Vedic Education 141
4.2.2. Bhagavad Gita 141
Essence of Gita 141
Educational implications of Gita 141
4.2.3. BUDDHISM 142
Origin of Buddhism 142
3. Ignorance is bondage and ‘knowledge’ is liberation.
Everything is conditional, dependent and relative. 144
Educational Philosophy of Buddhism 144
Characteristics of Buddhist Education 144
Curriculum of Buddhist Education 144
I Curriculum for laymen 145
Aims of Education 145
Principles of Education 146
Education System 146

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Two tier system: 146
Elementary Education: 146
Curriculum of Elementary education : 146
Higher education: 147
Methods of Teaching 147
Role of the Teacher and Discipline 147
Educational Implication of Buddhist Philosophy 148
Merits of Buddhist system of Education 150
4.2.4. Jainism system of Education 150
Jaina Aims of Education 151
Curriculum 151
Methods of Teaching 152
Practical teachings of Jainism 152
Role of the Teacher and the Discipline 153
Educational implications of Jainism. 154
Importance features of ancient Indian education 154
4.2.5. Education during Mughal Period 155
a) Aims of Education 155
b) Curriculum 156
c) Methods of Instruction 156
4.2.6. Christian Missionaries Contributions to Education 156
4.2.7. East India Company’s Contributions to Education 156
(i) Charter Act (1813) 157
(ii) The Indian Education Commission (1882) 157
(iii) The Government of India Resolution (1913) 158
(iv) Hartog Committee (1929) 158
(v) Wardha System of Education (1937) 159
Main Features of Basic Education 160
(vi) Abott -Wood Report (1936-37) 160
Development of Education during the
Pre-independent Period: 162
Macaulay’s Minute(1835): 162
The Wood’s Despatch (1854): 162

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Indian Education commission 1882: / Hunter’s commission: 162
The Sargent Plan (1944): 162
Basic Education: 163
Educational Planning: 163
Role of the teacher: 163
Characteristics of Basic Education: 164
Relevance of Gandhiji basic education in the
present-day context: 164
4.3. Policy framework on education post independent
India syllabus: 164
4.3.1. The Kothari Commission (1964-66) 165
4.3.2. The Iswaribhai Patel Committee 166
Suggestions of the Iswaribhai Patel Committee 166
4.3.3. Malcolm Adiseshaiah Committee 167
4.3.4. National Policy on Education (1986) 167
Universal access and enrolment 168
4.3.5. Programme of Action (POA) 1992 169
I. Early Childhood Care and Education:  169
II. Elementary Education, Non-Formal
Education and Operation Blackboard:  169
III. Secondary Education and Navodaya Vidyalayas:  170
IV. Vocationalisation of Education:  170
V. Higher Education:  170
VI. Open University and Distance Education:  171
VII. Rural Universities and Institutes:  172
VIII. Technical and Management Education:  172
IX. Making the system work:  172
X. De-linking of Degrees from Jobs and Manpower
Planning:  172
XI. Research and Development: 172
XII. Women Education:  173
XIII. Education of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, and backward Sections:  173

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XIV. Minorities Education:  175
XV. Education of the Handicapped:  175
XVI. Adult Education:  176
XVII. Content and Process of School Education: 176
XVIII. Evaluation Process and Examination Reforms: 177
XIX. Youth and Sports:  178
XX. Language Development: 178
XXI. Cultural development:  178
XXII. Media and Educational Technology:  178
XXIII. Teacher and their Training: 178
XXIV. Management Education: 179
4.3.6.Sachar Committee 179
Recommendations of Sachar Committee: 180
4.3.7. National Curricular Framework (NCF) 2005 184
Salient Features of National Curriculum Framework 2005 184
Vision and Perspective 185
Guiding Principles 185
Focus on child as an active learner 185
Curricular areas, school stages and Assessment 186
1. Languages 186
2. Mathematics 186
3. Sciences 186
4. Social Sciences 186
5. Draws attention on four other areas 186
School and Classroom environment 187
Systemic Reforms 187
Examination reforms highlight: 187
Teacher Education Reforms emphasize on
preparation of teacher to 187
Guidelines for Syllabus Development 188
Development of Support Material 188
NCF 2005 highlights the following aspects: 189
4.3.8.The National Knowledge Commission (NKC) 189

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The Terms of Reference of NKC are: 189
Recommendations 190
4.4. Language Policy in School Education 192
Meaning- Language Policy: 192
The Three- Language Formula 193
CABE identified five major issues which required attention: 193
Medium of Instruction: 195
4.5. Language Provisions in the Constitution 195
The Eighth Scheduled: 197
Official Languages 198
Official language of union 198
Official Languages in States 199
Special directive for promotion of Hindi 199
Language to be used to redress grievances 199
Education policy and language policy 200
Language education policy in colonial period 201
Language education policy after independence 201
4.6. Views of great thinkers on medium of instruction:
-Tagore, Gandhi, Vivekananda. 202
4.6.1 Rabindranath Tagore 202
Aims of Education 202
Definition- Education 204
Aims of Education 204
1. Bread and Butter aim 204
2. Cultural Aim 204
3. Harmonious Development 205
4. Moral Aim 205
5. Social and individual Aim 205
6. Ultimate Aim 205
The curriculum 206
1. The craft 206
2. Mother Tongue 206
3.Subjects 206
Basic curriculum includes three things 207
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Basic Education 207
1. Free and Compulsory Education 207
2. Mother tongue as a medium of education 207
3. Craft centeredness 207
4. Self-sufficiency 208
5. Co-related teaching 208
6. Non-violence 208
7. Ideal citizen 208
Method of Teaching 209
Basic Education and the Teacher 210
Gandhiji as an idealist 210
Gandhiji as a pragmatist 210
Gandhiji as a naturalist 210
4.6.3.Life sketch of Swami Vivekananda 211
Philosophical thoughts of Swami Vivekananda 211
Aims of Education 212
1. The Aim of Reaching Perfection 212
2. Physical and Mental Development Aim 212
3. Moral and Spiritual Development 213
4. Character Development Aim 213
5. The Aim of Development Faith in One’s Own self,
Shraddha and a Spirit of Renunciation. 213
6. The Aim of Searching Unity in Diversity 213
7. Religious Development Aim 213
Curriculum 214
Place of Child 214
Place of Teacher 215
Education of Masses 215
Let us sum up 215
Rabindranath Tagore 215
M.K. Gandhi 216
Swamy Vivekananda 216
Conclusion 216
I one mark 217
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II five mark 217
III ten mark 217

UNIT V
IMPLICATIONS OF EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES 218
5.1. Introduction 218
5.2. Equality of educational opportunity 218
Meaning of Equality of Educational Opportunity: 219
5.3. Constitutional Provisions for Equality of Education 219
5.4. Inequality in schooling 219
5.5. Causes of Inequality 220
Measures taken to Achieve Equality of Educational
Opportunities: 221
For scheduled castes and scheduled tribes 221
The Role of the Teacher: 222
Women: 222
Measures of Equalization of Educational Opportunities
for Women: 223
Disabled Children: 223
Recommendations of the NPE (1986) on Equal
Opportunity to Education of Disabled Children: 224
The Minorities: 224
Other Backward Sections : 225
5.6. Types of Inequality 225
(i) Gender inequality 225
(ii) Racial and Ethnic inequality 226
(iii) Caste inequality 226
v) class based Inequalities 227
Reduce the class struggle in the society 227
Social inequalities related to regions 228
5.7. Education to eliminate Social Inequalities 228
Vocational training for trades and professions 228

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5.8. C
 onstitutional provisions to promote equity through
education 229
5.9. Marginalized Society 230
Causes of Discrimination 230
Reasons responsible for Deprived/ Marginalized Groups 231
Role of Education in addressing the needs of Marginalized
groups in Indian society: 231
Education for Marginalised Groups 232
The specific role of education in addressing the needs of
the marginalized groups is as follows: 234
Role of Non formal education in providing
equalization of educational opportunities. 234
Provisions and schemes for education of the marginalised 234
Education of the Dalits 236
Educational facilities provided to the Dalits 236
Problems in the education of the tribals 236
Ways and means of providing education for
the scheduled tribes 236
Education women 237
Measures for improving women’s education 237
Part time 237
Higher education 238
General measures 238
Conclusion 238
Questions 239
I One mark 239
II Five mark 239
III ten mark 239
MODEL QUESTION PAPER 240
I Answer all the question 240
II Answer any 3 240
III Answer all the question 240
Answer: 259

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 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 1

UNIT I

EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA,

CONSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT

1.1.Meaning of education
The term “Education” has been derived from the Latin term “Educatum”
which means the act of teaching or training. A group of educationists say that it
has come from another Latin word “Educare” which means “to bring up” or “to
raise” A few others interpret, the word “Education” has originated from another
Latin term “Educere” which means “to lead forth” or “to come out”. All these
meanings indicate that education seeks to nourish the good qualities in man and
draw out the best in every individual. Education seeks to develop the innate inner
capacities of man.
By educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable knowledge,
understanding, skills, interests, attitudes and critical ‘thinking. That is,
AAacquires knowledge of history, geography, arithmetic, languages and
sciences.
AAdevelops some understanding about the deeper things in life, the complex
human relations, and the cause and effect relationship and so on.
AAgets some skills in writing, speaking, calculating, drawing, operating some
equipment etc.
AAdevelops some interests in and attitudes towards social work, democratic
living, co-operative management and so on.
As an individual in the society, wehas to think critically about various
issues in life and take decisions about them being free from bias and prejudices,
superstitions and blind beliefs. Thus, he has to learn all these qualities of head,
hand and heart through the process of education.

1.2. Definition of education

The Concepts of Education as given by prominent Indian educationists are as
follows. Principles of Education and School Organization;
AA“Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless” – Rigved
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AA“Education is for liberation” - Upanishad “Nothing is more purifying on
earth than wisdom” - Bhagavad Gita
AA“Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing
in man” - Vivekananda
AABy education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the Child and
man body, mind and spirit” - Gandhiji
AAThe widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is education.”
- Tagore
AAEducation which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the divine,
for the country, for oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of
every school which calls itself national” - Sri Aurobindo
AAEducation is unfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is
the process through which the child makes internal external” - Friedrich
William Froebel
AAEducation is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It
develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the
perfection which he is capable of” - Plato “Education of man commences
at his birth; before he can speak, before he can understand he is already
instructed. Experience is the forerunner of the perfect” - Rousseau
AA“Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops
man’s faculty, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the
contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect
happiness essentially consists” – Aristotle

1.3. Nature of Education

The natures of education are:
(a) Education is life-long process- It is because every stage of life of an individual
is important from educational point.
(b) Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact its activities through a
systematic institution and regulation.
(c) Education is the development of individual and the society- It is called a force
for social development, which brings improvement in every aspect of the
society.
(d) Education is modification of behavior- Human behavior is modified and
improved through educational process.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 3
(e) Education is a training- Human senses, mind, behavior, activities; skills are
trained in a constructive and socially desirable way.
(f) Education is instruction and direction- It directs and instructs an individual to
fulfill his desires and needs for exaltation of his whole personality.
(g) Education is life- Life without education is meaningless and like the life of a
beast. Every aspect and incident needs education for its sound development.
(h) Education is a continuous reconstruction of our experiences- As per the
definition of John
Dewey, education reconstructs and remodels our experiences towards socially
desirable way.
Education is a power and treasure in the human being through which he
is entitled as the supreme master on the earth.Therefore, the role of education
is countless for a perfect society and man. It is necessary for every society and
nation to bring holistic happiness and prosperity to its individuals.

1.4. Function of Education

The primary function of education is the transferring knowledge and
reconstruction of the social heritage. But role of education broader than just
obtaining knowledge.
Main purpose of education is to educate individuals within society, to prepare
and qualify them for work in economy as well as to integrate people into society
and teach them values and morals of society.
Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization,
(b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation.
As per John Dewey – The function of education is to help the growing of a
helpless young animal into a happy, moral and efficient human being.Education
is a dynamic force in the life of an individual and influences his physical, mental,
social, emotional, ethical, creative and spiritual development.
The functions of education can be classified into 3 types-

1. Function of education towards individual –

a. Development of inborn potentialities:- Education helps the child to develop the
inborn potentialities of the child providing scope to develop.
4 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
b. Modifying behaviour:- Education helps to modify the past behaviour through
learning and through different agencies of education.
c. All round development:- Education aims at the all-round development of the
child physical, mental, social, emotional and spiritual.
d. Preparing for the future:- After completion of education the child can earn his
livelihood getting proper education, which has productivity. The education
should be imparted according to the own interest of child.
e. Developing personality:- The whole personality of the child is developed
physically, intellectually, morally, socially, aesthetically, spiritually. He is
recognized in the society.
f. Helping for adjustability:- Man differs from beast. Man has reasoning and
thinking power. Man tries his best to adjust with his own environment through
education.

2. Function of education toward society-

a. Social change and control:- Society is progressive and dynamic in nature. An
individual lives in society. Thus education helps to walk with the development
of individual for benefit of society.
b. Reconstruction of experience:- Life is education and education is life. Life is
full of experiences. One cannot live with his past experiences which are unable
to adjust in the society. So education helps the individual to reconstruct the
experience and adjust with the environment.
c. Development of social and moral value:- Society is always in tension with
narrowism. There is no social or moral value. Education teaches the moral value
and social value like co-operation, tolerance, sympathy, fellow, feelings, love
affection, respect towards elder, helping the poor and needy person.
d. Providing opportunity or equality:- Indian constitution has introduces the term
equality because we are not getting equal opportunities in all aspects. Education
teaches us to give equal opportunities in all aspects irrespective of caste, creed,
colour, sex and religion.

3. Function of education toward nation-

a. Inculcation of civic and social responsibility:- Education helps to make rising
generation to understand its rights and duties as citizen of a democratic country.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 5
b. Training for leadership:- The leadership quality of the individual is developed
when he participates in all spheres of social, political, religious and educational
activities.
c. National integration:- Education integration leads to emotional integration.
Education trains people for unity, not for locality, for democracy and not for
dictatorship.
d. Total national development:- education help for bringing about total national
development by developing its all aspects i.e. social, economic cultural,
spiritual, moral, educational, etc.

1.5. Aims of Education

1.5.1. Education
AAEducation also means helping people to learn how to do things and
encouraging them to think about what they learn.
AAIt is also important for educators to teach ways to find and use information.
Through education, the knowledge of society, country, and of the world is
passed on from generation to generation.
AAIn democracies, through education, children and adults are supposed to
learn how to be active and effective citizens.
AAMore specific, education helps and guide individuals to transform from
one class to another. Empowered individuals, societies, countries by
education are taking an edge over individuals stand on the bottom pyramid
of growth.

Science Education
Science education must become an integral part of school education and
ultimately some study of science should become a part of all courses in the
humanities and social sciences at universities also. The quality of science teaching
must also be improved considerably so as to promote a deep understanding of
basic principles, to develop problem solving and analytical skills and to promote
the spirit of enquiry and experimentation.

Work Experience.
In the programmed of relating education to life and productivity, work
experience must be introduced as an integral part of all education general and
6 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
vocational. To commission work experience implies participation in productive
work in school, in the home, in a workshop, on a farm, in a factory or in any
productive situation. All purposeful education should include study of languages,
humanities and social sciences, study of mathematics and natural sciences, work
experience and social services. Work experience is a method of integrating
education with work. In the present education system work experience and
social services have almost been totally neglected. Along with other elements
of education work experience should be greatly emphasized for the following
reasons:
(a) It will bridge the gap between intellectual and manual work.
(b) It will decrease the over academic nature of formal education.
(c) It will make the entry of youth into the world of work and employment easier
byenabling them to adjust themselves to it.
(d) It will relate education to productivity and also as a means of social and
national integration.

Vocationalisation
Every attempt should be made to give a vocational bias to secondary education
and to increase the emphasis on agricultural and technological education at
the university stage. This will surely bring education into closer relationship
with productivity. In the modern Indian society which is heading towards
industrialization, it is essential to considerably expand professional education at
the university stage, especially in agricultural and technological fields.

Education for National Integration

India is a land of diverse social groups. Unity and harmony among these
groups is the basis of national integration. Social and national integration is an
important objective of a national system of education.

The Common School System

The present educational system in our country instead of bringing social groups
and classes together is tending to increase social segregation and class distinctions.
The schools for the masses (generally maintained by the government) are of poorer
quality than those run by private bodies. Good schools are not within the reach
of a common man’s pocket. This is one of the major weaknesses of the existing
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 7
educational system. In the opinion of the Commission, “If our educational system
is to become a powerful instrument of national development in general, and social
and national integration in particular, we must march toward the goal of a Common
School System of public education.” The common school must be opened to all
children irrespective of caste, creed, community and economic or social status.

I. It should charge no tuition fee.

II. It should maintain a good standard of education in order to meet the needs
of average parents so that they may not ordinarily feel the need of sending their
children to other expensive schools.

Social and National Service

Social and national service should be made obligatory for all students at
all stages. It should form an integral part of education at secondary school and
university levels. This programme will prove an effective instrument for building
character improving discipline, inculcating a faith in the dignity of labour and
developing a sense of social responsibility, if it is organised concurrently with
academic studies in schools and colleges.
The following are the main forms of organizing such a programme:

(a) At the primary stage this programme should be developed in all schools on the
lines of Basic Education.
(b) At the lower secondary stage social service should be made compulsory for all
students for thirty days a year, at the higher secondary for twenty days and at
the undergraduate stage it should be made obligatory for all students or sixty
days a year, to be done in one or more stretches. Every educational institution
should develop a programme of social and community service of its own in
which all students must be involved for the periods as indicated above.
(c) Labour and social service camps or N.C.C. should be organised in each district
as alternative forms of such service for those students for whom no other
programmers of social service have been organised in their own institutions.

Promoting national consciousness

India is a land of different castes, peoples, communities, languages, religions
and cultures. The main role of our schools, colleges and universities should,
8 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
therefore, be to enable our students to discover ‘unity in diversity’ and in this way,
foster a sense of national solidarity and national consciousness among them. The
promotion of understanding and re-evaluation of our cultural heritage this can be
achieved by the well-organized teaching of language and literature, philosophy,
religion and history of India and by introducing the students to Indian architecture,
sculpture, painting, music, dance and drama. Holiday camps and summer schools
on inter-state basis can also be organized fruitfully, for breaking down regional
and linguistic barriers. Creation of a strong faith in the future towards would
involve an attempt to bring home to the students, the principles of the constitution,
the great human values, referred to in its preamble, the nature of the democratic
and socialistic society.

Education for International Understanding

There is no contradiction between national consciousness and developing
international understanding. Schools should promote international outlook
through the study of humanities and social sciences, simultaneously with
developing national consciousness.

Democratic Values
The educational programme in schools and colleges should be designed to
inculcate democratic values, such as scientific temper of mind, tolerance, respect
for the culture of other national groups etc. This will enable our young citizens
to adopt democracy not only as a form of government but also as a way of life.
In a modern society stock of knowledge is far greater, the pace of its growth is
infinitely quicker and social change is very rapid. This needs a radical change in
the educational system. Education in a modern society is no longer concerned
mainly with the imparting of knowledge or the preparation of a finished product
but with the awakening of curiosity, the development of proper interests, attitudes
and values and the building up of such essential skills as independent study
and capacity to think and judge for oneself, without which it is not possible to
become a responsible member of a democratic society. Therefore the process of
modernization will be directly related to the pace of educational advance.
Education brings modernization in following ways:
(a) The way to modernize quickly is to spread education.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 9
(b) By producing educated and skilled citizens.
(c) By-training an adequate and competent intelligentsia.
(d) By banging a radical change in the method of teaching and in the training of
teachers.
Education for Social, Moral and Spiritual Values The expanding knowledge
and the growing power which it places at the disposal of modern society must
be combined with the strengthening and deepening of the sense of social
responsibility and a keener appreciation of moral and spiritual values.
For this purpose, active measures should be adopted to give a value-
orientation to education. These measures are:
(a) The central and state Governments should introduce education in moral,
social and spiritual values in all institutions.
(b) The privately managed institutions should also follow the same steps.
(c) Some periods should be set apart in the time table for this purpose.
(d) University department should undertake preparation of special literature for
this purpose by students and teachers.
(e) For this purpose, syllabus giving well chosen information about each of the
major religions should be included as a part of the course in citizenship or
general education to be introduced in schools and colleges.
We may say that education is the most vital forces which can help in the
realization of national objectives. While keeping in view the best features of the
modem European culture and civilization, the Commission did not ignore the
essential characteristics of our ancient culture and civilization as well as the needs
and aspirations of our present day society. It is for the first time that we have
been given an integrated picture of Indian education in all its wide and diverse
dimensions.
10 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
1.5.2. Determinants
Aims of education cannot be just “pulled out of a hat”. A large number of
factors contribute to the determining of educational aims.
The following factors usually determine aims of education.

1. Views about the Nature of Reality.

Aims of education have direct relationship with the prevailing philosophy of
life. The philosophy of life at a certain time is influenced by the views of eminent
thinkers and schools of philosophy. According to idealistic view, the aim of
education should be self-realisation or unfolding of what is potential within the
child. According to the naturalistic view-point, self- expression or self- gratification
should be the aim of education. The pragmatists think that education should aim
at enabling the individual “to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities.”
2. Views about Human Nature
Educational aims have often been decided keeping in view one or the other
element which comprises human nature. Idealists regard ‘unfolding the divine in
child and man’ as the aim. To naturalists, the aim of education is ‘self-expression.’
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 11
3. Political Ideologies and Individual-State Relationship.
Political ideologies influence aims of education. Under a totalitarian system,
the aims of education will be much different from those under a democratic
political system. Under the former, the system of education becomes stereotyped
and education takes the form of indoctrination. School and text-books must
promote the ideology of the State. Under the later (democratic), the individual
enjoys freedom and free play. The goal of education is the good man who is to be
educated for a life of freedom. Education aims at developing the full personality
of each individual, irrespective of caste, creed, class or religion.
4. Socio-Economic Problems.
Socio-economic problems of a country also determine the aims of education.
For example, the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) put emphasis on
“increasing productivity’ as one of the national objectives of education.”
5. Exploration of Knowledge.
Exploration of knowledge is a potent factor in determining aims of education.
With the advancement of scientific and technical knowledge, education all over
the world has become science-oriented

1.6. Nature of Education as a discipline

Education is a comprehensive term and it reflects one’s day to day life and
an essential aspects for perfect balanced personality development. On the other
hand, the meaning of education can be understood from the narrower broader
point of view. Education in the narrower sense means. Conscious and deliberate
process, modifies the behavior of the learner and bring about in the educand.
Specific knowledge and skills. Such an education is confined to school and
university instructions whatever takes place in a school and whatever influences
child behavior is considered education.
In broader point of view education is a lifelong process. It starts with conception
and end with death (womb to tomb process). It is preparation of life through life
experiences. Here education is not limited in classroom teaching  or training.
Following are the characteristic of education as a discipline.
1. Education is purposive :There is a definite purpose of all educational
objective.
12 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
2. Education is deliberate: Education involve special care and guidance. The
process of education is not any conscious but also deliberate. The educator is
fully aware of the fail that his aim is to develop the personality of the child
along. Definite line through the modification of his behavior.
3. Education is drawing out and bringing up process: Different meaning
of education high lighted  that education is the process of bring out the innute
potentialities of the child. Education is an active and dynamic process by which
modifications are brought bout in the behavior of n individual.
4. Education is  knowledge as well as experience: Education is not only
simply quiring different types of knowledge but it involve real life experiences.
Human progress through ages has been made possible through the increase&
diffusion knowledge.
5. Education is liberal and vocational: Education can be considered as the
liberal process and later it will help the child to train in a particular vocation
education is meaning full only when it aim at some employment. Modern
democratic education has placed vocation aim in its fore front.
6. For the Good of the individual and well fare of the society: The purpose
of education 18 well being of the individual and welfare of the society and
a synthesis of individual and society. Education is called a force for social
development which brings improvement in every aspect in the society.
7. Stabilizer, conservator and reconstructionist: Education help to conserve
stabilize and reform the society and culture.
8. Education is planned: Education is not hap hazed. It is planned and
systematic. If refers to transact its activities through a systematic institution and
regulation.
9. Education is lifelong: Education starts from the time of conception and
goes until death. Education from cradle to grave as sometime said. Education is
lifelong. Process because every stage of life of an individual. Is important from
of educational point.
10. Education is influence exerted: Education is the mature persons.
(Teachers, Parents, Adult) influence on child.
11. Education is balanced development: Education concerned with the
development of all the faculities of the child.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 13
12. Education is bipolar: Education is the process in which both teacher and
pupil influence each other the personality of the educator modifies. The behavior
of the educant and in turn is affected by the personality of the educand.
13. Education is tripolar: Education involves the teacher of the subject matter.
14.Education is psychological as well as social: The endowments or the
capacities of the child – his needs interest etc must be interpreted and developed
in a social setting
15.Education is growth: Education modifies the behaviour of the child, Human
behaviour is modified and improved through educational process.
16.Education is power: Education is power and treasure in human being
through which he is entitled, as the supreme master on earth. Education is life
long process.
There for the role of education is countless for a perfect society and man it is
necessary for every society and nation to bring historic. Happiness and prosperity
to its individuals.

1.7.Types of Education
Education goes beyond what takes places within the four walls of the
classroom. A child gets the education from his experiences outside the school as
well as from those within on the basis of these factors. There are three main types
of education, namely, Formal, Informal and Non-formal.

1.7.1. Formal Education

Formal education or formal learning usually takes place in the premises
of the school, where a person may learn basic, academic, or trade skills. Small
children often attend a nursery or kindergarten but often formal education begins
in elementary school and continues with secondary school.
Post-secondary education (or higher education) is usually at a college or
university which may grant an academic degree. It is associated with a specific or
stage and is provided under a certain set of rules and regulations.
The formal education is given by specially qualified teachers they are
supposed to be efficient in the art of instruction. It also observes strict discipline.
The student and the teacher both are aware of the facts and engage themselves in
the process of education.
14 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Examples of Formal Education
AALearning in a classroom
AASchool grading/certification, college, and university degrees
AAPlanned education of different subjects having a proper syllabus acquired
by attending the institution.

Characteristics of formal education

AAFormal education is structured hierarchically.
AAIt is planned and deliberate.
AAScheduled fees are paid regularly.
AAIt has a chronological grading system.
AAIt has a syllabus and subject-oriented. The syllabus has to be covered
within a specific time period.
AAThe child is taught by the teachers
AARegular exams and tests are conducted.

Advantages of Formal education:

AAAn organized educational model and up to date course contents.
AAStudents acquire knowledge from trained and professional teachers.
AAStructured and systematic learning process.
AAIntermediate and final assessments are ensured to advance students to the
next learning phase.
AAInstitutions are managerially and physically organized.
AALeads to a formally recognized certificate.
AAEasy access to jobs.

Disadvantages of Formal education:   

AASometimes, brilliant students are bored due to the long wait for the expiry
of the academic session to promote to the next stage
AAChance of bad habits’ adoption may be alarming due to the presence of
both good and bad students in the classroom
AAWastage of time as some lazy students may fail to learn properly in spite of
motivation by the professional trainers.
AASome unprofessional and non-standard education system may cause the
wastage of time and money of the students which leads to the disappointment
from formal education and argue them to go for non-formal education.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 15
AACostly and rigid education as compare to other forms of learning

1.7.2. Non-formal Education

AANon-formal education includes adult basic education, adult literacy
education or school equivalency preparation.
AAIn non formal education, someone (who is not in school) can learn literacy,
other basic skills or job skills.
AAHome education, individualized instruction (such as programmed learning),
distance learning and computer-assisted instruction are other possibilities.
AANon-formal education is imparted consciously and deliberately and
systematically implemented.
AAIt should be organized for a homogeneous group. Non-formal, education
should be programmed to serve the needs of the identified group. This will
necessitate flexibility in the design of the curriculum and the scheme of
evaluation.

Examples of Non-formal Education

AABoy Scouts and Girls Guides develop some sports program such as
swimming comes under nonformal education.
AAFitness programs.
AACommunity-based adult education courses.
AAFree courses for adult education developed by some organization.

Characteristics of Non-formal Education

AAThe nonformal education is planned and takes place apart from the school
system.
AAThe timetable and syllabus can be adjustable.
AAUnlike theoretical formal education, it is practical and vocational education.
AANonformal education has no age limit.
AAFees or certificates may or may not be necessary.
AAIt may be full time or part-time learning and one can earn and learn together.
AAIt involves learning of professional skills.

Advantages of Non-formal Education

AAPracticed and vocational training.
AANaturally growing minds that do not wait for the system to amend.
AALiteracy with skillfulness growth in which self-learning is appreciated.
16 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
AAFlexibility in age, curriculum and time.
AAOpen-ended educational system in which both the public and private sector
are involved in the process.
AANo need to conduct regular exams.
AADiploma, certificates, and award are not essential to be awarded.

Disadvantages of Non-formal Education

AAAttendance of participants is unsteady.
AASometimes, it’s just wastage of time as there is no need to conduct the
exam on regular basis and no degree/diploma is awarded at the end of the
training session.
AABasic reading and writing skills are crucial to learn.
AANo professional and trained teachers.
AAStudents may not enjoy full confidence as the regular students enjoy.
AASome institutes provide fake certification through online courses just for
the sake of earning.

Formal Education Non-Formal Education

Purposes i)Formal education is expected i) Non-formal education meets short-
to provide the basis for an term learning needs of individuals and
individual’s whole future life. communities.
ii)Therefore, even in technical ii) It therefore emphasizes the learning
fields, it is general in of specific knowledge and skills and the
character. inculcation of specific attitudes which
iii) The end product of formal result in immediate functional behavioral
education is the acquisition of changes.
qualifications and certificates iii) Non-formal education produces learning
which enable individuals to which is immediately valued in the context
obtain specific socio-economic of the individual’s or community’s life
positions in the wider society. situation. Rewards are tangible and may
Rewards are therefore include improvements in material well-
deferred. being, productivity, self awareness, ability
to control the environment, etc.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 17
Formal Education Non-Formal Education
Timing i)Formal education programs i)Non-formal education programs are quite
are rarely less than 1 year short, rarely longer than 2 years and often
in length and usually last for much shorter than this. Length will depend
much longer periods, often 10 on the period required to achieve the
years or more. One level of learning objectives in question.
study leads immediately on to ii) Non-formal education is part-time, and
the next. activities may be timed in a variety of
ii)Formal education takes ways to meet the needs and convenience
place full-time and does not of learners.
permit other parallel activities,
especially productive work.
Content i)The basis of the curriculum i)Non-formal education is task- or skill-
for formal education is a well- centered and designed to produce quite
defined package of cognitive specific changes in the learners. Units
knowledge with limited are discrete and variable and may be
emphasis on psychomotor or related to the precise functional learning
affective consideration. The needs of individual participants or small
content is standardized across homogeneous groups.
large groups of learners. ii)The curriculum is dictated by the
ii)The curriculum is founded particular uses to which the learning will
in theory and isolated from be put and consequently is closely related
environmental and social to the environment of the learners.
realities.
Delivery i)Institution-based i) Environment-based
system ii) Formal education takes ii) Non-formal education takes place in a
place in highly visible and variety of set tings, but emphasis is given
expensive institutions called to locales (such as the work place or
“schools,” whose sole purpose is home) which are not education specific.
educational. Such specific facilities that are used are
iii) Isolated minimal and low-cost.
iv)Rigidly structured iii) Community-related
v)Teacher-centered iv)Flexibly structured
vi)Resource-intensive v)Learner-centered
vi)Resource-saving
Control i) Externally controlled i) Self-governing
ii) Hierarchical ii)Democratic
iii)Internal control is highly iii)Substantial control is vested in
structured and based on participants and the local community.
role-defined relations among
teachers and between
teachers and learners.
18 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
1.7.3.Informal education:
The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes,
values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences
and resources in his or her environment – from family and neighbours, from work
and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media.
AAInformal education may be a parent teaching a child how to prepare a
meal or ride a bicycle.
AAPeople can also get an informal education by reading many books from a
library or educational websites.
Informal education is when you are not studying in a school and do not use
any particular learning method. In this type of education, conscious efforts are
not involved. It is neither pre-planned nor deliberate. It may be learned at some
marketplace, hotel or at home.
Unlike formal education, informal education is not imparted by an
institution such as school or college. Informal education is not given according
to any fixed timetable. There is no set curriculum required. Informal education
consists of experiences and actually living in the family or community.

Examples of Informal Education

AATeaching the child some basics such as numeric characters.
AASomeone learning his/her mother tongue
AAA spontaneous type of learning, “if a person standing in a bank learns
about opening and maintaining the account at the bank from someone.”

Characteristics of Informal Education

AAIt is independent of boundary walls.
AAIt has no definite syllabus.
AAIt is not pre-planned and has no timetable.
AANo fees are required as we get informal education through daily experience
and by learning new things.
AAIt is a lifelong process in a natural way.
AAThe certificates/degrees are not involved and one has no stress for learning
the new things.
AAYou can get from any source such as media, life experiences, friends,
family etc.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 19
Advantages of Informal Education
AAMore naturally learning process as you can learn at anywhere and at any
time from your daily experience.
AAIt involves activities like individual and personal research on a topic of
interest for themselves by utilizing books, libraries, social media, internet
or getting assistance from informal trainers.
AAUtilizes a variety of techniques.
AANo specific time span.
AALess costly and time-efficient learning process.
AANo need to hire experts as most of the professionals may be willing to
share their precious knowledge with students/public through social media
and the internet.
AALearners can be picked up the requisite information from books, TV, radio
or conversations with their friends/family members.

Disadvantages of Informal Education

AAInformation acquired from the internet, social media, TV, radio or
conversations with friends/family members may lead to the disinformation.
AAUtilized techniques may not be appropriate.
AANo proper schedule/time span.
AAUnpredictable results which simply the wastage of time.
AALack of confidence in the learner.
AAAbsence of discipline, attitude and good habits.

Informal education for instance comprises the following

activities:
(a) Visits to museums or to scientific and other fairs and exhibits, etc.
(b) Listening to radio broadcasting or watching TV programmes on educational
or scientific themes
(c) Reading texts on sciences, education, technology, etc. in journals and
magazines
(d) Participating in scientific contests, etc.
(e) Attending lectures and conferences.
There are many instances of situations/activities encompassed by informal
education, from those that may take place in the students’ homes - such as
20 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
scientific or didactic games, manipulation of kits, experiments, reading sessions
(biographies, scientific news, etc.) - to institutional activities - lectures in
institutions, visiting museums, etc.
It is easy to see that the higher the degree of systematization and organization
involved in informal education activities, the nearer it will be to non-formal
education. This is a relevant fact inasmuch as it suggests the possibility of
transition from informal to non-formal. We must ponder that, considered by itself,
we cannot generally assert whether an educative action belongs to the formal,
to the non-formal or to the informal universe. For instance, a visit to a Science
Museum may be an informal education instance if arising from a personal and
spontaneous decision by a student, as it is not directly related to his scholastic
activities. However, if such a visit is part of an established curriculum, requiring
from students a written report and including assessments by the teacher, or tutor,
then it will probably be an activity associated to either the formal or to the non-
formal education.

Criteria of Formal Education Informal Education Non-Formal

Analysis Education
Definition Formal education Casual or informal Non-formal
is a methodical education is different education qualities
and composed from formal training are discovered
training model that and especially from when the received
organized and nonformal training, methodology does
controlled by a despite the fact that not require learner
given arrangement in specific cases it is participation,
of laws and equipped for keeping diminishing the
standards, exhibiting up a cozy association contacts among
a somewhat with both. Informal instructor and
inflexible educational instruction does not learner and most
programs as respects really incorporate exercises happen
goals, content and the destinations and outside the school,
procedure. subjects for the most for example, home
part included by the reading and desk
customary educational work.
program
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 21
Instances Acquiring proper Students discussion, Non-credit adult
knowledge from learning outside the educational
educational classroom, use of DVD programs, sports
institutions like school, having educational programs planned
college & university. lectures & TV shows. by community
association, online
courses
Course Properly organize Multidisciplinary field Particular knowledge
contents information based information. of specific domain.
on facts.
Type of Formal activities Routine training Calming Non-formal activities
activities activities (outside the school,
classroom and after
getting jobs)
Outcome Positive and Positive or negative and Positive and
projected non-projected projected
Source of Schools, colleges, Internet, Social Media, Outsidethe
acquiring universities and electronic/ print media, educational institution
knowledge other educational group discussion
institutions amongst friends/family
members
Way of Direct Individual, implicit Direct
acquiring
knowledge
Advantages. Organized, structured Naturally learning Practiced and
and systemic process as you learn vocational trainings,
learning process from daily experience, Literacy with
end with recognized less costly and time skillfulness growth,
certificate which proficient, no need to flexibility in age,
leads to access a hire experts, learn from curriculum and time,
reasonable job social media, electronic no regular exams.
& print media, internet
and other sources.
Disadvantages Costly and rigid Unreliable sources Non-regular turnout
education, long of information, no of learners, no
academic session, proper time schedule, regular exam so no
adoption of bad inappropriate degree/ certificate
habits during study techniques, is awarded at the
hours, unprofession unpredictable results, end of a training
al trainers may absence of confidence session which is just
cause the wastage and discipline in learner. undue consumption
of time and money of precious time.
as well.
22 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
1.8. Levels of Education
India today is the second largest higher education network in the world.
Universities in India are set up by the Central or State Governments by means
of legislation, while colleges are established by both the State Governments
and public/private non-profit societies as well as charitable trusts. Business and
commercial organisations can’t establish educational institutions in India. Each
college or institute is affiliated with any university.
Education in India follows a uniform structure of school education which is
known as the 10+2 system. This system is being followed by all Indian States and
Union Territories. But not all of them follow a distinct pattern as per the system.
The different levels of education i.e. school education and higher education
systems have been described below:

a. Pre-Primary education
Pre Primary Education can be defined as “a set of knowledge along with
skills and experience as well as behavioral rules which provides the essential for
coping successfully in everyday life and at school.” This is acquired at a child
care institution.

Objective of Pre Primary Education:

The children under the age group of 1 to 6 yrs are supposed to get growth and
expansion in the field of school academics as preschoolers. To afford the holistic
development akin to cognitive, social, expressive and interacting skills or in general
the development of the kids counting with a variety of maturity and knowledge in a
child like considerable, emotional, exciting, mental, ethical, fine motor, gross motor,
verbal communication, education, admiring, response etc. with other individuality
build up at this phase. To promote an
intelligence of self-determination and
an optimistic personal likeness in the
general public also grow. To take care of
acceptance and admiration intended for
others in the course of the value for adults
and love affection for the youngsters
generate among the kids.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 23
When children build up and becoming to be the adults, we desire them
by including them to adopt the essential continued existence skills or intelligence
such as language and Vocabulary skills with sight words. Independent
encouragement, the aptitude to converse on one’s individual’s favor, is an
imperative and commanding effect for offspring and grownups, particularly the
individuals with ailments. By gaining the culture in advance with competencies
that encourage the independence as an immature child, we commence to concrete
the approach for them to successfully utilize their accent or other resources to
converse up and doing on their personal morals. At this stage whilst the brood
encompasses the aptitude to interact merely in their mother tongue, they acquire
the thought and inspiration of understanding or to communicate themselves in
English and Hindi languages in the society, which they are conscious of.
The subjects which are taught at Pre Primary level of School Academics for
holistic developments are:

English Language & Text:

In English Language children at this stage learn the phonic
sounds which are related to accent of 2 to 3 letter words
and gradually it goes on for 5 to 6 letters. Where as in
text they start reading and learning the sentences from the
prescribed text books.
Mathematics:
In Mathematics children grasp the knowledge of
Numerals from 1-100
in the form Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,
Division, Place Value, Greater & Smaller than, word
Problems, Money etc.

EVS (Environmental Studies):

Environmental Studies means to acquire the knowledge of
nature where they study about plants, animals, fruits, flowers,
physical features of the surrounding, Sun –who gives us light
and energy, clouds, Rain, Water etc.
24 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
General Knowledge:
About parts of the body, Digestive system,
names of the fingers, tooth, Different system of body
organs, Personal Hygiene our great freedom fighters, prayers,
National Anthem, Patriotic songs, Pledge etc.

Art & Craft:

How to draw the objects and color them with different concepts
of coloring. Craft would be concerning with Origami (paper
folding- Japanese Art).

Work Experience:
It is associated with opposites like Hot x Cold, Tall x
Short, collage (paper tearing & sticking).

Rhymes & Action Songs:

Children sing the songs by means of
Rhyming Words and different events of the body with the help
of actions, for instance- 12345, once I caught a fish alive.

Story Telling:
Dramatization- Monkey and the Cap Seller and The Little
Red Riding Hood etc.

Co-curricular & Extra-curricular Activities:

Indoor activities like kite making, rakhi, hina,
decoration of Diwali oil lamps, recognition of Holi colours
and Extra-curricular Activities playing Outdoor games
like Khoko, Kabaddi, Basket-ball, Dog and the bone, Hide
and seek-flat race etc.

Field Trip:
Visiting Botanical Garden, Post Office, Blind School,
Historical places and their importance.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 25
Individual & Group effort:
An individual child prepares a cold drink and a group
effort would be a group of children would arrange for
special variety of sandwiches etc.

Objective in primary Education in Indian

education commission
Indian education commission (1964- 66) had recommended the following
eight objectives.
1. Development of good health habits and basic skills for personal
adjustment, such as toilet habits, dressing, washing, cleaning etc.
2. Development of desirable social attitudes and habits in the children so
that they should participate effectively in group activities and should be
sensitive to the rights and privileges of others.
3. Development of aesthetic sense in children
4. Development of emotional maturity in children so that they should be able
to understand, accept, control and express their feelings and emotions
5. Development and stimulation of intellectual curiosity of the children
concerning the environment so that they should be able to understand the
world where they live in
6. Provision of ample opportunities to the children to enable them to explore
investigate and experiment
7. Provision of opportunity for self expression so that creativity in them
should be encourages and developed
8. provision of such conditions as are helpful in the development of good
physique muscular coordination and basic motor skill

Importance of Pre Primary Education:

1. Pre school education is essential for your toddler because it prepares
your child for kindergarten and future school which will be allowed to
build a base for his future education.
2. It allows developing a child’s personality by exposing the creativity of the
child in a natural way.
3. Pre primary education helps to learn that how a child can adjust with his/
her peers and interact with outsiders.
26 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
4. It ensures the physical, mental and emotional growth of the child. The
child develops his cognitive skills in the scientific curriculum that nurtures
the child.
Pre-primary education is known as various names such as nursery education
kinder garden education ECCE. Nursery &Kinder garden are in fact western system
of Pre-primary education which we are trying to. Adopt into Indian system. Here
children are taught how to do develop basic skills. The founder of pre-primary
education in Germen philosopher for bet. He establish kinder garden taught
through songs & gifts. In India Gandhiji planned Pre-basic education. Kinder
garden montisorri, Nursery, pre-basic school, Day Care Centers, Balawadisetc
are example

b.Primaryeducation
The elementary stage of formal educational set up covers primary education
it is the stage when the child start reading. Formal instruction in an institution
child having 6-8 years of schooling that usually start from the age of 5 or 6. Five
years of primary education are crucial for pupils since the basic three R’s (reading,
writing and arithmetic) and fundamentals in sciences, social studies and other
vital subject experiences are provided.

Objectives of primary education

Primary education should provide the learner with opportunities to:
1. acquire literacy, numeracy, creativity and communication skills
2. enjoy learning and develop desire to continue learning
3. develop ability for ctitical thinking and logical judgement
4. appreciated and respect the dignity of work
5. develop desirable socialstandards, moral and regilious values
6. develop into a self-disciplines, physically fit and healthy person
7. develop aesthetic values and appreciation of the environment
8. instill respect and love for own country and the need for harmonious co
existence
9. develop awareness of and appreciation for other nations and international
community
10. develop individual talents
11. promote social responsiability and make proper use of leisure time
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 27
Importance of primary education

AAEnsuring all children less than 14 years of age are enrolled and retained in
schools
AAEnhancing the quality of teaching in primary school; importance is to
be given for learning capabilities of pupils by employing pupil-centered
methods in classroom instruction
AAThe basic infra-structural needs of primary schools like proper buildings,
tables, chairs, benches and black boards as well as instructional facilities
like equipements, teaching aids, playgrounds and adequate number
of qualified teachers are to be made available. For this programme of
Operation black board is to be immediately implemented.
AAAs rural children have to help their parents in agriculture related work,
they are not able to attend the school regularly as per the time-table of the
school. To overcome this working hours of the schools and holidays are to
be so planned as to adjust with the needs of rural children.
AAArrangement should be made to provides individualized instruction for the
first generation learners in rural schools so that they can proceed at their
own speed of learning
AAExaminations are to be made objective and efforts should be made to
eliminate stagnation at any class at the elementary education stage
AAFacilities are to be created through non-formal system of education for
catering to the educational needs of those children who have dropped out
of schools those who have no schools in their neighbourhood and those
who go for work to augment the family income
AAElementary education should be flexible enough to admit in the formal
system those children who learn well in the non-formal system and acquire
the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. Before 1995 all in the
age group of 15 to 35 are to be made literate through non-formal system
of education. The goal of 100% literacy should be achieved by 2000 A.D.

c. Secondary education
Those who have completed 5 years of primary education study for another 5
years. Only those who pass the state level public examinations conducted at the
end of 10th std, are said to have completed the secondary or high school education.
28 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Those who complete secondary education can as per their choice join either the
2 year higher secondary course or the 2 year industrial trade certificate course
in ITI’s or in the first year of the 3 year diploma course in Polytechnics. High
school education serves as a bridge between the community and the practical
life of pupils. the constituents of secondary education viz. standard VI, VII, VIII,
IX and X could be found in high schools and higher secondary schools. Middle
schools contain stds. VI, VII and VIII stds. of middle schools which form a part of
secondary education go by the name “Lower secondary classes”.

Objectives of secondary education

AAEncourage pupils to continue their education after the primary education
AAFacilitate to learn more in depth and breadth the subjects studies at the
primary level and widen the knowledge and attitude of pupils.
AAtrain them in citizenship so that the pupils may become good cititzens of
this democractic country
AAprepare them for higher education in academic subjects
AAimpart them vocational skills and prepare for employment
AAarrange for learning a third language at the lower secondary stage
AAFocus on improving the standard of general education
AAMake all students learn the mother tongue, English a third language
mathematics, general science social science physical education, creative
work related to fine arts and work experience
AAprovide students subsidized transport and text books
AAestablish separated girls schools wherever necessary
AAestablish a pace setting school in each district
AAState the following objectives of secondary education
AACreative citizens with requisite knowledge and discipline
AAfunctionally efficient and progressive leaders who can dedicate themselves
for the industrial advancement and economic development of our country
AAbalanced personalities having deep faith in our culture and be able to
appreciate our literature and fine arts.

Importance of secondary education

1. Education received in secondary school can help reduce child marriage :
Child marriage is one of the most common things that we have seen happening in
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 29
the olden days. Be it young boys and especially young girls, marriage befell upon
them quite early. Rather, so early that it led to many ruined lives and even death.
Especially in countries like India, child marriage was even considered to be the
normal way for getting a child married.
Many studies prove that proper education can reduce up to 64% of child
marriage rates. And that it is especially important for a girl child to be properly
educated about this. The reduction in child marriage rates will also decrease early
pregnancy rates by 59%. Thus not only will many lives be saved, but also the
overtly populated earth will be a tad bit relieved.
2. There are more than 226 million children around the world who do not
attend secondary school. If these children were all to go onto secondary education,
then the under-five mortality rate would fall by 49 percent. According to Ann
M. Veneman, the Executive Director of UNICEF, evidence shows that girls who
receive an education are more likely to take better care of their families, and in
turn, reduce infant mortality rates.
3. A person’s earnings should increase by 10 percent on average for each year
of school they attend. As a result, education may help boost economies and bring
populations out of poverty.
4. In 29 countries around the world, children must complete secondary
school. Some developed and developing countries will even pay for children to
attend secondary school. The world is a harsh place to survive in. The ones who
are already facing this know the reality know this. But the children don’t. Right
from their birth, children are kept under the loving care of their parents. While
primary schools impart the basic education, it is only in a secondary school where
the basics are taken a notch higher and the children are put to test.
When someone skips secondary school, they not only miss out on a great
deal of knowledge but they also miss out on a comparatively smoother transition.
This smoothness can highly affect one’s view of the world and the people living
in it. Besides, secondary school also prepares a child to go out there and face the
world. When you know the world better, you can definitely survive better. Thus,
secondary school is definitely very important in the growing up of a child.
30 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
5. In just 40 years, a country could raise its Growth Domestic Product (GDP)
per capita by 23 percent through equal access to education.
6. The attendance of all children to school would require $39 billion in
funding every year.
7.Children often start to drop out of school after primary school. The decrease
in enrollment is as much as 10 percent worldwide and 34 percent in Sub-Saharan
Africa.
8.In the year 2012, reports stated that there were 168 million child labor
workers between the ages of five and 17. This is one of the reasons a child might
be unable to attend school.
9.In most developing countries, public school is not free for children to attend,
as they must purchase books, uniforms and other school supplies. Even factoring
out the costs of going to school, 67 million children still do not receive the right to
attend. As a result, millions of children do not obtain a proper education, making
it difficult to find substantial forms of employment. One solution to this has
been Child Empowerment International, an organization that works to provide
education to children across the world by setting up day schools for children
without access to education, such as in refugee camps.
10. While girls are less likely to be able to attend school in the first place,
boys are more likely to repeat grades or drop out of school altogether. This is
due to various issues within their countries, such as restrictions on education for
women or early marriage.

