Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

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Green Analytical Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/greeac

Advantages of the reuse of spent adsorbents and potential applications in

environmental remediation: A review
Bienvenu Gael Fouda-Mbanga a,*, OP Onotu b, Zikhona Tywabi-Ngeva a
a
Department of Chemistry, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha, South Africa
b
University of Ilorin, Industrial Chemistry, Physical Science, Kwara state, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Adsorption represents a highly promising methodology for wastewater treatment, characterized by its opera­
Adsorption tional simplicity and economic efficiency in extracting environmental pollutants. This study investigates the
Fate possible uses and benefits of recycling wasted adsorbents containing metals in various environmental remedy
Pollutants
projects to tackle the urgent issue of secondary contamination. Recycling used adsorbents are proposed to reduce
Metal-loaded adsorbent
Spent adsorbent
secondary pollution and provide numerous economic and ecological advantages in wastewater treatment. This
Reuse study comprehensively analyzed the existing literature, carefully evaluating the effectiveness of different used
adsorbents in eliminating contaminants and their capacity for regeneration and later reuse. Furthermore, the
novelty of the review lies in its exploration of recycling spent adsorbents particularly those containing heavy
metals (HMs), as a sustainable solution for wastewater treatment. Results indicate that spent adsorbents,
particularly those treated with ionic liquids, achieve extraction efficiencies above 80 % for heavy metals and
show enhanced stability during several regeneration cycles. Utilizing recycled wasted adsorbents is a viable
method for sustainable wastewater treatment, with significant potential to reduce environmental pollution and
support a circular economy.

1. Introduction Around 50% of produced wastewater is discharged into the environment

without proper treatment, underscoring the urgency to address this
Wastewater pollution poses a significant global threat due to the matter promptly [5]. State-of-the-art technologies like Non-Thermal
increasing water demand, inadequate treatment in developing coun­ Plasma Discharge, Nanotechnology, Genetic Engineering, and
tries, and the detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and human Metal-Organic Frameworks demonstrate promising outcomes in elimi­
health [1,2]. Inadequate wastewater treatment leads to the discharge of nating wastewater impurities and toxins, highlighting innovative
pollutants like pathogenic microorganisms, nutrients, heavy metals, and treatment approaches’ significance [6]. Moreover, incorporating
organic matter into water bodies, causing water quality degradation and advanced tools such as the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence, and
health hazards [3,4]. The deficiency in advanced treatment methods in drones in wastewater treatment facilities is essential for fostering
financially restricted areas exacerbates the situation, resulting in bio­ continuous advancement, enhancing energy efficiency, and reducing
logical contamination and environmental decline [3]. The global impact operational expenses without compromising treatment efficacy [7].
of wastewater pollution includes the degradation of aquatic ecosystems, These developments guarantee safeguarding the environment and pre­
transmission of waterborne diseases, and hindrance to achieving sus­ serving ecosystems and support sustainable water resource manage­
tainable development goals [1,2]. Tackling this issue demands a shift ment, underscoring the critical need for effective and environmentally
towards sustainable practices in wastewater management, highlighting friendly solutions for wastewater treatment [8,9].
the importance of reuse, recycling, and resource retrieval to alleviate the Adsorption plays a critical role in remediating pollutants from
adverse impacts of wastewater pollution on a global level [1]. wastewater due to its effectiveness and versatility. Various studies have
The pressing demand for sustainable and efficient methods of highlighted the potential of adsorption in eliminating pollutants such as
treating wastewater is emphasized by the significant global issue of heavy metals [10], pharmaceutical compounds [11], emerging con­
water scarcity and pollution, as indicated in various scholarly articles. taminants [12], and hydrocarbons from refinery effluents [13].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (B.G. Fouda-Mbanga).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.greeac.2024.100156
Received 1 August 2024; Received in revised form 18 September 2024; Accepted 19 September 2024
Available online 28 September 2024
2772-5774/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