Present Scenario of Secondary Education

Even in the present world, there are many children who are devoid of secondary
education. While girls are not at all sent to attend their secondary school, the boys
tend to repeat their grades and finally drop out. Such is the pathetic condition of
secondary education. This might be due to various restrictions in the country or
maybe in their homes. The girls might be forced to get married early while the
boys might be forced to start earning for their family. But, this should not be the
scenario at all. The governments of all the countries in the world should make it
necessary for every child to attend secondary school and ensure that the children
get proper education.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 31
d) Higher secondary education
After Kothari education commission (1964-66) recommendations were
accepted. Our country opted for the uniform pattern of education i.e. 10+2+3.
In this the +2 level called higher secondary education. In states like tamilnadu,
higher secondary schools offer five years of high schools education and two years
of higher secondary education. In states like Karnataka, kerala etc. the higher
secondary classes are run in the separate educational institutions called junior
colleges. thus higher secondary stage of education constitutes the terminal stage
for majority of pupils who are to take up jobs and the rest pursue collegiate
education in arts and science colleges or professional degree colleges.
The higher secondary courses consist of two streams.
1. Academicals stream 2. Vocational stream.
Both the streams are equal value help to continue higher education of
appropriate nature. But vocational stream was considered more helpful for self
employment. At the higher secondary stage students are allowed to study subjects
of their choice which are generally presented as a block consisting of three or four
subjects. the academic stream is meant for those who wish to continue their higher
education and the vocational stream helps pupils to get self-employed or take up
vocations with some more training. Higher secondary classes generally handled
by trained PG teachers (M.Sc., B.Ed/ M.A. B.Ed./ M.com B.Ed., ).

Education structure
According to kothari commission’s report the new educational structure
should consists of
i). Pre-school education otherwise known as pre primary education of one
to three years which is not mandatory. However it is desirable to have
atleast one year of pre-primary education for all children of age 5 to 6
years. This stage will become preparatory for formal school education.
The government should ensure the availability of adequate opportunities
and financial resources for imparting pre-primary education.
ii). A 10 year period of general education which may be sub-divided into
a primary stage 7 to 8 years( a lower primary stage of 4 to 5 years and a
higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years) and a lower secondary stage of 3 or
32 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
2 years if general education (the enrolment in vocational courses being
raised to 20% of the total). Immediate steps should be taken to make
lower primary education (Up to class V ) absolutely free for all. Within
the stipulated time frame, upper primary education (i.e.upto class VIII)
should be made free for all (in TamilNādu this has been achieved decades
ago)
iii). A higher secondary atage of 2 years (age group 16 to 18 years) of
general education or one to three years of vocational education ( the
enrolments in vocational education being raised to 50% of the total).
Thus higher secondary education will form the preparatory stage for
higher education and professional degree education.

The major aims of higher secondary education

i). Preparation for higher education and professional education
ii). Strength the vocational stream of education so that pupil coming out of
schools join the labour force and enhance its efficiency for productivity
iii). Development if social and national integration and consolidation of
democratic way of life
iv). Striving to build character by cultivating social, moral and spiritual
values
v). Higher education stage having a course 3 years or more for the first
degree and followed by courses of varying duration for the post graduate
and research degrees.

d. Senior Secondary Stage

Senior Secondary Education in India is of only 2 years. There is uniformity
on this level of education in terms of duration and classes i.e. all the States/UTs
follow this 10+2 pattern. Senior Secondary Schools in India include classes 11th
to 12th. consisting of students aged between 16-18 years. At this level of education
students have the freedom to choose their preferred stream and subjects. They can
pursue Arts, Commerce, Science (medical &non-medical). The schools which
provide education up till 12th class are commonly known as Senior 29 Secondary
Schools or Higher Secondary Schools. Some universities and colleges also offer
the education of these classes.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 33
e. Higher education
Higher education is non- compulsory educational level which comprises of
undergraduate and post graduate along. With vocational education training usually,
a person need to admit in a college or a university to receive higher education.
i). Based on the feedback regarding the performance of the college
affiliated to universities (particularly considering the standard of
education and richness of programmes offered) autonomous colleges will
be helped to develop in large numbers.
ii). Similarly autonomy will be encouraged for departments in the
universities
iii). Lingustic competence will be encouraged special care will be given for
students to have combination of preferred subjects.
iv). state level planning and coordination of higher education will be
attempted through councils of higher education
v). UGC will encourage research by providing all support and ensuring
high quality. U.G.C. will also coordinate research in the universities
particularly in thrust areas of science and technology with research
undertaken by other agencies.
vi). Open universities will be encouraged and thereby liberalizing
opportunities for higher education
vii). Delinking of degreed from jobs, in selected areas
viii). Establishing an appropriate national testing service in a phased
manner to conduct entrances tests for specific employment, paving the
way to provide norms for comparing competence at the national level.

f. Professional / technical education

From the first Five-year Plan onwards, India’s emphasis was to develop a pool
of scientifically inclined man power. India’s National Policy on Education (NPE)
provisioned for an apex body for regulation and det of higher technical education,
which came into being as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
in 1987 through an act of the Indian parliament. At the federal level, the Indian
Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology,
the National Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Information
34 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Technology, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology are deemed of
national importance. The Indian Institutes of Technology are among the nation’s
premier education facilities. Since 2002, Several Regional Engineering Colleges
(RECs) have been converted into National Institutes of Technology giving them
Institutes of National Importance status.
In order to maintain standards and for other valid reasons, commerscialization
of technical and professional education will be curbed. To motivate private and
voluntary efforts in this sector of education with accepted norms and goals, an
alternative system will be devised.
The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased to over
7 lakh in 2011 from 5.5 lakh in 2010. However, according to one study, 75% of
technical graduates and more than 85% of general graduates lack the skills needed
in India’s most demanding and high-growth 46 global industries such as Information
Technology. These high-tech global information technologies companies directly or
indirectly employ about 23 lakh people, less than 1% of India’s labour pool. India
offers one of the largest pool of technically skilled graduates in the world. Given the
sheer numbers of students seeking education in engineering, science and mathematics,
India faces daunting challenges in scaling up capacity while maintaining quality.

g. Distance Education
Distance education provided by institutes is controlled by the Distance
Education Council of India. Distance education is helpful to those who cannot
join regular schools or colleges. At the school level, National Institute of Open
Schooling offers education through distance learning. While, at the college
or university level, Open universities provides distance education. Distance
education can also be pursued online via internet. Some like the Birla Institute
of Technology and Science (BITS) provides online education through – BITS
Virtual University.

Open and distance learning in India

Centre for Distance and Open Learningwas established with the Distance
Education Council in September 2002. Major objectives of the Centre is to
provide opportunities for higher education to those who are not able to draw
benefits from formal system of education. The Open Learning System allows a
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 35
learner to determine his pace of learning and provides education at the doorstep
of the learner. The mode of transaction is through self-learning print material,
supplemented by audio and video programmes. It has further scope of students
accessing material through internet and various other media.
At school level, National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provides
opportunities for continuing education to those who missed completing school
education. 14 lakh students are enrolled at the secondary and higher secondary level
through open and distance learning. In 2012 Various state governments also introduced
“STATE OPEN SCHOOL” to provide distance education. At higher education level,
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) co-ordinates distance learning. It
has a cumulative enrolment of about 15 lakh, serviced through 53 regional centres
and 1,400 study centres with 25,000 counsellors. The Distance Education Council
(DEC), an authority of IGNOU is co-coordinating 13 State Open Universities and 119
institutions of correspondence courses in conventional universities. While distance
education institutions have expanded at a very rapid rate, but most of these institutions
need an up gradation in their standards and performance. There is a large proliferation
of courses covered by distance mode without adequate infrastructure, both human and
physical. There is a strong need to correct these imbalances.

h. Optional
i) Undergraduate Stage
Undergraduate education in India is of 3-4 years. Undergraduate stage of
education is also known as higher education in India. Students studying in this
level, generally begin their education from 18 onwards. As per one estimate
88% of undergraduate education is provided by Colleges in India. Majority of
the undergraduate courses of 3 years duration belong to field of arts, humanities,
science etc. and majority of 4 years of duration belong to the field of agriculture,
engineering, pharmaceutical sciences technology. However, there are courses
belonging to fields of architecture, law, and medicine whose duration is 5 years.

ii) Postgraduate Stage

Postgraduate education in India is of 2-3 years. Postgraduate stages of courses
are known as MastersCourses or Doctorate courses. Masters course are usually of
2 years duration and doctorate (research) courses are of 3 years duration. Also
36 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
referred as higher education, 56% of post-graduate education is imparted through
colleges. PG education in India is largely provided by universities in India. PG
education caters largely to a specific field or sub field of any preferred discipline.
Thus, one can specialise in any of preferred subjects at this level. Those who are
interested in conducting large amount of research work pursue these courses.

iii) Special educations

There are some students who require special learning needs which are
addressed through special education according  to IDEA [ Individual with
Disabilities Educational Act]  child is first identified as one who requires special
education support then the child is evaluated on its basis his/ her eligibility is
determined.

iv)Adult education
Adult Education in India comes under the purview of the Department of
School Education and Literacy.There are different form of adult education namely
formal, class based learning, e-learning and self-directed learning. The Bureau of
Adult Education and National Literacy Mission under the Department functions
as the Secretariat of the National Literacy Mission Authority (NLMA). National
Literacy Mission was set up on 5th May, 1988 to impart a new sense of urgency
and seriousness to adult education. The Directorate of Adult Education provides
necessary technical and resource support to the NLMA.

v) Vocational Education & Training:

Vocational education and training programs prepare students for entry into
different professions. These programs have varied duration, from few months
to few years however mostly up to one year. Vocational education and training
programs provide students with theoretical knowledge as well as on the job
training to make them productive from the first day of the employment. There are
several thousand Government owned, Government aided and private technical
and vocational institutes across India.
India’s All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) reported, in 2013,
that there are more than 4,599 vocational institutions that offer degrees, diploma
and post-diploma in architecture, engineering, hotel management, infrastructure,
pharmacy, technology, town services and others. There were 17.4 lakh students
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 37
enrolled in these schools. Total annual intake capacity for technical diplomas and
degrees exceeded 34 lakh in 2012. According to the University Grants Commission
(UGC) total enrolment in Science, Medicine, Agriculture and Engineering
crossed 65 lakh in 2010. The number of women choosing engineering has more
than doubled since 2001.

Home schooling in India

Homeschooling isn’t widespread in India, and neither is it widely accepted.
This type of alternative education It is considered for handicapped or those who
are unable to attend regular school due to various factors. While some make use
of Montessori Method, Unschooling, Radical Unschooling, Waldorf education
or School-at-home. Others prefer CBSE, NIOS or NOS and IGCSE prescribed
syllabus.

Certificate and Diploma programs:

In addition to the degree programs, several diploma and certificate programs
are also available in universities. Their range is wide, and they cover anything
from poetics to computers. Some of them are undergraduate diploma programs
and others postgraduate programs. The duration varies from course to course and
program to program a usually ranges between one year and three years.

Teacher Education
AAAdmission to teacher training programmes should be based on merit and
aptitude and through a special entrance examination
AAThe national council for teacher education (NCTE) is to be established to
monitor teacher education programmes of all types and at all levels. It will
provide guidance regarding curricula and methods of teacher training
AATo organize pre-service and in-service education of elementary school
teachers, District institutes of education and training(DIET) are to be
established and substandard teacher training institutes are to be phased out
AATo recruit teachers based on merit and aptitude teacher recruitment boards
(TRB) are to be established
AATalented persons should be attracted to teaching profession; teacher’s
pay and service conditions are to be commensurate with the social and
professional responsibilities
38 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
AAEfforts are to be undertaken to provide uniform emoluments, service
conditions and grievance removal mechanisms throughout the nation
AANorms of accountability are to be laid down with incentives for good
performance

1.9. A
 ims and purposes of education drawn from
constitutional provision
Education for Increasing Productivity though India is a land of vast
resources, yet it has not become self-sufficient for this purpose, the resources must
be exploited and education must be related to productivity to increase national
income.
According to Dr. Radha Krishnan, “It is my earnest desire that the
Commission should survey all aspects of educational system at all levels and
give suggestions that may help the educational system in progressing at all levels.
According to Kothari Commission, “One of the important social objectives of
education is to equalize opportunity, enabling the backward or underprivileged
classes and individuals to use education as a tool for improvement of their social
and economic condition”. The most important and urgent reform needed in
education is to transform it, to relate it to the life, needs and aspirations of the
people and thereby make a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural
transformation, necessary for realization of the national goals. For this purpose
the commission has suggested the following objectives of education:
(a) Increasing productivity.
(b) Social and national integration.
(c) Acceleration the process of modernization.
(d) Developing social, moral and spiritual values.

1. Free and Compulsory Education:

The Constitution makes the following provisions under Article 45 of the Directive
Principles of State Policy that, “The state shall endeavour to provide within a period
of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory
Education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”
The expression ‘State’ which occurs in this Article is defined in Article 12
to include “The Government and Parliament of India and the Government and
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 39
the Legislature of each of the States and all local or other authorities within the
territory of India or under the control of the Government of India.” It is clearly
directed in Article 45 of the Constitution that the provision of Universal, Free
and Compulsory Education becomes the joint responsibility of the Centre and the
States.
In the Constitution it was laid down that within 10 years, i.e., by 1960
universal compulsory education must be provided for all children up to the age
of 14, But unfortunately, this directive could not be fulfilled. Vigorous efforts
are needed to achieve the target of 100 percent primary education. The Central
Government needs to make adequate financial provisions for the purpose. At the
present rate of progress it may, however, be expected that this directive may be
fulfilled by the end of this century.

2. Education of Minorities:
Article 30 of the Indian Constitution relates to certain cultural and educational
rights to establish and administer educational institutions.

It lays down:
(i) All minorities whether based on religion or language, shall have the right
to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
(ii) The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate
against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the
management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.

3. Language Safeguards:
Article 29(1) states “Any section of the citizen, residing in the territory of India
or any part there of having a distinct language, script or culture of its own, hall
have the right to conserve the same.” Article 350 B provides for the appointment
of special officer for linguistic minorities to investigate into all matters relating to
safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under the Constitution.

4. Equality of Opportunity in Educational Institutions:

Article 29(1) states “No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational
institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds
only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.”
40 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
The Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution has also adopted the
fourfold ideal of justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Our Constitution laid
down that in the eyes of law, everyone should have an equal status, to no one the
justice be denied, everyone should have liberty of thought, expression.
The fundamental right of equality clearly signifies that in the eyes of law
no distinction can be made on the basis of any position, caste, class or creed.
Side by side the right of equality of opportunities to all is also provided. The
equality of opportunity is meaningless unless there are equal opportunities for
one’s education.

5. Instruction in Mother -Tongue:

There is diversity of languages in our country. After the dawn of Independence,
Mother- Tongues have received special emphasis as medium of instruction and
subjects of study. In the Constitution of India, it has been laid down that the study
of one’s own language is a fundamental right of the citizens.
Article 26 (1) states, “Any section of the citizens, residing in the territory of
India or any part there of, having a distinct language, script or culture of its own,
shall have the right to converse the same.”
Article 350 A directs, “It shall he endeavour of every state and every local
authority to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the
primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups.”
Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 recommended that the mother
tongue or the regional language should generally be the medium of instruction
throughout secondary school stage subject to the provision that for linguistic
minorities, special facilities should be made available.
Kothori Commission, 1964-66 has also said that at college and university
stage, mother-tongue should be the medium. The medium of instruction at school
level is already mother-tongue. This is not a new proposal.

6. Promotion of Hindi:
The Indian Constitution makes provision for the development and promotion
of Hindi as national language. Article 351 enjoins the Union, the duty to promote
the spread of the Hindi language.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 41
Hindi accepted as the Official Language of India as laid
down by the Constitution in following words:
“It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language,
to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression of all the elements
of the composite culture of India.” In practice, Hindi is already largely in use as
a link language for the country. The educational system should contribute to the
acceleration of this process in order to facilitate the movement of student and
teacher and to strengthen national Unity.

7. Women’s Education:
One of the unique features of Modem Indian Education is the tremendous
advancement of Women’s Education. Education of the girls is considered to be
more important than that of the boys.

The Constitution makes the following provisions under

different articles:
AAArticle 15(1) provides that the State shall not discriminate any citizen on
groups only of sex.
AAArticle 15 (3) reads: ”Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from
making any special provision for women and children.”
AAThe well-known National Policy on Education was concerned about the
status and education of women in the country. It envisages that education
would be used as a strategy for achieving a basic change in the status
of women. It opined that the national system of education must play a
positive role in this direction.
AAThe Policy states, “Education will be used as an agent of basic change in
the status of women. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of
the past, there will be a well conceived edge in favour of women.”

1.10. E
 ducation as a mean of social justice in Indian
constitution
India, also known as Bharat, is a Union of States. It is a Sovereign Socialist
Secular Democratic Republic with a parliamentary system of government. The
Republic is governed in terms of the Constitution of India which was adopted by
the Constituent Assembly on 26th November, 1949 and came into force on 26th
42 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
January, 1950. The Constitution provides for a Parliamentary form of government
which is federal in structure with certain unitary features. The constitutional head
of the Executive of the Union is the President. As per Article 79 of the Constitution
of India, the council of the Parliament of the Union consists of the President and
two Houses known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the
People (Lok Sabha). Article 74(1) of the Constitution provides that there shall be
a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as its head to aid and advise the
President, who shall exercise his/her functions in accordance to the advice. The
real executive power is thus vested in the Council of Ministers with the Prime
Minister as its head.

Main Features of Indian Constitution

The key person behind the Constitution of India was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. He
was a learned person had good vision of future India. One of repeated criticism of
the Indian constitution is that it is very little original and mostly borrowed from
other constitutions. Even Dr. Ambedkar admitted in the Constituent Assembly
that many elements were borrowed from foreign constitutions but they were not
―slavishimitations but adoption of time-tested constitutional principles like the
―Rule of Law or ―Equality before Law to serve the interests of the people.
The first feature of Indian constitution is the most voluminous constitution
ever created by men. In its original shape the constitution had 395 articles and
12 schedules.Ourconstitution have been amended from time to time. The 99 odd
amendments (as on Dec‘2014) since 1950 only add to the bulk of the constitution.
When contrasted with the six effective articles and 27 ratified amendments of the
U. S. constitution, one appreciates how bulky our constitution is.
The Constituent Assembly was pre-dominated by lawyers. The constitution
is drafted in legalistic terms making it a lawyer‘s paradise. This stands in sharp
contrast with the U. S. constitution which is acclaimed as specimen of lucid
constitutional drafting. However, the fact that our constitution has endured for
over sixty years and during periods of acute crisis, shows its inherent strength and
resilience. When constitutions of neighboring countries like Pakistan, Burma or
Bangladesh were crumbling like houses of cards, our constitution stood steady
like a rock.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 43
The great bulk of the Indian constitution is due to several
factors.
Our founding fathers borrowed great constitutional principles from the
foreign constitutions while avoiding their loopholes to ensure healthy political
life to the citizens. Thus, the fundamental rights were borrowed from the U. S.
constitution, Parliamentary system of government from British, the Directive
principles from the Irish constitution and the idea of emergency from the German
Constitution and the Government of India Act of 1935.
Unlike other constitutions, the Indian constitution provides not only the basic
law. It also provides very detailed and minute administrative provisions.This was
to prevent subversion of the constitution through legislative process.The vastness
of the country and its population size and diversity compelled the framers of the
constitution to make provisions for the protection and promotion of the interests
of different regions and groups in the country. Thus, the constitution contains
elaborate provisions for the minorities, scheduled castes and tribes etc.
Finally, the Indian constitution is an omnibus (Volume containing several
books) constitution. It is at the same time a constitution for the whole nation as
well as for the component states of the Union.

Second main feature of the Indian constitution is that it is

a federal constitution.
The term federal has not been used in the constitution. Instead, India has been
described as a Union of States. However all the characteristics of a federation
viz. two sets of government-nationalgovernment and a number of governments
of the component units, division of powers between the national government and
the governments of the units and a federal judiciary to act as the guardian of
the constitution and to settle disputes between the centre and the units—are all
present in the Indian constitution. However, the nature of the Indian federation is
different from the nature of older federations like the U.S.A.
Third feature of the Indian constitution is that it provides for parliamentary
form of government both at the centre and in the states. This is borrowed from
the Westminster model. The adoption of this model is partly due to India‘s long
familiarity with it during the British rule.However, in the face of existence of
44 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
multiplicity of parties in India, some political scientistsquestion the wisdom of
this step.
Fourth feature of Indian Constitution is that though India has a written
constitution whichis a federal necessity, India‘s constitution is far less rigid than
a normal federal constitution.Truly, it is more flexible than rigid. Because of this
flexibility, it has been possible to amend the constitution 99 times in less than
sixty-five years. By contrast the U. S. constitution could be amended only 27
times in about 200 years.
Fifth important feature of Indian Constitution is that the constitution
like any modern written constitution has a preamble before it. The preamble is
very lucid exposition of the philosophy of the constitution.The original preamble
declared India to be a SovereignDemocratic Republic. The 42nd amendment
makes India ―a Sovereign, Secular Socialist Democratic Republic.Justice,
liberty, equality and fraternity are set as the ideas to be achieved by India as a
nation. The preamble to the Indian constitution is praised by all critics for its lucid
exposition of lofty political ideals.
Sixth important feature of Indian Constitution is that the constitution
guaranteesfundamental rights of the citizens. Rights to equality, freedom, religion and
constitutionalremedies are the enumerated fundamental rights of Indian citizens.
Seventhly, taking cue from the Irish constitution, our constitution also
provides a number of Directive Principles.Such principles do not constitute
any constitutional obligation for thegovernment to fulfill; rather they are guide-
lines to the government.Upholding secularism is another lofty aspect of our
constitution. India is a secular nation and does not have any state religion. In
a country inhabited by people of all faiths, it is essential that the state remains
neutral between religions. Acceptance of secularism as a political ideal was an
act of wisdom and boldness particularly after the traumatic experience of India‘s
partition on religious lines.
Finally, Indian constitution does not sanction double citizenship as in federations
like the U.S.A. There is only one uniform Indian citizenship.Our constitution was
carefully tailored to suit the needs of the Indian people. It is a tribute to the founding
fathers that their work has endured in spite of strains and stresses.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 45
1.11. Constitutional values and education
(i) Preamble
(ii) Fundamental Rights
(iii) Fundamental Duties
(iv) Directive Principles of State Policy and Education

(A) Preamble of the Constitution

Indian constitution has a preamble. Though the preamble of the Constitution
of India does not constitute an operative part of the Indian Constitution, yet it
serves several important purposes. It explains the ideals and objectives of the
constitution.After 42nd amendment in 1976, the preamble to the constitution
reads:These are the opening words of the preamble to the Indian Constitution
“WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India
into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to
secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE - social, economic and political.
LIBERTY- of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
EQUALITY- of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY - assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and
integrity of the Nation;

Forty-second Amendment
The preamble has been amended only once so far. On 18 December 1976,
during the Emergency in India, the Indira Gandhi government pushed through
several changes in the Forty-second Amendment of the constitution. A committee
under the chairmanship of Sardar Swaran Singh recommended that this
amendment be enacted after being constituted to study the question of amending
the constitution in the light of past experience. Through this amendment the
words “socialist” and “secular” were added between the words “sovereign” and
“democratic” and the words “unity of the Nation” were changed to “unity and
integrity of the Nation”.
The Preamble reflects the philosophy as well as fundamental values of
Indian Constitution. Itclarifies four important aspects. The preamble reflects the
46 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
aspirations of the Indians and isoften referred to as the soul of the Constitution.
It mentions that the Constitution derives its Authority from the people of India.
It declares India to be Sovereign, Socialist, secular, Democratic and Republican
country.Sovereign means India is internally and externally sovereign - externally
free from the control ofany foreign power and internally, it has a free government
which is directly elected by the people and makes laws that govern the people. No
external power can dictate the government of India.
The term socialist means democratic socialism i.e. achievement of socialistic
goals throughdemocratic, evolutionary and non-violent means. A mixed economy
in which both Public sectorand Private sector run together economic development.
The term secular means We the people of India, respect all religions. It does
not uplift or degrade any particular religion. “A state which does not recognize
any religion as the state religion, it treats all religions equally”. Positively, Indian
secularism guarantees equal freedom to all religion. it stands for the right to
freedom of religion for all citizens.
The term democratic means the people of India elect their governments at all
levels (Union, State and local) by a system of universal adult franchise popularly
known as “one man one vote”. Every citizen of India, who is 18years of age
and above and not otherwise debarred by law, is entitled to vote. Every citizen
enjoys this right without any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour,
sex, religious intolerance or education. The word ‘democratic’ not only refer to
political but also to social & economic democracy.
The Constitution clarifies the objectives of the Constitution are Justice,
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.It states the date of Adoption i.e., 26 November
1949. ThePreambletoourConstitution serves two purposes:
1. It indicates the source from which the constitution derives its authority
2. It also states the objects, which the Constitution seeks to establish and
promote.
To conclude one may say that the Preamble of the Constitution of India assures
the dignity of every individual. It puts people at the Centre of the democratic
setup and thus denotes that the nation is committed to uplift of the people. In the
context of education, this commitment is extremely significant as education is
meant to bring out the best in people.Education has individual as well as social
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 47
significance. The Preamble encapsulates the hopes and aspirations of the people
which in turn can be realized through the medium of education.

(B) FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

The Indian fundamental rights, contrasted with such rights contained in the
U. S. bill of rights, present several peculiarities. First, the fundamental rights in
India are far more elaborate than in the U. S. A. Thus, for example, the U. S. bill
of rights (first ten amendments) only names some rights. The Supreme Court,
through the process of judicial review decides the limitations on these rights. In
India, determination of limitations on fundamental rights is not left to judicial
interpretation. The constitution itself contains (clauses 2-6 in Art. 19) such
limitations. The limitations contemplated by the constitution are-
a. public order,
b. security of the state and
c. Sovereignty and integrity of India.

Kinds of fundamental rights

The Indian constitution originally provided 7 categories of fundamental
rights. But one fundamental right, that to property was removed from the list
of fundamental rights by 44th amendment. Right to property now is an ordinary
legal right. Thus there are now 6 categories of fundamental rights. These are:

(1) Right to equality (Arts. 14-18).

In this category there are five rights
i). equality before law,
ii). abolition of discrimination on grounds of caste, race, sex or religion,
iii). equality in public employment,
iv). abolition of untouchability, and
v). abolition of titles.

(2)Rights to freedom.
(Arts. 19-22) these now include six freedoms-
AAfreedoms of speech and expression,
AAfreedom of assembly without arms of association,
AAfreedom of movement,
48 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
AAfreedom of residence and
AAfreedom of profession or occupation.
These freedoms are however not without limitations.

(3) Rights against exploitation (Arts. 24 and 25)

Include prohibition of traffic in human beings and prohibition of child labour.

(4) Rights to freedom of religion (Arts. 25-28)

Include freedom of conscience and freedom of religion. Citizens are free to
profess and practice any religion. These provisions make India a secular state.

(5) Cultural and Educational rights (Arts. 29-30)

Include right to protection of language, script and culture given to the
minorities. The minorities are also given the right to establish and administer
educational institutions of their own.

(6) Right to constitutional remedies (Arts. 32-35)

Provides for enforcement of fundamental rights through the judicial process.
Thus the constitution contains an elaborate scheme of fundamental rights. But the
fundamental rights in India are not absolute. They are hedged by many limitations.
Indeed, fundamental rights cannot be absolute anywhere in the world. Countries
differ only in their degree of limitations on fundamental rights.

Right to Education (Arts. 21-A)

The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002inserted Article 21-A
in the Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory education of all
children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such
a manner as the State may, by law, determine. The Right of Children to Free
and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the consequential
legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that every child has a right to full
time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school
which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.

Importance of fundamental rights:

AARights mean those freedoms which are essential for personal good as well
as the good of the community.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 49
AA Fundamental rights are guaranteed by the part III of the Indian constitution
as these basic rights are needed by every citizen for the development of
the citizens.
AAFundamental right guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians can lead
their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India.
AAThe fundamental rights are defined as basic human freedoms which
every Indian citizen has the right to enjoy for a proper and harmonious
development of personality. These rights universally apply to all citizens,
irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste, creed, color or gender.
AAFundamental rights for Indians have also been aimed at overturning the
inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they have
also been used to abolish untouchability and hence prohibit discrimination
on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They also
forbid trafficking of human beings and forced labor.
AAFundamental rights also protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic
and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and
also establish and administer their own education institutions.
AAFundamental rights are indeed very essential for the well being of every
citizen. We also know that people have always struggled against injustice,
exploitation and inequality for the creation of better surroundings, better
living conditions and preservation of the human dignity. Efforts to avail
such rights to all human beings have been made at the international level
also by recognizing various rights which are popularly known as human
rights
Rights assure dignity to an individual. An individual can truly achieve
only when he is in a free atmosphere. Rights accord this free atmosphere to an
individual. Education is related to emancipation…emancipation from traditional
shackles imposed by the caste system or by stratification due to gender, class
and other such barriers. By assuring every individual of the same rights the
Constitution offers a level ground for everyone irrespective of differences as sex,
caste and class. Any individual who feels that his/her rights are encroached upon
can always approach the court of law. The right to seek constitutional remedies
will ensure that justice is done in such a case. Cultural and educational rights
are significant because they help to propagate one’s culture even if one is in a
50 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
minority. One of the important functions of education is cultural functions. Thus
Cultural rights help to preserve and transmit
One’s culture which includes language , script and traditions. The milestone
in the history of rights was the Right to Education. Flagship programmes like
Sarvashikshaabhiyan , RMSA have helped to make this right a reality and one sees
a sharp drop in the number of, out of school children . This is clear proof that rights
in India are not made but they are translated to reality through our endeavors. India
prohibits the employment of children below 14years. While we may not have eliminated
child labour completely, the right against exploitation ensures that no individual be
exploited. It is heartening to note that along with the Government, NGOs too work
in this direction. In 2013 Kailash Satyarthi‟s work in this area was acknowledged
by conferring on him the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize . His BachpanBachaoAndolan has
actedto protect the rights of more than 83,000 children from 144 countries. All this
discussion goes to prove that our fundamental rights are not restricted to just being on
paper but every effort is being made to translate them to reality.

(C) Fundamental Duties in Indian Constitution

Originally, the constitution of India did not contain any list of fundamental
duties. Inother words, enjoyment of fundamental rights was not conditional on
the performance of fundamental duties. Democratic rights are based on the theory
that rights are not created by the state. Individuals are born with right. It is on this
theory that the Indians before independence raised the slogan that “freedomis our
birth right.” It is in this sense again that Prof. Laski asserts that the “state does
not create rights, it only recognizes rights.”
The socialists on the other hand, make enjoyment or rights conditional on the
fulfillment of duties. They claim that “he who does not work, neither shall
he eat.” The constitution of the world’s first socialist country, that of Soviet
Union contains a list of fundamental rights immediately followed by a list of
fundamental duties. It is clearly asserted that the enjoyment of fundamental rights
is conditional on the satisfactory performance of fundamental duties.
It was on this Soviet model that fundamental duties were added to the Indian
Constitution by 42nd amendment of the constitution in 1976. The fundamental
duties are contained in Art. 51A.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 51
List of Fundamental Duties: Art. 51A, Part IVA of theIndian Constitution,
specifies the list offundamental duties of the citizens. It says “it shall be the duty
of every citizen of India:
1. to abide by the constitution and respect its ideal and institutions.
2. to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom.
3. to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
4. to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do
so.
5. to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional
diversities,
6. to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
7. to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
8. to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, and wild-life and to have compassion for living creatures.
9. to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform.
10. to safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
11. to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity, so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and
achievement.
12. Who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child, or as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen
years.

Why fundamental duties are important?

We should all acknowledge our responsibility to perform ourfundamental
duties. The importance of fundamental duties are highlighted below:
AAThe fundamental duties enumerated in Article 51A constitute a constant
reminder to the citizens that they have duties in building up a free,
egalitarian, healthy and responsible society. These are expected to act as
damper to reckless and anti-social activities on the part of some individuals.
AAIndia is a multi-racial and multi-religional country. Such a vast democratic
country like India can prosper
52 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
AAonly when the citizens of this country respect its integrity and promotes
cultural harmony.
AAEnvironmental pollution has become a great cause of concern, not only for
Indian, but for the entirehumanity.
AAUnless, we all take the pledge to keep our environment free from pollutants,
there remains the threat of undesirable consequences.
AAThe inclusion of providing opportunity for education for children as a
Fundamental duty is a big step forward towards safeguard of human-rights
and abolition of social injustices

(D) D
 irective Principles of State Policy in The Indian
Constitution
The Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Part IV, Articles 36-51
of the Indian constitution constitute the most interesting and enchanting part of the
constitution.The Directive Principles may be said to contain the philosophy of the
constitution. The idea of directives being included in the constitution was borrowed
from the constitution of Ireland. Asthe very term ―Directives indicate, the Directive
principles are broad directives given to the state in accordance with which the
legislative and executive powers of the state are to be exercised.As Nehru observed,
the governments will ignore the directives ―Only at their own peril. AsIndia seeks to
secure an egalitarian society, the founding fathers were not satisfied with only political
justice. They sought to combine political justice with economic and social justice.

The Directive Principles may be classified into 3 broad

categories:
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 53
(1) Socialistic Directives
Principal among this category of directives are
(a) securing welfare of the people (Art. 38)
(b) securing proper distribution of material resources of the community as to best
sub serve the common-good, equal pay for equal work, protection of childhood
and youth against exploitation. etc. (Art.39)
(c) curing right to work, education etc. Art. (41)
(d) securing just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief (Art. 42)
etc.

(2) Gandhian Directives

Such directives are spread over several Arts. Principal among such directives
are (a) to organize village panchayats (Art. 40), (b) to secure living wage, decent
standard of life, and to promote cottage industries (Art.43), (c) to provide free
and compulsory education to all children up to 14 years of age (Art. 45), (d) to
promote economic and educational interests of the weaker sections of the people,
particularly, the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, (e) to enforce prohibition
of intoxicating drinks and cow-slaughter and to organize agriculture and animal
husbandry on scientific lines (Arts. 46-48).

(3) Liberal intellectual directives

Principal among such directives are
(a) to secure uniform civil code throughout the country (Art.44)
(b) to separate the judiciary from the executive (Art.50)
(c) to protect monuments of historic and national importance and
(d) to promote international peace and security.
On the whole, Part IV contains a formidable list of directives given to the
executive and the legislatures to follow in issuing orders or making laws. These
directives make India a ―plasticstate.The directives may be used by any party with
any ideology. In fact, the Directive Principles are codified versions of democratic
socialist order as conceived by Nehru with an admixture of Gandhian thought.
54 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Significance of Directional Principles of state Policy:
It highlights the Constitutional objectives of building an egalitarian social
order and establishing a welfare state, by bringing about a social revolution assisted
by the State, and have been used to support the nationalisation of mineral resources
as well as public utilities. Further, several legislations pertaining to agrarian
reform and land tenure have been enacted by the federal and stategovernments, in
order to ensure equitable distribution of land resources. As Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
pointed out The Directive Principles do not merely represent temporary willof
a majority in the constituent assembly but they represent deliberate wisdom of
countryexpressed through constituent assembly.

The significance of directive principles issummarized as

follows:
AASince the Government is answerable to the people, the Directive Principles
act as a sign post to all succeeding Governments.
AAThe Directive Principles provide the yardstick for assessing the successes
or failures of these Governments.
AAHelp in deciding constitutional validity of some of the enactments made
by legislature.
AADirective Principles help to create proper policies for the development of
the masses
AAThey reminds about the social and economic order that constitution aims
at building.
AAAct as “beacon-lights” to courts & help in determining the constitutional
validity ofany law.
AAThey form the dominating background to all State action, legislative or
executive.
AAThey amplify the Preamble, which solemnly resolves to secure to all
citizens of India justice, liberty, equality and fraternity.
AADirective principles are supplementary to fundamental rights of the citizens
(Fundamental Rights + Directive Principles = justiaciable nature + non
justiciable nature.)
AATheir implementation helps the citizens of India to enjoy the fundamental
rights.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 55
AAIts helps the opposition parties to keep check on the movements of the
ruling party.
AAIt acts as a testing mechanism to judge the effectiveness of any program or
policy of the government.
AAIt acts as a common political manifesto.

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

ARTICLE 39 to 47 directly deals with the importance of equalization for
poor and marginalized section, the rest is necessary for poor and marginalized
section

ART 39. Certain principles of policy to be followed by the

State.-
The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing-
a) that the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means
of livelihood
b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are
so distributed as best to subserve the common good.
c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration
of wealth and means of production to the common detriment
d) that there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women
e) that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of
children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity
to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength
f) that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy
manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and
youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material
abandonment.

ART 39A. Equal justice and free legal aid.-

The State shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice, on
a basis of equal opportunity, and shall, in particular, provide free legal aid, by suitable
legislation or schemes or in any other way, to ensure that opportunities for securing
justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities.]
56 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
ART 40. Organisation of village panchayats.-
The State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them
with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as
units of self-government

ART 41. Right to work, to education and to public

assistance in certain cases.-
The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development,
make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public
assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in
other cases of undeserved want.

ART 42. Provision for just and humane conditions of work

and maternity relief.-
The State shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of
work and for maternity relief

ART 43. Living wage, etc., for workers.-

The State shall endeavour to secure, by suitable legislation or economic
organisation or in any other way, to all workers, agricultural, industrial or
otherwise, work, a living wage, conditions ofwork ensuring a decent standard
of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural opportunities and, in
particular, the State shall endeavour to promote cottage industries on an individual
or co-operative basis in rural areas.

ART 43A. Participation of workers in management of

industries.-
The State shall take steps, by suitable legislation or in any other way, to secure
the participation of workers in the management of undertakings, establishments
or other organisations engaged in any industry.

ART 44. Uniform civil code for the citizens.-

The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code
throughout the territory of India.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 57
ART 45. Provision for free and compulsory education for
children.-
The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all
children until they complete the age of fourteen years.

ART 46. Promotion of educational and economic interests

of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker
sections.-
The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and
all forms of exploitation.

ART 47. Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition

and the standard of living and to improve public health.-
The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of
living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary
duties and, in particular, the State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the
consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs
which are injurious to health.

ART 48. Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry.-

The State shall endeavour to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on
modern and scientific lines and shall, in particular, take steps for preserving and
improving the breeds, and prohibiting the slaughter, of cows and calves and other
milch and draught cattle.

ART 48A. Protection and improvement of environment and

safeguarding of forests and wild life.-
The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.

ART 49. Protection of monuments and places and objects of

national importance.-
It shall be the obligation of the State to protect every monument or place or
object of artistic or historic interest, [declared by or under law made by Parliament]
58 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
to be of national importance, from spoliation, disfigurement, destruction, removal,
disposal or export, as the case may be.

ART 50. Separation of judiciary from executive.-

The State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the
public services of the State.

ART 51. Promotion of international peace and security.-

The State shall endeavour to- (a) promote international peace and security;
(b) maintain just and honourable relations between nations; (c) foster respect
for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples
with one another; and (d) encourage settlement of international disputes by
arbitration.

Challenges to fulfill the Constitutional Obligations

(i) Freedom
Liberty of thought and action is a fundamental value embedded in our Constitution.
It is the basis for creativity and exploration of new ideas and experiments that can
advance social progress. Respecting the rights of others to liberty of thought and action
are the hall marks of a civilized society. Ensuring that this liberty of thought and action
is not used to belittle or diminish the beliefs and status of others is what constitutes a
decent society. Democracy creates opportunity to pursue one’s chosen ends as well as
respect others’ rights to do so. In a diverse country like India, exercising freedom with
responsibility is a must for ensuring peace in the nation.

(ii) Justice
Justice ensures that the freedom of one does not become tyranny for another.
The iustice to be truly meaningful needs sharing of power, compassion towards
under-privileged and empathy towards the disadvantaged. An education of rights
and duties becomes important to ensure to fight for justice.

(iii) Equality
Equality is another value enshrined in the Constitution. Freedom and justice
remain mere words if equality is not ensured. It implies freedom from exploitation
and ensuring to provide opportunities for individual’s development, irrespective
of the background, gender, cultural or socio-economic identity and status.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 59
(iv) Fraternity
Fraternity is at the heart of school, society and nation. Social solidarity is a
vital part of a society that has place for the aspirations of all members of society.
Understanding the importance of fraternity or solidarity and the knowledge that
we all belong to a large community, a nation and the globe is also to discover our
innate humanity. It is only we recognize our interdependence then we empower
to help build a peaceful nation and a world. The citizens need to internalize
the principals of equality, justice and liberty to promote fraternity among all,
regardless of religious beliefs, regional and local diversity. It provides the baseline
in working out the framework of values to be nurtured in students. If values like
truthfulness, sense of responsibility, trustworthiness, loyalty, love, peace, respect
for others, etc are nurtured right from the beginning, the efforts will go a long
way to enable students abide by the Constitution and contribute to larger health of
society and nation at large.

1.12. Right to Free and Compulsory Education

Right to Education Act (2009)
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to
Education Act also known as RTE, is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted
on 4th August 2009, which describes the modalities of the importance of free and
compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 in India under Article 21A
of the Indian Constitution. India became one of 135 countries to make education
a fundamental right of every child when the act came into force on 1st April 2010.

a) Implementation and funding of RTE

Education in the Indian constitution is a concurrent issue and both Centre
and States can legislate on the issue. The act lays down specific responsibilities
for the Centre, State and Local bodies for its implementation. The States have
been insisting that they lack financial capacity to deliver education of appropriate
standard in all the schools needed for universal education. Thus it was clear that
the Central Government will be required to subsidies the States.
A committee set up to study the funds requirement and funding initially
estimated that Rs 1710 billion or 1.71 trillion across five years was required to
implement the Act, and in April 2010 the Central Government agreed to sharing
60 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
the funding for implementing the law in the ratio of 65 to 35 between the Centre
and the States, and a ratio of 90 to 10 for the north-eastern states. However, in mid
2010, this figure was upgraded to Rs. 2310 billion, and the Center agreed to raise
its share to 68%.
A critical development in 2011 has been the decision taken in principle to
extend the right to education till Class X (age 16) and into the pre-school age
range. The CABE Committee is in the process of looking into the implications of
making these changes.

b) Status of Implementation of RTE

A report on the status of implementation of the Act was released by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development on the one-year anniversary of the
Act. The report admits that 8.1 million children in the age group 6-14 remain out
of school and there is a shortage of 508,000 teachers country-wide. The Supreme
Court of India has also intervened to demand implementation of the Act in the
Northeast. It has also provided the legal basis for ensuring pay parity between
teachers in government and government aided schools.

RTE and inclusion

Inclusion of special needs in RTE-2009 The accomplishment of the right
to education act and its requirement in non-discriminatory ways and covers
all people. A dogma that schools are responsible for educating all children and
adults.A constant process of directing the diversity of needs of all pupils.Factors
such as disability, gender, age, ethnicity, language, HIV status, geographical
location, and sexuality
This shows the intent of the legislators with respect to the inclusion of children
with disabilities, who are identified as children belonging to disadvantaged groups
and weaker sections in private unaided and specified category schools.

Obligation to provide free and compulsory education

The extent of responsibility of providing free and compulsory elementary
education for private unaided and specified category schools is limited to children
belonging to weaker sections and disadvantaged groups in the neighbourhood as
per Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act. It mandates private unaided and specified
category schools to reserve 25% of their class strength for children from
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 61
weakersections and disadvantaged groups and provide free and compulsory
elementary education till its completion. Although the text of Section 12(1)(c)
provides for the inclusion of children with disabilities in private unaided and
specified schools, it does not necessarily benefit children with disabilities. Some
of the possible reasons are:
i). Clubbing of children with disabilities with other disadvantaged groups
ii). Restrictive Neighbourhood criteria
iii). Lack of enabling environment in private unaided and specified
category schools

(i) Clubbing of children with disabilities with other

disadvantaged groups
Children with disabilities were initially outside the scope of Section
12(1)(c). It was only after the amendment of the RTE Act in 2012, children
with disabilities were defined as disadvantaged groups and brought under the
purview of this provision. However, as they have been clubbed together with
children from other disadvantaged groups, they have to compete with them for
the 25% seats reserved under Section 12(1)(c). There is no mandate under the
RTE Act for private unaided schools and specified schools to specifically admit
a certain minimum percentage of children with disabilities under this provision.
This gives a leeway to private unaided and specified schools to give preference
to children without disabilities i.e. those from other disadvantaged groups
in admissions. As a result, Section 12(1)(c), RTE Act. Archana Mehendale,
Rahul Mukhopadhyay, Annie Namala, ‘Right to Education and Inclusion in
Private Unaided Schools: An Exploratory Study in Bengaluru and Delhi’ (2015)
50(7) EPW. accessed 17 October 2019. Delhi School Education (Free Seats
for Students belonging to Economically Weaker Section and Disadvantaged
Group) Amendment Order 2018, Directorate of Education, Government of
NCT of Delhi accessed 9 January 2020. ‘Regarding instructions/guidelines for
aspirants of the category of Children with Disabilities as defined in the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 to apply fresh online application against
the remaining vacant seats at the entry level classes (Nursery, KG & Class-I)
for the session 2019-20’, Circulars dated 23 September 2019 and 28 June 2019,
62 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Directorate of Education, Government of NCT of Delhi accessed 9 January 2020.
‘Regarding instructions/guidelines for aspirants of the category of Children
with Disabilities as defined in the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016
to apply fresh online application against the remaining vacant seats at the entry
level classes (Nursery, KG & Class-I) for the session 2018-19’, Circular dated
20 December 2018, Directorate of Education, Government of NCT of Delhi
accessesed 9 January 2020. children with disabilities are left out from the larger
pool of disadvantaged children. An exploratory study conducted in 2015 in
private unaided schools of Delhi and Bengaluru suggests that no children with
disabilities were found to be admitted in the schools that were visited in both
the cities. Some states have taken steps in this regard by assigning a specific
percentage to children with disabilities for reservation under Section(12)(1)
(c). In Andhra Pradesh, for instance, the State RTE Rules prescribe that under
Section 12(1)(c), 5% seats shall be assigned to HIV Aids, orphans and disabled
children. Whereas, the Delhi Government has issued a notification reserving 3%
seats from the total seats under EWS/DG category in private unaided schools
for admission to children with disabilities. This was done in pursuance of the
Delhi High Court order in Pramod Arora v. Hon’ble LG of Delhi. However, as
this notification mandates reservation of seats for children with disability only
in private unaided schools, there is no clarity about such reservation in specified
category schools. Further, a large number of seats remain vacant every year.
Nearly 5000 seats reserved for children with disabilities remained vacant in
private unaided schools for the session 2019-20 even after the reopening of the
admission process multiple times. Last year too, around 1268 seats remained
vacant, which were carried forward. This shows that just reserving seats does not
necessarily guarantee admission of childrenwith disabilities in private unaided
schools. There are still irregularities in the implementation of this provision.