Activated carbon, in particular, has been extensively studied for its and pesticides, compared to inorganic pollutants, such as heavy metals,
adsorption capabilities, significantly when modified with elements like highlights notable differences in their behavior, persistence, and effects
Copper and Zinc for enhanced efficiency in treating wastewater [13]. In on wastewater treatment processes. Organic contaminants tend to be
addition, the use of Nano-adsorbents derived from algae for pollutant more persistent and exhibit lower removal efficiencies in standard
removal has shown promising results, with nanoparticles like Palladium treatment systems, which poses considerable risks to aquatic ecosystems
Nanoparticles and Platinum Nanoparticles demonstrating significant and human health. Organic contaminants, especially pharmaceuticals,
adsorption capacities for pollutants like dyes and pharmaceuticals [14]. are commonly found in wastewater effluents at concentrations, under­
The adsorption process relies on factors such as surface area, pore scoring their resistance to conventional treatment methods [26]. In
structure, and the type of adsorbent to effectively capture and remove contrast, heavy metals, while also persistent, can be more effectively
pollutants from aqueous media, making it a valuable technique in eliminated through biological treatment processes; however, certain
wastewater treatment. metals like chromium and cadmium frequently remain above acceptable
Adsorption is superior to other purification techniques due to its limits after treatment [27]. The presence of pharmaceuticals can hinder
unique advantages, which are highlighted in the provided research pa­ the effectiveness of biological treatment systems, reducing efficiencies
pers. Primarily, adsorption is economical, providing a cost-efficient and in removing chemical oxygen demand and mixed liquor-suspended
financially viable remedy for water and wastewater treatment [15–17]. solids [28]. Heavy metals distinctly interact with treatment processes,
Also, it is highly efficient, with the ability to effectively remove various often necessitating specific modifications to improve removal rates [27].
contaminants from water sources, such as taste- and odor-causing Despite the challenges presented by both organic and inorganic pollut­
compounds, synthetic organic chemicals, and disinfection by-product ants, the advancement of innovative treatment technologies, such as
precursors [18]. Moreover, adsorption represents a versatile procedure photocatalysis and bioremediation, holds the potential to overcome the
that can be employed across various industrial operations, encompass­ shortcomings of traditional wastewater treatment systems [28,29]. The
ing purification of gases, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and novelty of the review lies in its exploration of recycling spent adsorbents
elimination of hazardous gases [15]. The ease of operation and its high particularly those containing heavy metals (HMs), as a sustainable so­
efficiency and cost-effectiveness make adsorption a preferred method lution for wastewater treatment.
for water and wastewater treatment and various industrial applications.
Disposing of spent adsorbents poses significant challenges due to 2. Wastewater treatment technologies
their potential environmental and health risks. Heavy metal-laden spent
adsorbents in the natural surroundings are a significant issue, particu­ Adsorption has been distinguished as one of the most suitable
larly in developing nations where appropriate disposal methods are physicochemical treatments. It has been intensively studied for
lacking [19,20]. The leaching of contaminants from these spent adsor­ pollutant removal, with its complete utilization instances increasing
bents can lead to secondary pollution and ecotoxicological effects, significantly in the last ten years. The adsorption process employs a
further compounding the environmental impact [21]. Various disposal simple method with low cost and abundant adsorbent while achieving
methods, such as landfilling, incineration, and stabilization in con­ high removal efficiency [30,31]. Adsorption also hinders the growth of
struction materials, have been explored, but each comes with limitations secondary pollutants due to oxidation or degradation reactions [32,33].