(ii) Neighbourhood criteria

The neighbourhood criteria attached to Section 12(1)(c) further restricts
children with disability from exercising their choice as- firstly, most private
unaided schools, especially in urban areas, are not necessarily located within a
residential neighbourhood, and hence the probability of children residing within
the rigid distance norms of neighbourhood accessing the provision is low in such
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 63
schools. Secondly, the school located in the neighbourhood, where a child with
disability resides, may not be well equipped to reasonably accommodate the child.
The Delhi High Court, in Pramod Arora v. Hon’ble Lt. Governor of Delhi, held
that “the neighbourhood principle cannot prevail over the need to admit CWSN
if in a given case, the school is equipped to deal with or handle some or one kind
of disability (blindness, speech impairment, autism etc). The state therefore has
to tailor appropriate policies to optimise admission of CWSN in those unaided
schools, in the first instance, which are geared and equipped to deal with particular
disabilities, duly balancing with the dictates of the neighbourhood criteria.” As
a result of this judgment, the Delhi Government in its circular reserving 3%
seats for children with disabilities under the EWS/DG quota specified that such
admissions shall be done without considering any neighbourhood criteria. Other
states, however, continue to follow the neighbourhood criteria for admission
under Section 12(1)(c). Fareeha Iftikhar, ‘86.9% seats for kids with disabilities
vacant in Delhi’s pvt schools; DoE invites fresh applications’ (Hindustan Times,
10 September 2019). accessed 23 October 2019. Archana Mehendale, Rahul
Mukhopadhyay, Annie Namala, ‘Right to Education and Inclusion in Private
Unaided Schools: An Exploratory Study in Bengaluru and Delhi’ (2015) 50(7)
EPW. accessed 17 October 2019. Pramod Arora v. Lt. Governor of Delhi and
Ors., W.P. (C) 1225/2014, Delhi High Court. ‘Regarding instructions/guidelines
for aspirants of the category of Children with Disabilities as defined in the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 to apply online against the vacant seats at
the entry level classes (Nursery, KG & Class-I) for the session 2018-19, Circular
dated 26 July 2018, Directorate of Education, Government of NCT of Delhi
accessesed 9 January 2020. Sushant Chandra, ‘Derailing Right to Education
in Uttar Pradesh’ (2016) 51(11) EPW accessed 19 October 2019. Ibid. A 2015
government order issued in Uttar Pradesh stated that “the 25% reservation clause
shall be applicable only in urban wards and not in rural wards. Those wards
have to be identified where no government/board/aided schools exist and 25%
reservation clause shall be applicable only in private unaided schools of such
identified wards. This creates a hierarchy and prevents a child belonging to the
disadvantaged or weaker section from the “choice” of seeking admission in a
school of her preference especially when neither the enabling statute nor the
64 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
enacted rule conceives of any such situation. Further, it is completely inconsiderate
of the choice of such children residing in rural wards. Recently, the Karnataka
Government has also amended its RTE Rules to state that the obligation under
Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act will not apply to a private school if a government
or aided schoolis available in the neighbourhood.40 In addition to the general
repercussions, this dilution may have a huge impact specifically on children with
disabilities as government aided schools might be available in the neighbourhood,
but they may not be well equipped to accommodate children with disabilities. This
affects the choice of children with disabilities to access possibly well equipped
private unaided schools.

(iii) Lack of enabling environment

While the law aspires for inclusion of children with disabilities, often the
lack of facilities and capacities of private unaided schools restricts the choice
of these children. As recognised by the American Supreme Court in Endrew F
v. Douglas County School District RE-1,41 “a student offered an educational
program providing “merely more than de minimis” progress from year to year
can hardly be said to have been offered an education at all. For children with
disabilities, receiving instruction that aims so low would be tantamount to “sitting
idly, awaiting the time when they were old enough to ‘drop out.” While the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in the US mandates an educational
program, which enables a child to make progress appropriate in light of the
child’s circumstances, the RTE Act does not go beyond an enabling provision for
the admission of children with disabilities in private unaided schools. In reality,
very little is invested in ensuring meaningful inclusion of these children at the
school level after they have procured admission. Schools fail to translate the
legislation’s original intent into practice.42 Therefore, it is important to turn next
to the obligations are imposed under the law on private unaided schools to create
an enabling environment and infrastructure for children with disabilities.
InclusiveEducation
Inclusive Education for children with special needs has been one of the major
interventions of the erstwhile Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA) RTE and RMSA
schemes. From the year 2018-19, Samagra Shiksha lays emphasis on improving
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 65
quality of education for all students, includingchildren with special needs.
Thus, this intervention is an essential component under Samagra Shiksha. The
component provides support for various student oriented activities which include
identification and assessment of children with special needs, provision of aids,
appliances, corrective surgeries, Braille books, large print books and uniforms,
therapeutic services, development of teaching-learning material (TLM), assistive
devices &equipments, environment building and orientation programme to create
positive attitude and awareness about nature and needs of children with special
needs, purchase/development of instructional materials, in-service training of
special educators and general teachers on curriculum adaptation, stipend for girls
with special needs etc. The component also emphasizes the implementation of
the Right to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 for children with
special needs (within the age group of 6-14 years). In addition, separate resource
support (financial assistance towards salary of special educators) is also made
available in order to appropriately address the needs of children with special
needs within the school.

Inclusive Education Programmes

The Department of School Education & Literacy, MHRD was previously
implementing Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA-RTE) as the main programme for
universalizing elementary education for all children from 6-14 years of age. SSA
had adopted a more expansive and a broad-based understanding of the concept
of inclusion, wherein a multi-option model of educating children with special
needswas being implemented.
The Right to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 mandates
free and compulsory elementary education to all children including children
with special needs. This act provides a legal framework that entitles all children
between the ages of 6-14 years free and compulsory admission, attendance and
completion of elementary education. Section 3 (2) of the RTE Act lays impetus on
the elementary education of children with disabilities. As per the Amendment of
2012, it also mandates that, a child with multiple and/or severe disabilities has the
right to opt for home based education.
66 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
In order to address the educational needs of children with special needsat
the secondary and senior secondary level, the scheme for Inclusive Education
for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) was, implemented. The Scheme aimed
at enabling all students with disabilities completing eight years of elementary
schooling, an opportunity to complete four years of secondary schooling in
an inclusive and enabling environment in the general education system at the
secondary level (classes IX to XII).

The objectives of the component are :

AAIdentification of children with disabilities at the school level and assessment
of her/his educational needs.
AAProvision of aids and appliances, assistive devices, to the children with
special needs as per requirement.
AARemoval of architectural barriers in schools so that children with special
needs have access to classrooms, laboratories, libraries, play/recreational
area and toilets in the school.
AASupplying appropriate teaching learning materials, medical facilities,
vocational training support, guidance and counseling services and
therapeutic services to children with special needs as per his/her
requirement in convergence with line departments.
AAGeneral school teachers will be sensitized and trained to teach and involve
children with special needs in the general classroom.
AAFor existing special educators, capacity building programs will be
undertaken.
AAChildren with special needs will have access to support services through
special educators, establishment of resource rooms, vocational education,
therapeutic services and counseling etc.

1.13. Education in the concurrent list and its implications

Concurrent list encompasses items of concerns of both the centre and the
states. Both will legislate for items in the concurrent List. Education is part of the
concurrent List. This means policies related to education are legislated by central
and state governments in the form of a meaningful partnership.Hence, we can say
that Education was put on the concurrent list through the enactment of the 42nd
amendment.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 67
The Constitution of India offers educational functions at three stages
1. Central or union list
2. State list
3. Concurrent list
Until 1976, education was a state subject with some provisions at the central
level. The 42nd amendment, 1976, was a about major and important changes to
the Indian constitution. It also affected the status of education by putting it on the
concurrent list.Making education a concurrent subject ensures that both the centre
and state can legislate on any aspect of education from primary to the university
level.
In case of any dispute, legislation formed by the central government will
have overriding authority. By having education in the concurrent list, centre can
implement directly any policy decisions in the states.
So, concurrent status of education means that there is a partnership between
State government and central government when it comes to Education policy
making and implementation. This is a meaningful and yet a challenging task to
accomplish.
68 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications

1. A Uniformity in Education Policy: Education System and its pattern

should be the same across all of India. This could only be possible when
education is made a concurrent subject. This ensures that the structure of
education does not vary from state to state.
2. Improvement in Standards: As a result of education is a concurrent
subject, research will advance throughout the nation. Due to this research
studies are going to be utilized better at both state and national level.
3. Education for emotional Integration: Education is the key force to
produce emotional integration between all of the country. Educational
curriculum, strategies, goals, and priorities, etc. can include guidelines to
both teachers and learners so that they can use them towards the purpose
of emotional integration of the nation.
4. For better Discipline: Central government has the power to overrule
the decisions of state governments in case of disagreements. This power
is given to central for maintaining better discipline when it comes to
maintaining standards of education and better emotional integration
throughout the country.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 69
5. Proper and better utilization of funds: The state receives funding from
the center for education but sometimes they spend it elsewhere, as has been
noted. The center must have a say in its use when the funds are distributed
by the central government for the betterment of schools and the education
infrastructure of states.
6. Quality Leadership from Central Government: Sometimes central
government is able to provide quality leadership in the form of direction
and supervision when it comes to the matters of education.
7. Better implementation of education policies: Better implementation
of policies related to education means the better implementation of
education policies in a systematic way for better results. If education is
on the concurrent list, the center will ensure that state governments are
correctly implementing it.
8. For creating equalitarian policies: Our constitution provides equal
rights to each and every citizen in the society. For achieving equity and
equality in society education must be provided to all, as the constitution
gives the right to education to all.

Conclusion
Our Constitution aims at bringing a synthesis between fundamental rights
and directive principles of state by giving the former a pride of place and the
later a place of permanence. Very aptly the directive principles are described as
the ‘conscience of constitution’. Fundamental duties are not mere expressions of
pious platitudes. Courts will certainly take cognizance of laws seeking to give
effect to fundamental duties. The Preamble of the Constitution of India assures
the dignity of every individual. It puts people at the centre of the democratic setup
and thus denotes that the nation is committed to uplift of the people. In the context
of education, this commitment is extremely significant as education is meant to
bring out the best in people.
70 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Questions
I one mark
II five mark
1. Define education and explain nature of education
2. What is the aim of education?
3. Write a short notes on primary and secondary education
4. What is purpose of education drawn from constitutional provision
5.What are the education in concurrent list and its implication?

III ten mark

6. Explain constitutional values in education
7. Distinguish between formal, informal and non formal education
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 71
UNIT-II
UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL DIVERSITY
2.1. Introduction
India is a large country with different geo-political conditions in different
parts of the country. This has brought differences in social evolution of the groups
living in different parts of the country. Apart from the geo-political diversity,
interactions with foreigners due to invasions, trade and missionary activities have
also led to foreign influences and social groups coming to India. All these have
impacted the Indian society in one way or the other. The social diversity is one
among them.
India is a country of social diversity. To maintain harmony among all sections
of the society, the Constitution of India has adopted federal political structure.
The democracy of the country also helps in maintaining social unity. Three kinds
of social differences need special attention namely: Gender, Religion and Castes.
Some of the Fundamental Rights are enshrined in the Constitution with this
purpose only. The Directive Principles of State Policies also help in maintaining
the social fabric of India. Sometimes the political manifestations of these identities
do create problems, but the constitution meets these challenges successfully.

2.1.1. Diversity
In literary terms, diversity means differences. However in social context
the meaning is more specific; it means collective differences among people, that
is, those differences which mark off one group of people from another. These
differences may be of any sort: biological, religious, linguistic etc. On the basis of
biological differences, for example, we have racial diversity. Based on religious
differences, similarly, we have religious diversity. The point to note is that
diversity refers to collective differences.
The term diversity is opposite of uniformity. Uniformity means similarity
of some sort that characterizes a people. ‘Uni’ refers to one; ‘form’ refers to the
common ways. So, when there is something common to all the people, we say they
show uniformity. When students at a school, members of the police or the army
wear the same type of dress, we say they are in ‘uniform’. Like diversity, thus,
uniformity is also a collective concept. When a group of people share a similar
72 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
characteristic, be it language or religion or anything else, it shows uniformity in
that respect. But when we have groups of people hailing from different races,
religions and cultures, they represent diversity. Thus, diversity means variety.
However, diversity needs to be differentiated from fragmentation. Diversity
means existence of differences in a whole. It does not mean separate parts.
Fragmentation does not mean differences, it means different parts and in that
situation each part would be a whole in itself. For all practical purposes it means
variety of groups and cultures. We have such a variety in abundance in India. We
have here a variety of races, of religions, of languages, of castes and of cultures.
For the same reason India is known for its socio-cultural diversity.

2.2. Concept of Social Diversity

“Diversification is a principle that maintains how individual develop into
quite different people so that they can peacefully occupy different niches within
the environment.”
Humans have evolved adaptations or solutions to threats to survival. Just
as different plant species will coexist alongside one another in different areas of
creek-bed ecosystem, individual diversify by developing different traits, abilities
and preferences, thereby occupying different identities and sometimes mingled
identities in order to survive and exist productively at intrapersonal as well as at
interpersonal level.

2.2.1. Meaning and Definition of Social Diversity

Social diversity is the diverse factor surrounding in an around our society
such as culture, religion, caste, age and disabilities. Diversity is differences
in racial and ethnic, socio-economic, geographic, and academic/professional
backgrounds. These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs,
political beliefs, or other ideologies. Social diversity centers on three universal
human realities. Firstly, that each individual is unique. Secondly, that individuals
and their societies are inter-related and inter-dependent. Thirdly, that societies
and cultures are dynamic: change may be rapid or gradual, but will always affect
different members of society in ways that reflect differences in power and status.
A broad definition of diversity ranges from personality and work style of the
visible dimensions such as race, age, ethnicity or gender; religion, socio economics
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 73
and education; work diversities refer as management and union, functional level
and classification or proximity/distance to headquarters.
Variety or the opposite of homogeneity. In social organizations the term usually
refers to the range of personnel who more accurately represent minority populations
and people from varied backgrounds, cultures, ethnicities, and viewpoints.
A broad definition of diversity ranges from personality and work style to all
of the visible dimensions of diversity such as race, age, ethnicity or gender, to
secondary influences such as religion, socioeconomics and education, to work
diversities such as management and union, functional level and classification or
proximity/distance to headquarters.
The greater this individual diversity the greater must be the allowed social
diversity in our societies. This implies an increase in the number of variables
applicable to our natures. To define a unique social being requires a very large
array of different values (impossible to quantify accurately), thus the same must
be true of the society that contains them all. We cannot specify a small number of
fixed variables and call this a ‘normal’.
If you look at India, you will realize that it is a multi-lingual, multi-ethnic,
multi-religious country. It has 18 languages and more than 3000 dialects. Every
part of the world shows the diversity that exists. Cross-cultural research focuses
on this diversity. Recently, multiculturalism has been promoted as a position to
understand this diversity. Multiculturalism means the acceptance or promotion
of multiple ethnic cultures, for practical reasons and for the sake of accepting
and celebrating diversity. It is useful in many demographic setups. e.g., schools,
businesses, neighborhoods, cities, etc.

2.2.2. Dynamics of Social Diversity

Social dynamics gather the ideas from people who want to introduce their
points of discussion, or influence changes, and successfully communicating your
thoughts to others has the ability to influence their behaviour.

2.2.3. Dimensions of Social Diversity

There are many obvious dimensions of human diversity-height, weight, hair,
color, to name just few. But for people’s self-concepts and social relationships,
the two dimensions that matter most, and that people first attune to, are race
and, especially, sex. Other times, intrapersonal communications is undertaken
74 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
in order to reflect upon or appreciate something. Three aspects of intrapersonal
communication are self-concept, perception and expectation that shape diversity
within the individual.

Intrapersonal Aspect
Self-concept is the basis for intrapersonal communication, because it determines
how a person sees him/herself and is oriented toward others. Self-concept (also
called self-awareness) involves three factors: beliefs, values and attitudes.
I. Beliefs are basic personal orientation toward what is true or false, good or
bad; beliefs can be descriptive or prescriptive. Beliefs, values and attitudes all
influence behavior, which can be either spoken opinion or physical action.
II. Values are deep-seated orientations and ideals, generally based on and
consistent with beliefs, about right and wrong ideas and actions.
III. Attitudes are learned predisposition toward or against a topic, ideals that
stem from and generally are consistent with values. Attitudes often are
global, typically emotional.
Some psychologists include body image as an aspect of intrapersonal
communication, in that body image is a way of perceiving ourselves, positively
or negatively, according to the social standards of our culture. Other things that
can affect self-concept are personal attributes, talents, social role, even birth order.
Whereas self-concept focuses internally, perception looks outward. Perception of
the outside world also is rooted in beliefs, values and attitudes. It is so closely
intertwined with self concept that one feeds off the other, creating a harmonious
understanding of both oneself and one’s world.

Interpersonal Aspect
Family aspect focuses on communication patterns within nuclear, extended
and blended families. This category focuses on individual to individual relationship
between family members and much research has been focused specifically on
communication within a family relationship. Family communication can be
enhanced by the long-standing and close relationships among participants as well
as the likelihood that families have shared heritage, similar values, and social
rituals. Patterns differ in communication between spouses, between parent and
child, among siblings, and within the wider family context that ultimate head
towards diversified and harmonious lifestyles and thinking patterns.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 75
Organizational communication deals with communication within large
organizations such as businesses which helps to increase acceptable and
expectable diversified patterns in business settings. This is sometimes considered
part of group communication, but communication scholars have built up a body
of knowledge focused primarily on organizations. Example: Work focused
discussion between employer and employee.
Additionally, some scholars identify a category of impersonal communication.
This is a distinction between impersonal and interpersonal communication on the
basis of the quality of the interaction. Impersonal communication is that which
involves functional short-term exchanges such as might occur between a shopper
and a salesman; the label of interpersonal is reserved for communication that
functions in deeper and more meaningful relationships.

Cultural and Cross-cultural Aspect

Social norms are the behaviors and cues within a society or group. This
sociological term has been defined as “the rules that a group uses for appropriate
and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. These rules may be
explicit or implicit. Failure to follow the rules can result in severe punishments,
including exclusion from the group.” They have also been described as the
“customary rules of behavior that coordinate our interactions with others.
The social norms indicate the established and approved ways of doing things;
of dress, of speech and of appearance. These vary and evolve not only through
time but also vary from one age group to another and between social classes and
social groups. What is deemed to be acceptable dress, speech or behavior in one
social group may not be accepted in another. The remarkably wide diversity of
attitudes and behaviors from one culture to another indicates the extent to which
we are the products of cultural norms. Norms restrain and control us, but they
also lubricate the social machinery. Social behavior occurs with greater ease
when everyone knows what is both expected and accepted. Despite their distinct
differences, cultures share some norms in common.
Culture also varies in their norms for personal space, a sort of portable
bubble or buffer zone that we like to maintain between ourselves and others. As
the situation changes, the bubble varies in size. With strangers we maintain a
fairly large personal space, keeping a distance of 4 feet or more between us. On
76 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
un-crowded buses, or in restrooms or libraries, we protect our space and respect
others’ space. We let friends come closer, often within 2 or 3 feet.
Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people
from different cultural backgrounds endeavor to communicate. All cultures make
use of nonverbal communication but its meaning varies across cultures. In one
particular country, a non-verbal sign may stand for one thing, and mean something
else in another culture or country. The relation of cross-cultural communication
with deviance is that a sign may be offensive to one in one culture and mean
something completely appropriate in another.

2.3. Levels of Social Diversity

The levels of social diversity are:
AAIndividual diversity
AARegional diversity
AALinguistic diversity
AAReligious diversity and
AACaste and tribes diversity.

1. Individual Diversity
Individual Diversity Becoming culturally competent, diverse and inclusive
involves knowledge, attitudes, and skills that may seem overwhelming for any
individual to achieve. It is important to remain aware that cultural groups are not
homogeneous in beliefs and practices. Meaning of Individual Differences:
Dissimilarity is principle of nature. No two persons are alike. All the
individuals differ from each other in many a respect. Children born of the same
parents and even the-twins are not alike. This differential psychology is linked
with the study of individual differences. Wundt, Cattel, Kraepelin, Jastrow and
Ebbing Haus are the exponents of differential psychology. This change is seen
in physical forms like in height, weight, colour, and complexion strength etc.,
difference in intelligence, achievement, interest, attitude, aptitude, learning habits,
motor abilities, and skill. Each man has an intellectual capacity through which
he gains experience and learning. Every person has the emotions of love, anger,
fear and feelings of pleasure and pain. Every man has the need of independence,
success and need for acceptance. Definitions of individual diversity: According
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 77
to Carter B. Good, “Individual diversity stands for the variations or deviations
among the individuals in regarded to a single characteristics”. Individual diversity
stands for those differences, which in their totaling distinguish one individual
from another.

Classifications of individual diversity:

Individual difference

Inheritated acquired

Physical Mental Temparamental Social Cultural Educational Emotional

Causes of Individual Differences:

There are various causes which are responsible in bringing individual
differences.
i. Heredity: Some heretical traits bring a change from one individual to other.
An individual’s height, size, shape and color of hair, shape of face, nose,
hands and legs so to say the entire structure of the body is determined by his
heretical qualities. Intellectual differences are also to a great extent influenced
by hereditary factor.
ii. Environment: Environment brings individual differences in behaviour,
activities, attitude, and style of life characteristics, personality etc.
Environment does not refer only physical surroundings but also it refers the
different types of people, society, their culture, customs, traditions, social
heritage, ideas and ideals.
iii. R
 ace and Nationality: Race and Nationality is one cause of individual
difference. Indians are very peace loving, Chinese are cruel; Americans are
very frank due to race and nationality.
iv. Sex: Due to sex variation one individual differs from other. Men are strong
in mental power. On the other hand women on the average show small
superiority over men in memory, language and aesthetic sense. Women excel
the men in shouldering social responsibilities and have a better control over
their emotions.
78 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
v. A
 ge: Age is another factor which is responsible in bringing individual
differences. Learning ability and adjustment capacity naturally grow with
age. When one grows in age can acquire better control over our emotions
and better social responsibilities. When a child grows then this maturity and
development goes side by side.
vi. Education: Education is one major factor which brings individual differences.
There is a wide gap in the behaviors of educated and uneducated persons. All
traits of human beings like social, emotional and intellectual are controlled
and modifies through proper education. This education brings a change in
our attitude, behaviour, appreciations, Personality. It is seen that uneducated
persons are guided by their instinct and emotions where as the educated
persons are guided by their reasoning power.

Educational Implications of Individual Differences:

i. Aims of education, curriculum, and method of teaching should be linked with
individual differences considering the different abilities and traits individual.
ii. Curriculum should be designed as per the interest, abilities and needs of
different students.
iii. T
 he teacher has to adopt different types of methods of teaching considering
individual difference related to interest, need, etc.
iv. Some co-curricular activities such as Drama, music, literary activities (Essay
and Debate Competition) should be assigned to children according to their
interest.
v. T
 eacher uses certain specific teaching aids which will attract the children
towards teaching considering their interest and need.
Various methods such as playing method, project method, Montessori
method, storytelling methods are to be used considering/discovering how different
children respond to a task or a problem. vii. The division of pupils into classes
should not be based only on the mental age or chronological age of children but
the physical, social and emotional maturity should be given due consideration.
viii. In case of vocational guidance the counselor is to plan the guidance technique
keeping in view the needs and requirements of the students.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 79
2. Regional Diversity
The word ‘regional’ means any element belongs to a particular region, and
the feeling related to the people belonging to the particular region is known as
‘Regionalism’. The term regionalism has two connotations: In the positive sense,
it is a political attribute associated with people’s love for their region, culture,
language, etc. with a view to maintain their independent identity. In the negative
sense, it implies excessive attachment to one’s region in preference to the country,
or the state. While positive regionalism is a welcome thing in so far maintaining
as it encourages the people to develop a sense of brotherhood and commonness
on the basis of common language, religion or historical background. The negative
sense regionalism is a great threat to the unity and integrity of the country.
Regional identity thus is a combination of geographical and cultural
identities and regional consciousness invariably evolves from either or both of
these characteristics. When this regional consciousness is coupled with economic
disparities it brings in a contradiction between the community and the state, and
the community starts demanding a separate administrative setup in the form of
state or autonomous councils where they can preserve their socio-cultural identity
and look after well being of their people, which according to them are neglected.
While some such movements have led to successful creation of states, others like
Telengana have not been so successful.

Regionalism in India
Roots of regionalism is in India’s manifold diversity of languages, cultures,
ethnic groups, communities, religions and so on, and encouraged by the regional
concentration of those identity markers, andfueled by a sense of regional
deprivation. For many centuries, India remained the land of many lands, regions,
cultures and traditions. For instance, southern India (the home of Dravidian
cultures), which is itself a region of many regions, is evidently different from the
north, the west, the central and the north-east. Even the east of India is different
from the North-East of India comprising today seven constituent units of Indian
federation with the largest concentration of tribal people.
First, in the 1950s and 1960s, intense (ethnic) mass mobilisation, often taking
on a violent character, was the main force behind the state’s response with an
80 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
institutional package for statehood. Andhra Pradesh in India’s south showed the
way. The fast unto death in 1952 of the legendary (Telugu) leader Potti Sriramulu
for a state for the Telegu-speakers out of the composite Madras Presidency
moved an otherwise reluctant Jawaharlal Nehru, a top nationalist leader and it
was followed by State reorganisation commission under Fazal Ali paving way for
State Reorganization Act, 1956.
Second, in the 1970s and 1980s, the main focus of reorganization was India’s
North-east.The basis of reorganization was tribal insurgency for separation and
statehood. The main institutional response of the Union government was the North-
eastern States Reorganisation Act, 1971 which upgraded the Union Territories
of Manipur and Tripura, and the Sub-State of Meghalaya to full statehood, and
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh (then Tribal Districts) to Union Territories. The
latter became states in 1986. Goa (based on Konkani language (8th Schedule)),
which became a state in 1987, was the sole exception.
Third, the movements for the three new states (created in 2000)—Chhattisgarh
out of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand out of Bihar and Uttaranchal out of Uttar
Pradesh— were long- drawn but became vigorous in the 1990s. And the most
recent one, we can see with the division of Andhra Pradesh, giving a separate
Telangana, which started in 1950s.
The central government has categorized states on the basis of backwardness
and accordingly gives grants and loans. In September 2013, Raghuram Rajan,
recommended a new index of backwardness to determine- which state need
special help from central government. It is composed of 10 equally weighted
indicators. According to that, Orissa and Bihar are the most backward states.
Regular public investment by central government through centrally sponsored
schemes have focused on development of necessary infrastructure and poverty
eradication, integrated rural development, education, health, family planning, etc.
For example- Prdhan Mantri Gram sadka yojana, mid day meal, MGNREGA, etc.
Government at centre and states give incentives to private players to develop in
backward states through subsidies, taxation, etc. Nationalisation of banks, granting
new banking licences, making mandatory for banks to open rural branches are few
other steps for inclusive development and balanced regional development.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 81
There are certain discrepancies at the implementation part of these schemes.
Few areas have been neglected like irrigation, which has created agricultural
disparity. Rain fed and dry land agriculture also have been neglected, which
became cause for suicide of farmers in various states
In reality, the interstate industrial disparity, agricultural disparity, number of
BPL, etc. are decreasing. But, more actions are needed to completely eradicate
the disparities

Reasons for regional disparity

1. Low rate of economic growth: The economic growth of India has been
fluctuating since independence. But with respect to High population growth,
the economic growth has been not enough to catch the development with
full speed. In the last decade, the economic growth were progressive, but
now they are reeling under the influence of world economic crisis and other
bottlenecks at domestic level.
2. Socio-economic and political organisation of states: The states have been
unable to do the adequate land reforms and the feudal mentality still
persists. Bhoodan and Gramdaan movements, after independence, were not
enthusiastically carried and even land under land banks was not efficiently
distributed. The political activities in the backward states were limited to vote
bank politics and scams.
3. Lower level of infrastructural facilities in backward states: The level of
infrastructural development, such as- power distribution, irrigation facilities,
roads, modern markets for agricultural produce has been at back stage. All
these are state list subjects. Low level of social expenditure by states on
education, health and sanitation: These subjects are core for human resource
development. The sates which have invested heavily on these subjects fall
under the developed and advanced states, for example Tamil Nadu, where
health care services in Primary health centre are bench mark for other states.
4. Political and administration failure: This is source of tension and gives
birth to sub-regional movements for separate states. Jarkhand, Chattisgarh,
Uttrakhand and recently Telangana are result of these failures only. Many
such demands are in pipeline such as- Vidarbha, Saurashtra, Darjeeling and
82 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Bodoland, etc. These failures also weakens the confidence of private players
and do not attract investors in the states.

Regions in India:
North India States: Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab,
Rajasthan (southern part might be considered West), Uttar Pradesh (southern part
might be considered Central), Uttarakhand
Major Cities: Delhi, Chandigarh, Jaipur, Lucknow Kanpur
Major Languages: Hindi, Punjabi, Haryanvi, Urdu
Famous for:
Pilgrimage sites like Varanasi, Ayodhya, or the Sikh Golden Temple
Mughal historical sites like the Taj Mahal
Punjabi Food , Kashmir
The Himalayas and many hill stations like Leh
Historical places in Delhi like Red Fort
West India States: Goa, Gujarat, Maharasthra, Southern Rajasthan, some parts of
Madhya Pradesh
Major Cities: Mumbai, Ahmedebad, Pune, Goa, Surat, Nagpur, Aurangabad
Major Languages: Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Konkani
Famous for:
Bollywood
Cricketers
Chaat street food (originally north Indian, but extremely popular in this region)
Generating 24% of the GDP (with 10% of the population)
South India States: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana
Major Cities: Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Trivandrum, Coimbatore, Kochi
Major Languages: Tamil, Kananda, Telugu, Malyalam
Famous for:
South Indian Food: Dosais and idly, biriyani
Spices like cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, tamarind
Numerous Hindu Temples and pilgrimage sites
Carnatic Music and Bharatanatyam Dance
Mixing movie stars and politicians
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 83
East India States: Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Jharkand Major Cities: Kolkata,
Patna, Jamshedpur, Dhanbad, Ranchi, Bhubaneswar Major Languages: Bengali,
Hindi, Bhojpuri, Oriya Famous for: • Nobel Laureates Rabindranath Tagore,
Swami Vivekanada • Strong Football and Cricket culture • Fish dishes
Historical places related to India’s Independence
Bengali sweets made from milk, called rosgula and mishtidoi
Central India States: Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Southern Uttar Pradesh
Major Cities: Bhopal, Indore, Jabalpur
Major Language: Hindi
Famous for:
Tiger Reserves
Khajuraho Temples
Diamond mines and other mineral reserves
Producing a large amount of electricity
Forests Northeast India States:
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim,
Tripura
Major Cities: Guwahati, Agartala, Dimapur, Shillong, Aizawl, Imphal
Major Languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Garo, Manipuri, Nagamese,
Nepali, Sikkimese Famous for:
Meat dishes (beef, fish, and pork)
Martial Arts
Bamboo Handicrafts
Scenic Beauty
Darjeeling (actually in West Bengal, but more associated with the Northeast)
Football

Causes of Regional Diversity

(i)Geographical Causes: There is a vast difference between food habits,
language, culture, customs, dress, life style of people belonging to different states.
This diversity is reflected in the state-wise division and within the states. For e.g.
If one has to travel from northern to states like Delhi and Punjab to southern states
like Kerala and Tamilnadu they are bound to experience huge discrepancies in the
language culture, dress and food
84 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Causes of regional diversity
(ii) Historical Causes: The we-feeling was shattered due to some historical
causes. Many states in India had serious conflicts in the past with each other.
These conflicts had created bitterness among them, therefore they cannot meet
with each other with open heart and open mind.
(iii) Political Causes: In different regions some people have demanded for
the formation of regional government and this trend of thinking has been inspired
by regional interest and the aim of gaining power.
(iv) Psychological Causes: It is wish of the most of the people that the
progress and the achievement of their region should be the maximum. The idea in
itself is neither bad nor deniable, but when they disregard the nation’s interest and
those of the region for the attainment of this objective then these feelings can be
classified under regionalism.
(v) Social Causes: In a country like India, marriages are preferred with the
person of the same regional background. Due to this, people belonging to one
region avoid marriages in other regions.
(vi) Economic Causes: Due to economic problems such as lack of resources,
unemployment etc. of a particular region people from those regions often migrates
to comparatively stable economic region.

Role of Education in Eliminating Regionalism

Education cannot solve the problem but it can create a background in the
minds of the children to think beyond regional boundaries and to make approach
wide and positive. Regionalism cannot be considered as a big problem unless it
hampers the nation‘s unity. It issuch a problem that cannot be solved all of sudden.
The problem should be handled tactfully and education is the most effective
solution to create social harmony.
The following educational programmes may be of useful to reduce the feeling
of regionalism among people.
(i) Encouragement of travel and communication (ii) Propagating National
History
(iii) Prevention of influence of regional political parties in education
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 85
(iv) Purposive teaching of History of Literature, not only English, Hindi and the
regional language must be included but other languages must also be made
familiar.

Impact or Effects of Regionalism

Positive (Advantage)

Scholars believe that regionalism plays important role in building of the

nation if the demands of the regions are accommodated by the political system of
the country. Regional recognition in terms of state hood or state autonomy gives
self-determination to the people of that particular region and they feel empowered
and happy. Internal self-determination of community, whether linguistic, tribal,
religious, regional, or their combinations, has remained the predominant form in
which regionalism in India has sought to express itself, historically as well as at
present time. Regional identities in India have not always defined themselves in
opposition to and at the expense of, the national identity, noticed a democratic
effect of such process in that India’s representative democracy has moved closer
to the people who feel more involved and show greater concern for institutions of
local and regional governance. For example- Tripura Tribal Autonomous District
Council (TTADC), formed in 1985, has served to protect an otherwise endangered
tribal identity in the state by providing a democratic platform for former separatists
to become a party of governance, and thereby reduced significantly the bases of
political extremism in the state. In such political setup, there always remains a
scope of balanced regional development. The socio-cultural diversity is given due
respect and it helps the regional people to practise their own culture too.

Negative (Disadvantage)
Regionalism is often seen as a serious threat to the development, progress and
unity of the nation. It gives internal security challenges by the insurgent groups,
who propagate the feelings of regionalism against the mainstream politico-
administrative setup of the country. Regionalism definitely impacts politics as
days of collation government and alliances are taking place. Regional demands
become national demands, policies are launched to satisfy regional demands and
generally those are extended to all pockets of country, hence national policies are
86 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
now dominated by regional demands. E.g. MSP given to sugarcane, it was helpful
for farmers in Maharashtra but it was implemented across all states resulting
agitations of farmers belonging to UP, Punjab and Haryana. Meanwhile it sowed
seed of defection among ministers and targeting to corresponding minister. Some
regional leaders play politics of vote bank based on language, culture, this is
certainly against healthy democratic procedures. This always leads to demand for
separate state and it has observed that after creating small states only few political
leaders could run efficient government else alliances run government which
ultimately makes administration machinery ineffective. Developmental plans are
implemented unevenly focusing on regions to which heavy weight leaders belongs
are benefitted, hence unrest is generated among rest regions. Law and order is
disturbed, agitations with massive violence take place ultimately government is
compelled to take harsh steps; hence wrong signals are emitted about government
authorities. Regionalism, also becomes hurdle in the international diplomacy, as
in 2013 we saw how Tamil Nadu regional parties were against the Prime Minister
of India, attending the Commonwealth heads meeting(CHOGM) in Sri Lanka.
These actions have their direct implication on the relation of India with Sri Lanka
or other countries of the forums or in case of Mamata Banerjee not agreeing to
Land Boundary agreement and Teesta River Water sharing, when the leaders at
centre level were ready to do it. The regionalism induced violence disturbs the
whole society, people are killed, students cannot attend the schools and colleges,
tourism cannot be promoted, etc. This impacts the development of human resource,
governments need to deploy extra forces to control the situation and it has direct
implication on the economy of the nation. Impacted societies remain aloof from
the mainstream development and then the regional variations and backwardness is
clearly reflected. On the broader front, it harms India’s status in global arena and
becomes hurdle in becoming global power or world leader.

3. Linguistic Diversity
The Constitution of India now recognizes 23 languages, spoken in different
parts the country. These consist of English plus 22 Indian languages: Assamese,
Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili,
Malayalam, Meitei, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi,
Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Language While Hindi is the official language of the
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 87
central government in India, with English as a provisional official language,
individual state legislatures can adopt any regional language as the official
language of that state.
The Constitution of India recognizes 23 official languages, spoken in different
parts of the country, of which two official and classical languages: Sanskrit and Tamil.
Linguism is a division among members of a society on the basis of When India
got her independence, it was decided that English should continue as official language
along with Hindi for a period of 15 years. But English has continued to remain till
today an associated official language mainly because of the revolt by the South Indian
states against the compulsory learning of hindi as official and national language.
The issue of linguism raises a very crucial question in the area of education is
What should be the language burden on school going child?

Causes of Linguist
There are many causes at the root of linguist in our country the major one’s
are the following.

i) Psychological causes
People of a particular region are attached to the regional language which
is their mother-tongue. Hence they do not easily accept to learn another Indian
language.

ii) Historical causes

India had been invaded by numerous foreign countries. e.g. French people
invaded our country and established their supremacy in Pondicherry, Portuguese
in Goa. Mughals came and brought Persian language. British spread English
language all over India. As a result Indian languages became subordinated to these
languages. This gave birth to linguism as people from different regions promoted
their own regional language in their states.

iii) Geographical causes

Every language has its own literature. This literature is influenced everywhere
by local geographical conditions such as plains, mountains, local vegetation and local
culture. It reflects the life of the people who speak the language. Hence an individual
does not willingly accept it if the language of another region is forced on him.
88 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
iv) Economic causes
There are some economic causes that also inspire linguism. Some languages
are financially assisted by the government for their progress but people speaking
other languages object to this.

v) Political causes
Linguism is also inspired by the political interest and aspiration of different
politicians and political groups. During elections in order to win votes many
communal political parties raise the language issue to instigate their people and
win their votes.

vi) Social causes

Linguism is encouraged by some social factors. The language that is
adopted by the society is respected. On the contrary the languages that caters to
contradictory presumptions are objected, this leads to linguism. e.g. Insistence on
continuance of English as Associate official language along with Hindi by South
Indian states like Tamil Nadu

Role of Education
AAEducation plays an important role in the elimination of
linguism.
AAEducation for national integration
AAInculcation of democratic principle for language options in education
AACreating interest for language study
AACo-curricular activities:
AACompetitions, games, dramas promoting respect for Indian Languages
AAAppreciation of contributions of great poets and authors to the development
of 5.
The Three language formula is given by Kothari Commission which is
modified and revised form of earlier policy, equalizes the language burden and
also develops the Indian identity in every in every citizens through the learning of
a common language and it has been adopted by all the states.
Finally it should be remembered that in order to solve the problems of linguism
it is necessary to adopt a comprehensive viewpoint. Each language should be
encouraged by the government in every region. If the prejudice concerning the
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 89
other language is removed from the mind and comprehensive and sympathetic
viewpoint is adopted it becomes possible for a number of languages to prosper.

4.Religious Diversity
India has no state religion, it is a secular state. India is the land where almost
all the major religions of the world are practiced. Nevertheless the religious
diversity has been a major source of disunity and disharmony in the country. This
is because, in India religious affiliation appears to be overemphasized and many
a time people seem to forget the national unity and express their loyalty more
towards their own religion.
The glaring example of such feeling is the partition of our country due to the
development of the two nation theory. But the matter has not ended there. The
communal feeling among different religious groups still persists in our country.
Among the major religions in India are: Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism,
Buddhism and Jainism.
Hinduism is the dominant religion of India, followed by Islam, Christianity,
Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism. (All religious communities -100, Hindus-80.5,
Muslims-13.4, Christians-2.3, Sikhs-1.9, Buddhists-0.8, Jains-0.4, others-0.6,
Religion not stated-0.1.
The above figures would indicate that the Indian society is also diverse in
religious terms. While the general populace has been largely tolerant of other
communities, there have been some instances of religious tension. While the
Muslims feel uneasy on account of the Babri Masjid and Gujarat riots and
Christians feel disturbed about actions of some sections against the missionaries,
the Sikhs have time and again pointed out 1984 anti Sikh riots. However, credit
must go the resilience of the common people that they have successfully dealt with
these challenges to social fabric of the country and have maintained communal
harmony.
AAFour issues in religious diversity in India
AAHow can the uniqueness of each religion be maximized?
AAHow can we propagate similarity of religions based on our common
humanity?
AAHow can we advocate complementary and supportive sentiments among
religions, including inclusivity, unity, variety and interdependence?
90 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
AAHow can we promote the convergence of religions on the basis of shared
interests, values and practice, particularly through prayers and social
service?

Religious Diversity
India is a land where almost all major religions of the world are found. Here
we find Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Zorostrianism and
Animism. All of these main religions have a number of sects of their own. In
India, religious affiliations appear to be over-emphasised. As such, people in
India some times, seem to be more loyal to their respective religions than to their
nation. This religious diversity has been a factor and a source of disunity and
disharmony in the country.
A. Hinduism: It is an amalgamation of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Pre-
Dravidian religious elements. It is the religion of the majority of the people of
India. The followers of Hinduism believe in the doctrine of ‘Karma’, ‘Dharma’,
rebirth, immortality of soul, renunciation and salvation. Hinduism allows a number
of possible conceptions of God. It also prescribes various alternative paths of
attaining God. The Sakta, the Shaiva, the Satnami, the Lingayat, the Kabirpanthi,
the Bramho Samaj, the Arya Samaj etc. are different sects of Hinduism. According
to 1991 census, 697.4 million people(82.6%) in India practice Hinduism and
provide a solid base for national unity through common beliefs, festivals, customs
and traditions.
B. Islam: Islam the religion of the Muslims, originated in Arebia. It came to
India towards the last quarter of the 12th century A.D, with the Muslim invasions.
The Muslim rulers in India patronized it. They established long dynasties over
large chunks of the country and encouraged conversions from Hinduism and
Buddhism. Islam does not believe in idol worship. It professes the fatalistic
acceptance of Allah’s will and considers Prophet Mohammed as the greatest
prophet. The ‘Quran’, sacred book of Islam, ordains five primary duties of a true
and devout Muslim, such as belief in God (Allah), prayers five times a day, the
giving of alms, a month’s fast every year and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once
in the life time of a Muslim.
C. Christianity: Christians in India constitute more than 2% of its
population. They are very widely scattered all over the country, but they are mainly
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 91
concentrated in the south and especially in Kerala where they form nearly 25%
of the state’s population. In the North, Christianity has spread rather sporadically
and its influence is mainly confined to certain sections of the tribal population and
the depressed castes. There are mainly three sects in Christianity. They are (a)
Roman-Syrians (b) Roman Catholics and (c) Protestants.
D. Sikhism: It was founded by Guru Nanak in the 16th century A.D. The
Sikhs were originally a part of the Vaishnava sect before they converted to it.
Sikhism was later developed by a line of Sikh Gurus, who succeeded Guru Nanak.
According to Rose, “The Sikh creed involves belief in one God, condemning the
worship of other deity; it prohibits idolatry, pilgrimage to the great shrines of
Hinduism, faith in omens, charms or witchcraft; and does not recognize ceremonial
impurity at birth and death. As a social system, it abolishes caste distinctions
and as a necessary consequence, the Brahminical supremacy and usages in all
ceremonies, at birth, marriage, death and so on.” The Sikhs are ideologically
nearer to the Hindus than to the Muslims. They as a group can easily be identified
by anyone; because of the five “K”s they always wear. The 5 “K” s are Kesh
(uncut long hair), Kanga (wooden comb) Kaccha (shorts), Kara (iron bangle in
the hand) and Kirpan (short sword). Sikh population in India is around 2% which
is mainly concentrated in the Punjab and at the adjoining states.
E. Buddhism: It originated in India during the 6th century B.C. Its founder
was Gautama the Buddha. Buddhism enjoyed royal patronage for a long period
beginning from the Great emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century B.C. As a result,
Buddhism spread not only in India but also in countries outside India. It has two
sects, namely the Hinayana and the 9 Mahayana. At present Buddhists are found
in Sikkim and the adjoining hills, they are also found in Maharashtra as a result
of the recent conversions under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar. However the
number of the Buddhists in India is very meager and it represents only less than
1% of the total population.
F. Jainism: Lord Mahavir established Jainism in India in the 6th century B.C.
It is very close to Hinduism. Many of the Hindu doctrines are retained in it. Jains
like the Hindus, venerate and worship the cows, they often worship in the Hindu
temples and also employ the services of the Brahmin priest in their domestic rites.
They are even more scrupulous than the Hindus in maintaining caste distinctions.
92 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
But it differs from Hinduism in its heretical views regarding the sanctity of the
Vedas and in its strict insistence on the principle of Ahimsa. Jains represent only
a small portion of the Indian population. They comprise about 0.45% of our
population. Jains are divided into 3 sects: namely (a) The Digambaras, (b) The
Sevetambaras and (c) The Dhundias. Jains are mainly urban people and are found
in the town and cities of Punjab, U.P, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
G. Zoroastrianism or Parsi: The Parsis or the followers of Zoroaster of
Zorathushtra came to India in the 7th century A.D. from Persia in order to escape
the forcible conversions to Islam. They worship fire. The expose their dead on the
so-called “towers of Silence” to be eaten up by vultures so that the elementsearth,
fire and water-are not defiled by the contact of the dead matter. Their number in
India is negligible. They are about one lakh in total half of which live in the city
of Bombay alone. As such they are mainly urban. They are the most literate and
are on the top of the economic ladder of India.
H. Animism: It is mainly a tribal faith. In India there are about 25 million
people who believe in Animism. It is a primitive religion, according to which man
is believed to be surrounded by a number of impersonal ghostly powers. These
powers are said to reside in rocks, rivers, trees, stones etc. The above discussion
makes it amply clear that India is a land of numerous religions. It is in view of this
religious diversity that independent India has declared secularism as one of the
main principles of its State Policy. Today India strives to integrate its people into
a great nation on secular lines. But in spite of the secular policy followed by the
state, there have been occasional communal riots in India causing much loss of
life and property. It is to be seen how far we will be able to cultivate the ideal of
secularism in the minds of our people who are mainly religious minded.

Challenges in Religious Diversity

Communalism is a social problem and it is said that communalism word
emerged in the 9th century and intensified in 20th century. The word communalism
comes from the word communalism comes from the word community which in
simple term means. Individual’s attachment or identification with the community
which she/he belongs. In this sense the word communalism is a positive term. In
its modern usage, term communalism refers to the tendency of socio-religious
groups to promote political, social and economic interests of one group even at
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 93
the expense of another group. In doing so, the religious group may consider other
religious communities as opponents and enemies. It implies an extreme sense
of pride in an identification with one own community or religion. It arouses out
of religious fundamentalism; the belief that one’s religion is the only supreme
faith. So, appeals to the danger to one’s religion or mere mention of disrespect
shown to places of worship are aroused and this leads to communal disputes. This
problem was provoked during British rule and they used this for divide and rule
in India. Thus communal dispute occurs among two communities like Hindus and
Muslims, Hindu’s and Sikhs, Sikhs and Buddhist and various other communities.

Causes
1. Historical Causes: British imperialism used it as a divide and rule policy.
2. Political Causes: Vested political interest after independence used various
means to obtain power through communal forces.
3. E
 conomic Causes: At the time of independence resources were limited and
expectations were very high. Soon there emerged a competition for limited
resources. In this competition the vested interests found an easy way to mobilize
people on caste, communal and regional basis to demand better share.
4. Selfish Vested Interests: Political particle and government, having failed
to fulfill the expectations of people, use religion and tradition as diverting
tactics. Some parties tell the religious minorities that they are being
discriminated against by majority dominated governments. 5. Unemployed
Youth: The frustrated, educated unemployed or under employed youth, full
of energies are particularly targeted to keep them busy in diversity politics.
Youth in India today has fallen prey to communal leadership.

Role of Education
1. The government should not yield to communal pressures and their
negative influence on educational aims and policies. A Secular policy
must pervade nationwide in all educational institutions.
2. Educational system must be reconstructed to emphasize nature of our
culture and inculcate secularism and scientific temper among young
students.
3. Curriculum and textbooks should be free from religious bias.
94 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
4. Co-curricular Activities should promote Secularism
(i ) General Assembly: Secular Atmosphere- prayers of all religious.
(ii ) Celebration of Festivals of all religions with equal fervor.

5. Caste Diversity
The social structure of Indian society is characterised by a unique social
institution called caste. The Indian caste system is a system of social stratification
and social restriction in India in which communities are defined by thousands
of endogamous hereditary groups called Jātis. The Jātis were hypothetically and
formally grouped by the Brahminical texts under the four well known categories
: Brahmins, Vaishyas, Kshatriyas and Sudras. The caste system which emerged
out of the Varna system as a form of social stratification is peculiar to India and
is an inseparable aspect of the Indian society. There is no comparable institution
elsewhere in the world for the caste system. Although evidences of caste are to be
found in many parts of the world, the most perfect instance is that which exists
in India. Attempts are being made to understand the system in its entirety both by
the Indian and Western scholars; hence caste system offers interesting issues for
debates and discussions.

Meaning of caste
The word “caste” derived from the Latin word castus which means pure was
loosely used by the Portuguese to denote the Indian social classification as they
thought that the system was intended to preserve purity of blood. This term was
first applied to the Indian caste system by Garcia de Orta in 1563. The Sanskrit
word for caste is varna which means colour. The system is such a peculiar and
complex one that no satisfactory definition is possible, hence we find no unanimity
among the scholars on the subject. However, some definitions are quoted below
for the benefit of the students.

Definitions of Caste system

Andre Beteille- “Caste may be defined as a small and named group of
persons characterized by endogamy, hereditary membership, and a specific style
of life which sometimes includes the
pursuit by tradition of a particular occupation and is usually associated with
a more or less distinct ritual status in a hierarchical system”.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 95
MacIver- “When status is wholly predetermined, so that men are born to their
lot without any hope of changing it, then class takes the extreme form of caste”.
H. Cooley- “When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a
caste”.
E. A. Gait- “caste is an endogamous group or collection of such groups
bearing a common name, having the same traditional occupation claiming descent
from the same source, and, commonly regarded as forming a single homogeneous
community”.
S. V. Ketkar- “A caste is a group having two characteristics- a. Membership is
confined to those who are born of members and include all persons so born, b. The
membership is forbidden by an inexorable social law to men outside the group”.
A. Green- “Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and down
the status ladder, at least ideally may not occur”.

Characteristics of caste system

1. Segmental division of society: The caste system gives to the Hindu society
a segmentary character. The society is divided into various castes, the membership
of which is determined by the consideration of birth. The status of a person does
not depend on his wealth but on the traditional importance of the caste in which
he is born. The caste status is rigidly maintained throughout life and nobody can
escape from his caste identity, irrespective of his potentialities or capabilities.
2. Hierarchy: The caste system is hierarchical with a definite scheme of
precedence. The whole society is divided into distinct classes with a concept of
high and low. Thus Brahmans in India stand at the apex of the social ladder while
the Sudras occupied the lowest rank with manifold disabilities.
3. Restrictions on food habits: Taboos are observed by the higher castes
with regard to cooking, vessels, food and commensality. They abstain from food
cooked by a member of a lower caste and also food cooked and served in vessels
which are considered impure. The Brahmans do not accept food or water from any
other castes or sub-castes or interline with them during ceremonies and abstain
from any kind of drinks and remain teetotalers.
4. Occupational restrictions: Traditionally, specific occupations are assigned
to each of the four castes. Members of any caste are not allowed to take to any
occupation which are degrading or impure.
96 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
5. Religious disabilities: There are many rituals which the lower castes are
not allowed to perform. They are also not allowed to study the sacred literature
and are not given prasadan (consecrated food) until and unless the high caste
members receive it.
6. Endogamy: A caste is an endogamous unit in that members of a caste
must marry only persons belonging to their caste in order to maintain the purity
and identity of the caste. The rule of endogamy is observed not only at the caste
level but also at the sub- caste and sub-sub-caste level. 7. Maintenance of social
distance, untouchability and settlement pattern: A social distance is maintained
because of the fear among the higher castes of pollution which results from
proximity to or contact with the lower castes. The untouchables are not allowed to
use public roads or public wells,to enter Hindu temples or to attend public school.
Generally, the impure castes are made to live in the outskirts of the city.
8. Concept of purity: The concept of purity is closely linked to caste and is
inherently obvious in the caste system. Opposite to the concept of purity is the
concept of pollution. Caste groups in the topmost rungs of the caste hierarchy are
`pure’ while those at the bottom rungs are `impure’.

Origin of caste system

There is no universally accepted theory about the origin of the Indian caste
system. However, some theories attempting to explain the origin of the caste
system are
i. Racial Theory: This theory propounds that the caste system is based on
the original diversity of races. This theory has been propounded by Herbert
Risley, G.S.Ghurye and D.N.Majumdar. Risley feels that the Aryan element in
the Indian population is conspicuously responsible for the development of the
caste system. The Aryans who migrated to India already had a caste-like structure
corresponding to the four major castes in India. As the Aryans came to India as
invaders, they could not bring their women with them and therefore married
women from indigenous Indian society. But, at the same time, they did not give
their daughters in marriage to non-Aryans. Thus, hypergamy and hypogamy
practised by the Aryan invaders who developed a social structure modelled on
their native country gave rise to the caste system in India. Ghurye based his
arguments on the Brahmanical system which, he feels, developed in the Gangetic
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 97
plains. He states that the Aryans who invaded India subdued the non-Aryans and
considered them as Sudras. Majumdar is of the opinion that the Indo-Aryans used
for certain groups and orders of people the favourite word varna meaning colour
in order to maintain their separate existence.
ii. Political Theory: According to this theory, caste system is a device invented
by the Brahmans to place themselves in the highest rung of social hierarchy. Ghurye
states Caste is a Brahmanic child of Indo-Aryan culture cradled in the land of the
Ganges and thence transferred to other parts of India. In the Brahman period, the
position of the Brahmans increased manifold. The three lower castes are ordered to
live according to the teaching of the Brahmans who declare their duties and even
the king is exhorted to regulate his conduct accordingly. The pre-eminence of the
Brahman secured him many social privileges sanctioned by the law-givers.
iii. Occupational or Functional Theory: According to this theory, the origin
of caste system can be found in the nature and quality of social work performed
by the various groups of people. In other words, occupational specialization
or economic functions of different groups have created the caste system. The
superiority or inferiority of the occupations is represented in the hierarchy of
castes. iv. Guild Theory: According to Denzil Ibbetson, castes are a modified form
of guilds.In his opinion, caste system is the product of interaction of three forces:
i. Tribes ii. Guilds and iii. Religion. The tribes adopted certain fixed professions
and assumed the form of guilds. In ancient India, priests had greater prestige.
They were a hereditary and endogamous group. The other guilds also adopted the
same practices and in due course became castes.
v. Religious Theory: Hocart and Senart are the two main advocates of the
religious theory. According to Hocart, social stratification originated on account
of religious principles and customs. In ancient India, religion had a prominent
place. The king was considered to be the image of God. The priest kings accorded
different positions to different functional groups. Senart has tried to explain the
origin of caste system on the basis ofprohibitionsregarding sacramental food. He
holds that on account of different family duties there grew up certain prohibitions
regarding sacramental food. The followers of one particular deity considered
themselves the descendants of the same ancestor and offered a particular kind of
food as offering to their deity. Those who believed in the same deity considered
98 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
themselves as different from those who believed in some other deity. Each group
worshipping a particular deity gradually assumed caste status.
vi. Evolutionary Theory: According to this theory, the caste system did not
originate all of a sudden or at a particular point of time. It is the result of a long
process of social evolution in which a number of factors played their part in the
development of the present caste system.
vii. Mana Theory: J.H.Hutton feels that occupational classes existed even
before the Aryan invasion. Further, the indigenous tribal people had belief in
mana or the impersonal force in an object, contact with which could emanate
power. This belief in mana, says Hutton, could have been the forerunner for the
purity and pollution concept. The caste system originated by the combination of
the pre-Aryan social divisions and the tribal attitude towards the force of mana.
Merits of caste system
i. Unity in diversity: The Indian caste system has preserved unity in
diversity. It has achieved a graded racial and cultural harmony in India.
ii. Co-operation: The caste system has fostered the spirit of co-operation and
fellow-feeling among members of the same caste. By helping the poor and needy,
it has avoided the necessity of the state supporting the poor.
iii. Economic security: By guaranteeing different types and fixed types of
occupations for every man and social group, the caste system has given economic
security and psychological security. iv. Defines economic pursuits: By defining
occupations and distributing economic pursuits between different groups, the
caste system has ensured for the provision of all functions necessary for life from
the social, economic, political, religious and other points of view.
v. Racial and ethnic purity: Through the enforcement of endogamy, the caste
system has contributed to the preservation of racial and ethnic purity. It has also
fostered the habits of cleanliness by insisting on ritual purity.
vi. Cultural diffusion: The caste system has helped in cultural diffusion by
which the customs, beliefs, skills, behaviour and trade are passed on from one
generation to another and further, from the upper castes to the lower castes who
have also gradually adopted some ritually clean and hygienic practices as well.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 99
vii Integration of the country: Because of the caste system, class consciousness
develops without breeding class struggle. It has created an efficient organisation
of Hindu society without giving any chance to class frictions and factions.

Demerits of caste system

i. Mobility of labour: By restricting change of occupation, it denies mobility
of labour and consequently leads to stagnation. The higher castes cannot follow
a low occupation which may be lucrative, and the lower castes cannot follow a
higher and decent occupation.
ii. Wrong occupation: An individual may not be skilled or interested in his
caste trade but may be talented and capable of some other pursuit which by caste
conventions may be prohibited. It thus leads to frustration and acts as a barrier to
optimum productivity.
iii. Obstacle to national unity: Discontentment felt by the lower caste groups
at the behaviour meted out to them in society is an obstacle to national unity as it
prevents the development of national consciousness.
iv. Undemocratic: The caste system denies equal rights to all irrespective of
their caste, creed or colour. Deprivation of opportunities for mental and physical
development of the lower caste individuals erects social barriers.
v. Untouchability: The worst consequence of the caste system is the plight
of the `untouchables’ who are shunned, despised and prevented from social
intercourse with higher caste groups.
vi. Promotes casteism: The members belonging to a caste carry caste feelings
and manifest blind and over-riding loyalty to their caste. This makes them ignore
the healthy social standards of justice, fairplay, equity and brotherhood. Under
the influence of casteism, members of one caste do not hesitate in harming the
interests of members of other castes. Casteism, therefore, spells autocracy instead
of a system based on fraternity.

Changes in the Caste System

The caste system has undergone many changes due to modern education,
industrialization, means of communication, new legal machinery provided by the
British government for punishing all castes in the same way for similar offences,
legalizing inter-caste marriages, political awakening, independence of India,
100 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
abolition of untouchability, democratic form of government, movements of social
emancipation, constitutional guarantees provided for the welfare of the backward
castes and ex-untouchable castes. During the initial days of British East India
Company’s rules, caste privileges and customs were encouraged. However, the
British law courts disagreed with the discrimination against the lower castes.
During the British Raj, many Hindu reform movements such as Brahmo Samaj
and Arya Samaj renounced caste-based discrimination and preached a casteless
society. The restrictions on occupations have been relaxed and occupational
mobility has become very common. The inclusion of so-called untouchables
into the mainstream was argued for by many social reformers. Mahatma Gandhi
called them Harijans (people of God). However, the term Dalit (downtrodden) is
used now as the term Harijan is largely felt patronising. Gandhi’s contribution
toward the emancipation of the untouchables is considered controversial. This is
usually highlighted by the commentary of his contemporary Dr. B.R. Ambedkar,
an untouchable himself, who frequently saw his activities as detrimental to the
cause of upliftment of his people.

6. Tribal Diversity
Tribes have been defined as a group of indigenous people with shallow history,
having common name, language and territory, tied by strong kinship bonds,
practicing endogamy, having distinct customs, rituals and beliefs, simple social
rank and political organization, common ownership of resources and technology.
However, in India many of these characteristics are shared by castes. This raises
the problem as to how to distinguish them from castes. There have been other
conceptual attempts to define tribes. They have been considered as a stage in the
social and cultural evolution. Some others have considered that the production
and consumption among the tribes are household based and unlike peasants they
are not part of a wider economic, political and social network.
Indian tribal culture speaks volumes about the diversity of the country. ‘Unity
in diversity’ is one of the most spectacular features amongst the population of
India. Among the diversified population, a significant portion comprises the tribal
people, the aboriginal inhabitants of the primeval land. Tribal culture of India,
their traditions and practices interpenetrate almost all the aspects of Indian culture
and civilization.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 101
The different tribes in India if ever counted can move up to a mind-boggling
number, with all their ethnicities and impressions. In India, almost a new dialect
can be witnessed each new day; culture and diversification amongst the tribal
can also be admired from any land direction. The tribal population is also pretty
much varied and diversified. Each of the tribes is a distinctive community, either
migrated from a different place or the original denizens of the land. These various
tribes still inhabit the different parts, especially the seven states of the North-
eastern region and almost each and every nook of the country.
The economic scene in the tribal regions has been changing. The economic
changes may be listed as follows:
AAForest resources have dwindled and forests have been increasingly brought
under reservation. They are no more under the control of the tribal people
except in certain areas of North-East India.
AATribal people have lost a lot of land to more experienced agriculturists, to
industries, and for big projects like hydro-electric reservoirs
AAA number of big industries like steel plants have been established in their
areas. So, on the one hand, they have been displaced by such projects and,
on the other, they have been given employment as wage labourers.
AAPenetration of market economy resulted in the tribal’s producing for
market rather than for meeting their own needs.
These various tribes still inhabit the different parts, especially the seven
states of the Northeastern region and almost each and every nook of the country.

Education for Understanding Social Diversity

Teachers today must not only be well prepared to impart a quality education
but also be sensitive to meeting the needs of their students regardless of their race,
color, creed, or national origin. It is important for the teacher to understand, believe,
and practice the ideas of teacher efficacy, intentionality, educational psychology
and pedagogy. An effective teacher should take into account the intellectual, social
and cultural characteristics of each student being taught. Remaining cognizant of
the fact that each child is different and has different learning styles a teacher in a
diverse world is enthusiastic about their responsibility to teach all students in the
most effective way.
Whatever the learning style: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, etc, the teachers
who practice intentionality and believe in teacher efficacy plan the outcomes
102 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
they want to achieve while having the power or belief in producing the desired
result. Because of different styles and beliefs there are many facets of diversity
in our world today. Each facet is worthy of our respect and understanding. In
order to be successful teachers we need to step back and look inside ourselves.
Once teachers understand the differences in students’ styles, beliefs, and abilities
they must create curriculum that is responsive to the needs of each student. By
incorporating examples of multicultural materials, visual aids, and topics that
encourage students to explore different racial and cultural perspectives teachers
show sensitivity to the cultural value of each student therefore connecting with
the students. Educators must understand that the cultural backgrounds and
experiences of their students must be respected and reflected in all aspects of
the education process. It is not only enough to understand and work toward the
success of all diverse students, an effective teacher must prevent harassment and
racism in the classroom. Inappropriate or offensive remarks must be dealt with
quickly and decisively. Since all students are diverse racist, sexist or other abusive
comments are bound to occur. Teachers need to create an environment which
radiates warmth and friendliness. It is important to help diverse students merge
into the mainstream without jeopardizing the quality of education to all students.
Connecting with your students and letting them share their cultural identity not
only assists students to understand other cultures, it helps embed the individuals’
culture into their daily life.

2.4. R
 ole of education in creating positive attitude towards
diversity
AAThe balancing act of education is well reflected in the constitutional
provision. Social diversity is a feature of a society which is determined by
caste, class, religion, occupational pattern in a given territory.
AAThe positive effects of diversity enable students to work with people from
other races, ethnicities, and cultural backgrounds and challenges the views
they are accustomed to. This leads to greater awareness, understanding,
and acceptance of differing beliefs and customs.
AATeaching diversity exposes students to various cultural and social groups,
preparing students to become better citizens in their communities. These
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 103
culturally responsive teaching strategies will help you to promote diversity
in the classroom.
AAThe importance of education is not only fostering student career, it’s
also in shaping the economic wellbeing and quality of social life. When
resources that are given in society are distributed unevenly then Social
inequality occurs, and cultures are aids in the determination of gender
roles. Although, teachers also look into individual child attitude, who can
bring up about positive changes within their peer.
AAAt the same time, education needs to ensure equity, social inclusion, and
integration of persons. Teacher attitude background is a key determinant
of education equality in the classroom and it is the most consistent theme
in the initial definitions of social justice. A large part of classroom learning
equity and access means teachers need to believe that all students can learn
and can achieve their dream.
AATo promote classroom learning equity and access within peers, the teacher
needs to do well planning and be consistent but it does things are change,
how it teaches and how students learn so that all are getting without any
social or gender discrimination what they need to learn. As a teacher, this
is the responsibility within the classroom

2.5. Interdisciplinary nature of education

Historically, scholars have made unfailing effort to position education as a
standard science but no solid successes has been achieved regardless of the positivistic
paradigm, quantitative approaches or value free neutral stances they adopted. As
interdisciplines permeate the field of education, education experiences a crisis of
being colonized. After serious rethinking interdisciplines were widely believed to do
more good than harm to education is being to transform a ‘colony’ to empire.

AAInterdisciplinary education merges components of two or more disciplines

in a single program of instruction. Interdisciplinary theory takes
interdisciplinary knowledge, research, or education as its main objects of
study.”

AAPhilosophy of education not only critically evaluates the values but also
systematizes them in a hierarchy. Educational values are’ determined
by philosophical values. Educational values propagated by different
104 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
philosophers have been derived from their own world, view and their
outlook on the purpose of human life.

AAThere are five philosophies of education that focus on teachers

and students; essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, social
reconstructionism, and existentialism. Essentialism is what is used in
today’s classrooms and was helped by William Bagley in the 1930s.

AAEducation can be called as the dynamic side of philosophy

because philosophy is wisdom; education transmits that wisdom from one
generation to the other. Education is the application of the fundamental
principles of philosophy.
Inter disciplinary involves the combining of two or more academic discipline
in to one activity. It is about creating something new by crossing boundaries and
thinking across them. The term inter disciplinary field which is an organisational
unit is applied with in education & training pedagogies to describe studies that use
method and insight of several established disciplines or traditional field of study.

1. Education and philosophy

As a field of study philosophy is one of the oldest discipline it is the root of
all knowledge Education has also drawn its material from different philosophical
bases like education philosophy also closely related to human life. There for being
an important life activity education is also greatly influenced by philosophy

2. Education and Sociology

Emile Darkheim was the first person who indelated the need for a sociological
approach to education. He considered education to be essantialy social in character
and in its function and that as a result  the theory of education relates more clearly
to sociology  than any other science. He emphasized that education is not a static
phenomenon but aagnamic and ever- changing process.

3. Education and psychology

Psychology applied in education is the study of how human learn in
educational setting, the effectiveness educational interventions the psychology
of teaching and social psychology of school as organizations. It is concerned
with how students learn and develop often focusing of sub groups such as gifted
children and those subjected to specafic disabilities.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 105
4. Education and economics
Economics education is the study of  economics issue relating to education
including demand for the education on the financing and provision of education.

5. Education and History

To understand, schools we must view them in historical perspective it tried
to explain how the history of humanity &history has led to the development of
schools as we know them today. To have a clear understanding about historical
aspect of education. The history of indigenous education in India act as a basis of
all educational politics and reforms in India.

6. Education and Political Science

As an academic discipline the study of politics in education has two main
roots. The first root is based on the Theories from political science. While the
second root is anchored in organizational theory. Political Science attempt to
explain how societies and social organization use power to established regulation
and allocate resources.

7. Education and Anthropology

The focus of anthropology of education is cultural transmission Educational
system in society’s attempt to promote stability and enure its own survival by
passing on its insight, Ideals, Skills, assumptions and goals to the next generation
106 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Questions
1. What is meant by social diversity? explain understanding in social diversity in
india
2. Explain interdisciplinary nature of education
3. What is the role of education in creative positive attitude towards diversity

II ten mark
4. Explain levels of social diversity
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 107
UNIT III

EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS OF INDIVIDUALS AND

DIVERSE COMMUNITIES

3.1 Introduction
Education is the basic requirement for success of democracy and progress
of a country. Universalization of primary education is a provision to provide free
educational opportunities to all children of the society irrespective of caste, creed
and sex.
Since independence many steps have been taken and different commissions
and committees have given suggestions to achieve universalization of Primary
Education. But it is still far from the hope and the national target. Universalization
of Elementary Education (UEE) has been accepted as a national goal in India.
Central and State governments are taking much efforts to achieve this goal.

3.2. Universalization of Primary Education in India

Article 45 of the Indian Constitution directed that “The State shall endeavor to
provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this constitution
for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years.”
Universalization of Elementary Education implies the following five aspects:
1. Universalization of provision
2. Universalization of enrolment
3. Universalization of retention
4. Universalization of participation and
5. Universalization of achievement

1. Universalization of Provision
This implies that adequate school facilities should be provided to all children
between age group 6 to 14 in the country. It means that primary schools should
be set up within 1 km from the habitation of the child. It needs to open a large
number of schools throughout the country.
108 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
2. Universalization of Enrolment
After making provision for children, next thing is to see how to enroll all the
students in primary schools who attain educable age. The Government has decided
to enroll all children of the age group 6-14 in primary schools. All adequate and
fruitful steps are being launched to bring all children from every nook and corner
of the country to the arena of school. The New Education Policy (1986) assures
to enroll all children up to age level 14 and achievement of Universalisation of
Elementary Education (UEE) by 2015 through “Education for All”.

3. Universalization of Retention
Simply enrolling of children in school is not enough for universalization.
The success of it lies in the retention. In the School organization, children must
remain in school stage till the completion of school study. But if the child leaves
education before completion, the idea of universalization of primary education
cannot be successful.

4. Universalization of Participation
For Universalization of Elementary Education participation of community is
quite inevitable. The community is to be mobilized to take the responsibility for
identifying its own needs and to take decisive role in ensuring the implementation
of the UEE programme .
For better and effective participation of educational administrative personnel,
educational administration needs decentralization. As a result, the administrative
people related to primary education will be accountable to the local community
and in turn, community will extend its helping hand for UEE through both formal
and non-formal programmes.

5. Universalization of Achievement
For success of UEE, achievement of learners is to be ascertained. The strategy
is to lay down learning outcomes from learners at the elementary level. The outcome
of the education is to be based of minimum level of learning (MLL) common to both
formal and non-formal programme. For assessing achievement of MLL, continuous
comprehensive evaluation of students’ learning is to be emphasized. This will help
to achieve UEE through “Education for All” (EFA) by 2015.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 109
3.3. Efforts to taken to provide Universal primary Education
1. Expansion of primary Education
In 1947, at the time of independence, there were only 173 thousand primary
schools in india. But it has increased to about 500 thousand schools in 1990-
91. Similarly there has also been a significant increase in the number of middle
schools.
2. Enrollment of pupils
Number of pupils enrolled in primary schools has multiplied in manifold as
compared to that at the time of independence
3. Curriculum
Today emphasis has been given in the curriculum to include all those
meaningful experiences of children which are related to their immediate needs
and living conditions. For example, present day school curriculum provides
importance for environmental education, population education, vocational
education, value education etc. and tries to impart education through the mother
tongue.
4. preference in education for the children from weaker sections of the society
Article 46 of the Indian constitution stresses that appropriate efforts should
be taken for the educational progress and economic development of the schedules
castes and schedules tribes. As per this constitutional directive, children belonging
to the weaker sections of the society are provided with liberal grant of scholarship,
financial assistance, free text books and uniform dress materials, free stay and
boarding in hostels etc. in order to motivate them to get educated and advance
economically.
5. Financial allocation
Governments both at the central and state make significant financial allocations
in their annual budgets and of these about 48.5% is spent on primary education. In
addition to this private agencies too spend huge amounts on education.
6. Some of the New schemes attempted
i). The central government has started a new scheme names “minimum
needs programme” to fulfill the basic needs of every primary school in
the country
110 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
ii). Non formal education programmes have been started for the dropouts
from schools in the age group 6 to 14
iii). To avoid the twin problem of wastage and stagnation the policy of non
retention in classes I to V is implemented in primary schools.
iv). Education officers have been appointed in large numbers to tune up
the educational administration and arrange for constant supervision and
monitoring.
5. Efforts taken under new education policy of 1986
The new education policy of 1986, has been mainly responsible to initiate
some urgent measures to revamp the primary education by bringing about radical
reformation in schools, of which the following are noteworthy:
i). The scheme of Operation Black Board
ii). Modification of the school time and holidays to facilitate the
convenience of rural students.
iii). Establishment of DIET (District Institute of Education and Training)
in each educational district to enhance the teaching skills of primary
school teachers
iv). Under national literacy mission people Centre for education has been
started in every village with a population of 5000, to provide for non-
-formal education for all those who dropped out from primary schools.
In tamilnadu too through the sceme “SarvaSikshaAbigyan” (Meaning
universal literacy movement) efforts have been intensifies to educate all
non school going children through the non-formal mode.

3.3.Programmes to Achieve Universalisation of Education

Following features provide the basis of implementation of the RTE act, 2009.
AAEvery child in the age group of 6-14 has the right to free and compulsory
education in a neighborhood school, till the completion of elementary
education
AAPrivate schools will have to take 25% of their class strength from the weaker
section and the disadvantaged group of the society through a random
selection process. Government will fund education of these children.
AANo seats in this quota can be left vacant. These children will be treated on
par with all the other children in the school and subsidized by the State at
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 111
the rate of average per learner costs in the government schools (unless the
per learner costs in the private school are lower).
AAAll schools will have to prescribe to norms and standards laid out in the Act
and no school that does not fulfill these standards within 3 years will be
allowed to function. All private schools will have to apply for recognition,
failing which they will be penalized to the tune of Rs 1 lakh and if they still
continue to function will be liable to pay Rs 10,000 per day as fine. Norms
and standards of teacher qualification and training are also being laid down
by an Academic Authority. Teachers in all schools will have to subscribe to
these norms within 5 years.
AANo donation and capitation fee is allowed.
AANo admission test or interview either for child or parents.
AANo child can be held back, expelled and required to pass the board
examination till the completion of elementary education.
AAThere is provision for establishment of commissions to supervise the
implementation of the act.
AAA fixed student and teacher ratio is to be maintained.
AAAll schools have to adhere to rules and regulations laid down in this act,
failing which the school will not be allowed to function. Three years
moratorium period has been provided to school to implement all that is
required of them.
AANorms for teachers training and qualifications are also clearly mentioned
in the act.
AAAll schools except private unaided schools are to be managed by School
management Committees with 75% of parents and guardians as members.

Children Benefited
Approx 22 crore children fall under the age group 6-14. Out of which
4.1% i.e. 92 lakhs children either dropped out from school or never attend any
educational institution. These children will get elementary education. Local and
state government will ensure it. Monitoring
The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) has been
mandated to monitor the implementation of this historic Right. A special Division
within NCPCR will undertake this huge and important task in the coming months
and years. A special toll free helpline to register complaints will be set up by
112 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
NCPCR for this purpose. NCPCR welcomes the formal notification of this Act and
looks forward to playing an active role in ensuring its successful implementation.
NCPCR also invites all civil society groups, students, teachers, administrators,
artists, writers, government personnel, legislators, members of the judiciary and
all other stakeholders to join hands and work together to build a movement to
ensure that every child of this country is in school and enabled to get at least 8
years of quality education.

Right to Education
The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted Article
21-A in the Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory education of
all children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in
such a manner as the State may, by law, determine. The Right of Children to Free
and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the consequential
legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that every child has a right to full
time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school
which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.
Article 21-A and the RTE Act came into effect on 1 April 2010. The title of
the RTE Act incorporates the words free and compulsory‘. Free education‘ means
that no child, other than achild who has been admitted by his or her parents to a
school which is not supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to
pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from
pursuing and completing elementary education. Compulsory education‘ casts an
obligation on the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and
ensure admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all
children in the 6-14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights based
framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to
implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the
Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act.

The RTE Act provides

AARight of children to free and compulsory education till completion of
elementary education in a neighbourhood school.
AAIt clarifies that compulsory education‘ means obligation of the appropriate
government toprovide free elementary education and ensure compulsory
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 113
admission, attendance and completionof elementary education to every
child in the six to fourteen age group. Free‘ means that no child shall be
liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent
him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.
AAIt makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age
appropriate class.
AAIt specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments,
local authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education,
and sharing of financial and other responsibilities between the Central and
State Governments.
AAIt lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher
Ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-
working hours.
AAIt provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified
pupil teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average
for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural
imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment
of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to
local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.
AAIt provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers
with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
AAIt prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening
procedures for admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition
by teachers and (e) running of schools without recognition,
AAIt provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values
enshrined in the Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round
development of the child, building on the child‘s knowledge, potentiality
and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a
system of child friendly and child centred learning.

3.4. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

SSA has been operational launched with an aim of achieving the
objective of universal primary education during 2000-2001. The expenditure on
the programme was shared by the Central Government and State Governments.
Sarva Shiksha Abiyan means “Education for All”. SSA is an effort to universalise
elementary education by community-ownership of the school system.
114 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
It aims at changing the current school system in order to improve the quality
of the education provided in the country. The SSA programme is also an effort
to provide an equal opportunity for children to grow and develop knowledge
and skills through community-owned quality education system. It considers
itself an opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education. It
aims at successfully involving Panchayat Raj Institutions, School Management
Committees, Village and Urban Slum Level Education Committees, Parents’
Teachers’ Associations, Mother -Teacher Associations, Tribal Autonomous
Councils and other local level organisations in the administration of elementary
schools. It aims at achieving an efficient partnership between central, state and
local governments, while still proving the state with the autonomy of developing
its own mission in regard to elementary education.
The main mission of SSA is to provide “useful and relevant elementary
education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010”. SSA means to remove
all social, regional and gender disparities in the education system through the
active participation of the community.

3.4.1.Aims of SSA
AATo provide useful and elementary education for all children in the 6-14
age group.
AATo bridge social, regional and gender gaps with the active participation of
community in the management of schools.
AATo allow children to learn about and master their natural environment in
order to develop their potential both spiritually and materially.
AATo inculcate value-based learning, this allows children an opportunity
to work for each other’s well- being rather than to permit mere selfish
pursuits.
AATo realize the importance of Early Childhood Care and Education and
looks at the 6-14 age as range.

3.4.2. Objectives of SSA

(a) All children in school,Education Guarantee Centre, Alternative School,
Back-to-School‘ camp by 2003 (later amended to 2005)
(b) All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007
(c) All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 115
(d) Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
education for life
(e) Bridge all gender and social category gaps at the primary and upper primary
stage by 2007 and
(f) Universal retention by 2010.

3.4.3. Main Features of SSA

AAProgramme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
AAA response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
AAAn opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
AAAn expression of political will for universal elementary education across
the country.
AAA partnership between the central, state and the local governments.
AAAn opportunity for states to develop their own vision of elementary
education.
AAAn effort at effective involving the Panchayat Raj Institutions, School
Management Committees, Village and Urban Slum Level Education
Committees, Parents Teachers’ Associations, Mother -Teacher
Associations, Tribal Autonomous Councils and other grass root level
structures in the management of elementary schools.

3.4.4. The components of SSA include

(a) preparatory activities for micro-planning, household surveys, studies,
community mobilization, school-based activities, office equipment, training
and orientation at all levels.
(b) appointment of teachers,
(c) opening of new primary and alternative schooling facility like EGS/AIE
centers,
(d) opening of upper primary schools
(e) constructing additional classrooms, schools and other facilities
(f) free textbooks to all children,
(g) maintenance and repair of school buildings
(h) Teaching Learning Equipment for primary schools on up-gradation of EGS
to regular schools or setting up of a new primary school and for new upper
primary schools,
116 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(i) school grant,
(j) teacher grant,
(k) teachers‘ training, (l) opening of SIEMAT,
(m) training of community leaders,
(n) provision for children with special needs,
(o) Research, Evaluation, Monitoring & Supervision,
(p) management cost,
(q) learning enhancement programme (LEP)
(r) innovative activity for girl‘s education, early childhood care education,
interventions for children belonging to SC/ST, minority community, deprived
children in urban areas and computer education specially for upper primary
level
(s) setting up of BRCs/CRCs,\
(t) interventions for out of school children
Teacher training
1.Provision of up to 10 days in-service training for all teachers each year, at
BRC level and above, @ Rs.100/- per teacher per day.
2 Up to 10 monthly cluster level meetings and peer group training sessions, for
all teachers each year @ Rs.50/- per teacher per day at CRC level.
3 @ Rs.100/- per day for 30 days induction training of newly recruited teachers.
4 @ Rs.100/- per day for 60 days for on the job, untrained teachers to acquire
professional qualifications through in - service / distance programmes.
5 Training of BRC & CRC coordinators & resource persons for upto 10 days
each year @ Rs.100/- per person per day.
6 These ceilings of unit cost should not be allowed automatically as a default
costing norm. Actual unit costs would need to be budgeted.The number
of days of trainings would be decided by the State / UT. The unit costs for
training inputs including training material, resource persons and other training
norms would be based on the inter se norms for training as approved by the
State SSA‘s Executive Committee.
7 Assessment of capacities for effective training during appraisal will determine
extent of coverage.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 117
8 Support for SCERT/DIET under existing Teacher Education Scheme
9 Teachers‘ training is provided to: - (i) Teachers of Government schools; (ii)
Local body schools and, (iii) Teachers of Government aided schools and aided
Madrassa, provided: -
(a) The admission policy in these schools should be similar to that of
Government schools in the State
(b) These schools should not be collecting any fee from the students
c) Government sanction should be obtained for appointment of teachers
(d) Salary of teachers and their service conditions should be similar to that of
Government school teachers
(e) Syllabus followed should be the same as that of Government schools (in the
case of madrassa, they should be following the curriculum prescribed by the
madrassa Board).
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a comprehensive plan to provide free
education to all children in the age group 6-14 years. It was launched in2001 with
an initial outlay of Rs.7,000 crore. This brief presents the salient features of the
scheme and highlights its impact on elementaryand primary education to date.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is the government‘s flagship programme to
provide universalaccess to elementary education for children 6-14 years old. The
scheme aims to improve enrolment, retention, and the quality of education to
enable children to achieve grade appropriate levels of learning. It also aims to
eliminate gender differences and gaps between different social categories.
SSA was initiated in 2001 following recommendations from the state
education ministers‘conference in 1998. Although the86th Amendment to the
Constitution enacted in 2002 made elementary education a fundamental right,
the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act that operationalised
the provision of free and compulsory education was not passed bythe Parliament
until August 2009.
Funding
The costs for SSA are shared by the centre and states in the ratio 85:15. In
2004-05, the central government imposedan education cess of 2 percent on all
taxes to mobilise additional funds for SSA and the Mid Day Meal Scheme. In
2008-09, this surcharge was increased to 3 percent.
118 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
3.5. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
The Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)is a flagship scheme
of Government of India, launched in March, 2009 with the objective to enhance
access to secondary education and to improve its quality. The implementation of
the scheme started from 2009-10. It is envisaged to achieve an enrolment rate of
75% from 52.26% in 2005-06 at secondary stage of implementation of the scheme
by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of any habitation.
The other objectives include improving quality of education imparted at
secondary level through making all secondary schools conform to prescribed
norms, removing gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, providing
universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e., by the end of 12th
Five Year Plan and achieving universal retention by 2020.
The Ministry for Human Resource Development (MHRD) has brought out
a “Framework of Implementation of Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyaan”.
The framework provides a detailed road map for the implementation of access
and equity related components of Universalisation of Secondary Education
(USE) and also deliberates upon quality components providing norms largely for
infrastructure requirements.
It is a shared scheme of the Centre and State Governments to achieve
Universalization of Secondary Education (USE). Free and Compulsory
Elementary Education has become a Constitutional Right of Children in India. It is
absolutely essential to push this vision forward to move towards Universalization
of Secondary Education, which has already been achieved in a large number of
developed and several developing countries.
The vision of RMSA is to make secondary education of good quality accessible
and affordable to all school age children in the age group of 14-18 years. This
vision statement points out towards three “As”, i.e. Availability, Accessibility and
Affordability of Secondary Education.
RMSA get support from a wide range of stakeholders including multilateral
organisations, NGOs, advisors and consultants, research agencies and institutions.
The scheme involves multidimensional research, technical consulting,
implementation, and funding support.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 119
A society was set up in Tamil Nadu for operating the RMSA programme.
The society primarily focuses on upgradation of middle schools to high schools
to provide universal access and quality secondary education by providing
infrastructure facilities, appointment of teachers. Apart from this, two other major
programmes namely, providing of model schools and girls hostels in educationally
backward blocks is also being operated by this society.

3.5.1. Objectives of RMSA

AAThe scheme envisages achieving a gross enrolment ratio of 75% from
52.26% in 2005-06 for classes IX-X within 5 years of its implementation.
AATo improve the quality of education imparted at secondary level by making
all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms.
AATo increase the enrolment rate to 90% at secondary and 75% at higher
secondary stage.
AATo remove gender, socio-economic and disability barriers.
AATo provide universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e. by
the end of the 12th Five Year Plan.
AATo enhance and universalize retention by 2020.
AATo provide a secondary school within a reachable distance of any
habitation, which should be 5 km for secondary schools and 7-10 km for
higher secondary schools.
AATo provide access to secondary education with special reference to
economically weaker sections of the society, educationally backward,
girls, differently abled and other marginalized categories like SC, ST,
OBC and Minorities.
AATo upgrade Middle Schools into High Schools.
AATo strengthen existing secondary schools with necessary infrastructure
facilities.

Challenges in achieving Secondary Education

Though enrolment of girls is perceived to be complete and more so in urban
areas, stakeholders covered acknowledged that enrolment is lower in remote,
rural areas and in conservative households as well as among tribals.
120 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
3.5.3.Implementation mechanism of the scheme:
MHRD is the nodal central government ministry to coordinate RMSA with
the help of RMSA State Implementation Societies (SIS) in each state. However,
there are a lot of support arrangements and institutions available for better
implementation of RMSA. A National Resource Group (NRG) provides guidance
for bringing about reforms in teaching learning processes, curriculum, teaching
learning material, ICT education and mechanisms of monitoring and evaluation.
The Technical Support Group (TSG) supported by MHRD, is a constituent of
the NRG and has a direct reporting relationship with the ministry. TSG provides
technical and operational support and expertise to national and state level teams.
Besides this, various sub-committees like Curriculum Reform Subcommittee,
Teacher and Teacher Development Subcommittee, ICT Subcommittee and
Planning and Management Subcommittee have been constituted under NRG.
These subcommittees comprise members from the TSG and meet thrice a year to
apprise themselves of the progress made on mutually set goals and commitments.
In addition, NCERT and NUEPA support through dedicated RMSA units. RMSA-
TCA has also been set-up for capacity building support with the assistance of
DFID. In terms of financial inputs, the central share is released to the implementing
agencies directly, whereas the applicable state share is also released to the agencies
by the respective State Governments.

3.6. RashtriyaUchatar Shiksha Abhiyaan (RUSA)

The project was launched on 8th June 2013, it was implemented by MHRD
as a centrally sponsored scheme with matching contribution from the State
Government and Union Territories. It is proposed to set eligibility criteria for
States to achieve a high and sustained impact of the project through monitoring
and evaluation. The primary responsibility of the monitoring will lie with the
institution themselves. The State Government and the Center through “The
Project Appraisal Board” will monitor the project annually.

Components of RUSA
The main component of the programme is to set up new universities and
upgrade existing autonomous colleges to universities. The other attempt will be
to convert colleges to cluster universities and set up new model colleges. The
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 121
strategy will also include converting existing degree colleges to model colleges.
In order to enhance skill development, the existing central scheme of Polytechnics
has been subsumed within RUSA. A separate component to synergisevocational
education with higher education has also been included in RUSA. Besides these,
RUSA also supports reforming, restructuring and building capacity of institutions
in participating State.

3.6.1.Objectives of RUSA
AATo achieve the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) target of 25.2% by the end of
12th Plan and 32% by the end of 13th Plan.
AATo improve the overall quality of State institutions by ensuring conformity
to prescribed norms and standards and adopt accreditation as a mandatory
quality assurance framework.
AATo usher transformative reforms in the state higher education system by
creating a facilitating institutional structure for planning and monitoring at
the state level, promoting autonomy in State Universities and improving
governance in institutions.
AATo ensure reforms in the affiliation, academic and examination systems.
AATo ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational
institutions and ensure capacity building at all levels of employment.
AATo create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to
devote themselves to research and innovations.
AATo expand the institutional base by creating additional capacity in existing
institutions and establishing new institutions, in order to achieve enrolment
targets.
AATo correct regional imbalances in access to higher education by setting up
institutions in un‐served and underserved areas creating opportunities for
students from rural areas to get better access to better quality institutions.
AATo improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities
of higher education to SC/ST, socially and educationally backward classes;
promote inclusion of women, minorities, and differently abled persons.
AATo promote autonomy in State universities and include governance in the
institutions.
AATo identify and fill up the critical infrastructure gaps in higher education by
augmenting and supporting the efforts of the State Governments.
122 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
3.6.2. Salient Features of RUSA
AAIt would create new universities through upgradation of existing
autonomous colleges and conversion of colleges in a cluster.
AAIt would create new model degree colleges, new professional colleges and
provide infrastructural support to universities and colleges.
AAFaculty recruitment support, faculty improvement programmes and
leadership development of educational administrators are also an important
part of the scheme.
AAA separate component to synergize vocational education with higher
education has also been included in RUSA.
AAIt also supports reforming, restructuring and building capacity of
institutions in participating States.
AAIt integrates the skill development efforts of the government through
optimum interventions.
AAIt promotes healthy competition amongst States and institutions to address
various concerns regarding quality, research and innovation.
AAIt ensures governance, academic and examination reforms and establishes
backward and forward linkages between school education, higher
education and the job market.

3.6.3. Challenges in achieving RUSA

(a) Gender disparity: The National Sample Survey Organisation’s most recent
estimate show a Gross Enrollment Ratio of 15.8 percent for women against
22.8 percent for men. Except for education and medicine, enrollment of boys
is higher than girls in all other faculties.
(b) Inadequate infrastructure: With rapid expansion, most of the institutions are
not coping up with the required infrastructure. This deficiency has ultimately
resulted in paper degree education with very low level of employability of
graduates which are being produced.
(c) Low industrial training: There is a need to support necessary infrastructure
within institutions as well as to promote institution industry interface by
involving industry in curriculum development, developing database of
available facilities across institutions.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 123
(d) Faculty crunch: The growth in teaching faculty has not been kept in pace
with the growth of teaching institutions and enrollment, thus causing great
imbalance between teacher student ratio.
(e) Decline in research: Out of total enrollment, there is less than one
percent enrollment in research, against 86 percent in graduate, 12 percent
postgraduate and one percent in diploma and certificate courses. India’s
global share of scientific publications of 3.5 percent is very low as compared
to China’s share of more than 21 percent as estimated by Thomas and
Reuters.
(f) Large affiliations: Affiliated colleges with 89 percent enrollment of total
students are main stay in the system of higher education as they contain bulk
of enrollment. Almost all the newly established colleges are affiliated to State
Universities, increasing their burden of affiliation system. Over affiliation
dilutes the focus on academic quality and research.

3.7. Integrated Education

Integration traditionally refers to the education of children with special
needs in mainstream settings. Integrated education emphasizes methods which
concentrate on viewing the student as a whole person. The goal is not about how
to find a good job or make big money, but about how to develop a complete human
being. Every part of the individual - mind, body, emotion and spirit, should be
developed at the same time and be integrated into the whole person. The concept
of integrated education arises as an outcome of National Policy of Education
(1986), recommended to provide equal opportunity to all not only for access
but also for success. Integration signifies the process of interaction of disabled
children with normal children in the same educational setting. Integration also
means ‘mainstreaming’ or ‘normalisation’.
Integrated Education is the educational programme in which exceptional
children attend classes with normal children on either a part or full time basis. It
is placement of the disabled children in ordinary schools with some specialised
educational help and services.
124 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
3.7.1. Salient Features of Integrated Education
AAIt does not create a feeling of differentiation among disabled children.
AAIt helps to remove inferiority complex among disabled children.
AAIt provides peer group help in learning from normal children.
AAIt provides disabled children a chance to enjoy school life with normal
children.
AAIt ensures social integration.
AAIt inculcates affection, love and respect for disabled children among normal
children.
AAIt is less expensive as special infrastructure is not required.
AASpecial learning material and specially trained teachers are not appointed.
AADisabled or challenged students may get help from peers for learning and
get motivated for learning.

3.7.2. Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC)

The Government of India has brought about a scheme known as Integrated
Education for Disabled Children (IEDC). The overall aim of the programme is to
enable such people to face life courageously and develop a level of self-confidence
thus bringing them into mainstream of the society. IEDC is a centrally sponsored
scheme which aims to provide Educational Opportunities to the “not so abled”
children. It has been regarded as one of the major initiatives from the Government
of India to promote “integrated education”. This programme was initiated in 1974
by the Ministry of Welfare, Central Government. Under this program children
were to be provided with financial support for books, stationery, school uniforms,
transportation, special equipments and aids. The State Governments were provided
with 50 percent of the financial assistance to implement this programme in regular
schools. But due to certain limitations and shortcomings like non-availability of
trained and experienced teachers, lack of awareness of the problems of disabled
children and their educational needs, the integrated education programme could
not be successfully implemented.

3.8. Inclusive Education

There are two kinds of exclusion prevalent in schools; one is the exclusion of
the child with disabilities and the second is the social exclusion of children who
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 125
come from socially and economically deprived backgrounds. There is a dire need
to equip teachers to overcome their biases in these regards and positively handle
these challenges. The Persons with Disabilities (PWD) Act of 2005 provides for
free and compulsory education up to the age of 18 years for all children with
disabilities. The education of socially and economically disadvantaged groups,
especially the SCs, STs and minorities has remained a primary national concern
of education for several years. The enrolment and retention of girls and therefore
their participation has also remained behind those of boys. Teachers will have
to be specially equipped if the social deprivation has to be overcome through
education.
It is broader and wider concept than integrated education as it includes all the
students in mainstream education. For inclusive education, special planning can
be done in mainstream education like special infrastructure, specially designed
classes, and special curriculum. Children with some special need can be made
to sit in different classes or same classes with catering their needs. For example,
hearing impaired children can be provided with audio aids for hearing. Visually
impaired children can be provided with books in Braille.
As disabled children are treated with normal children, it includes all the
students who are away from the education for any reasons like physically or
mentally challenged, economically, socially deprived or belonging to any caste,
creed, and gender.
The fundamental principles of ‘inclusion’ are far deeper. Inclusion in
education involves the following process:
AAIncreasing the participation of students with disabilities in, and reducing
their exclusion from, curricula and communities of local schools.
AARestructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they
respond to the diversity of students’ needs.
AAAccepting diversity as normal and as a rich source for all students.
AAResponding to the diverse needs of all students.
AAAccommodating both different styles and rates of learning.
AAEnsuring the quality of education to all students through appropriate
curricula, support and teaching strategies.
AAAccepting that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society.
126 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
3.8.1. Salient Features of Inclusive Education
AAIt is a constantly evolving process of change and improvement within
schools and the wider education system to make education more
welcoming, learner-friendly, and beneficial for a wide range of people.
AAIt is about restructuring education cultures, policies and practices so that
they can respond to a diverse range of learners - male and female; disabled
and non-disabled; from different ethnic, language, religious or financial
backgrounds; of different ages; and facing different health, migration,
refugee or other vulnerability challenges.
AAIt is about changing the education system so that it is flexible enough to
accommodate any learner.
AAIt is an ongoing effort to identify and remove barriers that exclude learners
within each unique situation.
AAIt is about identifying and removing barriers to learners’ presence in
(access to) education, participation in the learning process, and academic
and social achievement
AAIt focus on solving attitude, practice, policy, environmental and resource
barriers.
AAIt is a process in which all stakeholders should participate (teachers,
learners, parents, community members, government policy- makers, local
leaders, NGOs, etc).
AAIt is something that can happen outside the formal education system, as
well as informed school environments (inclusive education can happen in
learning spaces that are non-formal, alternative, community- based, etc.,
with learners from young children through to elderly adults).

3.8.2. Benefits of Inclusive Education

5. All the children away from education will be benefitted.
6. Disabled or challenged students may get a support and help from normal
students.
7. All the students excluded from school because of some reason may get
chance to enjoy school life with normal students.
8. Disabled or challenged students get motivated for learning.
9. They may get a confidence and can learn to face problems and challenges
because of peer help.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 127
10. Difficulties in implementation of Inclusive Education
11. Characteristics of individual pupils should match to facilitate participation in
schooling and the curriculum limitations. No tested methods and techniques
and teaching aids available to disabled or challenged students may not get
proper help from teachers and peers. They may face any other problems
because of inadequate facilities and teaching aids required to meet their needs.
They may get inferiority complex because of their disability.

Differences between Integrated and Inclusive Education

Integrated Education Inclusive Education
Can have their own criteria of Do not have their own criteria of including
integrating students with some students as main aim is to include all the
disability or ability. students who are excluded from education.
Not very expensive as inclusive Can be more expensive as special planning is done
education. for infrastructure, curriculum and trained staff is
appointed.
Regular curriculum is also followed Special curriculum is designed and followed for
by challenged students with same school challenged students with may be less school
timing. timing for according to need.
Challenged or gifted students in any Special classrooms are designed according to their
way are occupied in same normal needs.
classrooms.
Children with some disability are Children with some disability are included in
integrated in normal school only. normal schools but with some special facilities for
them.
No formal planning is required. Formal planning is required.
No special infrastructure, trained Special infrastructure, trained staff, special
staff, special curriculum is required. curriculum is required.

3.9. Challenges in achieving Universal Elementary Education

Even though there are various approaches of the Government in making
universalization of elementary education successful, let us also know the hurdles
in making the universalization of elementary education in India.

(a) Policy of Government

The constitutional directive is that States shall endeavor to provide free and
compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years. But
128 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
it is a matter of regret that the prescribed goal has not been reached as yet. The
main cause for this is that the policy of Government was based on idealism.
Basic education was accepted as the form of national education. Being
inspired with this aim, work started to convert the existing primary schools into
basic schools. India is a vast country with a very large population. Money was too
much in shortage for implementation of so expensive a scheme of conversion of a
large number of elementary schools.
Government has also admitted this and in such a situation, the best policy
would have been to make separate treatment for the basic schools along with the
general primary and middle schools.

(b) Administration of Education

In most of the States, the responsibility of universal primary education is on
the authorities of Blocks, Municipalities and Educational Districts. The progress
of expansion of primary education gets slow because of the indifference and
incapability of these institutions. It is the responsibility of the nation to educate its
citizens. It is necessary that the Government of India should take upon itself the
sacred work of universal enrolment and universal retention at the elementary stage.