and environmental implications. In addition, the sustainability of these As a result, multiple scholars have been drawn to the findings over the
disposal methods needs to be carefully assessed, focusing on balancing last decade. Adsorption technology’s ability still needs to be explored
ecological impact and cost-effectiveness [21]. Proper management due to constraints such as environmentally friendly dumping of
practices for spent adsorbents are crucial to mitigate the risks associated exhausted adsorbents and difficulties in recovering exhausted adsor­
with their disposal and ensure a more sustainable approach to remedi­ bents (Tables 1-3).
ation processes [20]. Different materials, including activated clay minerals, carbon, in­
Improper disposal of spent adsorbents, such as heavy metal- dustrial byproducts, zeolite, polymer materials, bio-fuels, and farming
contaminated biochar-based materials and lithium-ion battery cath­ waste, that are frequently used as adsorbents have different adsorption
odes, poses significant environmental and economic implications. capacities for removing particular pollutants from wastewater [48]. To
Improperly managed spent adsorbents can lead to soil, water, and air increase the ability of adsorbent materials to capture pollutants, some
contamination, threatening ecosystems and human health [22–24]. The researchers have combined them with other chemicals and substances.
absence of globally recognized disposal standards has led to diverse Nearly every area of human interest has recently seen the use of nano­
practices, such as landfilling, incineration, and informal recycling, technology, including wastewater treatment, soil and natural resource
which further increase environmental risks [23]. On the other hand, governance, and environmental cleanup [49–51]. In many cases,
reutilizing spent adsorbents through innovative strategies, like con­ nano-adsorbents are even more effective than conventional adsorbents
verting them into efficient electrocatalysts, not only mitigates environ­ at removing organic and inorganic contaminants from wastewater.
mental hazards but also offers economic benefits by creating value from
waste materials, supporting the circular economy concept [22]. Proper 3. Spent adsorbents types and characterizations
management and resource recovery of spent adsorbents are crucial for
sustainable environmental protection and economic growth. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller
The concept of reuse offers a promising solution to the challenges method (BET), the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda method (BJH), Fourier
related to the disposal of spent adsorbents, addressing environmental transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and energy-dispersive X-ray
concerns, and promoting sustainability. Various studies have high­ (EDX), among others, are characterization techniques applied to
lighted the importance of reutilizing spent adsorbents to create value- comprehend the physicochemical properties of materials, their uptake
added products. For instance, converting heavy metal-laden biochar- capacity, and their interconnections with pollutants. FTIR has primarily
based spent adsorbents into efficient electrocatalysts demonstrates a been used to describe spent adsorbents [52]. This method identifies the
"waste-to-wealth" approach, showcasing the potential for repurposing molecules and functional groups on the surface of biomaterials inter­
these materials for energy applications [22]. Furthermore, the reutili­ acting with contaminants. Some of these are hydroxyl groups produced
zation of spent reverse osmosis membranes for nanofiltration and ul­ by cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin found in agricultural refuse.
trafiltration processes after appropriate treatment highlights the L-cysteine-doped polypyrrole was characterized by applying this tech­
potential for extending the lifespan of membrane elements and pro­ nique to confirm the existence of OH, COOH, and NH2 groups [53]. Lead
moting environmental sustainability through recycling efforts [25]. ions loaded onto coal fly ash fused with graphene oxide-tungsten oxide
The analysis of organic contaminants, including pharmaceuticals nanocomposites were also characterized using FTIR characterization.