(c) Inadequacy of Money

Money is a serious problem that confronts primary schools. Income of the
local institutions responsible for primary education is so much limited that they
are totally incapable of meeting the expenditure of compulsory education.

(d) Shortage of Trained Teachers

There is shortage of trained teachers to make ‘Elementary Education
Universal and Compulsory’. Nowadays, the young teachers do not wish to work
in rural areas. But the fact remains that majority of primary schools are in rural
areas. The chief reason of non-availability of suitable teachers is the low salary
of primary teachers.

(e) School Buildings

Even the Third and Fourth All India Educational Surveys indicate that even
now there are lakhs of villages and habitations without schools. There are nearly
4 lakhs schools less villages in India. It is not that easy to provide necessary funds
for setting up such a large number of schools with buildings and other equipments.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 129
(f) Unsuitable Curriculum
The curriculum for primary schools is narrow and unsuitable to the local
needs. The curriculum should be interesting for the children for its continuance.
Learning by work should replace the emphasis on monotonous bookish knowledge.
Education of craft should be given inthe primary schools in accordance with the
local needs and requirements. But the schemes of craft education in the primary
schools should not of highly expensive ones.

(g) Wastage and Stagnation

It is another major problem and great obstacle for Universalization of
Elementary Education, due to the lack of educational atmosphere, undesirable
environment, lack of devoted teachers, poor economic condition of parents,
and absence of proper equipments. In order to check such massive wastage and
stagnation at the primary stage, existing educational system and curriculum should
be reformed, teaching method should be interesting, school buildings should be
adequate and neat and clean, and the parents should be educated. These members
may help to solve the problem of wastage and stagnation at elementary level.

(h) Social Evils

Social evils like superstition, illiteracy faith in ancient conventions and
customs, child marriages, untouchability, purdah system, etc create obstacle in
the expansion of compulsory primary education. Some persons get their sons and
daughters married at a very minor age against the Child Marriage Prohibition Act
and deprive these school-going children of the fruits of education.
Because of illiteracy and ignorance these social evils grow. The educated
young men and women should volunteer themselves to remove these evils of
society in their neighbourhood. Against these social evils, the work of expansion
of universal enrolment should not be slackened, since social evils flourish because
of illiteracy and ignorance.

3.10. Education for collective living and peaceful living

Education imparts knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that are important
for the social, economic and political development for any country. This role is
well articulated in Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which seeks to
130 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
ensure inclusive and equitable quality education for all and promote lifelong
learning
AAStudents of today are the leaders of tomorrow, over the years education has
played a very important part in shaping up our society.
AAEducation is one of the most important aspect of a student’s life.
AAIt makes them aware of the rights and wrongs of the society.
AAIt helps grow as people, helps them to take decisions of the right and the
wrongdoings, there can never be any alternatives to education ever.
Peace as a social contract:
My perspective and associated meaning of peace are best summarized through
a number of social principles. These have been documented and the evidence
given for them elsewhere, as will be noted for each.
1.The conflict principles:
Conflict is balancing of powers among interests, capabilities and wills. It is a
mutual adjusting of what people want, can get and are willing to pursue.
2. The cooperation principles:
Cooperation depends on expectations aligned with power.
Through conflict in a specific situation, a balance of power and
associated agreement are achieved.
3.The gap principles:
A gap between expectations and power causes conflict. A structure of
expectations, once established, has considerable social inuertia, while the
supporting balance of powers can change rapidly.
4.The helix principle:
Conflict becomes less intense, cooperation more lasting.
The commission identifies a few tensions that it regards will be control to the
problems of the 21st century.They are:
1. The tension between the global and the local.
2. While culture is steadily being globalised this development being partial is
creating tension between the universal and the individual.
3. The third tension is pretty familiar to Indians the tension between tradition
and modernity
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 131
4. Tension arising out of human desire to complete and external and the
concern for quality of opportunity.
5. Lastly, another perennial factor the tension between the spiritual and the
materia

3.11. Delor’s Commission Report:

The Four Pillars of Education were produced in the report for UNESCO
in 1996 by the Commission on Education presided by JaquesDelors. The Four
Pillars of Education were produced in the report for UNESCO in 1996 by the
Commission on Education presided by JaquesDelors. ( F r a n c e ) Chairman
of the Commission; former President of the European Commission (1985–95);
former French Minister of Economy and Finance.
It proposed an integrated vision of education based on two key concepts,
‘learning throughout life’ and the four pillars of learning, to know, to do, to
be and to live together. It was not in itself a blueprint for educational reform,
but rather a basis for reflection and debate about what choices should be made
in formulating policies. The report argued that choices about education were
determined by choices about what kind of society we wished to live in. Beyond
education’s immediate functionality, it considered the formation of the whole
person to be an essential part of education’s purpose. The Delors Report was
aligned closely with the moral and intellectual principles that underpin UNESCO,
and therefore its analysis and recommendations were more humanistic and less
instrumental and market-driven than other education reform studies of the time.

The Four Pillars of Education

One of the most influential concepts of the 1996 Delors Report was that of the
four pillars of learning. Formal education, the report argued, tends to emphasize
certain types of knowledge to the detriment of others that are essential to sustaining
human development.
132 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications

Learning to know, by combining a sufficiently broad general knowledge

with the opportunity to work in depth on a small number of subjects. This also
means learning to learn, so as to benefit from the opportunities education provides
throughout life.
Learning to do, in order to acquire not only an occupational skill but also,
more broadly, the competence to deal with many situations and work in teams. It
also means learning to do in the context of young peoples’ various social and work
experiences which may be informal, as a result of the local or national context, or
formal, involving courses, alternating study and work.
Learning to live together, by developing an understanding of other people
and an appreciation of interdependence – carrying out joint projects and learning
to manage conflicts -in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual
understanding and peace.
Learning to be, so as better to develop one’s personality and be able to
act with ever greater autonomy, judgment and personal responsibility. In that
connection, education must not disregard any aspect of a person’s potential:
memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capacities and communication skills.
Formal education systems tend to emphasize the acquisition of knowledge to
the detriment of other types of learning; but it is vital now to conceive education
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 133
in a more encompassing fashion. Such a vision should inform and guide future
educational reforms and policy, in relation both to contents and to methods.
The idea of the integrated approach to education reflected in the four pillars
of learning has had significant influence on policy debates, teacher training and
curriculum development in a range of countries worldwide.

Revisiting the Four ‘Pillars of Learning’

In order that the essence of the four ‘pillars of learning’ be appropriately
interpreted, a brief snapshot follows of what each relates to in term of educational
context.

Learning to know
This type of learning is radically different from ‘acquiring itemized codified
information or factual knowledge’, as often stressed in conventional curriculum
and in ‘rote learning’. Rather it implies ‘the mastering of the instruments of
knowledge themselves’.
‘Acquiring knowledge in a never-ending process and can be enriched by
all forms of experience’. ‘Learning to know’ includes the development of the
faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning, problem-solving, and the ability to
think in a coherent and critical way. It is ‘a process of discovery’, which takes
time and involves going more deeply into the information/knowledge delivered
through subject teaching.
‘Learning to know’ presupposes learning to learn’, calling upon the power of
concentration, memory and thought’, so as to benefit from ongoing educational
opportunities continuously arising (formally and non-formally) throughout life.
Therefore ‘learning to know’ can be regarded as both a means and an end
in learning itself and in life. As a means, it serves to enable individual learners to
understand the very least enough about the nature, about humankind and its history,
about his/her environment, and about society at large. As an end, it enables the learner
to experience the pleasure of knowing, discovering and understanding as a process.

Learning to do
This pillar of learning implies in the first place for application of what learners
have learned or known into practices; it is closely linked to vocational-technical
education and work skills training. However it goes beyond narrowly defined
134 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
skills development for ‘doing’ specific things or practical tasks in traditional or
industrial economies. The emerging knowledge-based economy is making human
work increasingly immaterial. ‘Learning to do’ calls for new types of skills,
more behavioral than intellectual. The material and the technology are becoming
secondary to human qualities and interpersonal relationship.
Learning to do thus implies a shift from skill to competence, or a mix of
higher-order skills specific to each individual. ‘The ascendancy of knowledge and
information as factors of production systems is making the idea of occupational
skills obsolete and is bringing personal competency to the fore’. Thus ‘learning
to do’ means, among other things, ability to communicate effectively with others;
aptitude toward team work; social skills in building meaningful interpersonal
relations; adaptability to change in the world of work and in social life; competency
in transforming knowledge into innovations and job-creation; and a readiness to
take risks and resolve or manage conflicts.

Learning to live together

In the context of increasing globalization, the Delors Commission places a
special emphasis on this pillar of learning. It implies an education taking two
complementary paths: on one level, discovery of others and on another, experience
of shared purposes throughout life. Specifically it implies the development of
such qualities as: knowledge and understanding of self and others; appreciation of
the diversity of the human race and an awareness of the similarities between, and
the interdependence of, all humans; empathy and cooperative social behavior in
caring and sharing; respect of other people and their cultures and value systems;
capability of encountering others and resolving conflicts through dialogue; and
competency in working towards common objectives .

Learning to be
This type of learning was first conceptualized in the Report to UNESCO in
1972, Learning To Be (Edgar Faure et al), out of the fear that ‘the world would be
dehumanized as a result of technical change’. It was based on the principle that
‘the aim of development is the complete fulfillment of man, in all the richness
of his personality, the complexity of his forms of expression and his various
commitments – as individual, member of a family and of a community, citizen
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 135
and producer, inventor of techniques and creative dreamer’. ‘Learning to be’ may
therefore be interpreted in one way as learning to be human, through acquisition
of knowledge, skills and values conducive to personality development in its
intellectual, moral, cultural and physical dimensions. This implies a curriculum
aiming at cultivating qualities of imagination and creativity; acquiring universally
shared human values; developing aspe! cts of a person’s potential: memory,
reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capacity and communication/social skills;
developing critical thinking and exercising independent judgment; and developing
personal commitment and responsibility.
It is important to note that the four pillars of learning relate to all phases
and areas of education. They support and interpenetrate one another and should
therefore be applied as basic principles, cross-cutting themes and generic
competences for integration in and across subject areas or learning domains.

Pillars of Learning for Reorienting Curriculum Objectives

Generally speaking, school curriculum seeks to achieve two broad aims:
one to provide equal opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve, for best
possible progress and at the highest attainment. The other is to promote learners’
spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the
world of work and societal responsibilities.
Curriculum objectives are derived from over-arching educational goals,
which address human development at both personal and societal levels. On one
hand education is a very individualized process, whose stages correspond to those
of the continuous maturing of the personality. On the other hand, it represents ‘a
process of constructing social interaction’ (Delors,). From this perspective the
four pillars of learning indicate broad goals of education in a new century and
could thereby reorient the setting of curriculum objectives.
Firstly, the pillar of ‘learning to be’ reflects a shift from an instrumental view
of education, as a process one submits to achieve specific aims (e.g. economic
productivity), to a humanistic view of education that emphasizes the development
of the complete person, in short, learning to be’. They imply an educational
aimed at all-rounded development and full flowering of the human potential of
individual learners. Thus school curriculum should be more balanced, taking
136 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
into account not only the cognitive-intellectual dimension of personality but its
spiritual, moral, social skills and values aspects.
Secondly the pillars of learning stresses an important educational goal in
contributing to social cohesion, inter-cultural and inter-national understanding,
peaceful interchange, and, indeed, harmony. ‘These are the very things that are
most lacking in our world today’ (Delors). This goal therefore implies a radically
new curriculum domain, in which relevant knowledge and a range of skills and
values should be taught and caught to resolve and manage conflicts for peace in
family, at school, in community and in the world at large.
Thirdly, the pillars of learning imply an educational goal in developing a
learning society in a new century. The concept of learning throughout life emerges
‘as one of the keys to the twenty-first century’ and ‘the only way of satisfying
it is for each individual to learn how to learn’. The shift from ‘schooling’ to
learning throughout life implies that school education is only part or a phase of
the learning continuum and curriculum should therefore not attempt to ‘teach’ or
cram the young minds with discipline-based details, apart from the fundamental
knowledge, basic skills and universal values which will prepare the pupils for
further learning.
Fourthly, the pillars of learning points to a goal for much closer linkage between
education and the world of work. This not only concerns ‘learning to do’ but other
three pillars of learning as one central function of education is to prepare young
learners to be successful workers and responsible citizens in their adulthood. School
curriculum can no longer be purely academic and college-bound; it has to impart
employable sills, and positive attitudes toward work, and to develop competency in
adapting to change, which is ‘the only thing which will not change’.

Conclusion
Universalisation of primary education is intimately connected with the
development of living conditions of the people. When a significant number
of citizens are below the poverty line, the attempts made to provide free and
compulsory education to children in the age group 6-14 cannot be successful in
the near future. By overcoming the issues and providing suitable strategies lead to
the success of universalization of education.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 137
Questions
I One mark
II five mark
1. Write about universalization of primary education
2. Distinguish between inclusive and integrate education
3. Describe the challenges in achieving universalization of education
4. Write short notes on peaceful living in education
III ten mark
1. Explain four pillars in education
2. Write short notes one a) SSA b) RUSA
138 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
UNIT IV

LANGUAGE POLICY IN EDUCATION

4.1. Introduction
India is a multilingual country. There is variety of spoken language in different
parts of India . Man uses language for communication for experience his thoughts
in society. Everyone has language. In India Hindi supposed as important language
in the sense of identification of Indian culture and communicative language of
our country. From 26th January 1950 the constitution of India accepted Hindi
as a second or national language. According to act 351 like national anthem and
national flag, Hindi also accepted as the symbol of national unity.

4.2. Language policy during pre independent

4.2.1. Gurukula system of Education
Children had to spend their student days, called ‘Brahmacharya’ at the
residence of the ‘Guru’ called ‘Ashram’. At the age of 7 after the initiation
ceremony (Upanayana) children were entrusted with the sages living in Ashrams.
The pupil is accepted by the teacher only after a ‘probationary period’ of a year.
All facilities like free food, clothes and stay were provided in the Ashram.
Pupils were highly respectful to their teacher and helped the teacher’s family in
collecting firewood, cleaning the ashram premises, collecting flowers and fruits
from the garden which they maintained.

Methods of Teaching
Oral explanations, recitation, memorization and demonstration were
the predominant teaching-learning techniques. Sanskrit was the medium of
instruction. Two methods of Teaching were being practiced during vedic period.
The first method was Maukhik (oral) and second was based on chintan ( thinking
or reflection). In the oral method students were to memorize the mantras (vedic
hymns) and Richayas (verses of Rigveda).
The process of education passed through three stages of comprehension i.e
Shravan (Hearing), Manan ( meditation) and Nidhi-dhyasan ( realization and
experience).
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 139
Methods of teaching was based on apprenticeship and was psychologically
sound. Teaching followed some strategies such as simple to complex, activity and
skill oriented procedures. Question-Answer technique and illustration . Self-study
( Swnadhyaya) was considered more important.

Teacher
The teacher was a man of character. He was the living role model for his
disciples. The teacher was eminent in knowledge highly proficient in Vedas,
selfless in his actions, kind and compassionate towards the pupils. During Vedic
period the teacher occupied very important place in the scheme of education. He
was the centre of education and without him no education could be conceived of.
He was called Guru or Acharya and he was respected as a god by the student as
well as the society. Even the king did not enjoy so much respect as the teacher
enjoyed.

Discipline
AARules for conduct of both teachers and pupils were listed down.
AARules also for respect due from pupils to teacher were framed.
AARigid rules were laid for conduct of pupils.
AACode of dress was observed.
AAObservation of Brahmacharya or celibacy was compulsory for all pupils.

Educational Implications
1. Pride in civilisation and culture
We are living in modern age, but we feel proud of the civilization and culture
of our ancestors inherited to us. We give more preference to character, spiritualism
philosophy rather than wealth, power, violence and diplomacy. We wish to lead
an ideal life. Educational aims of vedic age are accepted in principle as aims of
modern education to build character and make life worth living for our young
ones.

2. Discipline and pupil teacher relationship :

The sense of discipline and cordial relation between teacher and pupil of
vedic age is well known to the world. Today‘s scenario can be revived back by
taking efforts to adopt the ideal relationship between teacher and pupil.
140 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
3. Subject of studies:
Vedic literature is enriched by the sense of peace, humanity, universal
brotherhood which is also vital part of our curriculum.

4. Teaching Methods :
As discussed above, some methods of teaching are still used fruitfully in our
classrooms.

5. All round development of child:

The nature of education was much more individualistic rather than joint
in groups. All round development of a Childs personality was the chief aim of
education. Same aim is kept in view in modern education also.

6. Equality of opportunity:
There was no discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour etc and the
students of all strata of society received education on an equal footing. In modern
too, the constitution has adopted the principle of equality in the field of education.

7. Education for self- sufficiency:

Apart from intellectual aspect of education its practical side was not lost sight
of and along with art, literature and philosophy, students got a working knowledge
of agriculture and other vocations of life. Modern education also lays stress upon
preparing students to prepare themselves for their future life. Vocational subjects
are included in the curriculum.

8. Commercial education and vedic mathematics :

Commercial education and Mathematics Education is one of the chief features
of vedic period. The ideas of the sope and nature of commercial geography, needs
of the people of various localities, exchange value and quality of articles and
language spoken at different trade centres were considered necessary. Vedic
mathematics have become more popular now. More and more parents are aware
about the significance of vedic mathematics and are taking keen interest to offer
the opportunities to their child to learn vedic mathematics.

Merits of Vedic Education

Education was free for all eligible learners.
Teaching-learning Process took place in natural settings.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 141
Pupils lived a simple and pure life of ‘Brahmacharya’. Humility, character,
discipline, responsibility, devotion in work etc., were the virtues insisted on
every pupil.
There was intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil. The
education was imparted as per the nature of every pupil.
Teachers commanded high respect and dignity from the society.
Irrespective of the social status all pupils were treated alike.

Demerits of Vedic Education

1. Education was denied to sutras.
2. Women education was not given any importance
3. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit.

4.2.2. Bhagavad Gita

The literal meaning of ‘Bhagawad Gita’ is The Lord’s songs’. It is called
the ‘Gospel of Humanity’. It is in the form of a dialogue between Arjuna, a noted
commander of the Pandavas forces and Shri Krishna an earthly incarnation of
God. The setting of the dialogue is highly dramatic.

Essence of Gita
The central point of Gita is the philosophy of action. The Gita is a philosophy
of ‘Karma’ (action) based on ‘Gnana’ (knowledge) and supported by ‘Bhakti’
(devotion). To fight against the evil is the duty of man. Thus Gita represents a
unique synthesis of Action, Devotion and knowledge.

Educational implications of Gita

The doctrine of “Karma Yoga” is the gift of Gita.
1. Every aspect of education is to raise the individual to a higher level of
spirituality through self-realization.
2. Education should help to stimulate physical, intellectual, social and moral
development in every individual.
3. Education should turn individuals into human beings and ultimately make
them discover their inner divinity.
4. The ultimate aim of education is the exaltation of human personality by
achieving self-realization.
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Terms such as knowledge, awakening, humility, modesty etc are often used to
characterize Vedic education. Education leads to the development of personality.
The word ‘Veda‘ originates from the root ‘vid’ which bears the meaning of
knowledge. Sayana declares that the veda is a means to the obtaining of the adored,
that which is worthy of worship, as well as a means to the banishment of the
undesired, the evil. Knowledge of the four Vedas Rigveda, yajurveda, samaveds
and atharvaveda, along with the knowledge of shruti, smriti etc provided an
individual with new knowledge which broadened his intellectual horizon. In the
Vedic period, education had an idealistic form, in which the teachers (acharyas)
laid stress upon worship of God , religiousness, spirituality, formation of character,
development of personality, creation of an aptitude for the development of culture,
nation and society.

4.2.3. BUDDHISM
Origin of Buddhism
Buddhism is one of the most remarkable development of Indian thought. It
is an offshoot of later vedic thought.Buddhism is founded on the rejection of
certain orthodox Hindu Philosophical concepts. It has many philosophical views
with Hinduism, such as belief in Karma, a cause and effect relationship between
all that has being done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be
direct results of previous events. The ultimate goal for both is to eliminate Karma
(both good & bad) , end the cycle of rebirth and suffering and attain freedom
(Moksha or Nirvana).
Buddhist education system (200B.C to 200 A.D) was founded by Lord
Gautam Buddha. Gautam Buddha was primarily an ethical teacher and reformer
and not a philosopher. He was concerned mainly with the problems of life. He
avoided the discussion of metaphysical question because they are ethically useless
and intellectually uncertain. He always discussed the most important questions of
suffering, its cessation and the path leading to its cessation.
Thus Buddha‘s enlightenment which he tried to share with all fellow-beings
has come to be known as the four Noble Truths. Four Noble truths are:
AAThere is suffering
AAThere is cause of suffering
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 143
AAThere is cessation of suffering
AAThere is a way to cessation of suffering
Buddhists philosophy of life to get Nirvana‘ from suffering is based on the
following eight principles:
AARight Faith (Samyak Dristi)
AARight Resolve (Samyak Sankalpa)
AARight Speech (Samyak Vakya)
AARight Action (Samyak Karmanta)
AARight Living ( Samyak Ajiva)
AARight Thought (Samyak Smriti)
AARight concentration (Samyak Samadhi)
AARight Effort (Samyak Vyayama)
Buddhism was the outcome of the revolt against the animal sacrifices. It
stood for ‘Non-violence’. The oldest Buddhist literature consists of speeches,
savings and traditions of Buddha, poems, tales and rules of conduit. They all are
complied into three Pitakas written in Pali language.
a) Vinaya pitak (Basket of discipline): It is for the purpose of regulating daily
life and conduct of monks and nuns.
b) Sattaya pitak: It is in prose and poetry both. It explains Buddhist religion and
it rituals.
c) Abidhamma pitak (Basket of Religion): Its topics for discussion are the same
as sattaya pilak but in a more scholarly manner.
Buddha never writes books but his teaching was oral. His teachings were
three fold.
1. The four noble truths:
There is suffering
a) There is cause for suffering
b) There is cessation of suffering
c) There is a way leading to cessation of suffering called ‘Nirvana’
2. The Eight fold paths that lead to ‘Nirvana’:
a) Right faith
b) Right Resolve
c) Right speech
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d) Right action
e) Right living
f) Right efforts
g) Right thought
h) Right concentration

3. Ignorance is bondage and ‘knowledge’ is liberation.

Everything is conditional, dependent and relative.
Educational Philosophy of Buddhism
Buddhist Education offered to impart education to all. Many people shifted to
Buddhist system of education. It was for the first time in India that education was
institutionalised on a large scale during Buddhist movement. It is also a historical
fact that with the arrival of Buddhist era great international centres of education
like Nalanda, Takshashila, Vikramshila, Ballabhi, Odantapuri, Nadia, Amravati,
Nagahalla and Saranath were in prominence. Educational centres in Buddha
period developed in Viharas and Sanghas.

Characteristics of Buddhist Education

1. Buddhist system of education was ethical and it aimed the integrated
development of the personality.
2. It has a pragmatic outlook in having education to make life worth living.
Character formation was given much importance.
3. The teachers were not Brahmins but Buddhist monks. The head of the
institution was chosen from the monks based on their seniority and
character.
4. The monks had to reside in the sanga after the institution ceremony
‘Pappaja’ and had their Upasanda Ceremony before their passing the
course and entering monkhood.
5. The laymen were admitted in the monasteries irrespective of their caste.
So Buddhist educational system was the pioneer for universal education.

Curriculum of Buddhist Education

In Buddhist system of education there were two types of curriculum, one for
the Laymen and the other for the monks.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 145
I Curriculum for laymen
a). Pali and Sanskrit Languages
b). Study of sacred literature
c). Logic
d). Metaphysics
e). Medicine
f). Astrology
g). Astronomy
h). Politics and Administration
i). Jataka Tales
j). Spiritual practices
k). For monks
l). Pali and Sanskrit Languages
m). The sacred texts, Tripitikas
n). Hindu Religion
o). Logic
p). Philosophy
q). Grammar

Aims of Education
The Buddhist educational aims were comprehensive based on knowledge,
social development, vocational development, religious development, character
development aims which were as follows:
AATo follow the moral values of Buddhist religion
AATo adopt good conduct and violence
AATo achieve the final goal of Nirvana
AATo propagate Buddhism
AATo eradicate Vedic karmakanda or ritualism
AATo give up caste system
AATo take the teachings of Buddhism to the masses.
AATo leave yajna and sacrifices for achieving knowledge
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AATo provide education in the language of masses i.e Pali
AATo emphasise the progress and development of the society rather than the
individual
AATo provide education through the new system this was stated by Buddha.

Principles of Education
AAAvidya that is ignorance must be removed through education as it is the
root cause of sufferings
AAEducation should be provided in peaceful sorroundings in Buddhists
monastries, viharas and organised educational institutions instead of
Gurukulas.
AAPupils should be educated in a democratic atmosphere
AAThings of luxury must be prohibited for students.
AAFramed few commandments for the Suddhvi, Harika (new entrant) at the
time of ‗Pabajja‘ ceremony. A ritual called as pabajja ritual was necessary
for admission to a monastery for education. Educational period for this
phase was 12 years.
AAAfter 20 years of age Upsampada ritual was performen to gain an entry
into higher education. Rules for second ceremony Upasampada were also
laid down.

Education System
Two tier system:
1. Popular Elementary Education
2. Higher Education

Elementary Education:
Popular Elementary education was religious in nature, included wordly
education, upto the age of 12 years, pupils received instructions in reading,
writing, arithtmetic and religion.

Curriculum of Elementary education :

Thorough learning of Grammar,Hetu vidya (Logic), Nyaya (science of
reasoning), Adyatma vidya (philosophy), shilpa sthan (arts & crafts) & chikitsya
vidya (medicine)
The basic skills of 3 R’s (reading, writing and arithmetic) along with the
study of astronomy comparative religion, Buddhist principles, logic, drawing and
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 147
sculpture were taught to pupils through “Pali” the popular language of the people.
Group discussion and debate were the general methods of teaching. Women were
gisven equal opportunities to learn. Chinese pilgrims Xuan Zang and Fa xian who
visited India, mentioned in their diareis that women served as Buddha Bikshus in
places like Nalanda and Thakashasheel.

Higher education:
Well organised, carried out at Buddhist monastries & Buddhist universities.
Higher education was given to only those students who intended to be monks or
nuns. Emphasised both theortical and practical aspects.
Following subjects were included in the syllabus of higher education:
Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Theology, Philosophy, Metaphysics, Logic,
Sanskrit, Pali, Astronomy, Astrology, Medicine, Law, Politics, Administration,
Tantrik philosophy

Methods of Teaching
Buddhist believed in the integrated growth of the personality. They were
the pioneers in the vocationalisation of education. Manual skills like spinning,
weaving, carpentry and gardening were emphasized to earn their livelihood.
Though the chief method of education was oral, the students learnt while doing
also. Preaching, repetition, exposition, debates and seminars were also the other
methods followed.
AAMostly verbal.
AAQuestion, answer, discussion and debates.
AAAgra shishya pranali (Monitorial system)
AATravelling and Nature study method
AABook method.
AAPreaching and conference method
AAMedium of instruction was pali and also importance to vernacular dialects
were given.

Role of the Teacher and Discipline

The place of teacher was of great importance in the Buddhist system of
education. Pupils were expected to help their teachers, doing manual work such
as cleaning utensils, carrying water etc. Very high moral standard was expected
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of the teachers. Discipline was needed not only for the pupils but also for the
teachers.
AAClose , Pure, good and affectionate
AATeacher besides being a scholar of repute must have in himself inspiring
ideals.
AALike his students the teacher also used to spend life in simplicity, constant
study, celibacy, following ideals and strength of character.
AABoth teacher and student were required the authority of reason and
experience.
AAStudents were required to maintain the freedom of thought
AADisciplined in matter of morals and conduct
AAMaintain self restrained life

Educational Implication of Buddhist Philosophy

Cosmopolitan: Buddhist education was free from communal narrowness,
there was no favouritism on the basis of caste , creed in the centres.
Total development of personality: Buddhist education laid much emphasis
on the physical, mental and spiritual development of the novice, even today the
aim of education is integration of personality that can develop the various aspects
of the individual which are interlinked.
No corporal punishment: corporal punishments were absolutely forbidden
which is also very true in the present scenario of education.
Positivism: Buddhist philosophy is positivistic and has a careful logical
systematisation of ideas
Ethical: it is ethical, the eightfold path to Nirvana makes a universal appeal.
Democratic: it is democratic as it believed in freedom of enquiry. Democratic
and republican procedures were followed while running the educational
institutions.
Development of good conduct: the entire techniques of
Buddhism provide directions to develop good conduct and which is also the
essence of a sound system of education. Also its belief in Karma lays stress on the
necessity to be constantly on the vigil to maintain one‘s conduct in the present life.
Moral Discipline : The Buddha Bhikku (monk) took the vows of chastity
and of poverty. Character was the basis of moral discipline.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 149
Emphasis on Manual skills : Training of manual skills like spinning and
weaving was emphasized to enable men to earn for living.
Pragmatic : It is pragmatic, everything is in a state of flux as it is only
momentary. Change is the rule of the universe. It does not believe in the absolutism.
It is witnessed in the present era of globalisation.
Methods of Teaching : the methods of Instruction was oral .
Preaching, repetition, exposition, discussion and debates were all used.
Buddhist council organised ‗seminars‘ to discuss the major issues at length.
Learned conferences, meditation, educational Tours.
International impact : Buddhist education helped India to gain international
importance. It also developed cultural exchange between India and other countries
of the world. international exchange of scholars attracted students and scholars
from far off lands.
Value education & Character development: To be moral being one must
follow noble path, the eightfold path as preached in Buddhism provides guidance for
moral education and peace. The entire techniques of Buddhism provides directions
to develop good conduct which is also the essence of sound system of education.
Curricullum: Curricullum included secular as well as religious subjects.
Organisation and Structure of Universities : Universities established during
this period are still serving as a guiding force. The organization of Nallanda and
Ballabhi university was advanced that it continues to influence the organization
and structure of university till present day. The system of determining a minimum
age for higher education, providing a set of rule and taking a test for admission are
even today guiding the educational structure.
Education as a social Institution : Education as a social institution got its
existence as a result of Buddhist system of education.
Imparting education in practical subjects : An important contribution of
this period is the imparting of education in various practical subjects , a tradition
which has come down to the present day also.
Collective Teaching Methodology : It was in this period that the method
of collective teaching and the presence of numerous teachers in single institution
was evolved.
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Merits of Buddhist system of Education
AAStudents were admitted for education without any discrimination of sex
and caste.
AAVedas and rituals were denied.
AASubjects of human utility like medicine, painting, sculpture, mathematics
and as astronomy were given importance.
AAPeople’s language of ‘Pali’ was employed as medium of instruction.
AAUniversities were established for higher education.

4.2.4. Jainism system of Education

Jainism is independent of Buddhism yet it resembles it in several aspects,
such as in its repudiation of the authority of the Vedas, its pessimistic outlook
on life, and its refusal to believe in supreme God. But the differences it exhibits
are equally noticeable, such as its recognition of permanent entities like the self
(jiva) and matter. Derived from the word ‗jina‘ with root in ‗ji‘ it means ‗victor‘
i.e, the one who has successfully subdued his passions and obtained mastery over
himself.
The origin of Jain philosophy traces back to the pre-historic time. It is said 24
tirthankars or liberated persons preached this truth which was handed over one by
one in course of time. The last of them was Vardhamana also called Mahavira, a
contemporary of Gautam Buddha.
Jainism is the smallest of the major world religion, but in India its influence
is much more. Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural and
philosophical, social and political force since dawn of civilisation in Asia.
Metaphysically, Jainism believes in plurality of souls and not in the existence
of God. It holds that there are as many souls as there are living beings. They also
accept the existence of souls even in animals and plants, with degrees of difference
in the level of consciousness. They believe that every soul is capable of attaining
infinite conciousness, power and happiness by removing all Karmas‘ or bondages.
Infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss is the state
of liberation. According to Jainism Nirvana or liberation is obtained through three
jewels : Right Philosophy, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. ( Tri-ratna) Right
conduct implies 5 abstinences : not to lie, not to steal, not to strive for luxury
and not to strive for possessions, not to be unchaste and not to injure (Ahimsa).
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 151
Ahimsa is vital principle of Jainism. Jainism rejects the idea of creator of the
world. It believes reality to be many sided. Jainism emphasises ‗Syat-vada‘ or
‗ane-kant-vada‘ which lays the mind open to truth coming from any quarter. No
preposition about the truths can be a absolute. This generates tolerance and regard
for all. In the theory of knowledge Jainism accepted three sources of getting real
knowledge, namely perception, inference and testimony.
The word ‘Jain’ came from ‘Jina’ meaning to conquer. They repudiated
vedic authority and god. Their pessimistic outlook on life leads them to avoid
ownership of everything, even the garments. Such Jains were called ‘Digambaras’
and later those who were white attire were called ‘Swetambares’. The ‘Jains’
much celebrated vardhamana Mahavira was their 24th Thirthangara. Among the
many vows, the Jains observed the sweeping of the floor in front of them while
walking so as not to harm any living creature and covering their mouth with cloth
to prevent air pollution.

Jaina Aims of Education

AATruth is relativistic and pluralist, in a state of ‗may be‘. Knowledge ,
therefore may be viewed differently. Nothing fixed.
AASelf-realisation as jiva is divine. Education must focus on his divinity and
remove the material bond of soul.
AAEducation should lead to self-enlightenment and restore the full powers
of jiva.
AADevelopment of personality as an individual. Hence , more stress on
individual aims.
AATeaching should give necessary jnana and penance to help jiva
AACessation of Karma would disassociate jiva from it and regain its power
and glory. Teaching must help train one for it.
AABelieves in transmigration of soul , hence education may partly be the
preparation for the next world.

Curriculum
AApunya‘ and paap‘ are the two principles of the Nine categories. Hence ,
education should develop sense of discrimination .
AAEducation should include provision for attainment of Tri-ratnas, the precious
principles of life, that bring happiness, success and love here and now.
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AAEducation should inculcate non-violence as a virtue, practiced and not only
aspired for, that would be socially desirable.
AATeaching of nine principles called as nine categories of Jainism to dissolve
the partnership between soul and matter.

Methods of Teaching
Knowledge is through senses and meditation. Teaching must develop these
faculties.
Teaching should be social and tolerant, and should bring happiness to all.
Jiva is essentially karmic, therefore education must be action based and
ideally oriented.

Practical teachings of Jainism

AATriratna or three gems of its teaching were considered three precious
principles of life.
AAFive vows (vrata) or absciences to indicate general character.
AAAhimsa (Non-violence) is the foremost virtue in Indian thought but in
Jainism it requires distinct meaning and depth; it is non-violence in word,
thought and deed.
AAEmphasizing the individualistic aspect, Jainism emphasizes on the
development of personality as the final aim. Jaina teachings are social and
tolerant and believes in happiness of all.
AAThere are two levels of discipline depending on the severity of the vows
which are different for the monks and of lay life.
AAThe aim of life is to get oneself disentangled from karma. Jainism believes
in transmigration of soul. Soul united with karma is called a soul in
bondage, and is to be redeemed and liberated.
AAMoksha means dissolution of partnership between soul and matter,
restoring the ideal character of the jiva.
AAJainism rejects God as the creator of this world, as a need to create the
world would be inconsistent with his necessary perfection, Jainism looks
upon man himself as God when his inherent powers are fully in bloom.
AAJaina views are both realativistic and pluralistic as it recognizes jivas and
the material objects.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 153
AAThe primary aim of Jainism is the perfection of the soul, rather than the
interpretation of the universe, hence it fails to find ultimate solutions of the
metaphysical problem.

Role of the Teacher and the Discipline

According to Jainism, high qualities were expected of teachers. The modern
books on education describe some specific qualities that a teacher must possess to
be successful in his profession. He must know his subject well, he must know how
to teach effectively and he must have genuine love for his pupils. This implies, he
must be learning continuously, to be up-to-date in his field of knowledge. Such
a man should really love his subject, for without love, he cannot go deep into or
enjoy learning it. He must also love his pupils, and be devoted to them. Without
love one cannot give his best to his pupils. It is only through love, affection and
regard, the teacher can understand the needs of the pupils and ways of fulfilling
them.
Emphasis on self discipline and hard work
Practical discipline (of a lower order meant for ordinary house-holders) is
essential for release from the bondage.
Happiness and bliss through action. Man is a free moral agent, responsible
for all his deliberate action.
Jain philosophy, stresses on the following eight qualities which are of great
help for the pupils to get true education.
(i) He should not laugh all the times and try to pick up knowledge with
perseverance,
(ii) He should have control over his passions and senses, (iii) He should have a
good character,
(iv) He should not use indecent language which reflects on our character,
(v) He should be fair in his dealings,
(vi)He should not be susceptible to flattery,
(vii)He should not loose temper,and
(viii)He should be an ardent follower of truth.
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Educational implications of Jainism.
Major Contributions : Jainism has made important contribution to art,
architecture and literature. Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural
and philosophical, social and political force since dawn of civilisation in Asia.
Strong emphasis on Non-Violence: The distinguishing feature of jain
philosophy is its strong emphasis on non-violence, accent on multiple facets of
truth, morality and ethics.
Integrated : he contribution of jain philosophy in the development of Indian
philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophy concepts like Ahimsa, Karma,
Moksha, Sansara and like has been assimilated into philosophies of other Indian
religions like Hinduism and Buddhism.It is impossible to separate Indian religion
, philosophy and education.
Concept of Compassion : Sense of sympathy extends to all living beings
even to animals as stated in in both jainism & buddhism.
Contribution to a strain of Pacifism : Absolute respect for living beings is
stressed, best way to resist evil is through non-violence, it is successfully used in
jainism & buddhism.
Law of Karma (cause and effect) : universe is ruled by moral law which
punishes all sins and rewards good deeds, belief that our character creates its own
heaven and hell is significant in nearly all schools of philosophy.
Aims of education : The education has always aimed at some of the
philosophical and religious objectives enlisted in indian philosophy of education.
It is clear that main objectives of education in India since earliest days of
civilization had been Man- making who is capable of self-realization.
Highest state of knowledge : The highest state of knowledge is intuition
through which man achieves a realization of oneness of the universe. Most of the
Indian philosophies essence lies in this aspect.

Importance features of ancient Indian education

1. Ancient Indian education systems like vedic system of education, Buddhist
system of education and jain system of education has liberation of the soul as
their major aim. They emphasized learning of religious concepts and code of
conduct for learning a virtuous life
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 155
2. Teacher- student relationship was close and cordial. Each teacher had not
more than six students
3. Scholarly expositions, contemplation and recitation were followed in the
teaching leaning process
4. Students were insisted to follow strict discipline since without discipline self
realization is not possible
5. Education covered all aspects of life – Dharma, arthakama and moksha
6. Jainism prescribed separate codes of conduct for normal students and those
who opt to become saints
7. Buddhist monasteries prescribed the ceremony of ‘Pappaja’ for initiation into
studenthoodand also insisted on saffron dress code
8. Tolerance cooperation and humility were insisted as virtues for everyone.
9. Independent enquiry examining other points of view, discussion and debate
were allowed to avoid regimentation and indoctrination
10. Teacher was considered to be a philosopher and guide a living role model for
students. Teachers les a simple life and were easily accessible to all. They
commanded respect from one and all in the society.

4.2.5. Education during Mughal Period

Muslim education system was essentially religious in character. Medieval
period begins with the incoming of Muslims. So, this period also called
‘Mohammedan Period’. Mahmud Ghazani, Mohammed Ghauri, Qutab-ud-
Din-Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia and Balban, Shahzada Mohammad, Khilji Kings,
Tughlag Kings were the early Muslim famous kings. Muslim education received
greater encouragement and attention during Mughal period. Babar, Humayan,
Shershahsuri, Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan, Dara Shikoh, Auragzeb, Bahadur Shah
are the famous Mughal Kings.

a) Aims of Education
The ultimate aim of Islamic education was to get ‘Nijat’ (Mukti). The
important aims of muslim education: (i) Propagation of Islam, (ii) Development
of Character and Morality.,(iii) Spread of Knowledge, (iv) Expansion of Islamic
Kingdom, and (v) Political development.
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b) Curriculum
Curriculum at primary stage knowledge of 3R’s- Reading writing and
arithmetic. Urdu formed one of the chief subjects of study, religious instructions
were also given at Primary level. At the Secondary level, Grammar, Natural
Science, History, Astronomy, Military education given to the students.

c) Methods of Instruction
In medieval period, oral method, monitor system, lecture method, Reading
and writing, self- study method, potential symposia, analytical and inductive
methods, experimental method are used as methods of teaching. d) Role of Teacher
During the medieval period, the teacher was very much respected. There was
intimate and cordial relationship between the teacher and the taught. The pupils
followed the precepts of the teacher. Students, who acquired special knowledge
in religion, wore given the degree of ‘Aim’. There was no hosted arrangement for
the pupil’s of maktabs.

4.2.6. Christian Missionaries Contributions to Education

The Christians missionaries came to be associated with the educational
enterprise in India. They established their center at Serampore. They directed
their educational activities from Serampore. In 1725, the European Christian
missionaries had established seventeen schools for the children of the Hindus
and Muslims and four missionary schools of the Christians. In 1804, The
London Missionaries society established English Schools in Ceylon Southern
India and Bengal. The missionaries had rendered valuable service to the cause
of education in India. It was due to their efforts that the first missionary college
was set up at Serampore in 1818, and the Bishop’s College was established in
Calcutta in 1820.

4.2.7. East India Company’s Contributions to Education

The East India Company’s Charter of 1698 had directed the company to
maintain schools of the kind called St. Mary’s Charity schools was started in
Madras in 1715. The officials of the East India Company also played important
role for the spread of education. In 1781, Warren Hastings the first Governor-
General of India, founded the ‘Calcutta Madrasa’ to qualify the sons of the
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 157
Muslims through the Arabic medium. Sir William Jones with the help of Warren
Hastings, The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal was established in Calcutta. In
1816, established the Hindu College and developed into the famous Presidency
College in 1817.

(i) Charter Act (1813)

When the Charter of the Company was required by the British Parliament
in 1813, the responsibility of the company for the education of the Indians was
recognized. In 1823, it was from one lac rupees the grants were offered to the
Calcutta School Book Society and the Calcutta School Society. In 1824, two
Sanskrit colleges were established, one at Calcutta in 1824, another at Delhi
in 1825. Before 1835 there existed three kinds of schools. They are
(i) Vernacular Schools, (ii) Christian Missionary Schools, and (iii) The
Schools of East India Company. People liked the English medium of instruction
instead of Sanskrit and Arabic medium of higher education.

(ii) The Indian Education Commission (1882)

The British had placed emphasis on the college and university education. The
Secretary of State for India had made provision of grants-in-aid by the government
to colleges and universities alone by the regulation in 1859. So the primary and
high school education remained neglected.
The responsibility of education was transferred to provinces which had
limited economic resources in 1870. That handicapped the primary and high
school education also. Therefore, Lord Ripon appointed an Education.
Commission under Mr. W.W. Hunter in 1882 was appointed to review the
progress of education. The commission submitted its report in 1883. Some of its
primary recommendations were as follows:
a). T
 he primary education should be given priority. The Government should
hand over the management of primary education to District and Municipal
Boards which were to be provided one-third of its expenditure as grant- in-
aid by the government on it.
Two types of high schools should be established, the one preparing students
for vocational education and the other for providing literary education leading up
to the entrance examination of the university.
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b). T
 he government should withdraw itself from the school and college
education as far as could be possible and every effort should be made to
encourage private enterprise in these fields by the system of liberal grants-
in- aid.

(iii) The Government of India Resolution (1913)

To assume the responsibility of providing compulsory primary education in
India the Indian national leaders were pressing the government of India and the
Government declared its policy by a resolution on 21st February 1913. It did not
assume responsibility of compulsory
primary education. Instead, it accepted its adherence to a policy for the removal
of literacy in India and urged the provincial governments to take early measures
towards this direction. It emphasized the need to encourage private voluntary
efforts in this direction. It also emphasized on improvement of the high school
education and stressed the need of taking the responsibility of teaching by the
Universities.

(iv) Hartog Committee (1929)

In 1929, the Hartog Committee submitted its report. This Committee was
appointed to survey the growth of education in British India. It devoted far more
attention to mass education than Secondary and University Education. The
committee was not satisfied with the scanty growth of literacy in the country and
highlighted the problem of ‘Wastage’ and ‘Stagnation’ at the primary level.
It mentioned that the great waste of money and efforts which resulted
because of the pupils leaving their schools before completing the particular stage
of education. Its conclusion was that “out of every 100 pupils (boys and girls)
who were in class I in 1922-23, only 18 were reading in class IV in 1925-26.
Thus resulted in a relapse into illiteracy. So, it suggested the following important
measures for the improvement of primary education.
Adoption of the policy of consolidation in place of multiplication of schools;
i). Fixation of the duration of primary course to four years;
ii). Improvement in the quality, training, status, pay, service condition of
teachers;
iii). Relating the curricula and methods of teaching to the conditions of
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 159
villages in which children live and read;
iv). Adjustment of school hours and holidays to seasonal and local
requirements; and
v). Increasing the number of Government inspection staff.
vi). As far as secondary education, the Committee indicated a great waste
of efforts due to the immense number of failures at the Matriculation
Examination. It attributed that the laxity of promotion from one class
to another in the earlier stages and persecution of higher education
by incapable students in too large a number were the main factors of
wastage.
So it suggested for the introduction of diversified course in middle schools
meeting the requirements of majority of students. Further, it suggested the diversion
of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle stage.
Besides, the Committee suggested for the improvement of University Education,
Women Education, Education of Minorities and Backward classes, etc.
The Committee gave a permanent shape to the educational policy of that
period and attempted for consolidating and stabilizing education. The report
was hailed as the torch bearer of Government efforts. It attempted to prove that
a policy of expansion had proved ineffective and wasteful and that a policy of
consolidation alone was suited to Indian conditions. However, the suggestions of
the Committee could not be implemented effectively and the educational progress
could not be maintained due to worldwide economic depression of 1930-31. Most
of the recommendations remained mere hopes.

(v) Wardha System of Education (1937)

The Wardha Scheme of Education was put forward by M.K. Gandhi in1937.
Under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain, a tentative and detailed syllabus
was framed out. Its main features were:
i). That there should be free and compulsory education given to all children
for a period of seven years;
ii). That the medium of instruction should be the mother tongue;
iii). That the process of education should be centred round some form of
manual, productive work in the shape of a craft;
160 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
iv). The education should self - supporting to some extent;
v). That the education should enable the child to discharge his duties and
responsibilities of a good citizen;
vi). That the education should help the child in understanding and solving
the problems of life;
vii). That the future citizens of this country should be imbued with the ideal
if non - violence. That the education should be based on the principle,
“Learn while you earn and earn while you learn”;
viii). That the craft in basic education is to be chosen keeping in view the
local needs and in harmony with the local environment; and
ix). That the minimum universal education, which he considered
indispensable for the successful working of democracy.

Main Features of Basic Education

1. That the process of education should centre round some form of manual,
productive work and all teaching is to be, as far as possible integrally
related to it.
2. That the social and physical environment of the pupils may also be used
for purpose of correlation.
3. That the evaluation of students is to be only internal and on the basis of
day- to-day work of pupils. No external examinations need to be held.
4. That the text books should be avoided as far as possible.
5. That cleanliness, health, citizenship, work and worship, play and recreation
should be given people emphasis.

(vi) Abott -Wood Report (1936-37)

The absence of adequate and proper vocational education was being felt
in India and the public was raising its demand for it since long. Therefore, the
Government of India invited in 1936-37 two British experts to come India and
prepare a plan for vocational education in the country. These two experts were A.
Abott and S.H. Wood.
These two persons toured in Punjab, Delhi and U.P and prepared a report on
vocational education within four months. This report was neither comprehensive
nor successful. On the basis of this report, the Sargent Report of 1944 was
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 161
published. The Sargent Report presented a more detailed plan of vocational
education than the Abott Report did. However, the latter one cannot be ignored,
as it has its own importance. Below we give a brief summary point wise of this
report:
1. V ocational education should be organized according to the needs of various
vocational areas. No vocational area should be considered less important.
2. In the organization of vocational education the main regional vocations should
be especially considered.
3. Vocational education should be considered at par with literary and science
education and its standard should be raised.
4. Vocational education should be considered as complementary to other types
of education.
5. For general and vocational education there should be separate schools, as the
purpose of the two is different.
6. Skilful workers engaged in small industries should also be given proper
vocational training.
7. In each province a Vocational Education Advisors’ Council should be
established for developing healthy relationship between vocational education
and various vocations.
8. There should be two types of schools for vocational education. The first should
be the junior vocational school and the second senior vocational school. In the
junior school after class VIII there should be three years’ course for vocational
education. In the senior school, there should be two years’ vocational educations
after the class XI. The junior vocational school should be considered at par
with a high school and the senior one should be at par with an intermediate
college.
9. In certificate to be awarded after passing a vocational course, there should be
a clear mention of the quality of work done by the candidate during the period
of vocational training.
10. A s far as possible, vocational school should be established near vocational
centers.
11. Part-time classes should be opened for persons engaged in various vocations.
The workers should be given training in vocational schools for 2-1/2 days per
week and they should be given full wages for these 2-1/2 days. In part-time
162 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
schools, provision should be made for training during day time.
The Government should open vocational institutions in big cities and big
vocational centres.

Development of Education during the Pre-independent

Period:
Macaulay’s Minute(1835):
English as the medium of instruction. Recommended that the object of
educational policy in India should be spreading western knowledge through the
medium of English.

The Wood’s Despatch (1854):

AAIt initiated modern educational system assured advancement of western
knowledge .
AAIt recommended the use of english as the medium of instruction .
AAEstablishment of universities at madras,calcutta and bombay. Organisation
of a network of graded school all-over India.
AARecommendations included introduction of the system of grants-in-
aid,training of teachers encouragement of educated employment and
women’s education.

Indian Education commission 1882: / Hunter’s commission:

AAGiving free education to a certain percentage of the poor.
AAEnglish as the medium of instruction.
AAScholarship facilities for the students studies abroad.
AASpecial educational facilities for muslims and women ,backwardclasses,tribes
and other low classes.

The Sargent Plan (1944):

The Central Advisory Board of Education(CABE) was called upon to prepare
a post-war educational developmental plan. This is the first official attempt to
plan a national system of education for India. Pre-primary education for the age
group 3 and 6. Universal,compulsory and free primary or basic education for
all children between 6 and 14.Junior basic(6-11) and senior basic(11-14) High
School education for 6yrs to Selected children between 11 and 17. A three year
university course for selected students after higher secondary examination. Full
time and part time technical,commercial and art courses on an adequate scale.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 163
AADevelopment of public library.
AAFull provision for the proper training of teachers.
AAOrganisation of compulsory physical education and medical inspection.
Creation of employment bureaus.
AAEducational facilities for the physically and mentally handicapped children.
Provision of social and recreational activities

Basic Education:
Every school is to function with the available local materials and resources.All
schools subjects are to be taught through a chosen handicraft . Through weaving and
spinning were given importance,other rural crafts were also equally acceptable as
medium of teaching. Pupils are to become proficient in their mother tongue and a
handicraft. Earning while learning, developingskills adequately in a handicraft at the
end of eight year education so as to take it up as one’s own vocation are the hall marks of
basic education (Wardha system of Education in 1937) Aims of Education: Education
is an all round development physical,intellectual,aesthetic moral and spiritual . It is
to impart training in citizenship build character give professional training and impart
culture. Curriculum: Crafts as an essential part of curriculum, craft not as an additional
subject but as the medium of education .craft bias to education will bring into play
the principles of co-operative activity, individualresponsibility, initiative accuracy
and emotional catheris(extreme or end). Methods of Instruction: Craft was given a
central place in education. Craft is not learnt as a subject along with other subjects of
study .In basic education all subjects are to be taught through a chosen craft using the
correlation approach. This will integrate all knowledge and encourage self-activity
rather than rote memory. Self-Experiences is gained through crafts. Basic education is
referred to as “craft-centered education”.

Educational Planning:
Gandhiji wanted free and compulsory primary education between the ages of
7 to 14 for the whole mass of Indian population.

Role of the teacher:

Teachers should have not only professional training and proficiency in
subject matter but devotion and dedication in their work.Students should consider
their teachers as substitute parents and show utmost respect and reverence.
164 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Characteristics of Basic Education:
AAFree and compulsory education for all boys and girls between the ages
7-14.
AAChosen craft as the centre of Education.
AAGandhiji recommended the principle of correlation .he wanted all
knowledge to be correlated with craft.
AAProductivity of educational process-self supporting aspect of education.
Simple co-operative community living.
AAMother tongue of the child should be the medium of instruction.
AAEmphasis on religions and moral training.

Relevance of Gandhiji basic education in the present-day

context:
1. Contributions of Gandhiji to Indian Education: Child – centred approach to
education and making craft the centre and medium of educational experiences
are the unique contributions of gandhiji to modern educational thought.
2. Impact of Gandhiji on modern indian education: Kothari commission’s
recommendation to include work experience at all levels of Indian education
it desires its roots from basic education. Similarly basic education had
emerged in the form of SUPW - Socially Useful Productive Work in the
Recommendations of Eshwar Bhai patel Committee. The emphasis of
National Policy on Education(1986) NPE. On vocationalising secondary
Education, Kothari Commission’s recommendations to provide vocational
stream of education along with the general stream are all nothing but other
forms of basic education. The truth is though the name of ‘Basic Education’’
might have vanisha from the horizon of Indian education Vocationalization of
education seems to reappear in different guides under different names..

4.3. P
 olicy framework on education post independent India
syllabus:
Major recommendations on
AAKothari commission (1964-1966)
AAEshwar bhai patelcommittee(1977)
AAMalcom Adiseshiah commission (1978) -New educational policy (1986)
AAProgramme of action (1992)
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 165
AASachar commission(2005)
AANational curriculum framework(2005)-
AANational knowledge commission(2005).

4.3.1. The Kothari Commission (1964-66)

In 1964 an Education Commission was set-up by the Government of India
under the Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari to advise on the educational set-up.
The Commission observed that a sound programme of professional Education
for teachers was essential for the qualitative improvement of education. The
Commission pointed out the weakness of the existing system and suggested
ways to improve it. It recommended that isolation of teachers’ colleges with the
universities, schools and the teachers’ colleges themselves should be removed.
It spelt out the ways and means to do so. For qualitative improvement, it
recommended subject orientation and introduction of integrated courses of general
and professional education. It suggested ways to improve the quality of teacher
educators. It advised the State Governments to prepare a plan for the expansion
of training facilities.
1) Education for increasing productivity
a) Make science a basic component of education and culture.
b) Introducing S.U.P.W. as an integral part of general education.
c) Vocational education to meet the needs of the industry of agriculture.
d) Improving scientific and technological research and education at university
level.
2) Education for an accelerating process of modernization
a) Adopting new methods of teaching
b) Proper development of instruct attitudes and values and building essential
skills like independent study.
c) Educating people of all straits of society.
d) Emphasizing teaching of vocational subjects and science.
e) Establishing universities of excellence in the country.
3) Educating for promoting social and national integration
a) Introducing common school system of public education.
b) Developing all modern Indian language.
166 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
c) Taking steps to enrich Hindi as quickly as possible.
d) Encouraging and enabling students to participate in community living.
4) Education for inculcation of national values
a) Introducing moral, social and spiritual values.
b) Presenting before students high ideas of social justice and social service.

4.3.2. The Iswaribhai Patel Committee

The curriculum framed by the NCERT in line with the objectives of basic
education (now called as SUPW) underwent some strong criticism by the public.
Therefore the Union Education Minister appointed in June 1977 a Review
Committee under the chairmanship of Shri Iswaribhai Patel, the then Vice
Chancellor of the Gujarat University, to review the curriculum for the ten-year
school. The Committee has amply elucidated the concept of SUPW further it was
clarified in a National Workshop on ‘Socially Useful Productive Work: Concept
and Implementation organized by the faculty of Education, Gujarat Vidyapith,
Ahmadabad in 1978.
The first word ‘socially’ emphasizes that a child who has attained a minimum
level of education should be able to function efficiently in his or her mutiny, both
in respect of social skills and work skills and also in terms of adjustment to the
immediate group. The needs of the community are not very different from the
community in which the child lives.
The second word - ‘useful’ stressed that the work should lead to something
that is useful to the child and also to the general group, community or society in
terms of returns.
The third word - ‘productive’ is meant that product or service (whether concrete
or abstract) should be useful in addition to existing resources or practices of the
community (e.g.) Adult literacy.
In total, ‘Socially useful Productive Work’ may be defined as purpose and
meaningful work resulting in either goods or services which are useful to the
community.

Suggestions of the Iswaribhai Patel Committee

1. T
 he review Committee emphasized the need for practical, useful, productive,
socially relevant education in schools.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 167
2. S UPW must be given central place in the curriculum at all stages of school
education and the content of academic subjects should be related to it as far
as possible. (Having realized the importance of this aspect in education almost
all the universities of Tamil Nadu have included the SUPW in the practical
activities meant for the student teachers).
3. Not only productive manual work and motor skills but even Social service
activities come under its scope.
4. T he scheme of education recommended by this committee has three main
components:
a). Humanities
b). Science and
c). Work together with aesthetic appreciation to illuminate the curriculum.

4.3.3. Malcolm Adiseshaiah Committee

National Review Committee on Higher Secondary Education was appointed
by the Government of India, on 10th October 1977 under the Chairmanship of
Dr. Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah, Vice-Chancellor, University of Madras on +2 stage
of school education with special reference to vocationalisation of education, to
review the National Council of Educational Research and Training document
“Higher Secondary Education and its Vocationalisation”, to study the syllabi
and courses of the Central Board of Secondary Education with special reference
to a few selected vocations and to recommend a plan of action for introduction
of vocationalisation at the secondary/higher secondary stage. The Committee’s
report “LEARNING TO DO” was submitted on 28th February 1978.

4.3.4. National Policy on Education (1986)

The National Policy of Education of 1986 is the result of the reviews
which was discussed and adopted during the budget session of1985 when Rajiv
Gandhi was the prime minister of India. Again, a committee was set up under
the chairmanship of Acharaya Rammurti in May 1990 to review National Policy
of Education (NPE) and to make recommendations for its modifications. The
Central Advisory Board of Education, a committee set up in July 1991 under the
chairmanship of Shri N. Janadhana Reddy, Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh;
considered some modifications in NPE taking into considerations the report of
168 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
the Rammurti Committee and other relevant development having a bearing on
the policy. This Committee submitted its report in January 1992, which is known
as National Programme of Action of 1992. This policy aimed to promote national
progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen national
integration. It laid stress on the need for a radical reconstruction of the education
system, to improve its quality at all stages, and therefore gave much greater
attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer
relation between education and the life of the people.
The main objective of the National Policy of Education of 1986 and Programme
of Action, 1992 was to establish a national system of education implies that all
students irrespective of caste; creed, sex, and religion have access to education of
a comparable quality. Actually, the objectives of this policy had been divided into
the several aspects. In relation to Elementary Education, followings are the major
objectives of National Policy of Education 1986 are mainly:

Universal access and enrolment

AAUniversal retention of children up to 14 years of age and a sustainable
improvement in the quality education to enable all children to achieve
essential levels of learning.
AARegarding Secondary Education, National Policy of Education stressed on
the improvement of the quality of secondary education. Effort to be made
to provide computer literacy in as many secondary level institutions to
make the students equipped with necessary computer skills.
AARegarding higher education, National Policy of Education and Programme
of Action of 1986 and 1992 emphasized that higher education should
provide to the people with an opportunity to reflect on the critical social,
economic, cultural, moral and spiritual issues.
AAThus, the basic objectives of the National Policy of Education of 1986
and Programme of Action of 1992 emphasized that education must
play a positive and interventionist role in correcting social and regional
imbalance, empowering women, and in securing rightful place for the
disadvantaged and the minorities. Government should take a strong
determination and commitment to provide education for all, the priority
areas being free and compulsory education, covering children with special
needs, eradication of illiteracy, education for women’s equality and special
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 169
focus on the education of S.C. s (Scheduled caste) and S.T. s(Scheduled
tribes) and Minorities.

4.3.5. Programme of Action (POA) 1992

After going through the basic objectives of NPE of 1986 and its modified
policy in 1992, the recommendations of the policy have been divided into the
following 24 chapters.

I. Early Childhood Care and Education:

Integrated Child Development service, Balwadis, Pre-Primary schools of the
State government and Municipalities, Day-care centres and training institutes of
teachers and the existing facilities of pre-primary education should be strengthened
and should receive increased attention from the Government. Besides these, the
system of monitoring and evaluation should be strengthened.

II. Elementary Education, Non-Formal Education and

Operation Blackboard:
National Policy of Education and its modified policy emphasized on
elementary education as (i) universal enrolment and universal retention of children
up to 14 years of age and (ii) a substantial improvement in the quality of education.
Besides these, this policy also calls for drive for a substantial improvement of the
primary schools and provision of support service. Even some measures have been
proposed for securing participation of girls and of children from the scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes families, other educationally backward section and
minorities.
In the context of operational blackboard, the policy envisaged the following
facilities that should be kept for implementing the operational blackboard. -(i)
two reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weather; (ii) necessary toys and
games material; (iii) blackboards, (iv) maps, (v) charts, and (vi) other learning
materials.
Modern technological tools-such as solar packs for provision of power in
non-formal education centre’s, audio-visual aids, radio-cassette players should
be used to improve the learning environment of non-formal education centre’s, as
well as to enhance the quality of non-formal education.
170 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
III. Secondary Education and Navodaya Vidyalayas:
Regarding Secondary education, the National Policy of Education of 1986
implied extension of the school system in the unserved areas consolidating the
existing facilities and providing special arrangements for the gifted children and
high achievers. The arrangements should require: (1) Programme to ensure access
to secondary education being widened to cover unserved areas. (ii) Programme of
consolidation in other areas; (iii) Programme of setting up Navodaya Vidyalayas.
Besides these, as a short term measure the State Government should be
persuaded to open secondary schools in unserved areas taking blocks as a unit
having a lower ratio than 1:2:5 duly considering the present distance of habitation
from the nearest secondary school and population in the unserved habitation.

IV. Vocationalisation of Education:

From classes 1 to 5, Socially Useful Productive Work/ Work Experience
creates an integral part of the curriculum in many states. At the middle stage, the
work experience programme should aim at developing confidence and sufficient
psycho-motor skills to students through certain occupational training courses.

V. Higher Education:
The National Policy of Education of 1986 and its revised policy which is
known as Programme of Action of 1992 had laid importance on higher education,
particularly on graduate, post-graduate and research work. It suggested that
Autonomous Colleges should be established according to UGC directives.
Technical institutes like medical, engineering, agriculture universities etc. should
be set up and development of Vocational skill was to be stressed upon.
Followings are the necessary strategies that should be kept up for improving
the innovations in higher education.
(i) Consolidation and expansion of institutions
(ii) Development of Autonomous colleges and departments
(iii) Redesigning courses
(iv) Training of teachers
(v) Strengthening research
(vi) Improvement in efficiency
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 171
(vii) Creation of structures for co-operation at the state and national levels,and
(viii) Mobility.
Besides these, the AICTE (All India Council of Teacher Education) had laid
down norms and standards for diploma, degree and Post Graduate courses in the
various fields. Guidelines were laid down for admission to technical institutions
on merit to be followed by all concerned. The National Technical Manpower
Information System had been set up by the Government of India with a view
to generating strong data base in order to monitor the supply and utilization of
engineering and technical manpower at the national and individual state level so
as to ensure a planned development of technical education.

VI. Open University and Distance Education:

Open University and distance education have been designed to promote the
accessibility of education at higher stage as well as making higher education as
flexible as is required by the learners. The Central Open University which is known
as Indira Gandhi National Open University has been assigned the responsibility to
coordinate the distance learning system in the country and determine its standards
in order to develop and strengthen the Open University system. The National Policy
of Education and its Revised Policy have to develop some conditions relating to the
Open University system and distance mode of learning which are as follows:
i). The Indira Gandhi National Open University should initiate action for its
academic programme.
ii). The courses should be structured on a modular pattern with the facility
for the accumulation of the credits. Provision will be made for transfer of
the credits from the formal to the non-formal system and the vice-versa.
iii). Standards should be prescribed to determine the minimum level
of learning at every stage of education and criteria will be evolved to
objectively assess this level of attainment so that the opportunities should
be provided to all including housewives, agricultural and industrial
workers and professionals to continue their education.
iv). State Governments should ensure that Open Universities will be
established after very careful planning and requiring available resources
and facilities.
172 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
VII. Rural Universities and Institutes:
The National Policy of Education of 1986 and its Revised Policy of 1992
envisaged that the rural universities and institutions should be developed in rural
areas after studying the needs of such pattern of educational institutions in rural
communities as well as also strengthening the programme of Gandhian Basic
Education.

VIII. Technical and Management Education:

Regarding the Technical and Management Education system, the policy
stated that technical and management education system should be clustered with
reference to the interrelated objectives, priorities and programmes of the key
functional areas like development of human resource development spectrum with
great potentials for adding values to products and services and for contributing to
the national economy and improving quality of life of the people.

IX. Making the system work:

The National Policy of Education and its Revised Policy which is known as
Programme of Action referred to the necessity of introducing discipline into the
present system of education. It had also been referred to by the NPE and POA
that the teacher’s accountability towards the profession should be developed on
behalf of improving the students’ service and the behaviour of the students should
be promoted in accordance with acceptable norms; and also better facilities for
the educational institutions should be ensured in order to derive the performance
of the institutions.

X. D
 e-linking of Degrees from Jobs and Manpower
Planning:
The National Policy of Education and its revised policy envisaged that some
job-oriented degree courses as well as skill oriented courses should be made for
promoting human capital in the state as well as in the nation.

XI. Research and Development:

In National Policy of Education and POA, the stress was laid on research as an
essential component of higher education because of its role in creating new knowledge
and insights imparting innovations and dynamism to the educational process.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 173
XII. Women Education:
The N.P.E. and POA laid stress on the problems of universalization of
elementary education as, in essence, the problem of the girl child and on the
increasing participation of girls at all stages of education, particularly in streams
like sciences, vocational, technical and commerce education. The POA also
stressed the need for reorienting the education system to promote the women’s
equality in education. It advocated the need for institutional mechanism to
ensure that gender sensitivity be reflected in the implementation of all national
programmes. The national education system should play a positive role in the
empowerment of women and contribute towards the development of new values
through redesigned curricula and text books with women’s studies being promoted
as part of the various courses. Followings were the main strategies to promote
women education by the NPE and POA as:
a). to gear the entire education system to plan a positive interventionist role
in the empowerment of women,
b). to promote women’s studies as a part of various courses and to
encourage the educational institutions to take up active programme to
further women’s development.
c). To create dynamic managerial structure to cope with the targets
envisaged.

XIII. Education of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,

and backward Sections:
The priorities should be accorded to opening primary schools in tribal
areas, scheduled caste areas and backwards areas, according to the NPE and
POA. Besides these, cent percent enrolment of SC/ST children in the age group
of 6-11 ensuring their retention in school leading to satisfactory completion of
the primary stage of education or its equivalent through the non-formal stream
has to be achieved by 1990. At least 75 percent of the children in the age group
of 11-14 will have to be enrolled and retained in school leading to satisfactory
completion of class VIII according to the NPE and POA. Followings were some
of the recommendations of the policy related to the Scheduled tribes, Scheduled
caste and backward sections as:
174 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
i). The socio-cultural milieu of the STs had its distinctive characteristics
including, in many cases, their own spoken languages. This underlines
the need to develop the curricula and devise Instructional materials in
tribal languages at the initial stages, with arrangements for switching over
to the regional language.
ii). Educated and promising Scheduled Tribe youths should be encouraged
and trained to take up teaching in tribal areas.
iii). Residential schools, including Ashram Schools, should be established
on a large scale.
iv). Incentive schemes should be formulated for the Scheduled Tribes,
keeping in view their special needs and life styles. Scholarships for
higher education should be emphasized for technical, professional
and para-professional courses. Special remedial courses and other
programmes to remove psycho-social impediments should be emphasized
to improve their performance in various courses.
v). Anganwadis, Non-formal and Adult Education Centres should be
opened on a priority basis in areas predominantly inhabited by the
Scheduled Tribes.
vi). The curriculum at all stages of education should be designed to create
an awareness of the rich cultural identity of the tribal people and also of
their enormous creative talent.
vii). Pre-matric Scholarship scheme for children of Scheduled caste whose
families were engaged in occupations such as scavenging, flaying and
tanning to be made applicable from Class I onwards. All children of such
families, regardless of incomes, should be covered by this scheme and
time-bound programmes targeted on them should be undertaken;
viii). Constant micro-planning and verification should be ensured in the
context of enrolment, retention and successful completion of courses by
SC students, and provision of remedial courses should be provided in
order to improve their prospects for further education and employment.
ix). Recruitment of teachers from Scheduled Castes;
x). Recruitment of teachers from Scheduled Castes;
xi). Provision of facilities for SC students in students’ hostels at district
headquarters, according to a phased programme;
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 175
xii). Location of school buildings, Balwadis and Adult Education Centres
in such a way as to facilitate full participation of the Scheduled Castes;
xiii). The utilisation of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana resources so as to make
substantial educational facilities available to the Scheduled Castes;
xiv). Suitable incentives should be provided to all the educationally
backward sections of the society, particularly in the rural areas. Hill
and desert districts, remote and inaccessible areas and islands should be
provided with adequate institutional infrastructure.

XIV. Minorities Education:

Article 29 and Article 30 of the Constitution guarantee the right of minorities to
conserve the lanquage, script and culture and to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice whether based on religion or lanquage. The NPE and POA
had addressed the problems of the minorities. As the minority groups are educationally
deprived or backward, therefore grater attention should be paid to their education of
these groups in the interest of equality and justice. Simultaneously, objectivity should
be reflected in the preparation of textbooks. In all school activities and all possible
measures should be taken to promote an integration based on the appreciation of the
common national goals and ideals, in conformity with the core curriculum.
In pursuance of the revised Programme of Action (POA) 1992, two new
Centrally-sponsored schemes, i.e., (i) Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for
Educationally Backward Minorities and (ii) Scheme of Financial Assistance for
Modernisation of Madrasa Education were launched during 1993-94.]

XV. Education of the Handicapped:

The NPE and POA proposed to stipulate that the education of the children with
locomotor handicap and other mild handicaps should be same and common as the
normal children.The objective should be to integrate the physically and mentally
handicapped with the general community as equal partners, to prepare them for
normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage and confidence. The
following measures have to taken in this regard:
1. W
 herever it is feasible, the education of the children with motor handicaps
and other mild handicaps will be common with in the education of the normal
children.
176 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
2. S pecial schools with hostels will be provided, as far as possible at district
headquarters, for the severely handicapped children.
3. Adequate arrangements will be made to give vocational training to the disabled.
4. Teachers’ training programmes will be reoriented, in particular for teachers
of primary classes, to deal with the special difficulties of the handicapped
children; and
5. Voluntary effort for the education of the disabled will be encouraged in every
possible manner.

XVI. Adult Education:

The NPE and POA envisaged that adult education would be a means for
reducing economic, social and gender disparities. The whole nation had pledged
itself, through the National Literacy Mission, to the eradication of illiteracy,
particularly in the age group of 15-35 through various means, with special emphasis
on total literacy campaigns. The Central and State Governments, political parties
and their mass organisations, the mass media and educational institutions, teachers,
students, youth, voluntary agencies, social activist groups, and employers, must
reinforce their commitment to mass literacy campaigns, which include literacy
and functional knowledge and skills, and awareness among learners about the
socio-economic reality and the possibility to change it. The National Literacy
Mission should be geared to the national goals such as alleviation of poverty,
national integration, environmental conservation, observance of the small family
norm, promotion of women’s equality, universalisation of primary education,
basic health-care, etc. It should also facilitate energisation of the cultural creativity
of the people and their active participation in development processes.

XVII. Content and Process of School Education:

Regarding the content and process of school education, NPE and POA made
the followings points:
1. Access to education of a comparable quality for all irrespective of caste,
creed, location or sex.
2. Introduction to the norms of minimum levels of learning for different
stages and provision of threshold facilities so that learning becomes a more
enjoyable experience even for the slow learners.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 177
3. Articulation of a national system of education with a common structure,
national curricular framework which contains common core.
4. Examination reforms and introduction of evaluation as an ongoing process
in schools for the improvement of teaching and learning.
5. Development of culture specific curricular and instructional material for
the tribal people and educationally deprived minority groups keeping in
view their rich cultural identity.
6. Overhauling of the system of teacher education and strengthening that of
the technical and resource support structures, including the establishment
of District Institutes of Education and Training.
7. Decentralization of educational administration, creation of a spirit of
autonomy for educational institutions with greater role assigned to the
institutional heads and development of professionalism among teachers.
8. Promotion of non-governmental and voluntary efforts and people’s
participation for giving impetus to innovative ideas and practices and
mobilization of resources.

XVIII. Evaluation Process and Examination Reforms:

The Policy visualized integration of the assessment of performance with
the process of learning and teaching, and utilizing the process of evaluation to
bring about qualitative change in education. In order to ensure the student’s
performance, the assessment methods must be valid and reliable. The
following short term measures had been proposed by the NPE and POA;
Public examinations will continue to be held only at the levels of classes X and XII,
1. Decentralization of the operation involved in the conduct of
examinations to make the system work more effectively.
2. School boards in certain States have set up a number of sub centres to
decentralize the conduct of examinations. Adoption of similar measures by
other States will be pursued.
3. At the university level continuous institutional evaluation will be
introduced at the post graduate level, to begin with, in unitary universities,
deemed universities and autonomous colleges.
4. Students’ performance will be indicated through letter grades, and
assessment of overall performance will be on the basis of cumulative grade
point average.
178 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
5. Modifications in the qualifying recruitments for admission in the
universities and colleges will be examined to accelerate the process of
change in the level of examinations.

XIX. Youth and Sports:

The NPE and POA stressed the following formulation (i) integration of sports
and physical education in the learning process and evaluation of performance and
(ii) involvement of youth in national and social development and sports and games
etc. particularly, through educational institutions at the level of higher learning.

XX. Language Development:

The NPE and POA elaborately discussed about the concept of language
development and emphasized the adoption of regional languages as the media of
instruction at the university stage. Regarding language development, the NPE and
POA discussed and proposed many efforts and initiatives such as implementation of
AAThree- language formula, improvements in the linguistic competencies of
students at the different stages of education,
AAProvision of facilities fore the study of English and other foreign languages,
and
AADevelopment of Hindi language as a link language etc.

XXI. Cultural development:

While the formulating the national policy, the basic emphasis was given to
interlinking education with culture. By interlinking education and culture, the
stress was given in the development of child’s personality, particularly in terms of
helping the child to discover his inner talent and to express it creatively.

XXII. Media and Educational Technology:

The NPE and POA emphasized that in order to avoid structural dualism,
modern educational technology should be reached out to the most distant areas
and to the deprived sections of beneficiaries simultaneously with the areas of
comparative affluence and ready availability.

XXIII. Teacher and their Training:

The new programmes of teacher-education should emphasize need to
continuing education and also the need for teachers to meet the thrusts envisaged
in this Policy.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 179
District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) should be established
with the capability to organize pre-service and in-service courses for elementary
school teachers and for the personnel working in non-formal and adult education.
As DIETs get established, sub-standard institutions should be phased out. Selected
Secondary Teacher Training Colleges should be upgraded to complement the work
of the State Councils of Educational Research and Training. The National Council
of Teacher Education should be provided the necessary resources and capability
to accredit institutions of teacher-education and to provide guidance regarding
curricula and methods. Networking arrangements should be created between
institutions of teacher education and university departments of education.

XXIV. Management Education:

According to the NPE and POA, educational planning should be linked to
manpower planning. For this, such mechanism should be set up that can link the
need based requirement of the society with what it has at present.
National policy on education 1986, which modified in 1992, placed concerns
on constitutional values democracy, secularism, socialism which are straining and
suggested to strengthen scientific temper and secular values. secularism means
absence of religion in govt functioning, but Indian philosophy of secularism
means “ equal tolerance to all religions”.

4.3.6.Sachar Committee
On March 9, 2005 the Prime Minister issued a Notification for the constitution
of a High Level Committee to prepare a report on the social, economic and
educational status of the Muslim community of India. The seven-member High
Level Committee, chaired by Justice Rajindar Sachar, submitted its final report
to the Prime Minister on November 17, 2006. The Government tabled the Justice
Rajindar Sachar Committee Report in Parliament on November 30th. The Sachar
Committee has compiled data from a number of sources. The report frames these
issues as related to identity, security and equity. Barring some generic observations
about the causes for the ‘development deficit’ among Muslims, there is no explicit
or detailed discussion of the causes of such conditions.
The Government of India constituted Justice Sachar Committee for
preparation of a Report on the Social, Economic and Educational Status of
180 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Muslim Community of India, this Commission for identifying criteria for socially
and economically backward classes among the religious and linguistic minorities,
and to suggest various welfare measures for Minorities including Reservation.
Both the Committee and the Commission have submitted their reports. While
the Sachar Committee Report is under implementation, the Government has
tabled the Justice Ranganath Mishra Report on the table of the Parliament and
considering various aspects for implementation of the Report at present. It has
been established by Sachar Committee and Ranganath Mishra Commission
reports that Muslims in India are most backward community despite their rich
cultural heritage and strong numerical presence.

Recommendations of Sachar Committee:

1. While there is considerable variation in the conditions of Muslims across
states, (and among the Muslims, those who identified themselves as
OBCs and others), the Community exhibits deficits and deprivation in
practically all dimensions of development.
2. Mechanisms to ensure equity and equality of opportunity to bring about
inclusion should be such that diversity is achieved and at the same time
the perception of discrimination is eliminated. This is only possible when
the importance of Muslims as an intrinsic part of the diverse Indian social
mosaic is squarely recognized.
3. Creation of a National Data Bank (NDB) where all relevant data for
various SRCs are maintained is recommended. All the date should be
eventually computerized and made available on the Internet.
4. An autonomous Assessment and Monitoring Authority (AMA) is needed /
recommended to evaluate the extent of development benefits which accrue
to different SRCs through various programmes. Academics, professionals,
civil society organizations along with sate authorities as the official
members can be part of this Authority and perform a watch-dog function
which closely monitors the participation of various SRCs in both and
Central level programme implementation.
5. While equity in the implementation of programmes and better participation
of the Community in the development process would gradually eliminate
the perception of discrimination, there is a need to strengthen the legal
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 181
provisions to eliminate such cases.
6. It is imperative that if the minorities have certain perceptions of being
aggrieved, all efforts should be made by the State to find a mechanism by
which these complaints could be attended to expeditiously. This mechanism
should operate in a manner which gives full satisfaction to the minorities
that any denial of equal opportunities or bias or discrimination in dealing
with them, either by public functionary or any private individual, will
immediately be attended to and redress given.
7. The Committee recommends that an Equal Opportunity Commission
(EOC) should be constituted by the government to look into the grievances
of the deprived groups. An example of such a policy tool is the UK Race
Relation Act, 1976. While providing a redressal mechanism for different
types of discrimination, this will give a further re-assurance to the minorities
that any unfair action against them will invite the vigilance of law.
8. A carefully conceived ‘nomination’ procedure should be worked out
to increase the participation of minorities at the grass roots. Mechanism
should be put in place so that a larger number of minorities are indeed
nominated so as to increase their participation in public bodies.
9. The Committee recommends the elimination of the anomalies with
respect to reserved constituencies under the delimitation schemes. A more
rational delimitation procedure that does not reserve constituencies with
high minority population shares for SCs will improve the opportunity for
the minorities, especially the Muslims, to contest and get elected to the
Indian Parliament and the State Assemblies.
10. The idea of providing certain incentives to a ‘diversity index’ should be
explored. This is a complex proposition but if a transparent and acceptable
method to measure diversity can be developed, a wide variety of incentives
can be linked to this index so as to ensure equal opportunity to all SRCs in
the areas of education, government and private employment and housing.
11. In order to respect and sustain diversity in the development and
implementation of innovative programmes or in the provision of service,
relevant functionaries should be sensitive to the need to have diversity and
the problems associate with social exclusion.
12. The Committee recommends that a process of evaluating the content of
the school text books needs to be initiated to purge them of explicit and
182 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
implicit content that may impart inappropriate social values, especially
religious intolerance.
13. The University Grants Commission (UGC) should be encouraged to
evolve a system where part of allocation to colleges and universities is
linked to the diversity in the student population. Even private colleges,
including those run by the minorities and which have affiliation with
universities or are recognized by state bodies can be provided additional
funds if they have a diverse student population and charge reasonable fees.
14. To facilitate admissions to the ‘most backward’ amongst all the SRCs
in the regular universities and autonomous colleges, alternate admission
criteria need to be evolved.
15. Providing hostel facilities at reasonable cost for students from minorities
must be taken up on priority basis. While this is required for all minority
students, such facilities for girls in cities of all sizes are particularly desirable.
16. Teacher training should compulsorily include in its curriculum
components which introduce the importance of diversity / plurality within
the country and sensitize teachers towards the needs and aspiration of
Muslims and other marginalized communities. The implementation of
this should be monitored by the National Council of Teacher Education
(NCTE).
17. Given the commitment to provide primary education in the child’s
mother tongue, the State is required to run Urdu medium schools. Given
the constitutional responsibility of the State, it is imperative that Urdu
language is supported to provide a regular stream of Urdu teachers.
18. Government should work out mechanisms whereby Madarsas can be
linked with a higher secondary school board so that students wanting to
shift to a regular / mainstream education can do so after having passed
from a Madarsa.
19. Government should recognize degrees from Madarsas for eligibility
in competitive examinations such as the Civil Services, Banks, Defense
Services and other such examinations. The idea is to facilitate a process
whereby Madarsa graduates too have a choice and an incentive to
participate in these employment streams.
20. Government should recognize degrees from Madarsas for eligibility
in competitive examinations such as the Civil Services, Banks, Defense
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 183
Services and other such examinations. The idea is to facilitate a process
whereby Madarsa graduates too have a choice and an incentive to
participate in these employment streams.
21. The Committee recommends promoting and enhancing access to
Muslims in Priority Sector Advances. Any shortfall in achievement of
targeted amount in minority specific programmes should be parked with
NMDFC, NABARD and SIDBI and specific programmes should be
funded with this amount.
22. The real need is of policy initiatives that improve the participation and
share of the Minorities, particularly Muslims in the business of regular
commercial banks. Since the size of the credit flows through regular banking
channels is much higher than various community specific programmes,
higher participation of minorities will result in larger gains to them.
23. The detailed analysis of Muslim participation in government employment
and other programmes has shown vary limited participation in both. While
no discrimination is being alleged, it may be desirable to have experts
drawn from the Community on relevant interview panels and Boards. This
practice is already in vogue in the case of SCs / STs.
24. The country is going through a high growth phase. This is the time to help
the underprivileged to utilize new opportunities through skill development
and education.
25. Government should provide financial and other support to initiatives
built around occupations where Muslims are concentrated and that have
growth potential. These initiatives can take the form of interventions where
existing skills of the workers are combined with knowledge of modern
management practices, new technology, and emerging market needs.
26. The registration of trusts set up by the Community, such as Waqf
institutions and mosque committees should be facilitated. These
institutions, being closer to the community can indeed play an important
role as intermediaries between policy programmes announced by the
government and their beneficiaries within the Muslim community.
27. Lack of access to crucial infrastructural facilities is another matter
of concern for the Muslims. Access to schools, health care, sanitation
facilities, potable water and means of daily transportation are some of the
basic facilities one can expect a state to provide for its citizens.
184 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
28. It is expected that the Report would invoke a positive response from the
Civil Society, which will ensure that the policy measures introduced by
the State in pursuance of these recommendations receive full support and
active cooperation from all sections of the society, including the Muslim
community. The issues relating to disparities across socio-religious
communities are of utmost importance to our nation today. If this Report
contributes in any way in constructively dealing with these issues and in
facilitating a more informed discussion on them, the Committee’s efforts
would be well rewarded.

4.3.7. National Curricular Framework (NCF) 2005

The National Curricular Framework (NCF) 2005 lays down parameters for
improving quality of school education in the country, each State is expected to
draw a specific framework for itself, keeping in mind local challenges. The Tamil
Nadu Curricular Framework 2012 is a step in that direction. NCF-2005 closely,
while introducing pedagogical interventions such as the Activity Based Learning
and Active Learning methodologies for primary and middle school students.
But, a document which specifically looks at curriculum and curricular reform
keeping in mind certain challenges specific to Tamil Nadu is in a good position to
contribute further to the overall quality.

Salient Features of National Curriculum Framework 2005

AANPE 1986, assigned a special role to NCERT in preparing and promoting
NCF.
AAYash Pal Committee Report, ‘Learning without Burden’ (1993) observes
that learning has become a source of burden and stress on children and their
parents.
AAConsidering these observations, Executive Committee of NCERT decided at
its meeting of July 14, 2004, to revise the National Curriculum Framework.
AAThe process of development of NCF was initiated in November, 2004 by
setting up various structures like National Steering Committee Chaired by
Prof. Yash Pal and twenty-one National Focus Groups on themes of curricular
areas, systemic reforms and national concerns.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 185
AAWide ranging deliberations and inputs from multiple sources involving
different levels of stakeholders helped in shaping the draft of NCF.
AAThe draft NCF was translated into 22 languages listed in the VIII Schedule
of the Constitution. The translated versions were widely disseminated and
consultations with stakeholders at district and local level helped in developing
the final draft.
AAThe NCF was approved by Central Advisory Board on Education in
September, 2005.

Vision and Perspective

AATo uphold values enshrined in the Constitution of India
AATo reduce of curriculum load
AATo ensure quality education for all
AATo initiate certain systemic changes

Guiding Principles
AAConnecting knowledge to life outside the School
AAEnsuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods
AAEnriching curriculum so that it goes beyond Text Book
AAMaking Examination more flexible and non-threatening
AADiscuss the aims of education
AABuilding commitment to democratic values of equality, justice, secularism
and freedom.

Focus on child as an active learner

1. Primacy to children’s experience, their voices and participation
2. Needs for adults to change their perception of children as passive receiver
of knowledge
3. Children can be active participants in the construction of knowledge and
every child come to with pre-knowledge
4. Children must be encouraged to relate the learning to their immediate
environment
5. Emphasizes that gender, class, creed should not be constraints for the child
6. Highlights the value of Integration
7. Designing more challenging activities
186 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Curricular areas, school stages and Assessment
AARecommends significant changes in Maths, Natural Sciences, Social
Sciences
AAOverall view to reduce stress, make education more relevant, meaningful

1. Languages
AATo implement 3-language formula
AAEmphasis on mother tongue as medium of instruction
AACurriculum should contain multi-lingual proficiency only if mother tongue
is considered as second language
AAFocus on all skills

2. Mathematics
AATeaching of Mathematics to focus on child’s resources to think and reason,
to visualize abstractions and to solve problems.

3. Sciences
AATeaching of science to focus on methods and processes that will nurture
thinking process, curiosity and creativity.

4. Social Sciences
AASocial sciences to be considered from disciplinary perspective with rooms
for:
AAIntegrated approach in the treatment of significant themes
AAEnabling pedagogic practices for promoting thinking process, decision
making and critical reflection.

5. Draws attention on four other areas

a. Art Education: covers music, dance, visual arts and theatre which on
interactive approaches not instruction aesthetic awareness and enable children to
express themselves in different forms.
b. Health and Physical Education: Health depends upon nutrition and
planned physical activities.
c. Education for Peace: As a precondition to snub growing violence and
intolerance
f. Work and Education: As it can create a social temper and agencies
offering work opportunities outside the school should be formally recognized.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 187
School and Classroom environment
AACritical pre-requisites for improved performance – minimum infrastructure
and material facilities and support for planning a flexible daily schedule
AAFocus on nurturing an enabling environment
AARevisits tradition notions of discipline
AADiscuss needs for providing space to parents and community
AADiscuss other learning sites and resources like Texts and Books, Libraries
and laboratories and media and ICT
AAAddresses the need for plurality of material and Teacher autonomy/
professional independence to use such material.

Systemic Reforms
AACovers needs for academic planning for monitoring quality
AATeacher education should focus on developing professional identity of the
Teacher
AAExamination reforms to reduce psychological stress particularly on
children in class X and XII

Examination reforms highlight:

AAShift from content based testing to problem solving and competency based
assessment
AAExaminations of shorter duration
AAFlexible time limit
AAChange in typology of questions
AANo public examination till class VIII
AAClass X board exam to be made optional (in long term)

Teacher Education Reforms emphasize on preparation of

teacher to
1. View learning as a search for meaning out of personal experience, and
knowledge generation at a continuously evolving process of reflective
learning.
2. View knowledge not as an external reality embedded in textbooks, but
as constructed in the shared context of teaching-learning and personal
experience.
188 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Guidelines for Syllabus Development
1. Development of syllabi and textbooks based on following considerations
AAAppropriateness of topics and themes for relevant stages of children’s
development
AAContinuity from one level to the next
AAPervasive resonance of all the values enshrined in the constitution of India
the organization of knowledge in all subjects
AAInter-disciplinary and thematic linkages between topics listed for different
school subjects, which falls under different discrete disciplinary areas.
AALinkage between school knowledge and concern in all subjects and at all
levels
AASensitivity to gender, caste, class, peace, health and need of children with
disability
AAIntegration of work related attitudes and values in every subject and all
levels
AANeed to nurture aesthetic sensibility and values
2. Linkage between school and college syllabi, avoid overlapping
3. Using potential of media and new information technology in all subjects
4. Encouraging flexibility and creativity in all areas of knowledge and its
construction by children.

Development of Support Material

AAAudio/video programmes on NCF-2005 and textbooks
AASource-book on learning assessment
AAExemplar problems in Science and Mathematics
AAScience and Mathematics kits
AATeachers’ handbooks and manuals.
AATeacher Training Packages.
AADeveloped syllabi and textbooks in new areas such as Heritage Craft,
Media Studies, Art Education, Health and Physical Education, etc.
AATaken various initiatives in the area of ECCE (Early Childhood Care
Education), Gender, Inclusive Education, Peace, Vocational Education,
Guidance and Counseling, ICT, etc.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 189
NCF 2005 highlights the following aspects:
AAThe value of Interaction with environment, peers and older people to
enhance learning.
AAThat learning task must be designed to enable children to seek knowledge
other than text books.
AAThe need to move away from “Herbartian” lesson plan to prepare plans
and activities that challenge children to think and try out what they are
learning.

4.3.8.The National Knowledge Commission (NKC)

The National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was constituted in June 2005
by the Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, under the Chairmanship of Mr. Sam
Pitroda, to prepare a blueprint for reform of our knowledge related institutions
and infrastructure which would enable India to meet the challenges of the future.

The Terms of Reference of NKC are:

AABuild excellence in the educational system to meet the knowledge
challenges of the 21st century and increase India’s competitive advantage
in fields of knowledge.
AAPromote creation of knowledge in Science & Technology laboratories.
AAImprove the management of institutions engaged in Intellectual Property
Rights.
AAPromote knowledge applications in Agriculture and Industry.
AAPromote the use of knowledge capabilities in making government an
effective, transparent and accountable service provider to the citizen and
promote widespread sharing of knowledge to maximise public benefit.
To take its mandate forward the Commission focused on five key aspects
of knowledge: enhancing access to knowledge, reinvigorating institutions
where knowledge concepts are imparted, creating a world class environment for
creation of knowledge, promoting applications of knowledge for sustained and
inclusive growth and using knowledge applications in efficient delivery of public
services. Specific focus areas were identified to realise each of these objectives.
NKC carried out wide stakeholder consultations, in particular engaging non-
government organisations and experts in the form of Working Groups, while
formulating recommendations.
190 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
In three years NKC has submitted recommendations on 27 focus areas in
the form of letters to the Prime Minister. These have been widely disseminated
in three compilations: ‘Report to the Nation 2006’, ‘Report to the Nation
2007’ as well as ‘Towards a Knowledge Society’ which is a compilation of the
education recommendations. The recommendations, also accessible through the
NKC website, have been widely debated. NKC has also reached out to State
Governments for developing knowledge initiatives at the state level.

Recommendations
By focusing on the five aspects of the knowledge paradigm, NKC has created
an extensive roadmap for the future. The Governments at the Centre and State
are taking steps for the successful implementation of these policy suggestions.
The Government’s commitment to NKC’s vision is reflected in the Eleventh Five
Year Plan where NKC’s inputs have been incorporated in formulating the broad
contours of the Plan.
The Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012) places high priority on education as
a central instrument for achieving rapid and inclusive growth with specific emphasis
on expansion, excellence and equity. This is evident from the proposed allocation of
Rs 3 trillion, a four fold increase over the Tenth Plan. The share of education in the
total Plan will accordingly increase from 7.7 per cent to 20 per cent.
Initiatives to improve school education in the Plan include reorienting Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan with a strong rights focus to make Right to Education a reality.
Under the Scheme for Universal Access and Quality at the Secondary Stage, 6000
new high quality model schools are to be set up, with at least one school in each
block. The first stream will consist of 2500 public funded schools [2000 in KVs
(Kendriya Vidyalayas) and 500 in NVs (Navodaya Vidyalayas) template] to be
launched in the Educationally Backward Blocks which have a significant SC, ST,
OBC and Minority population. The second stream of about 2500 schools would
be set up through Public Private Partnership in other Blocks with emphasis on
geographical, demographic, gender and social equity. Modalities for the remaining
1000 schools have not yet been finalised.
To strengthen vocational education a new Skill Development Mission under
the supervision of the Prime Minister, with an outlay of Rs. 31,200 crore, will
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 191
aim at opening 1600 new industrial training institutes (ITIs) and polytechnics,
10,000 new vocational schools and 50,000 new Skill Development Centres. A
Skill Development Corporation will also be created by the Government with the
active participation of the private sector to give special training to young men and
women, workers and technicians.
In Higher and Technical Education the focus of the Eleventh Plan is on
expansion, inclusion and rapid improvement in quality by enhancing public
spending, encouraging private initiatives and initiating the long overdue major
institutional and policy reforms. The Eleventh Plan aims at expansion with the
establishment of 30 new universities. Further, 8 new IITs, 7 new IIMs, 20 new
IIITs, 5 new Indian Institutes of Science, 2 Schools of Planning and Architecture,
10 NITs, 373 new degree colleges and 1000 new polytechnics will also be set
up. In establishing these institutions the scope for Public Private Partnership
will be explored. The Plan also recognises the need for the review of regulatory
institutions such as the UGC, AICTE, MCI and BCI. Subsequently, a High Level
Committee has been set up to suggest a specific reforms agenda in this context.
For rejuvenation of research in Universities a National Science & Engineering
Research Board is proposed. A provision of Rs. 5,000 crore has been made in the
Eleventh Plan for an ‘Education Mission through ICT’ to leverage the potential
of ICT to enhance the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Higher Education. The
Plan also envisages the setting up of a National Knowledge Network (NKN)
interconnecting all knowledge institutions in the country with gigabit capabilities,
for sharing resources and research. To operationalise the first phase of the NKN,
1000 institutions would be linked up.
The Plan also makes a commitment to improve public libraries and create a
National Translation Mission for promoting Translator education including specialised
courses in translation technology. The Government has approved the setting up of a
National Translation Mission with an outlay of Rs. 73.97 crore for the Plan period,
under the aegis of the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore. The
process for launching a National Mission on Libraries is also underway.
Emphasis has also been laid on strengthening traditional heath systems such
as AYUSH in the National health programs and improving IPR, with the ultimate
192 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
aim of enhancing the outreach of AYUSH health care in an accessible, acceptable,
affordable and qualitative manner.
Provisions for strengthening IPR in the Eleventh Plan include undertaking
the second phase of modernisation of IP offices. This would specifically seek to
address the needs of human resources development, training and awareness and
also infrastructure, besides regular updating of the IT facilities.
The Eleventh Plan also recognises the need for an appropriate legislative
framework for incentivising the innovators and commercialisation of public
funded R&D where the Government, the recipients of funds, the inventor as well
as the public benefit from the protection and commercialisation of IP. A Bill on the
subject is expected to be introduced in the Parliament.
Understanding the importance of innovation, the Plan emphasises the need for
a National Innovation Policy which encourages competition among enterprises,
greater diffusion of knowledge and increased support to early stage technology
development initiatives and grassroots level innovators.
NKC recommendations on e-Governance were broadly endorsed by the
government and incorporated into the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP). As
part of the Program Management Structure for the implementation of NeGP,
the Cabinet approved the setting up of a Body under the Chairpersonship of the
Prime Minister to provide leadership, prescribe deliverables and milestones and
to monitor periodically the implementation of the NeGP.

4.4. Language Policy in School Education

Meaning- Language Policy:
Any decision or principle of action adopted with regard to the usage of
language or languages by an organization or individual is known as a language
policy. Language polices are basically designed to promote one or more languages
and also it specify the usage of language in different domains, like education,
administration, media, etc. So we can say that language policy is a cover term for
all the linguistic behaviours, assumptions, cultural forms, folk believes, attitude
towards a language etc. A language policy is multidimensional.
Good language policies are always needed for the effective working of a
nation and language policy cannot be studied without knowing about language
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 193
planning. The need for a language policy is there at different levels. Like: For
official use of language (e.g. Administration, law, etc.) Use of language at
regional level Language for wider communication (mass media) Language for
International communication Use of languages at specific domains like education,
etc. For all these purposes we need to choose a language and sometimes the need
is to develop that language. For an effective language policy, good language
planning is equally important. Planning involves a choice that is made on the basis
of a conscious effort to predict the consequences of the proposed alternatives.

The Three- Language Formula

Language planning for school education in India can be seen more as a
question of status planning rather than acquisition planning. The language debate
in education in the formative years of India’s independence not only brought in
awareness among the stakeholders of education, it also enabled the policy makers
to fully attempt to realize the constitutional vision of equality of opportunity,
linguistic rights of every linguistic and ethnic community and moving towards
the goal of achieving universal access to education. The Three-Language formula
which emerged as a political consensus on languages in school education was a
strategy to accommodate at least three languages within the ten years of schooling.
The Central Advisory Board on Education (CABE), the oldest statutory body on
education in India, initiated the discussion on languages in school education in
1940’s and this continued to be a major concern in their discussions until 1960.

CABE identified five major issues which required attention:

AAThe number of languages to be taught at various levels of school education.
AAThe introduction of second and third languages.
AAThe place and role of English.
AA The place and role of Hindi.
AAThe teaching of Sanskrit and minor language(s) in school.
The CABE devised the three-language formula in its 23rd meeting held
in 1956 with a view to removing inequalities among the languages of India. It
recommended that three languages should be taught in the Hindi as well as non-
Hindi speaking areas of the country at the middle and High school stages and
suggested the following two possible formulae:
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1.(a) Mother-tongue or
(b) Regional language or
(c) A composite course of mother-tongue and a regional language or
(d) A composite course of mother-tongue and a classical language or
(e) A composite course of regional language or a classical language.
(f) Hindi or English
(g) A modern Indian language or a modern European language provided it
has not already been taken under (a) and (b) above.
2. (a) as above (b) English or a modern European language (c) Hindi (for
non-Hindi speaking areas) or another modern Indian language (for Hindi
speaking areas).
The three-language formula was simplified and approved by the Conference
of Chief Ministers held in 1961 as follows:
AAThe regional language or the mother-tongue when the latter is different
from the regional language.
AAHindi or any other Indian language in Hindi speaking areas, and
AAEnglish or any other modern European language.
CABE also deliberated in detail on the study of English as a compulsory
subject as recommended by the Education Ministers Conference held in 1957:
English should be taught as a compulsory language both at the secondary and
the university stages, students acquire adequate knowledge of English so as to be
able to receive education through this language at the university level.
English should not be introduced earlier than class V. The precise point at
which English should be started at the middle stage was left to each individual
state to decide.33 A comprehensive view of the study of languages at school
was undertaken and concrete recommendations were made by the Education
Commission between 1964 and 1966.
The commission having taken account of the diversity of the Indian context
recommended a modified or graduated three-language formula:
The mother-tongue or the regional language.
The official language of the Union or the associate official language of the
Union so long as it exists; and
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 195
A modern Indian or foreign language not covered under (i) and (ii) and other
than that used as the medium of instruction. The commission’s observation on
the status and role of English is of importance from the point of view of language
planning and the way the language was perceived by policy planners. The
commission said: “English will continue to enjoy a high status so long as it remains
the principal medium of education at the university stage, and the language of
administration at the central government and in many of the states. Even after
the regional languages become media of higher education in the universities, a
working knowledge of English will be a valuable asset for all students and a
reasonable proficiency in the language will be necessary for those who proceed
to the university”. Thus, this brief historical scan of the evolution of the language
policy in India tells us how the apprehension about the dominance of English
(as a colonial language which signifies the master’s language) has been naturally
alleviated by the role which the language has attained. This, inspite of the efforts
to contain its spread. Today every child and parent wants the English language.

Medium of Instruction:
The three-language formula envisaged that language teaching needs to be
multilingual not only in terms of the number of languages offered to children but
also in terms of evolving strategies that would use the multilingual classroom as
a resource. Home language or mother-tongue of children should be the medium
of instruction in primary schools and that this would lead to harmonious personal
development and contribute to a pedagogically sound high quality education. This
vision was proposed by the Education Commission in 1964-66 and was reflected
again in the National Curricular Frameworks from 1975, the National Education
Policy and the Programme of Action .

4.5. Language Provisions in the Constitution

There are many languages provisions that have changes taken place 42nd
Amendment of the Constitution. Apart from the Eighth Scheduled, keeping in
mind the multilingual situation of India, the planners of the constitution have paid
special attention in specifying which language to be used for official purposes,
which for regional, educational and administrative. The language policy of India
is pluristic in approach. For managing multilingualism the whole of part xvii of
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the constitution is devoted to language. Some of the articles describing the use of
language in different domains are:
Article 29: it enunciates the fundamental rights of any section of citizens
residing anywhere in India to conserve its distinct language, script or culture.
Article 30: seeks to protect the rights of all minorities based on religion or
language-to establish and administer educational institution of their choice.
Article 120: lays down the official language of Parliament. It says business
in Parliament may be transacted in English or in Hindi. However Honourable
Speaker of the Lok Sabha may permit any member to address the house in his/her
mother tongue under special circumstances.
Article 210: lays down the corresponding language provision for State
legislature.
Article 343: stipulates Hindi in Devanagri script as the official language of
the union.
Article 344: enables the President of India to constitute an official language
commission after five years and then to review the progress made by Hindi.
Article 345: empowers the “legislature of a state to adopt one or more
languages in use in that State as the official language or languages for the State.”
Article 346: “provides that the official language of the union (Hindi or
English) shall be the official language for communication between the Union and
a State and between the States inter se.”
Article 348: stipulates that the language of the Supreme Court and High
Court shall be English until the Parliament by law otherwise provides. State may,
in addition, use their official language(s) for this purpose but the English text will
be deemed authoritative.
Article 349: no change of article 348 can be contemplated for 15 years and
after that period the President of India must be satisfied of the need for a change.
Article 350A: inserted by the 7th Amendment provides for local authorities
in every state endeavouring to extent adequate facilities for instruction in the
mother tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic
minority groups and for the President issuing necessary direction to any state.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 197
An Article 394A (part 22): inserted by the 56th Amendment act provided for
an authoritative text of the constitution in the Hindi language.
This shows that the constitution is working in favour of multilingualism. At
the Union level various commissions and boards have been formed to look after
the language development programs. The Government of India has set up the
following prominent institutions and agencies under the Union Government of
India: Parliamentary Committee.

The Eighth Scheduled:

India has 114 languages in its Census records. Out of those only 22 languages
have got place in the Eighth Schedule. It is not possible to recognize all the
languages. But what was the need of having a Eighth Schedule in the Constitution.
The Eighth Schedule was originally Schedule VII-A in the draft Constitution.
At the time of Independence everyone was busy dealing the issue of National
language. But it was evident that a nation with such a vast linguistic diversity
cannot be governed only by implementing one language. So in order to maintain
the multilingual ethos of India the Constitution gave place to fourteen languages
when the Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th Nov,
1949.
This Schedule has emerged as the most important language policy statement.
For the sake of national integration many stated these fourteen languages as the
“national languages‟. Like Nehru in 1963 while addressing the Indian Parliament
said that, “all the thirteen or fourteen” languages in the eighth Schedule are
“national languages”. The report of the official language commission refers to
the languages in the eighth schedule as regional languages, while “the official
report of the Committee on Emotional Integration refers to all the fourteen
languages listed in the original Eighth Schedule as having the status of national
languages”. The first question which needs to be addressed is why there was a
need to have a Eighth Schedule in the Constitution. Was the Government keen to
give importance to some languages to maintain national integration or there was
some other political or linguistic reasons.
Some of the criteria for the inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule
can be:
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1.Literary traditions and scripts of their own.
2. Spoken by the largest number of people in large contiguous geographical
zones as dominant languages of certain regions.
3. Political concessions. (Sindhi, Nepali)
4. Being recognized as official languages in newly formed states. (Konkani,
Manipuri)
5. Being a classical language of culture and heritage and also a resource
language in modernizing the major literary languages.(Sanskrit)
6. B
 eing spoken by a large population, geographically distributed and dispersed,
but with its own script and literature. But these criteria are not enough to justify
the inclusion of certain languages and the non-inclusion of certain others.
There are languages whose speaker strength is strong or have enough
literature to be included in the Eighth Scheduled; also many have their own script,
etc. So one can see that the choice of languages in the Eighth Schedule is not
really based on these criteria. Only some got position are evident of the fact that
many have got entry due to political dominance.

Official Languages
Part 17 of the constitution of India (Articles 343 to Article 351) makes
elaborate provisions dealing with the official language of the Republic of India.
The main provisions dealing with the official language of the Union are embodied
in Articles 343 and 344 of the Constitution of India. The Official languages have
been listed in the 8th schedule of Constitution of India.

Official language of union

Hindi written in Devanagari script is the Official Language of the Union. The
original constitution provided that for a period of 15 years from the commencement
of the constitution, English will continue to be used for all official purposes of
the Union. The constitution made it clear that President may, during the said
period, by order authorize the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English
language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international
form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.
Hindi is not India’s National Language. Neither is it language of communication
between states &centre. Both Hindi and English are Official languages of India.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 199
Official Languages in States
Though Hindi is the official language of India, the states may by law adopt
any one or more of the languages in use in the state or Hindi as the language or
languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of that state.
AALanguage of communication between Union and States
AAAs per Article 346, the official languages for communication between one
state and another or between a state and the union are as follows: i) For the
time being the official language of communication of Union i.e. English ii)
If two or more states agree that the Hindi language should be the official
language for communication between such states, that language may be
used for such communication.

Special directive for promotion of Hindi

Article 351 says that it shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of
the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for
all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by
assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions
used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth
Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary,
primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

Language to be used to redress grievances

Article 350, says that every person shall be entitled to submit a representation
for the redress of any grievance to any officer or authority of the union or a state
in any of the languages used in the union or in the state, as the case may be.
Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities Under Article 350B, a special officer for
linguistic minorities has been enshrined in the constitution.
This officer is to be appointed by the president.
AAIts job is to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for
linguistic minorities and report to the president.
AAPlease note that this report is also one of those reports laid before each
house of parliament and sent to the government of the states concerned.
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Education policy and language policy
When talking about the language policy of India, the first thing to be mentioned
is the difference between the national language and the official language of a
country. While, National language is used to refers to as the language which
is most widely used in cultural, political, and social realms, However, Official
language is referred to the language that is used for all of the government’s
operations. The official language is pragmatic, wherein, the national language is
merely symbolic.
The Indian education system of multilingual and most states has their own
goal of the education policymakers, have their aim as developing and strengthening
the multilingual characters into the system. However, there are multiple problems
in the implementation of the three-language system in education as policy. This
formula doesn’t say to either tell any particular language use as a mother tongue
or home dialect of a student learning language, and both are very imperative to the
cognitive development of child education. To look after the international aspect of
education language policy was introduced to promote in general three lists
List-I “Union List”
List-II “State List”
List-III “Concurrent List”
AA1st, list contains 96 subjects out of these 7 subjects are related with
education.
AA2nd, list it consists of 61 subjects out of these 2 subjects are related with
education.
AA3rd, list is of 47 subjects, out of these following 6 subjects are related with
education.
Meanwhile, according to a research report in 2002, almost 10% of schools
at the upper primary stage, 13% of schools at the secondary stage are teaching
English as a first language. As far as these records have shown that the upper
primary medium of instruction has concerned, more than 91% of schools were
using the mother tongue. Language policy in India is mainly dependent on the
official language, and Kothari Commission formulated the language policies.
Constitutions of India have made special provisions regarding basic education for
students at pre-primary and elementary level under article 45 and 21A, and 2+1
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 201
(three language formula) is not new to the Indian context, It was introduced in
1968 during the regime of Smt. Indira Gandhi.

Language education policy in colonial period

In ancient times, our education was Gurukula system, education was provided,
only under the guidance of a guru based on the caste system. The teachers are
enjoyed a special status and position in this “Vedic” period. They are the fountain
of knowledge and this period was known for the personal attention paid to the
student. There was a very intimate and emotional relationship between the teacher
and the student. However, the modern education system was brought to India by
“Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay” in the 1830s second stage of colonial and
British colonial rule in India is generally divided into three stages:
First stage (1757-1813),
Second stage (1813-1860) and
Third stage (1860 onwards)
The first language education policy of India was made for the promotion of
English language that is on February 2nd in 1835, Thomas Babington Macaulay’s
was introduced on Indian Language policy. This Language policy implies that
English was introduced in the Indian educational system for the purpose of getting
servants with English language knowledge. As British Raj establishment require is
to adjust the existing linguistic only for the conditions of the new political situation.
During the freedom struggle periods MK Gandhi forceful opposed and
Gandhi wanted to English language should be banned from nation but he failed,
after India independence, he proposed some suggestions to the government for the
promotion of regional language for national affairs and English for world affairs.

Language education policy after independence

When it was developing the Indian constitution, leaders are enacted language
policy, which emphasized both “language for development” and “language for
survival”. This was on 9 December 1946, for drafting a constitution when India
became independent. It was witnessed hugely fierce debates on the language issue.
It was about the education policy should be started right from the first standard
every child‘s mother tongue or regional language has to be taught in learning
classroom.
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The 1st language to be studied by a child must be the mother tongue or the
regional language, and 2nd language in Hindi speaking states should be some other
Modern Indian language or English, and in non-Hindi speaking, states should be
Hindi or English. This suggestion is quite valid even now. On the other hand, only
the first language is studied at the primary stage, the study of the second language
has introduced in the first year of the upper primary stage.

4.6. Views of great thinkers on medium of instruction:

-Tagore, Gandhi, Vivekananda.
4.6.1 Rabindranath Tagore
Tagore’s theory of education is marked by naturalistic & aesthetic values. He
believed that the solution for all our problems is education. Education can develop
a new pattern of life. Culminating in the realization of Universal man Tagore’s
system of education emphasizes the intellectual, physical, social, moral economic
and spiritual aspects of human life. By which a man can develop an integrated
personality.

Aims of Education
The aims of education as reflected in educational institution founded by
Rabindranath Tagore in Santiniketan are as follows:
(1) Self Realization: Spiritualism is the essence of humanism; this concept
has been reflected in Tagore’s educational philosophy. Self-realization is an
important aim of education. Manifestation of personality depends upon the self-
realization and spiritual knowledge of individual.
(2) Intellectual Development: Tagore also greatly emphasized the intellectual
development of the child. By intellectual development he means development of
imagination, creative free thinking, constant curiosity and alertness of the mind.
Child should be free to adopt his own way learning which will lead to all round
development.
(3) Physical Development: Tagore’s educational philosophy also aims at
the physical development of the child. He gave much importance to sound and
healthy physique. There were different kinds of exercises. Yoga, games & sports
prescribed in Santiniketan as an integral part of the education system.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 203
(4) Love for humanity: Tagore held that the entire universe is one family.
Education can teach people to realize oneness of the globe. Education for
international understanding and universal brotherhood is another important aim
of his educational philosophy. The feeling of oneness can be developed through
the concepts like fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man all creatures are
equal on this earth.
(5) Establishment of relationship between man & God: Man bears the
diverse qualities and potentialities offered by God. These qualities are inborn
and innate. The relationship between man and God is strong and permanent.
However the dedication to spiritualism and sacredness will lead to the harmonious
relationship with man, nature and God.
(6) Freedom : Freedom is considered as an integral aspect of human
development. Education is a man-making process, it explores the innate power
exists within the man. It is not an imposition rather a liberal process that provides
utmost freedom to the individual for his all round development. He thinks that
learning occurs only when education is imparted through the path of freedom.
(7) Co-relation of Objects: Co-relation exists with God, man and nature. A
peaceful world is only possible when correlation between man and nature will be
established.
(8) Mother tongue as the medium of Instruction: Language is the true
vehicle of self-expression. Man can freely express his thought in his mother-
tongue. Tagore has emphasized mother tongue as the medium of instruction for
the child’s education.
(9) Moral and Spiritual Development: Tagore emphasized moral and
spiritual training in his educational thought. Moral and spiritual education is
more important than bookish knowledge for an integral development of human
personality. There must be an adequate provision for the development of selfless
activities, co-operation and love fellow feeling and sharing among the students in
educational institutions.
(10) Social Development: According to Tagore, “Brahma” the supreme
soul manifests himself through men and other creatures. Since, he is the source of
all human-beings and creatures, so all are equal. Rabindranath Tagore therefore
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said, “service to man is service to god”. All should develop social relationship and
fellow-feeling from the beginnings of one’s life. Education aims at developing the
individual personality as well as social characters which enables him to live as a
worthy being.

Definition- Education
According to Gandhiji education is “an all round drawing out of the best in
the child and man-body, mind and spirit. Literacy according to him is neither the
end of education nor even the beginning. It is one of the means whereby man
and woman can be educated. Literacy in itself is not education.” Or else it was a
means to achieve perfection of individuality on the one hand and an instrument
of service to the nation on the other. Thus, individual and social both the aims of
education were considered by him equally important. Gandhiji’s definition for
education in simple words meant that the development of whole child, the whole
personality of the child. Harmonious development of all the aspects of human
personality such as physical, intellectual and spiritual was emphasized by him as
an individual aim of education.

Aims of Education
1. Bread and Butter aim
Bread and Butter aim refers to utilitarian aim which is an immediate requirement.
Gandhiji focused on education that provides learning while learning. This has to be
a tool with each and every learner. s/he can remove unemployment keeping in mind
the poverty and unemployment of India. Gandhiji focused and suggested industrial
training and development of manual skills and handicraft as subject of education
which will give satisfaction to the educand of his earning and self reliance but also
it will be proved as a support to his/her family and nation at large.

2. Cultural Aim
According to Gandhiji cultural aspect of education is more important than
the literacy. Culture is the foundation, the primary thing which the girls ought to
get from here. It should show in the smallest detail of your conduct and personal
behavior, how to sit , how to walk, how to dress etc. It is the education through
which students or everyone learn the glorious culture of the country-India, it’s
incredible arts, religions and so on. Education is the device which makes them
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 205
familiar with our great culture and it is to be taught that how do they adopt and what
is the importance of value of our culture. Thus Gandhiji laid much emphasis on
cultural aim of education and recommended that Gita and Ramayana to be taught as
a means of introducing students to enrich their cultural and spiritual heritage.

3. Harmonious Development
Education should develop all the three levels i. e. 3RS- read, write and
arithmetic. The education should help in feeling what is taught and what happens
to him and to express, what he feels and also what he wants to do. So, all the
faculties of person should be developed. Writing and reading will make him
literate and arithmetic will help in calculating day-to-day expenses and more
importantly it will help in logical thinking and analyzing things.

4. Moral Aim
Education should make person aware of what is right & wrong. It inculcates
in us values and manners and moulds our character. Gandhiji focused more on
character building than on literacy. According to him development of personality
was more significant than accumulation of intellectual tools and academic
knowledge. And we also believed that an educand should be taught non-violence,
truth, and importance of thoughts, word and deed.

5. Social and individual Aim

The aim of education of Gandhiji is both social and individual. He wanted
individual perfection and a new social order based on “Truth” & “Non-violence”.
Education trains an individual and makes him an ideal citizen who will help his
nation. An individual learns so many things from surrounding, culture, society
and so on and he progresses simultaneously society progresses because the
individuals’ growth is nothing but the growth of the society and nation.

6. Ultimate Aim
Self-realization is the ultimate aim of life as well as of education. Through
education everyone understands about themselves and get answer of the universal
question who am I? It is the education which helps them to understand their
existence and its purpose. It is the spiritual education which provides knowledge
of God and self-realization. The individuals recognize their potentials or abilities
206 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
and prove them as ideal citizens of their nation via education. It is the education
which makes them familiar with spirituality and different religious and finally
every individual realize what they are? This is the self-realization- the ultimate
aim of education. In the words of Gandhiji- “true education should result not in
material power but in spiritual force. It must strengthen man’s faith in God and not
awaken It.” he further adds “Development of the whole-all were directed towards
the realization of the ultimate reality –the merger of the finite being in to infinite.”

The curriculum
According to Gandhiji curriculum of the basic education should be consisted
of the craft, the mother tongue of the students, social studies, natural science and
music.
He introduced the following subjects

1. The craft
Gandhiji believed in the utilization of swadeshi things so the Basic National
Education aimed at providing education through the medium of craft or productive
work. The basic craft which may be agriculture or spinning and weaving or card
board, wood and metal work, gardening, leather work etc. His curriculum was
activity centered which should transform the schools into the place of work and
experimentation.

2. Mother Tongue
Gandhiji emphasized the mother tongue to be the medium of instruction.
Mother tongue would enable the children to express themselves effectively and
clearly. If a student/child learns through mother tongue then he can easily learn
ethical and moral values and importance of national heritage. According to him if
English is to be taught as medium of instruction then it hinders the development
of understanding and clarity of thoughts/ideas.

3.Subjects
General science is necessary from the point of view of knowing our health,
hygiene and also to think logically the cause and effect relationship. It gives
students an intelligent and appreciate outlook on nature. It forms in the students the
habit of accurate observation and of testing experience by experiment. Domestic
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 207
science was initially for both boys and girls but how it is limited to girls only. It is
necessary to learn about how to manage house and its expense.
Drawing and music were included in the curriculum to develop creativity in
boys and girls. Drawing has its importance at three levels, it develops expression
skill through drawing, touches to imaginative faculty of mind and also focuses
on aesthetic sense to appreciate art at both level- artist’s and interpreter’s level.

Basic curriculum includes three things

1. Physical environment i.e. seen and felt which compresses biology, botany,
zoology, geography and astrology.
2. Child’s social environment which contain his interaction with society- his
work as individual and as a member of society.
3. The child’s craft work which helps in knowing craft- how to weave, learning
to do something which lead to productivity.

Basic Education
1. Free and Compulsory Education
Gandhiji regarding basic education or bunyadi talim, has given his views that
education is i.e. elementary education should be free of charge and all should get
educated so that they can do minute calculations of daily life expense, read and
write. This is necessary because this will make a person live independently.

2. Mother tongue as a medium of education

Gandhiji emphasized the mother tongue to be the medium of instruction.
Mother tongue would enable the children to express themselves effectively and
clearly. If a student/child learns through mother tongue then he can easily learn
ethical and moral values and importance of national heritage. According to him if
English is to be taught as medium of instruction then it hinders the development
of understanding and clarity of thoughts/ideas.

3. Craft centeredness
Learners should get exposure to learn skills and craft like knitting, weaving,
agricultural activities, cooking which make them self-dependent because they
will not only earn on their own but also develop three domains:-
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1. Physical Domain – by doing physical work like agriculture which will give
good physical exercise.
2. Psycho-motor Domain- by developing social skills- how to behave, how to
work in groups; how to co-ordinate.
3. Cognitive Domain- by developing thinking skill, analyzing, estimating- what
would be the expense to prepare craft and how much material will be required.
Gandhiji also suggested there should not be any inferiority or superiority regarding
work. Everyone should do every work/everything with the thinking that those works
are mine and they have value whether it is sweeping or working in an office.

4. Self-sufficiency
Basic education should provide such training that one can realize that
immediate aim- earning- after or during basic education. Earning for one’s own
self and satisfying one’s needs.

5. Co-related teaching
Gandhiji considered knowledge as a whole that is each and every subject
interrelated. While doing craft work, it requires economical skills to buy material
and to keep estimate how much it would require. It will also require mathematical
skills to calculate the earnings and so on. As the subject should be taught which
will lead to all-round development, students should develop love for subjects to
learn them.

6. Non-violence
One of the aims of basic education is to prepare ideal and responsible citizen
who will develop virtues like non-violence so that they are not attracted by
violence and other anti-social activities. If each would try to inculcate this value
then there will be peace and harmony among the citizen of India. There will not
disagreement and it will good understanding with each other.

7. Ideal citizen
Education makes man to think from broader and ideal perceptive therefore
Gandhiji focused on preparing ideal citizens of the nation who are responsible
and sensible to nation, duties and rights. Education of civics will give them civic
sense- rights and duties to the nation, how government works and it exist. History
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 209
will make them aware of golden days as well as of the bravery of the nation, heroes
who fought for the freedom of India which will lift their nationalistic feeling.

Method of Teaching
Gandhiji said that the method of teaching should be such as it provides to
the child freedom, a chance to come into closer contact with the teacher, a chance
to be an active investigator, observer and experimenter. Craft-centre teaching
and correlation method may be said to be the most important ingredients of the
educational method Gandhiji suggested. Correlation method would mean relating
the knowledge, of each subject being taught to the craft on the one hand and to the
child’s life on the other.
Gandhi, emphatically, demanded that craft should be made the center of all
education, centre of the school life. The idea, afterwards, found an expression to
the Basic Education System which was introduced in all the states of the country.
His emphasis was on character formation and spiritual development of the child.
He himself lived a spiritual life and stood for higher values throughout his life.
The good of the society, according to him, was contingent upon the goodness of
each individual.
The perfect and spiritually developed individuals alone could constitute an
ideal society. So he emphasized that education should lead the individual to self-
realization, realization of God and should develop in him attitudes of self-control,
social service, ahimsa, sacrifice righteousness, brotherhood. These are all higher
values like the idealistic he also emphasized that education should be used to
cultivate these moral and spiritual values in the people. There are elements of
naturalism and pragmatism too found in his educational philosophy. He considered
the child an important element in the process of education and emphasized, like
the naturalists, that education should conform to the nature of the child. The
child should be allowed freedom. He should be taught in natural environment for
“drawing out the best in the child”. Like the naturalists, he also said that education
should aim at the development of all aspects of child’s personality.
Activity, play, experimentation and own experience as the strategies of
education were emphasized by Gandhiji also like, the naturalists. He also
considered books as the means of imparting knowledge to young child unimportant.
210 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Thus, several ideas of naturalism are found expressed in Gandhiji’s educational
philosophy also. Yet, it cannot be said that he was a naturalist only. Some elements
of pragmatic philosophy may also be seen in Gandhiji’s educational philosophy.
His emphasis on making education self-supporting and preparing individuals for
vocation, craft-centered education, activity centered teaching, learning through
child’s own experience and experimentation, correlated teaching clearly brings
him closer to the pragmatists.

Basic Education and the Teacher

The teacher has higher responsibilities. He has to develop values among
the learners. The teacher should follow morality. There should not be any dark
patch on his character because he is role model for many students. Gandhiji
says-“education of the heart could only be done through the living touch of
the teacher.” Education becomes effective and faithful only to the extent to
which there is personal touch between the teacher and the taught. It will be very
difficult to achieve character building in the absence of devotion to the teacher.
He should have devotion to duty, to the students and to God. He is to play the
role of a mother. An ideal teacher in Gandhiji’s word is the “mother teacher.”
He used the word “mother teacher” because the teacher must really be a mother
of children.

Gandhiji as an idealist
Gandhiji had very high ideals that he followed ideals like simplicity,
truthfulness, non violence. He had not only these principles in mind but also
practiced them in his life.

Gandhiji as a pragmatist
Pragmatist is one who solves problem in a realistic way. Gandhiji believed
that the best way to learn is by doing and it is believed that when you learn by
doing you remember 90% and it leads to knowledge. Pragmatism is the hallmark
of Gandhian philosophy.

Gandhiji as a naturalist
He believed that Nature is the best source of knowledge
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 211
4.6.3.Life sketch of Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda was born in 1863 at Kolkata. His real name was Narendra
Nath Dutta. He studied History, Literature and Philosophy at his very early age.
Herbert Spencer and J.S.Mill were his favorite philosophers and Wordsworth
was his favorite poet. One day his headmaster Mr.Heasty introduced him to Shri
Rama Krishna Paramahamsa. Narendra Nath remained in his contact for about
six years. Here he got initiated with the Saintly order and was given the title of
Swami Vivekananda. When Swami Rama Krishna Paramhamsa died in 1876,
Swami Vivekananda established Ram Krishna Mission to complete the unfinished
religious assignments of his Guru. He spread the message of his Guru that was
actually the principle and practice of Vedanta in Asia, Europe and America.
As a philosopher he proved that the ancient philosophy of Vedanta could
successfully meet the challenges of today and solve the modern problems very
effectively. He was actually the person who synthesized the Idealistic philosophy
of the west and creative Vedantic philosophy of Hindu religion. He practiced
universal brotherhood and interpreted Humanism in his Idealistic manner. He
traveled to all corners of India and much of Eastern Asia, Europe and the United
States. It was in Chicago at the parliament of Religions in September 1893, that he
first gained international attention when he addressed the audience by exclaiming
“Sisters and Brothers of America”. Though he died in 1902 at a very young age
of 39, he has established Ramakrishna Mission, its branches all over the world to
perpetuate his memory and propagate his message.

Philosophical thoughts of Swami Vivekananda

1. Human life is a constant struggle between the strong and the weak. So,
every individual should prepare himself for his struggle and face all the
challenges boldly and confidently.
2. Fear and lack of confidence are the root cause of miserable conditions of
Indians.
3. Boldness and courage are needed to bring about peace in the Society.
4. Service of humanity is the prime object of life.
5. Everybody can nourish the spiritualism by living in the society and serving
the humanity. He believed that every living being has a soul. To identify
212 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
this soul is true religion.
6. All knowledge-worldly or spiritual are latent in the human mind.
7. All learning is self learning. Knowledge is latent. The external teacher
only guides, suggests and helps. All the rest is done by the students
themselves.
8. According to him, real education is that education which prepares a man
for struggle of survival. Education must develop character, intelligence
and self reliance in the individuals. Vivekananda advocates simultaneous
development of body mind and spirit.
9. Knowledge of Western technology and industrial education is a must for
the progress of the country.
10. Concentration is needed for acquiring knowledge. For this purpose
practice of Brahmacharya is necessary.
11. For self discipline purity of thought, speech and action is needed.
12. Human development is possible through service and sacrifice.
13. Religious education should be imparted through sweet impressions and
fire conduct of the teacher not through books.
14. Education should be imparted according to the nature of the child.
15. Any improvement in the condition of the masses can be brought about
only through education. So mass education scheme should be launched.

Aims of Education
According to Swami Vivekananda the following should be the main aims of
education:

1. The Aim of Reaching Perfection

The prime aim of education is to achieve fullness of perfection already present
in a child. According to Swamiji all material and spiritual knowledge is already
present in man covered by a curtain of ignorance. Education should tear off that
veil so that the knowledge shines forth as an illuminating torch to enliven all the
corners by and by. This is meant by achieving fullness of the latent perfection.

2. Physical and Mental Development Aim

The second aim of education is the physical and mental development of the
child so that the child of today, after studying Geeta, is able to promote national
growth and advancement as a fearless and physically well developed citizen
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 213
of tomorrow. Stressing the mental development of the child, Swamiji, wished
education to enable the child to stand on his own legs economically rather than
becoming a parasite on others.

3. Moral and Spiritual Development

According to Swami Vivekananda, a nation’s greatness is not only measured
by its parliamentary institutions and activities, but also by the greatness of its
citizens. But the greatness of citizens is possible only through their moral and
spiritual development which education should foster.

4. Character Development Aim

According to Swamiji character development is a very important aim of any
education. For this, he emphasized the practice of Brahamcharya which fosters
development of mental, moral and spiritual powers leading to purity of thoughts,
words and deeds.

5. T
 he Aim of Development Faith in One’s Own self,
Shraddha and a Spirit of Renunciation.
All through his life Swamiji exhorted the individuals to keep full confidence
upon their powers. They should inculcate a spirit of self surrender, sacrifice and
renunciation of material pleasures for the good of others. Education should fasts,
all these qualities in the individual. He gave this call to his countrymen. “Arise,
awake and stop not till the goal is achieved.”

6. The Aim of Searching Unity in Diversity

The true aim of education is to develop insight into the individuals so that
they are able to search out and realize unity in diversity. Swami Vivekanandaji
has further asserted that physical and spiritual worlds are one; their distinctness
is an illusion (Maya). Education should develop this sense which finds unity in
diversity.

7. Religious Development Aim

To Swamiji religious development is an essential aim of education. To
him, each individual should be able to search out and develop the religious seed
embedded in him and thus find the absolute truth or reality. Hence he advocated
the training of feelings and emotions so that the whole life is purified and
214 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
sublimated. Then only, the capacities of obedience, social service and submission
to the teachings and preaching of great saints and saviors will develop in the
individual. Education should foster this development.

Curriculum
According to Swami Vivekanand, the prime aim of education is spiritual
growth and development. But this does not mean that he did not advocate material
prosperity and physical well-being. He feelingly advocated the inclusion of all
those subjects and activities, in the curriculum, which foster material welfare with
spiritual advancement.
For spiritual perfection Swamiji prescribed Religious, Philosophy, Puranic
lore, Upanishads, Company of saints and their preaching and for material
advancement and prosperity he recommended Languages, Geography, Science,
Political Science, Economics, Psychology, Art, Agriculture, Industrial and
Technical subjects together with Games, sports and other Physical exercises.
Swamiji prescribed the same ancient spiritual methods of teaching wherein
the Guru and his disciples lived in close association as in a family. The essential
characteristics of those religious and spiritual methods were as under:-
1. To control fleeting mental faculties by the practice of Yoga.
2. To develop the mind by concentration and deep meditation.
3. To gain knowledge through lectures, discussions, self- experience and
creative activities.
4. To imitate the qualities and character of teacher intelligent and clear
understanding.
5. To lead the child on the right path by means of individual guidance by the
teacher.

Place of Child
Like Froebel, Vivekanand emphasized the education to be child centered.
According to him the child is the store and repository of all learning material and
spiritual. Like a plant a child grows by his own inner power naturally. Hence advising
the child to grow naturally and spontaneously Vivekanand asserted that each child is
his own teacher and get the Upanishads out of his own self. The child himself is the
greatest book. Until the inner teacher opens, all outside teaching is in vain.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 215
Place of Teacher
Swamiji believed in self-education. According to him each of us is his own
teacher. The external teacher only guides and inspires the inner teacher (soul)
to rise up and start working to develop the child. The role of teacher to Swami
Vivekanand is a philosopher, friend and guide and helping the educate to proceed
in their own way.

Education of Masses
In the times of Swami Vivekanand, education was not available to the
common people. It was confined to the well to do persons only. The poor, the
miserable and the lowly placed used to starve and die of hunger. Swamiji yearned
to improve the condition of the masses and thus advocated mass education as the
only way to achieve any improvement in individual as well as society.
Swamiji exhorted his countrymen to know that the great national sin is the
neglect of the masses, and that is one of the causes of our downfall. No amount
of politics would be of any avail until the masses of India are once more well
educated, well fed and well cared for.

Let us sum up
Rabindranath Tagore
The medium of instruction is the mother tongue. Tagore’s views that reward
and punishment do not provide any effect but for teachers’ initiation, inspiration
and encouragement no material reward was needed to motivate the students,
whereas punishment only deteriorated motivation. Here, the teacher’s role is as
initiator and maintainer. Language is the true vehicle of self-expression according
to Rabindranath Tagore’s educational philosophy mother tongue as the medium
of instruction for the child education. Mother tongue has an importance than other
languages. Every language has its own people. They will speak any others will not
come to speak it. Students practizilize the mother tongue than other language is
important But, according to new developed culture impression of mother tongue
upon a child is foolish because, world grow thing through the social media and
internet. So, we can chat any persons in the worlds. It’s not practical through the
studying of mother tongue only.
216 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
M.K. Gandhi
The medium of instruction should be mother tongue. Gandhiji believed that
only positive transfer of teaching-learning is possible through mother tongue. This
concept is universally accepted possible through mother tongue. This concept is
universally accepted.

Swamy Vivekananda
As regards to medium of instruction, Vivekananda strongly advocated for
mothertongue. He is true nationalist, and a champion of national education argued
instruction through mother-tongue. He visualized to Indianise Indian education.
He also wanted to spread mass education through mother-tongue so that it will
reach to everyone.

Conclusion
In the end, its can conclude that constitution of India have been made special
provisions regarding free basic education for students under article 45 and 21A,
of weaker sections of the society. There are more than 2500 languages, which
are spoken in different regions across the country, but, all can’t sustain and few
languages are there in the constitution for representation. However, due to the
federal structure and diversity in language, the constitution has not given any
importance to any of local or regional languages have supremacy over other
languages in India. Our education system that plays a key role in strengthening
the societal fabric as a whole and language is the most vital part of society, and
it’s also plays an important role in imparting education to the child education.
Meaningful language education also requires teachers, who have well skilled
and knowledgeable as contextualize materials. Further, the constitution has come
up with the three-language formula the new education policy in our education
system. This gives a ray of hope to further advancement in our learning education
environment by removing social disparity.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 217

Question
I one mark
II five mark
1. Write a short notes on Jainism
2. Explain vedic education
3. Write a short note on language policy specified in Indian constituion
4. Write a short note on kothari commicssion, and NCF

III ten mark

1. Explain views great thinkers on medium of instruction
218 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
UNIT V

IMPLICATIONS OF EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL

OPPORTUNITIES

5.1. Introduction
Human societies vary in the extent to which social groups as well as individuals
have unequal access to advantages. Rousseau had made a distinction between natural
and social inequality. The former emerge from the unequal division of physical
and mental abilities among the members of a society. The latter arise from the
social entitlement of people to wealth or economic resources, political power and
status regardless of potential abilities possessed by individuals. Not only economic
resources of societies vary according to the level of development and structural
features of society, but also different groups tend to have differential access to these
resources. Power enjoyed by the social groups also differ and offers another related
social advantage. Similarly, conventions, rules, customs and laws confer greater
prestige and status on certain groups and occupations in most human societies.
Hierarchy, stratification, class-divisions are notions used by anthropologists,
sociologists and political scientists to describe and denote social-inequality.
Anthropologists generally distinguish three types of societies in terms of social-
inequality. These are classified as egalitarian, rank and class societies. Egalitarian
societies contain fair amount of equality and no social group enjoys greater access to
economic resources, power or prestige. Rank societies do not have unequal access
to wealth or power, but they do contain social groups that enjoy greater honour
and status. A pre- literate tribal society in which social ranking is based on rules
of descent and alliances belong to this category. The complex class societies have
unequal access and entitlement to economic resources, power, and status.

5.2. Equality of educational opportunity

A democracy must be based on the widest provision of educational facilities
for all its members and not only for a few. The term equality of educational
opportunity was often interpreted as opening of schools within walking distance
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 219
for children and admission of children of all communities to schools. According
to Kothari Commission (1964-66), “One of the important social objectives of
education is to equalize opportunity, enabling the backward or underprivileged
class to use education as a means to improve their condition.” Hence, equality of
educational opportunities in terms of caste, tribe, disability, gender and minorities
is the only way for building up of an democratic society in which the exploitation
of the weak will be minimized.

Meaning of Equality of Educational Opportunity:

Equality of educational opportunity includes provision of education for all,
irrespective of religion, caste, creed, sex and location. It doesn’t mean identity of
educational opportunity but a means best suited to the intelligence and aptitude
of every student. Therefore, the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986
emphasized that equality of education means “to provide for equal opportunity to
all not only in access but also in the conditions for success.”

5.3. Constitutional Provisions for Equality of Education

The following Articles of Indian Constitution stress the equality of educational
provisions:
1. Article 26 (1): It states that education is a fundamental right. No person
should be denied admission to educational institutions on the grounds of
caste, colour, creed, religion or any one of them.
2. Article 21 (A): The 93rd Amendment of the Directive Principles of State
Policy declares, “the State shall endeavour to provide free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years.” Thus, it
provides equal opportunity to all primary education for all children.
3. Article 46: The State shall promote with special care the education and
economic interests of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and the
weaker sections of the society.

5.4. Inequality in schooling

The Constitutional obligations under Articles 45 and 46, is to provide free
and compulsory ‘basic education’ (Primary Education) to all sections of society
free of cost. This covers the age-group 6-14. But as far as its implementation is
concerned, we are far behind. There are states like Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
220 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West
Bengal which are far behind in enrolment at the primary stage. Further, drop-outs
are high in these states. Girls’ enrolmefit is also very low, that is why these states are
termed as ‘educationally backward states’. There is a very high inverse corelation
between existing literacy ratdlevels of states and drop-out rates. The higher the
literacy level, the lower the drop-out rate or vice versa. The problem of drop-outs
is more complicated. Nearly half of the children who entered Class I dropout
before reaching Class V, and two thirds of the children dropout before reaching
Class VIII. Regional disparities abound in enrolment, retentions and learning
outcomes. It may be noted that the rural-urban difference in female literacy has
increased. It is also a matter of great concern that in spite of improvement in the
levels of literacy in general, it is still quite low among the Scheduled Castes &
Tribes. The literacy rate among Scheduled Castes has increased from 22 per cent
in 1981 to 38 per cent in 1991; correspondingly the literacy rate among scheduled
tribes has increased from 17 per cent in 1981 to 30 per cent in 1991. In spite of
these improvements the levels of literacy among SCs ,and STs are distinctively
lower than that of the population as a whole (52 per cent). The gender disparities
are all the more conspicuous among SCs and STs. Female literacy varies from 8
per cent in Banner district of Rajasthan to 94 per cent in the Kottayam district of
Kerala. It may be highlighted here that these disparities are fiuther accentuated in
terms of geographical distribution of populations. Also, differences exist within
caste, religion and communities as well. Even the so called socially backward
groups have further skewed distribution of educational opportunities. Those who
are economically better off within these groups, are for better in educational status
as compared to their poorer counterparts, within their own social categories.

5.5. Causes of Inequality

The following are the causes of inequality of educational opportunities in India:
1. In places where no primary, secondary educational institutions exist.
2. The poverty of large sections of the population.
3. Differences in the standards of schools and colleges.
4. The wide disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages of
education.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 221
5. The wide gaps of educational development between the advanced classes and
the backward ones.
6. The educational backwardness among the SCs/STs due to social deprivation
and economic poverty.
Economic poverty though a major reason other factors such as social and
psychological restraints, inadequate facilities at home and passive attitudes of the
teachers to the educational progress of learners from backward communities too
plays a major role.

Measures taken to Achieve Equality of Educational

Opportunities:
After the independence the Government of India has undertaken a number of
steps to strengthen the educational bas of SCs and STs and other weaker sections
of the society under the following educational schemes:
1. 1. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
2. 2. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas
3. 3. Mid-Day Meal Scheme.
4. 4. KendriyaVidyalayas (KVS)
5. 5. National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
6. 6. Community Polyt

For scheduled castes and scheduled tribes

With a view to provide safeguards against the exploitation of Scheduled
castes and Scheduled Tribes and to promote and protect their social, educational,
economic and cultural interests, special provisions were made in the Constitution.
Due to their social disability and economic backwardness, they were grossly
handicapped in getting reasonable share in elected offices, Government jobs and
educational institutions and, therefore, it was considered necessary to follow a
policy of reservations in their favour to ensure their equitable participation in
governance. Consequently, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes came into being on passing of the Constitution (Sixty fifth
Amendment) Bill, 1990 which was notified on 8-6-1990. However, with the
Constitution (Eighty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 2003 coming into force on 19-
2-2004 vide Notification of that date, the National Commission for Scheduled
222 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Castes & Scheduled Tribes got bifurcated and a separate National Commission for
Scheduled Caste was constituted. Each Commission has a Chairperson, a Vice-
Chairperson and three other members (including a lady member). The imbalance
in educational development between different sections of the society has led to
many social, economic ills and non-harmonious development of the individual
learners’ personality.
The following are some important measures which should be taken by the
schools to facilitate the SC/ST education.
1. Norms for opening primary school has been relaxed.
2. Abolition of tuition fees, arrangement for hostel facilities, free text books,
uniforms, school bags etc should be provided to the SC/ST students.
3. Emphasis on special coaching for SC/ST students should be provided as well
as scholarships at the secondary stage for talented students from rural areas.

The Role of the Teacher:

1. As a rule, the school staff should seek, provide and ensure nondiscrimination
between the children of SCs/STs and other communities.
2. Use of caste names/derogatory words when taking attendance of students
should be avoided.
3. Teacher should lead all the children equally to participate in the curricular and
co-curricular activities of the school.
4. Frequent meetings between the staff and parents of SCs/STs should be
arranged.
5. Teachers have a special responsibility to educate first generation learners of
SCs/STs.

Women:
The National Commission for Women was set up as statutory body in January
1992 under the National Commission for Women act, 1990 to
AAreview the Constitutional and Legal safeguards for women ;
AArecommend remedial legislative measures ;
AAfacilitate redressal of grievances and
AAadvise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 223
The Commission consists of a Chairperson and five members. At least one
member each shall be from amongst persons belonging to Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe respectively. Education will be used as an agent of basic change
in the status of women. Women’s studies will be promoted as a part of various
courses and educational institutions encouraged taking up active programmes to
further women’s development. The removal of women’s illiteracy and obstacles
inhibiting their access to, and retention in, elementary education will receive
overriding priority, through provision of special support services, setting of
time targets, and effective monitoring. Major emphasis will be laid on women’s
participation in vocational, technical and professional education at different
levels. The policy of non- discrimination will be punished vigorously to eliminate
sex stereo typing in vocational and professional courses and to promote women’s
participation in non-traditional occupations and technologies.

Measures of Equalization of Educational Opportunities for

Women:
1. Focus on girls especially belonging to SC/ST and minority groups.
2. In many states including Meghalaya, Mizoram and Manipur free education is
provided to girls up to Class XII.
3. Free textbooks for girls.
4. Special coaching, remedial classes for girls and congenial learning
environment.

Disabled Children:
There are various categories of disabled children requiring special educational
facilities.
They are:

1. Blind, 2. Partially Sighted, 3. Deaf, 3. Partially Hearing, 4. Educationally

Abnormal, 5. Epileptic, 6. Maladjustment, 7. Physically Handicapped, 8.
Affected by Speech Defect, 8. Delicate.
Integrated Education for Physically Challenged (I.E.P.C) was launched in
1974 to provide educational opportunities for disabled children in the general
school system. Unless the disabled children get an equal opportunity for education,
224 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
we can’t achieve our national goal. It is to bring about effective measures to
promote academic development and vocational possibilities. For this, teachers,
parents are to work hand-in hand to make the integrated education an effective
mode of education.

Recommendations of the NPE (1986) on Equal Opportunity

to Education of Disabled Children:
The NPE (1986) states, the objective should be to integrate physically and
mentally handicapped with the general community as equal partners for normal
growth and to enable them to face life with courage and confidence.
1. Wherever it is possible, the education of children with motor handicaps and
other mild handicaps will be common with that of others.
2. Adequate arrangements will be made to give vocational training to the
disabled.
3. Teacher’s training programmes will be re-oriented to deal with handicapped
children.
4. Regular classroom facilities with changing the environment of the classroom
to be suited their needs.

The Minorities:
The Government of India constituted a National Commission for Minorities
in May, 1993. The setting up of Minorities Commission was envisaged in the
Ministry of Home Affairs Resolution dated 12.01.1978, which specifically
mentioned that “despite the safeguards provided in the Constitution and the
laws in force, there persists among the Minorities a feeling of inequality and
discrimination. Article 30 of the Indian Constitutional relates to certain cultural
and educational rights to establish and administer educational institutions.
1. All minorities whether based on religion or language shall have the right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their own.
2. The State shall not discriminate against any educational institution on general
that it is under the management of a minority based on religion or language.
3. Scheme of financial assistance for modernization of Madarsa education.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 225
Other Backward Sections :
AADevelopment of the OBCs, which made a beginning during the nineties
,better attention is received in the 9th plan ,with many new initiatives
coming up in the field of education.
AAFor educational development amongst OBCs, schemes were introduce to
provide scholarships for pre/post matric courses as well as other higher
education supported by hostel facilities.
AABesides children belonging to the OBCs were also allowed to enjoy the
existing hostel facilities meant for SC and ST boys and girls .
AAFor OBCs students participate effectively in the competitive exams, Pre-
examination coaching centers were set up in the 9th plan.

5.6. Types of Inequality

(i) Gender inequality
Sex and gender based prejudice and discrimination, called sexism, are major
contributing factors to social inequality. Most societies, even agricultural ones,
have some sexual division of labour and gender-based division of labour tends to
increase during industrialization. The emphasis on gender inequality is born out
of the deepening division in the roles assigned to men and women, particularly in
the economic, political and educational spheres. Women are underrepresented in
political activities and decision making processes.
Gender discrimination, especially concerning the lower social status of
women, has been a topic of serious discussion not only within academic and
activist communities but also by governmental agencies and international bodies
such as the United Nations. These discussions seek to identify and remedy
widespread, institutionalized barriers to access for women in their societies.
By making use of gender analysis, researchers try to understand the social
expectations, responsibilities, resources and priorities of women and men within
a specific context, examining the social, economic and environmental factors
which influence their roles and decision-making capacity. By enforcing artificial
separations between the social and economic roles of men and women, the lives of
women and girls are negatively impacted and this can have the effect of limiting
social and economic development.
226 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(ii) Racial and Ethnic inequality
Racial or ethnic inequality is the result of hierarchical social distinctions
between racial and ethnic categories within a society and often established based on
characteristics such as skin color and other physical characteristics or an individual’s
place of origin or culture. Even though race has no biological connection, it has
become a socially constructed category capable of restricting or enabling social
status. Unequal treatment and opportunities between such categories is usually the
result of some categories being considered superior to others. This inequality can
manifest through discriminatory hiring and pay practices.
In some cases, employers have been shown to prefer hiring potential
employees based on the perceived ethnicity of a candidate’s given name -
even if all they have to go by in their decision are resumes featuring identical
qualifications. These sorts of discriminatory practices stem from prejudice and
stereotyping, which occurs when people form assumptions about the tendencies
and characteristics of certain social categories, often rooted in assumptions about
biology, cognitive capabilities, or even inherent moral failings. These negative
attributions are then disseminated through a society through a number of different
mediums, including television, newspapers and the internet, all of which play a
role in promoting preconceived notions of race that disadvantage and marginalize
groups of people. Racial inequality can also result in diminished opportunities
for members of marginalized groups, which in turn can lead to cycles of poverty
and political marginalization. Racial and ethnic categories become a minority
category in a society. Minority members in such a society are often subjected to
discriminatory actions resulting from majority policies, including assimilation,
exclusion, oppression, expulsion, and extermination.

(iii) Caste inequality

Caste Inequality is a hereditary stratification system. In Hindu tradition, a
person is born into a caste with little to no mobility. This caste determines one’s
lifestyle, prestige, and occupational choices. The five castes of Hindus are the
elite class, warrior class, merchant class, servant caste, and the ‘untouchables’.
This caste of Hindu people were required to hide from or bow in the presence of
anyone of a higher caste.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 227
Being a member of such a caste would be and is an unfortunate fate. To be
considered ‘untouchable,’ or a completely undesirable class of people based on
birth is an inequality that millions of people, children included, face worldwide.
These people suffer from exploitation, violence, and can never obtain the equality
they deserve from the castes above them.

v) class based Inequalities

When civilization started developing in the society, various services and
occupations also multiplies to meet its needs. Each occupation requires its own
educational qualification and skills. Accordingly occupations in the society are
hierarchically striated base upon their needs importance and benefits educational
qualifications and the skills required for each one of hem. Generally speaking
vocational status of a person depends upon his/her educational attainment and
skills. importance of the occupation undertaken and the vocational experience
gained. It gave raise to three occupation related layers namely the high class
middle class and lower class. The high class consists of owners of heavy industries
financial institutions and top officials. The middle class consists of those in
knowledge related services and executives who carry out the orders of the owners.
The lower class consists of manual labourers/ those involved in the services which
requires more of physical labour. Such mass differences create inequalities and
exploitation in the society. But the class structures is casteless and unrelated to
religion it does not also hinder nationalistic spirit
State briefly class differences are based on income and economic disparities.
It gives rise to social differentiations and inequalities such as capitalists and
workers the rich the poor educated and the illiterate haves and have nots etc.
Through educational attainments and proficiency in skills it clear that education
plans a great role in mitigating class based inequalities.

Reduce the class struggle in the society

AAProviding vocational training as a part of general education
AAIncreasing the number of educated people in the population
AAGranting liberal loans through banks
AAModernising and updating the labour laws
AATaxing sthe high income group by increasing the income tax and wealth
tax rates
228 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
AAEnhancing the productivity of the workers
AAPromoting entrepreneurship among the educated youths
AAProviding for labour represention in the administration of industrial units

Social inequalities related to regions

All states in India are not equally developed. The main indices of progress
like generation of electricity food production. transport and communication
facilities, educational and medical facilities per capital income and employment
opportunities available are high in some states, while some other states are
laggings behind in them. Even in the same state, while urban areas have plenty
of all kinds of facilities rural areas still lack even essential facilities of life.
Forexample in education state like Bihar, Odesa, Uttar Pradesh etc. are backward
while tamilnadu kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra et. are in the forefront.
Further even within the same state facilities available for education vary region
wise like cities, towns and villages.

5.7. Education to eliminate Social Inequalities

In the global knowledge society, education play perhaps the most critical
role in helping a country improve its economic productivity, social equality and
social quality of life. Universities educate the skilled, internationally engaged
and creative individuals needed as entrepreneurs and leaders for businesses
to compete effectively; they create the research, scholarship and knowledge
that underlie the development of value-added products and processes and the
innovative applications that bring these into broader societal access. They provide
a hub for high-level international networks and partnerships. As such, it is vital
that the higher education sector focuses on performance and quality, as well as
accessibility, to ensure that society reaps maximum value from its investment.

Vocational training for trades and professions

The development of knowledge and skilled workers focused on the needs
of individual regions. Advanced education, including the development of ethical
leadership, entrepreneurship, high impact research and scholarship, and creative
skills, to create the highly skilled workers needed for countries to compete in the
national and global knowledge economiesThe creation of strategic partnerships
for the production of internationally competitive research and scholarship, ideally
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 229
with knowledge users, such as business, the healthcare system, government and
non-profit organizations.
Community colleges, regional universities and research-intensive universities
can all make profound contributions to society as long as they embrace and live
a meaningful institutional mission. A corollary of understanding mission is also
understanding who it is you serve. For some institutions, this may be primarily
a local community, and particularly governments and businesses with a need for
workers with specific vocational skills. For others, the key stakeholders may
be local, national and international. Simply put, the foundation of excellence is
knowing who you are and what you are trying to do. Only then can universities
and colleges develop and implement the strategies needed to thrive for
maximum contribution and impact on both social -equality and economic terms.
Governments, too, require mechanisms that recognize and fund institutions of
higher education based on these differential missions and contributions.
The right to education is universal and does not allow for any form of
exclusion or discrimination. However, both developing and developed countries
face challenges guaranteeing equal opportunities to all in accessing education and
within education systems.

5.8. Constitutional provisions to promote equity through

education
The Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution has also adopted the
fourfold ideal of justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Our Constitution has
laid down that in the eyes of law, everyone should have an equal status, justice
not be denied to anyone and everyone should have liberty of thought, expression.
Following articles make provision to protect the rights of the vulnerable and
assure that they are provided with education and protected by the law.
Article 45: Provision for early childhood care and education to children below
the age of six years.
Article 21A: Right to Education: The State shall provide free and compulsory
education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the
State may, by law, determine. (RTE followed from this article)
Article 14: Equality before law: The State shall not deny to any person equality
before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.
230 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex
and place of birth:
Article 46: Promotion of the economic and educational interests of the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections:
Article 29(2) states No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational
institution
maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds only
of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
All the above articles of the Constitution provide adequate protection to
the vulnerable groups of society. If there is any instance of marginalization, the
affected person can approach the court of law and seek justice.

5.9. Marginalized Society

Marginalised groups are generally used to analyse socio-economic, political,
and cultural spheres, where disadvantaged people struggle to gain access to
resources and full participation in social life. In other words, marginalized people
might be socially, economically, politically and legally ignored, excluded, or
neglected, and, therefore vulnerable. ‘Marginality’ is demeaning, for economic
well-being, for human dignity, as well as for physical security.
Marginalization/deprived is generally described as the overt actions or
tendencies of human societies, where people whom they perceive to be undesirable
or without useful function are excluded. The people who are marginalized are
outside the existing systems of protection and integration. This limits their
opportunities and means for survival.

Causes of Discrimination
Exclusion and rejection are key ingredients in discrimination. They occur
when people do not appreciate diversity or differences. They occur when people
are prejudiced or have formed their own opinion about others because of their
social, political, religious, sexuality, interests, culture, traditions, and so on. In
Schools, children from minorities or protected characteristics have been denied
admission, or scholarships, or have been excluded from educational programme.
Discrimination against children from Dalit, Tribal, and Muslim communities
in government schools poorest and most vulnerable are getting left out. Lack of
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 231
effective monitoring mechanisms. Protecting the rights of children living with
disabilities, ensuring their ability to access education, remains a distant priority
among school authorities.

Reasons responsible for Deprived/ Marginalized Groups

Some of the important factors that are responsible for marginalization are
exclusion, globalization, displacement and disaster both natural and manmade.
i) Exclusion: Marginalization is a process that denies opportunities and
outcomes to ‘those ‘living on the margins’, while enhancing the opportunities
and outcomes for those who are ‘at the centre’. Marginalized combines
discrimination and social exclusion. It offends human dignity, and it denies
human rights. Caste and class prejudice, in many societies across the globe,
exclude many groups and communities, and hinder their active participation in
economic and social development.
ii) Globalization: Globalization has increased openness which has promoted
development at the cost of equity. It is viewed that globalization has enhanced
the gap between haves and have-nots and thus boosted marginalization.
iii) Displacement: The development programmes implemented by the
government and increasing construction of development projects consistently
displace a massive number of tribal, poor, and weaker sections. This results in
marginalization of already marginalized people.
iv) Disasters (Natural and Unnatural): Disasters are a global phenomena and a
serious challenge to development. Vulnerability is linked to broader social issues
such as poverty, social exclusion, conflict, education, health, gender issues and
marginalization.

Role of Education in addressing the needs of Marginalized

groups in Indian society:
Education is the most important lever for social, economic and political
transformation. A well educated population, equipped with the relevant knowledge,
attitudes and skills is essential for economic and social development in the twenty-
first century. Education is the most potent tool for socioeconomic mobility and a
key instrument for building an equitable and just society. Education provides skills
and competencies for economic well-being. Education strengthens democracy
232 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
by imparting to citizens the tools needed to fully participate in the governance
process. Education also acts as an integrative force in society, imparting values
that foster social cohesion and national identity.

Education for Marginalised Groups

Marginalised groups are often left behind by national educational policies,
denying many people their right to education. Although thinking about groups can
be helpful, the distinction is somewhat artificial. People who are marginalised are
very likely to be subject to multiple layers of discrimination, that is, they belong to
more than one marginalised group. India has attempted many different strategies to
help increase the incentive to receive education for Dalit children. Earlier strategies
focused on finding ways to give Dalit children an education without exposing them
to the harshness of upper castes. As time progressed and the caste system began to
weaken in India, there was a greater shift towards equalizing society so as to provide
safer and more positive learning environments. Since gaining its independence, the
Indian government has continued to make progress on improving the quality of life
for India’s lowest caste. Modern exposure to international thought has increased
access to ideas and methods on how to increase education rates for the Dalits,
providing for some of the best results in recent years. The remainder of this section
will examine some of the strategies used over the past one hundred and fifty years,
attempting to look at how effective they really were.
Following the creation of the Caste Disabilities Removal Act, the British
government attempted to increase Dalit school attendance through methods
which took into consideration the sensitivity of the caste society. Because the
Dalit children were often harassed when they attended schools, the British chose
to propose alternative teaching methods, rather than directly addressing the caste
issue. One proposed alternative was the use of night schooling for Dalit children.
In this manner, children would not need to worry about attending school with
members of upper castes, but would still face dangers of travelling without daylight
to and from school. Another proposed solution was the use of all-Dalit schools.
This solution eliminated the dangers associated with night-time schooling, but
also did not help to decrease hostility between the classes.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 233
Often, governments try to bring in international assistance in dealing with a
national crisis like severely low primary enrolment rates. Prescribed to the Indian
government by the World Bank, the District Primary Education Programme was
designed to increase primary enrolment rates within India.
A smaller scale, and more capital based approach to development and
increasing primary enrolment rates is the allocation of additional textbooks to
a community. In developing countries, textbooks are often the only basis for a
curriculum in a subject. If a school is not able to purchase its own textbooks,
then knowledge resources will be limited. By increasing the amount of textbooks,
development projects are attempting to increase the ability of schools to take in
more students and they hope that additional resources so that performance in
school will increase. The biggest concern which arises out of providing textbooks
is that it will not increase enrolment rates. New textbooks provide little incentive
for Dalit children to attend classes as they do not alleviate any of the barriers
currently blocking them from access to education. Increasing access to text books
has assisted in increasing the quality of education despite having little or no
impact on enrolment rates.
The importance of education as one of the most powerful means of bringing
about socio-economic development of the Scheduled Tribes cannot be over
emphasised. As educational development is a stepping-stone to economic and
social development, and the most effective instrument for empowering the tribals,
the Education Division of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs
makes all efforts to supplement the efforts of the Ministry of Human
Resources Development, which is the line Ministry, and the State Governments/
UTs Administrations by administering various schemes with the objective of
enhancing access to education through provision of infrastructure by way of
construction of hostels for ST students, Establishment of Ashram Schools,
Vocational Training Centre as well as to maximize retention of ST students within
the various stages of school education and promoting higher learning by providing
monetary incentives in the form of scholarships such as Pre-Matric Scholarship,
Post-Matric Scholarship (PMS), Scholarship for Top Class Education, Rajiv
Gandhi National Fellowship and National Overseas Scholarship for ST students.
234 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
The specific role of education in addressing the needs of
the marginalized groups is as follows:
AATo empower the marginalised : education is a societal resource and a means
to achieve egalitarianism
AAGiven equal opportunity for general, vocational, technical and professional
education most citizens have equal status in the society. Education is often
considered as an equalizer.
AAEducation brings about awareness of legal provisions that the marginalised
can resort to in case of infringement of their rights.
AATo create awareness about various schemes that help to combat stratification
eg: schemes for girl child
AATo sensitize society towards the impact of stratification
AATo create egalitarian minds by instilling human values
AAEducation nurtures critical thinking, decision making and such vital life
skills that will help to fight the ill effects of stratification.
AAEducation seeks to integrate the marginalised into the mainstream through
common education system, compensatory education, Laws such as Right
to Education Act

Role of Non formal education in providing equalization of

educational opportunities.
One finds several provisions made for the marginalized. These schemes and
programmes aim at uplifting the marginalized and improving their condition so
that they are able to integrate with the mainstream of society.

Provisions and schemes for education of the marginalised

Eklavya Model residential schools (EMRS): The objective of EMRS is to
provide quality middle and high level education to Scheduled Tribe (ST) students
in remote areas, not only to enable them to avail of reservation in high and
professional educational courses and as jobs in government and public and private
sectors but also to have access to the best opportunities in education at par with
the non ST population.
AAhostel facilities, educational loans, midday meals, reservations ,
scholarships
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 235
AAAshram School…residential schools for ST (over 1600 ashram schools
exist) Teachersfrom ST community. Sensitization programs for non ST
teachers. Schools teach socially useful crafts
AAfinancial assistance to NGOs providing vocational training where 90%
expenditure is ssreimbursed by government,
AAScheme under National Backward Classes Finance and Development
Corporation to upgrade entrepreneurial and technological skills of OBC
AAReimbursement of fees for SC/ST students
AARajiv Gandhi National Fellowship scheme for those pursuing M.Phil
and Ph.D, National overseas scholarship scheme awards per yr to those
pursuing specific fields of study.
AANational Backward Classes Finance &Devpt Corporation under Ministry
of Social Justice & Empowerment--educational loan for those living below
double poverty line(p.a Rs. 40,000 rural areas and Rs. 55,000 urban areas).
ShilpSampada Scheme for upgrading technical and entrepreneurial skills
give loans to artisans.EBC (income upto Rs one lakh a yr) Dr. Ambedkar
Central Sector Scheme of Interest Subsidy on Educational Loan for Overseas
Studies for Economically Backward Classes (EBCs) effective from 2014 thro
Ministry of Social Justice and EmpowermentWomen… 3600 Kasturba Gandhi
Balika vidyalayas (residential schools for upperprimary girls from SC, ST, OBC
communities set up where schools are far from habitation. 75% seats for SC/ST/
OBC and 25% for those BPL.), National programme for education of girls at
elementary level for girls in educationally backward blocks ,Kishori Shakti Yojana
(vocational training for BPL girls between 15 to 18 yrs) Balika Smariddhi Yojana
(scholarship for girls) People in rural areas. Navodaya Vidyalayas, Dist Primary
EducationProgramme(DPEP), RTE provision primary schools within 1 km .
People in remote areas, Residential schools, ODL, use of technology, Digital
India project launched in Aug 2014 plans to increase connectivity with villages.
In 2014 the Hemanand Biswal committee recommended developing local
language textbooks and teaching children in their local language with a gradual
shift to Hindi or English to address issue of high dropouts.
It is not enough to just have programmes to educate the marginalized. There
must be adequate efforts to ensure that the marginalized do not drop out during
their course of education.
236 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Education of the Dalits
AABefore Indian independence Dalits were considered as untouchables and
pushed to the margin of the society and made to live in unhygienic slums
usually located at the outskirts of villages. The marathi word dalit means
the suppressed or oppressed
AAAccording to the census 2011, dalit population in india is about 20.14
croes. It constitutes 16.6% of India’s population

Educational facilities provided to the Dalits

AAFree education at all levels
AAFree residential hostels, separately for dalit boys and girls
AAIn rural areas, separate schools for the Dalits in which students are provided
free textbooks stationery, uniforms and middaly meals
AAReservation of seats in higher education
AAAward of prizes and certificate for those with good educational proficiency

Problems in the education of the tribals

Language: Tribals have only spoken language they do not have scripts, grammar
or literature
Life style: Hunting – gathering and selling herbal leaves and roots, honey cutting
trees helping mountaineers.
Forest area: they live in hamlets which are widely scattered density of
population is very less
Problems in the education tribals: The instruction provided in school in their
opinion is not useful for the day – day life lack of trained tribal teachers – fear
that learning through other languages will upset their way of life they prefer
their isolation in the forests with their own music and dance un willing to change
their life style

Ways and means of providing education for the scheduled

tribes
AAEstablishing residential schools in the hilly areas of the tribal people
AADeveloping access paths and roads to reach the nearyby schools in the
urban areas
AATo reduce the drop out rate at school education level establishing vocational
training centres which imparts literacy along with vocational training
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 237
AALiberal financial aid to students in the form of scholarships
AAProvision for special reservation for tribal students in educational
institutions
AABringing all tribal schools under the sarva siksha abhiyan scheme
AAGiving short term training in teaching to tribal youths and involving them
in tiny villages to each children on a contract basis
AAthrough integrated tribal welfare board the following activities may be
undertaken

Education women
AAThere is a remarkable progress in the education of women in kerala and
Mizoram which have attained 100% literacy among the females
AAIn the state of rajasthan perscentage of literacy rate among the females is
the lowest in india (only 52%)
AAoverall perscentage of literacy in india is 81.3 for men and 65.4 for women
AAIn tamilnadu average literacy rate is 80.33% for men it is 86.81% and
women 73.86%

Measures for improving women’s education

AAGiving priority to open girls schools and hostels for girls
AAGiving free bus passes to girls to go to schools and colleges. In urban areas
running special buses for women on school and college working days
AAProviding free education and text books upto XII std
AAProviding free cycle lab-top school uniform and medical advice for girls
studying in the higher secondary classes
AAAppointing women teachers in large numbers and deploying only women
teachers in girls schools as far as possible
AAImproving the basic amentites needed for students in schools and colleges
AAPreventing sexual harassment of girls in educational institutions

Part time
Through the open school system helping girls to pass the VIII, X and XII std.
examinations and improve their educational qualifications
238 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
Higher education
Helping women to get degrees and diplomas through Indira Gandhi National
open university and distant education programmes of the state universites

General measures
AAProviding housing facilities on nomial rent for women teachers near their
school area where they work
AASpecial awards and rewards to teacher who take special interest and care
in girls education
AAAllowing teachers to work on part time basis
AAProviding financial assistance for education to young widows and women
who have been deserted by their husbands

Conclusion
A large number of children in India are still excluded from the educational
system and hence cannot participate meaningfully in the economic, social,
political and cultural life of their communities. It appears that current educational
programmes might have failed to address the needs of children who are vulnerable
to marginalisation and exclusion. Some of the educational
programmes might have provided inadequate services that have affected the
interest of these children leading to further social exclusion and injustice. Another
matter of crucial importance to overcome educational marginalization is political
commitment backed by inclusive and holistic policies that address the structure
and underlying causes of inequality and equalize opportunity by addressing
unequal power relationships. There is no single formula, but sustained political
commitment to social justice, non-discrimination, equal opportunity and basic
rights leads to progress. Adoption of an integrated inclusive policy approach that
addresses interlocking causes of disadvantage, within education and beyond is
needed. Strengthening of political leadership to tackle marginalization through
clear policy objectives and education targets are necessary. Improving coordination
within government through active engagement of civil society, the private sector
and marginalized groups should be the top most priority of the society.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 239
Questions
I One mark
II Five mark
1. Explain causes of inequality
2. Explain equality in constitution provision
3. Explain equality of educational opportunities
4. write about elimination of social in equalities through education

III ten mark

1. What is inequality? explain inequality in schooling
2. Explain types of inequality
240 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
PART A 5 X1 = 5

I Answer all the question

1. New education policy was established in the year....
a) 1968 b) 1978 c) 1986 d) 1987
2. SUPW was recommended by ......
a) Kothari Commission b) New Education Policy
c) Sachar Committee d) Malcolm Adiseshai Committee
3. Programme of action is a follow up of....
a) Kothari Commission b) New Education Policy
c) National Knowledge Commission d) None of the above
4. Which committee was formed under Prof.Yashpal
a) National Curriculum framework b) National Knowledge Commission
c) New Education Policy d) Sachar Committee
5. Committee set up to look after in providing quality life and education to
Muslis is....
a )AdiseshaiCommittee b) Ishwarbhai Patel committee
c) Sachar Committee d )None of the above
PART B 3 X5 = 15

II Answer any 3
1. Explain nature on education as a discipline
2. What is social diversity? Explain social diversity for understanding education
in India.
3. Write a short note on SSA
4. Explain language policy as specified in Indian constitution
5. Short note on equality of educational opportunity
PART C5 X10 = 50

III Answer all the question

1. Explain constitutional values and education
or
Discuss aims and purposes of education drawn from constitution provision
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 241
2. Explain level of social diversity
or
Define social diversity. Determine the role of education in creating positive
attitude towards diversity
3. Explain Delor’s commission report
or
Specify the challenges in achieving universalization of education

4. Explain language policy during the pre-independent india

or
Explain the view of great thinkers on medium of instruction

5. Explain marginalization in education

or
Explain types of inequality
242 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
1. What is the origin of the word Education?
(a) ‘E’ and ‘Catum’
(b) Edu and ‘Catum’
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(c) Word ‘Educate’
(d) None of these.
2. Which of the following statements is correct?
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(a) Education is an art
(b) Education is a science
(c) It is neither an art nor science
(d) To some extent it is art and to some extent it is science.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
3. What is called education acquired without any specific purpose, fixed period
and place?
(a) Indirect Education
(b) Individual Education
(c) Informal Education
(d) Formal Education.
4. Which one of the following sentences is correct about the nature of teaching?
(a) It is diagnostic
(b) It is remedial
(c) It is diagnostic as well as remedial
(d) All the above statements are correct.
5. What is the compulsory element of learning?
(a) Ability to read
(b) Bright Mind
(c) Tendency to know
(d) None of these.
6. What is the place of principal in an educational institute?
(a) Overall head of the school
(b) Manager of the school
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 243
(c) Owner of the school
(d) Founder of the school.
7. If a student failed in any class what should be done to him?
(a) He should be given a chance to improve and sent to the next class after he
improves
(b) He should be kept in the same class
(c) He should be advised to leave studies
(d) All the above methods are right.
8. Why are curriculum activities used in teaching?
(a) Make teaching easy
(b) To make teaching interesting, easy to understand and effective
(c) To make teaching attractive
(d) To assist the teacher.
9. What are the three components of the educational process?
(a) Education, teacher and books
(b) Teacher, student and education
(c) Teaching, learning and practice
(d) Direction, instruction and skill.
10. What is teaching through deductive method?
(a) From general to specific
(b) From specific to general
(c) From macro to micro-
(d) From easy to difficult.
11. What is the main centre of informal Education?
(a) Society
(b) Family
(c) Radio and Television
(d) All of the above.
12. Which is the first school for a child’s education?
(a) Society
(b) Friends
(c) Family
244 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(d) School.
13. Which one of the following education systems supports scientific progress?
(a) Realistic Education
(b) Idealistic Education
(c) Naturalistic Education
(d) None of these.
14. What is the meaning of lesson plan?
(a) To read the lesson before teaching it
(b) To prepare all that the teacher wants to teach in a limited period
(c) To prepare detailed answers of all the questions to be asked in the class
(d) To prepare the list of questions to be asked.
15. On what depends the values of an educational experience in the eyes of the
idealist?
(a) Whether or not the pupil has been properly motivated
(b) Whether or not it preserves accepted institutions
(c) The extent to which it satisfies pupil desires
(d) The manner in which it affects future experience.
16. Which educational activity is most desirable to the pragmatist?
(a) Approximates the goals which educational scientists have set up
(b) Results from the indiscrimination of the pupil in democratic theory.
(c) That is beneficial effect upon the future experiences of the pupil
(d) That characterizes by spontaneous, active, continuously pleasurable and
practical for the pupil.
17. What is the view point of progressive educators regarding the issue of liberal
vs. vocational education?
(a) Vocational ends load one to degrade learning
(b) Liberal arts subject should proceed vocational training
(c) Vocational and liberal education should not be separated
(d) All subjects should have a vocational orientation.
18. Who was the supporter of Naturalism in Education?
(a) Frolbel
(b) Armstrong
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 245
(c) John Locke
(d) Rosseau.
19. What do you mean by curriculum?
(a) A child learns through curriculum
(b) Sum total of the annual study
(c) Sum total of the activities of a school
(d) Indicates the course to be taught by the teachers to the students throughout
the year.
20. Which system of education was propounded by Mahatma Gandhi?
(a) Teaching by activities
(b) Teaching through music
(c) Teaching through listening, meditation etc.
(d) All of these.
21. Who raised the slogan “Back to Nature”?
(a) Realism
(b) Pragmatism
(c) Naturalism
(d) Existentialism.
22. Which statement is not correct about Naturalism?
(a) A reaction against the degenerated humanism of the Renaissance period
(b) A reaction against the degenerated humanism of the Renaissance period.
(c) A reaction against sophistication, artificiality and paraphernalia in education
(d) A reaction against a mere study of books and linguistic forms.
23. Who said, “Reverse the usual practice and you will almost always do right?”
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Rousseau
(c) Dewey
(d) Plato.
24. “Human institutions are one mass of folly and contradiction.” Whose
statement is this?
(a) Bernard Shaw
(b) Rousseau
246 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(c) Dewey
(d) Ravinder Nath Tagore.
25. According to which school of philosophy of education, exaltation of
individual’s personality is a function of education?
(a) Pragmatism
(b) Idealism
(c) Marxism
(d) Idealism and Marxism both.
26. Which is not Naturalism’s aim of Education?
(a) Education is the notion of man’s evolution from lower forms of life
(b) To equip the individual or the nation for the struggle for existence so as to
ensure survival
(c) To help the pupils to learn to be in harmony with and well-adapted to their
surroundings
(d) To inculcate ethical and moral values in the pupils.
27. Which school held the view, “God makes all things good; man meddles with
and they become evil?”
(a) Marxism
(b) Existentialism
(c) Naturalism
(d) Pragmatism.
28. Which school maintained self-expression with the accompanying cries of
“no interference”, “no restraints”?
(a) Extreme form of Naturalism
(b) Most widely accepted form of Naturalism
(c) Truest form of Naturalism
(d) Most valid form of Naturalism.
29. Which is not the nature of philosophy?
(a) It is a science of knowledge
(b) It is a collective ensemble of various viewpoints
(c) It is a planned attempt on search for the truth
(d) It is the totality of man’s creative ideas.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 247
30. Which branch of philosophy deals with knowledge, its structure, method and
validity?
(a) Logic
(b) Aesthetics
(c) Epistemology
(d) Metaphysics.
31. Which school maintained: “Natural impulses of the child are of great
importance and are good in themselves?”
(a) Biological Naturalism
(b) Mechanical Naturalism
(c) Naturalism of physical science
(d) Romantic Naturalism.
32. Which branch of philosophy examines issues pertaining to the nature of
“reality?”
(a) Ontology
(b) Metaphysics
(c) Axiology
(d) Epistemology.
33. On what is based the need for teaching philosophy of education?
(a) All pupils are not alike
(b) Different systems of education found in different countries
(c) Different philosophies expressed different points of view on every aspect of
education
(d) Different ways of teaching-learning.
34. What is the goal of education according to Idealism?
(a) Perfect adaptation to the environment
(b) Realisation of moral values
(c) Satisfaction of human wants
(d) Cultivation of dynamic, adaptable mind which will be resourceful and
enterprising in all situations.
35. The aim of education according to the Existentialists is
(a) Humanitarian and humanist self- realization.
248 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(b) Adaptation to practical life.
(c) Objective knowledge.
(d) A good understanding of the world outside.
36. The Realist’s aim of education is
(a) Self-realization
(b) Spiritual and moral development
(c) Happy and moral development
(d) Total development of personality.
37. Naturalist’s conception of man is
(a) Man’s very essence of being is his spiritual nature.
(b) It is spirit rather than animality that is most truly man.
(c) There exists in the nature of things a perfect pattern of each individual.
(d) Nature would have them children before they are men.
38. Which philosophy of education considers psychology as an incomplete study
of and an inadequate basis of educational theory?
(a) Realism
(b) Pragmatism
(c) Idealism
(d) Naturalism.
39. Which among the following does not fit into the scheme of educational goals
of the Idealists?
(a) Care of body
(b) Moral values
(c) Skills
(d) Self-expression.
40. Religious education is strongly advocated by
(a) Pragmatists.
(b) Idealists,
(c) Realist.
(d) Existentialists.
41. Which of the following is said about the idealists?
(a) They are content with “briars”
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 249
(b) They like “roses”
(c) They are satisfied neither with “briars” nor with “roses”
(d) They want “roses” and “briars” both.
42. Which school of philosophy of education advocated Project method of
teaching?
(a) Realism
(b) Pragmatism
(c) Idealism
(d) Naturalism.
43. Play way method of teaching has been emphasised in the scheme of the
education of
(a) Naturalists.
(b) Realists,
(c) Pragmatists.
(d) Existentialists.
44. Which is the most widely accepted method of education, according to the
pragmatists?
(a) Lecturing by the teacher.
(b) Leaving the child free to learn.
(c) Learning by doing.
(d) Heuristic method.
45. The pragmatists are against
(a) The external examinations
(b) The specialist teachers
(c) Breakdown of knowledge into separate subjects.
(d) Eternal spiritual values.
46. Pragmatism has a greater sense of responsibility than Naturalism with regard
to moral training because
(a) The free activity which pragmatic- system of education entails does not mean
licence; rather it means a guided activity.
(b) They emphasize teaching of values
(c) They consider education, basically, a social process.
250 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(d) They do not want the teacher to abdicate from the scene.
47. Which of the following claims of the pragmatists is not acceptable?
(a) The free activity of the pupil is likely to result in permanent attitudes of
initiative and independence and moral discipline
(b) Training in citizenship is possible through school and community activities
(c) Training in character through school’s co-curricular activities is possible
(d) Child’s own experience is valuable for adequate development of child’s
personality.
48. Project method of teaching is an outstanding contribution of
(a) Realism.
(b) Pragmatism,
(c) Naturalism.
(d) Idealism.
49. Which is the characteristic of the project method?
(a) Problematic act
(b) Carried in its natural setting
(c) Used for all-round-development of child’s personality.
(d) A voluntary undertaking.
50. Which among the following is not essentially desirable in the project
method?
(a) The task of the project is as real as the task of the life outside the walls of the
school
(b) The task of the project involves constructive effort or thought yielding
objective results
(c) The task of the project should be full of message for the children
(d) The task of the project should be interesting enough so that the pupil is
genuinely eager to carry it out.
51. Which is a great disadvantage of the project method?
(a) It consumes much of the time of the child
(b) It leaves gaps in the knowledge of the child
(c) Children are generally not interested in it
(d) Teachers, generally, do not like to teach through it.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 251
52. Learning by Project Method is technically known as
(a) Incidental learning.
(b) Efficient learning.
(c) Systematic learning.
(d) Adequate learning.
53. Education, according to the Pragmatist is
(a) Wholly pupil-oriented.
(b) Wholly society-oriented.
(c) Wholly purposive.
(d) Wholly interdisciplinary.
54. Who among the following is not a follower of Pragmatic Philosophy?
(a) William James
(b) Peshtalozzi
(c) John Dewey
(d) Kilpatrick.
55. What is not associated with Pragmatism?
(a) Purposive education
(b) Experience-based education
(c) Freedom-based education
(d) Education for self-realization.
56. Who emphasised realization of Truth, Beauty and Goodness as the aims of
education?
(a) Idealists
(b) Pragmatists
(c) Realists
(d) Naturalists.
57. Which statement about truth is not correct according to the philosophy of
Pragmatism?
(a) It is made by man
(b) It is ever changing
(c) It is eternal
(d) It is what emerges to be true in actual practice.
252 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
58. In whose methodology of teaching “Experimentation” is the key-note of?
(a) Idealism
(b) Existentialism
(c) Realism
(d) Pragmatism.
59. The term “progressive education” related to
(a) Realism.
(b) Pragmatism.
(c) Idealism.
(d) Existentialism.
60. Who said, “No fixed aims of education and no values in advance”?
(a) Progressive educators
(b) Idealists
(c) Realists
(d) Marxists.
61. Which school of philosophy of education stresses the direct study of men
and things through tours and travels?
(a) Social realism
(b) Idealism
(c) Existentialism
(d) Marxism.
62. Which school believes that all knowledge comes through the senses?
(a) Idealism
(b) Sense Realism
(c) Pragmatism
(d) Existentialism.
63. Which school raised the slogan “Things as they are and as they are likely to
be encountered in life rather than words?”
(a) Pragmatist
(b) Realists
(c) Idealists
(d) Existentialists.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 253
64. As Huxley pleaded for the introduction of “a complete and thorough
scientific culture” into schools, he is claimed to be
(a) An Idealist.
(b) A Realist,
(c) A Pragmatist.
(d) A Naturalist.
65. Realism in education was born out of
(a) The enthusiasm of the Renaissance.
(b) The great religious movement of the 17th century.
(c) A cleavage between the work of the schools and the life of the world outside
that occurred during the 19th century.
(d) The degeneration of humanism after Renaissance.
66. Which of the following is not criticised by realism in education?
(a) Teachers denying the value of school co-curricular activities
(b) Pupils cramming for knowledge from books for reproducing in examination
(c) Organizing schools in a way that is conducive to practical training in
citizenship
(d) Teaching which drifts away from life of the child.
67. In the light of relevant past events, contemporary events and their
understanding should find a place in the teaching of history. Who maintained
this principle?
(a) Naturalists
(b) Idealists
(c) Realists
(d) Marxists.
68. The most important thing to keep in mind for a teacher according to Realism
in education is
(a) The method of teaching.
(b) The value and significance of what is taught.
(c) The nature of the child.
(d) Organization of the content to be taught.
254 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
69. Which school of philosophy very strongly advocates that education should
be vocational in character?
(a) Existentialism
(b) Naturalism
(c) Realism
(d) Pragmatism.
70. Which is not an aspect of mind according to the Realists’ theory of knowing?
(a) Awareness
(b) Consciousness
(c) Behaviour
(d) Processing of awareness.
71. Who believe that “Objects have a reality independent of mental
phenomena”?
(a) Idealists
(b) Realists
(c) Naturalists
(d) Existentialists.
72. Marxist educational philosophy is closer to
(a) Idealism.
(b) Realism.
(c) Naturalism.
(d) Pragmatism.
73. Which among the following statements is not a characteristic of Marxism?
(a) It presupposes a reality independent of man’s mind
(b) Its educational philosophy is essentially materialistic
(c) Its major objective is the development of child’s personality
(d) It asserts that physical environment can definitely change the nature of the
child.
74. Which school of philosophy of education regrets dualism between cultural,
and vocational curriculum?
(a) Marxism
(b) Idealism
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 255
(c) Existentialism
(d) Naturalism.
75. According to which educational philosophy, socially useful labour must form
the central pivot of the entire school?
(a) Idealism
(b) Marxism
(c) Existentialism
(d) Naturalism.
76. Which of the following has been asserted about schools by Marxist
educational philosophy?
(a) They should stand above politics
(b) They should disinterestedly serve society as a whole
(c) They should function as deliberate instruments of state policy
(d) They should not be mere weapons in the hands of the ruling class.
77. Which of the following characteristics is common to Pragmatism,
Naturalism and Existentialism?
(a) Emphasis on spiritual aims of education
(b) Emphasis on the individual
(c) Emphasis on physical environment
(d) Emphasis on value education.
78. Whose is the ultimate concern-“What is existence”?
(a) Idealists only
(b) Realists only
(c) Existentialists and Idealists both
(d) Existentialists only.
79. Which of the following philosophies held that ‘Men in the world feel lonely
and anxious, being unsure of their meaning and fearful of their annihilation’ ?
(a) Existentialism
(b) Idealism
(c) Marxism
(d) Pragmatism.
80. According to Existentialists, the essence of existence means
256 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(a) Unity with the ultimate reality.
(b) Spiritual good and happiness.
(c) Tensions and contradictions which condition loneliness and anxiety.
(d) Continuous growth and development.
81. Who was the nineteenth century founder of Existentialism?
(a) Hegel
(b) Soren Kierkegaard
(c) Rousseau
(d) D.J. O’Connor.
82. Who was twentieth century Existentialist?
(a) Soren Kierkegaard
(b) D.J. O’Connor
(c) Jean Paul Sartre
(d) Hegel.
83. Which of the following is more generally acceptable by modern
educationists?
(a) There should be one single aim of education unchangeable over time and
space
(b) There is one grand objective of education; and that is the development of the
inner nature of the child
(c) Contribution to the welfare of the society should be the only aim of education
(d) Education is bound to have several aims since its concerns are several such
as the individual, the society, the family, the nation and so on.
84. What is development of human potentialities in education?
(a) Individual aim
(b) Social aim
(c) Individual as well as social aim
(d) Specific aim.
85. What is development of social sense and cooperation among the individuals
through education?
(a) Individual aim
(b) Social aim
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 257
(c) National aim
(d) Constitutional aim.
86. Which among the following is not an acceptable criticism of social aims of
education?
(a) They are anti-individual
(b) They are un-psychological as they do not take into account the capacities and
interests of the individual
(c) They hinder the growth and development of art and literature
(d) Man, in them, becomes only a means to an end.
87. Which among the following is not emphasized by the individual aims of
education?
(a) Individual freedom
(b) Self-expression
(c) Development of inner potentialities.
(d) Development of values of tolerance and non-violence.
88. Which of the following statements does not go in favour of the individual
aims of education?
(a) The individual is an asset to the society; his development and growth are
necessary
(b) The society is strong if the individual is strong
(c) Every individual is unique; development of his potentialities is essential
(d) Society is supreme and all individuals are only parts of it.
89. Which among the following is the most correct view about social and
individual aims of education?
(a) Individual aims should be given preference to social aims
(b) Social aims should be preferred to individual aims
(c) Individual aims are implied in the social aims of education
(d) Individual and social aims are only two sides of the same coin.
90. Which statement is most acceptable to the academicians about “Bread and
butter aim” of education?
(a) It is the most important aim and should be given top priority by educationists
(b) It is equally important along with other aims of education
258 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
(c) It is only partly acceptable
(d) It is important for only a section of the society.
91. Which of the following does not pertain to intellectual development aim of
education?
(a) Cultivation of intelligence
(b) Spiritual development
(c) Development of cognitive powers
(d) Training and “formation” of mind.
92. Preparing the child for future life as an aim of education is preparing child
for
(a) Some suitable vocation.
(b) Some particular course of study.
(c) Facing all kinds of emergencies and situations of future life.
(d) A happy married life.
93. the most effective method of character- formation is
(a) Teaching virtues through religious books.
(b) Organizing specialists’ lectures on importance of values in life.
(c) Teaching by high character teachers.
(d) Rewarding virtuous behaviours and presenting high character models in the
schools.
94. Harmonious development of the child aim of education means
(a) Development of all the qualities of the mind to the maximum possible extent.
(b) Development of a sound mind in a sound body.
(c) Development of physical, mental, moral and spiritual potentialities of the
child in a balanced manner.
(d) Development of the adjustment capacities of the child.
95. The social aims of education imply that
(a) The state is an idealized metaphysical entity.
(b) The state is above the individual citizen.
(c) The state is superior to the individual transcending all his desires and
aspirations.
(d) The state has to give not to take anything from the individual.
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 259
96. Rigid system of state-education is justified on the basis that the state
(a) Is supreme to dictate what shall be taught and how shall be taught.
(b) Has absolute control over the lives, and destinies of its individual members.
(c) Has a right and a bounden duty to mould the citizen to a pattern which makes
for its own preservation and enhancement.
(d) Has better resources to manage education.
97. Social aims of education imply the training of
(a) The individuals for the purpose of serving the needs of the society.
(b) Individuals according to their needs.
(c) The individuals according to their capacities.
(d) The individuals according to the facilities.
98. What does the individual aim of education imply?
(a) Education must secure for everyone the conditions under which the
individuality is most completely developed
(b) It must contribute to the peace and happiness of the whole society
(c) It should have more and more institutions every year
(d) It should be by and large the concern of the private sector.
99. According to which philosophy of education, childhood is something
desirable for its own sake and children should be children?
(a) Idealism
(b) Pragmatism
(c) Naturalism
(d) Realism.
100. Who emphasized that education should be a social process?
(a) Vivekananda
(b) Rousseau
(c) Dewey
(d) Pestalozzi

Answer:
1. (a) 2. (d) 3 (c) 4. (d) 5.(c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9.(b) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12.(c) 13. (a)
14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (d) 21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (b)
25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (c) 31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (a)
260 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
36.(c) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (b) 41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (c) 45. (c) 46. (a)
47. (a) 48. (b) 49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (a) 53. (c) 54. (b) 55. (d) 56. (a) 57. (c)
58. (d) 59. (b) 60. (a) 61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (b) 65. (c) 66. (c) 67. (c) 68. (b)
69. (c) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (b) 73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (b) 76.(c) 77. (b) 78. (c) 79. (a)
80. (c) 81. (b) 82. (c) 83. (d) 84. (a) 85. (b) 86. (a) 87. (d) 88. (d) 89. (d) 90. (c)
91. (b) 92.(c) 93. (d) 94. (c) 95. (d) 96. (c) 97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (c)
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 261
1. Education is derived from a Latin word ?
A. educate b. educereC. evolution d. learning
ANSWER = b
2. Educere means ?a. to draw out b. to guidec. to piont d. to help
ANSWER = a
3.“Education is the creation of a sound mind in asound body” is the saying of ?
A. plato b. comensC. Aristotle d. dewey
ANSWER = c
4.The best definition of education is that it is?A. prearation for life B. getting
knowledgeC. learning D. growth resulting fromexperiences
ANSWER = d
5. Education accoding to john dewey is ?a. preparation for life b. getting knowledgec.
learning to do by doingd. schooling
ANSWER = c
6. Which of the following is not the characteristicof education ?a. lifelong activity b .
Factual absorptionc . Formal and informal activitiesd . Experiences of life
ANSWER = b
7. The basic source of educational objectives is ?a. human experience b . Schools c.
educational psychology d. professional organization
ANSWER = a
8. According to crow and crow the purpose offormal education is to ?a. make students
more intelligent b. make students active and constructivemembers of societyc. form
difinite opinions in the mind of studentsd. creat good name for the nation
ANSWER = b
9. Determining the aim of education is theresponsibility of ?a. parents b. teachersc
.studentsd. society
ANSWER = d
10. The real goal of education should be ?a. securing a certificate b. acquiring skills
habbits and knowledgec. training to made a livingd. mastery of subjects matter
ANSWER = b
11. Education planned with a particular end in viewis ?a. Formal education b. Informal
educationc. Both a & bd. None of a & b
262 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
ANSWER = a
12. Non formal education has ?a. Flexible rules of entery and exit b. Rigid rules of entery
and exitc. Few rules of entery and exitd. No rules of entery and exit
ANSWER = a
12. Formal education has ?a. Flexibile rules of entery and exit b. Rigid rules of entery and
exitc. few rules of entery and exitd. No rules of entery and exit
ANSWER = b
13. Informal education has ?a. Flexibile rules of entery and exit b. Rigid rules of entery
and exitc. few rules of entery and exitd. No rules of entery and exit
ANSWER = d
14. The education confined to educationalinstitution is ?a. Informal education b.
Non formal education c. Formal educationd. Learning
ANSWER = c
15. Education is imparted mostly bycorrespondence in ?a. Informal education b.
Non formal educationc. Formal educationd. Technical education
ANSWER = b
16. Education is not pre planned in ?a. Informal education b. Non formal
educationc. Formal educationd. Both a and c
ANSWER = a
17. Informal education is ?a. Just schooling b. Tine boundc. Life longd.
Preplanned
ANSWER = c
18. What is the most important element of nonformal education ?a. Teacher b.
Studentc. Mediad. School
ANSWER = c
19. Which one is not the source of formal education?a. School b. Museumc.
Libraryd. Home
ANSWER = d
20. Informal education is ?a. Planned b. Incidentalc. Systematicd. Arranged
ANSWER = b
21. Formal education has well defined ?a. Curriculum b. Systemc. Methodd.
Approach
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 263
ANSWER = a
22. Which is not the element of educational process?a. Aims b. Curriculumc.
Evaluationd. Motivation
ANSWER = d
23.The sum of curricular and co-curricularactivities is?a. Aim b. Curriculumc.
Pedagogyd. Summative evaluation
ANSWER = b
24. Pedagogy is concerned with ?a. Aims b. Contentc. Teaching Methodsd.
Evaluation
ANSWER = c
To determine the value or worth of anything is?a. Aim b. Contentc. Teaching
Methodsd. Evaluation
ANSWER = c
25. In education process which one is evaluated ?a. Aim b. Contentc. Methodsd.
All of the above
ANSWER = d
26. The literal meaning of philosophy is ?a. Love of knowledge b. Love of
truthc. Love of valuesd. Love of wisdom
ANSWER = d
27.Axiology in philosophy deals with ?a. Knowledge
b. Realityc. Valuesd. Culture
ANSWER = c
28. Epistemology deals with ?a. Knowledge b. Realityc. Valuesd. Culture
ANSWER = a
29. Ontology deals with ?a. Knowledge b. Realityc. Valuesd. Culture
ANSWER = b
Ontology is also called as ?a. Metaphysics b. Axiologyc. Ontologyd.
Morphology
ANSWER = a
30. Metaphysics deals with the nature of ?a. Values b. Knowledgec. Universed.
Reality
264 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
ANSWER = d
31. Eclecticism means borrowing beliefs from ?a. One philosophy b. Two
philosophiesc. Three philosophyd. Different philosophies
ANSWER = d
32.“Everlasting reality” is focused in ?
a. Perennialism b. Essentialismc. Progressivismd. Reconstructionism
ANSWER = a
33. Useful culture and skill is emphasized in ?a. Perennialism b. Essentialismc.
Progressivismd. Reconstructionism
ANSWER = b
34. Life is coutinuous changing process is the best ?a. Perennialism b.
Essentialismc. Progressivismd. Reconstructionism
ANSWER = c
“Reforms are necessary in all walks of life” is
focused in ?a. Perennialism b. Essentialismc. Progressivismd. Reconstructionism
ANSWER = d
35. Study of great books is at the core of ?a. Perennialism b. Essentialismc.
Progressivismd. Reconstructionism
ANSWER = b
36. Who is not among major exponent of perennialism ?a. Bentock b. Adlerc.
Hutchinsd. John dewey
ANSWER = d
37. School should be run on democratic lines isheld by ?a. Perennialism b.
Essentialismc. Progressivismd. Reconstructionism
ANSWER = c
38. Essentialists stress on a. Mental discipline b. Innovationc. Changed. Reduced
knowledge
ANSWER = a
39. According to which experimental knowledge isreal ?a. Perennialism
b. Essentialismc. Progressivismd. Reconstructionism
 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 265
ANSWER = c
Ethic and aesthetics are components of ?a. Cosmology b. Ontologyc.
Epistemologyd. Axiology
ANSWER = d
40. Progressivist teacher put more emphasis on ?a. Abstract ideas b. Practical
educationc. Theoretical conceptd. Methods
ANSWER = b
41. The curriculum will be child centered if teacheris ?a. Realist b. Perennialistc.
Progressivistd. Essentialist
ANSWER = c
42. Learning should be directly related to theinterest of the child according to
?a. Essentialism b. Progressivismc. Reconstructionismd. Perennialisme.
ANSWER = b
43. Essentialists would get their aim of educationfrom ?a. Great books b.
Students interestc. Religiond. Traditionse.
ANSWER = d
44. Essentialist philosophy of education is ?a. Content and teacher centered b.
Child centeredc. Need centeredd. Society centered
ANSWER = a
Education is life itself not a preparation for lifeaccording to ?A. PerennialismB.
EssentialismC. ProgressivismD. Reconsteuctionism
ANSWER = c
45. According to which philosophy permanence ismore real than change ?A.
PerennialismB. EssentialismC. ProgressivismD. ReconsteuctionismE.
ANSWER = A
46. Perennialism is an educational philosophy of ?A. New valueB. Old valuesC.
Future valuesD. Old ,and new values
ANSWER = B
47. The objective of education comes from ?a. Philosophy b. Psychologyc.
Curriculumd. Sociology
266 Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications
ANSWER = a
48. Sociological aims of education includes ?a. Cultural growth b. Skillsc.
Dutifulnessd. All above
ANSWER = d
49. The application of philosophy in education may be ?a. Selection of
contents b. Selection of methodsc. Selection of objectivesd. Selection of
evaluation procedures
ANSWER c