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

Table 1 m2/g and 253 m2/g, respectively. Because ion interactions occur more
Wastewater treatment processes [34]. smoothly in both pores, the surface area increases, leading to better
Treatment Advantages Disadvantages Technique detail adsorption.
SEM is another popular characterization method frequently used in
Ion exchange The rapid and High cost, partial Metal ions from the
efficient technique removal, dilute solution are conjunction with EDX. It enables the determination of the adsorbent
produces excellent performance exchanged with morphology before and after uptake. It helps determine the number and
quality treated sensitive to the ions held by size of pores and whether a smooth one has replaced a fibrous structure.
effluent and can be effluent pH, not electrostatic forces This method has been improved with ultra-high-resolution SEM, which
used to select some efficient for certain at the exchange
metals. types of pollutants. sites.
is appropriate for visualizing the surface texture of adsorbent or spent
Adsorption Simple technique, Chemical A molecular or adsorbent by scanning it with a high-energy, high-sensitivity electron
highly effective regeneration atomic film is beam [56]. Additional characterization techniques include zeta poten­
process, wide requirement, formed when gas tial, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption spec­
range of fouling and sorbent or liquid solute is
troscopy (XAS), and thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA). Additional
commercial corrosion of plant, deposited on the
products, excellent release of spent air. surface of a characterization techniques include zeta potential, X-ray photoelectron
quality of the sorbent. spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), and thermal
treated effluent, gravimetry analysis (TGA) (Figs. 1 and 2).
great ability to
separate a wide
range of
4. The significance of reuse of spent adsorbents
pollutants.
Chemical It is not metal Sludge generation, Precipitation of Reuse uses items that would otherwise be thrown away in their
precipitation selective; there is a extra operational metal ions is original condition or with minimal fixes or modifications. When they are
significant costs for sludge. attained by adding
genuinely reusing something, people frequently say they are recycling it.
reduction in the coagulants like
chemical oxygen alum, lime, iron The following are some advantages of reusing exhausted adsorbents
demand, and it is salts, etc. [58]: preserve resources, decrease waste, yield less pollution, and save
technically simple. or delay purchasing and disposal costs.
Reverse It could be metal High power Metals ions are
Despite its benefits, adsorption has a drawback that has deterred
osmosis selective, no consumption separated by a
chemical needed, because of pumping membrane at a
widespread use, namely the inadequate rejuvenation and recycling of
low solid waste pressure, pressure more adsorbents. Practically speaking, after removing or stashing the used
generation, small Membrane significant than the adsorbents, the pollutants could end up in the environment if a proper
space required. restoration. internal osmotic rejuvenation procedure is not used. Minerals used as adsorbents might
pressure provoked
have a deleterious impact on the availability of natural resources, and
by the dissolved
solids. the disposal of the adsorbent may result in environmental problems.
Electrodialysis High separation High operational Metal ions are This can be solved by reversing the effects of adsorption through
selectivity. cost due to separated with regeneration processes like desorption [59,60]. The adsorption process
membrane fouling semi-permeable needs to be able to recycle adsorbents to be profitable. This suggests that
and energy ion-selective
consumption. membranes. An
the adsorbent can rejuvenate and be reused numerous times without a
electrical potential significant difference in performance, which may be affected over time
between the two due to incomplete desorption, destruction of active sites after multiple
electrodes causes a cycles of use, and altered properties (surface and porosity).
separation of
The use of spent adsorbents in wastewater treatment offers various
cations and anions;
hence, cells of advantages and disadvantages that warrant careful examination. While
concentrated and these materials have the potential for reuse and contribute to environ­
dilute salts are mental sustainability, there are significant challenges associated with
formed. their safe management and regeneration. Spent adsorbents frequently
Coagulation Easy technique, High operational Coagulant is added
inexpensive cost because of the to the water,
contain hazardous substances that may leach into the environment,
capital cost, very chemical encouraging creating ecological risks if not adequately treated [61]. Their disposal
efficient for consumption and material to join can result in detrimental environmental effects, highlighting the need
colloidal particles, increased sludge into small for effective regeneration and reuse strategies [59]. The process of
fast and efficient volume generation. aggregates called
regenerating spent adsorbents is intricate, facing challenges in identi­
for insoluble flocs. Suspended
pollutant removal. matter is attracted fying appropriate desorption agents and methods, which can impede
to these flocs. their economic feasibility [62].
Flotation Metal selective, High starting Bubble attachment Additionally, the variability in adsorption capacities and regenera­
low retention time, capital costs, as is used to separate tion efficiencies among different types of adsorbents complicates the
proper for primary well as significant solids or dispersed
clarification, maintenance and liquid phases.
standardization of reuse practices [59]. Also, the financial implications
efficient for small operation costs, are of recovery and regeneration processes can be considerable, affecting
and low-density needed. the sustainability of utilizing spent adsorbents [63]. Although there are
particle removal. potential economic advantages to reusing these materials, the initial
costs associated with implementing effective regeneration technologies
may discourage widespread adoption [62].
They confirmed the presence of OH, COOH, and CH groups [35].
The performance of spent adsorbents during multiple reuse cycles
BET/BJH and BJH techniques determine the surface properties of
can vary considerably, depending on the regeneration techniques used
bio-adsorbents, including area, pore size, and volume [54]. BET uses the
and the characteristics of the adsorbent material. While some adsorbents
adsorption isotherm equilibrium at the adsorbate boiling point, whereas
retain their effectiveness, others may present risks such as leaching and
the negative relationship between pore radius and multilayer thickness
secondary pollution. Chemical and thermal regeneration methods have
is used by BJH [55]. The micropore and mesopore volumes of pineapple
effectively restored the adsorption capacity of materials such as granular
waste-based activated carbon were determined using BJH, yielding 289
activated carbon (GAC) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). For

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Table 2
Type of spent adsorbents reported in the literature with their applied characterizations.
Biowaste Pretreatment Spent adsorbent Characterization Pollutants References
2+ 2+
Coal fly ash Hydrothermal CFA/GO/WO3/NRs+Pb nanocomposites FTIR, XRD, SEM, TEM, XPS, Pb [35]
Cabbage leaves Hydrothermal Cd2+N-CNPs/CeO2NRsNPs FTIR, XRD Cd2+ [36]
Pineapple leaves Hydrothermal Cu2+-NCNPs/ZnONP FTIR, XPS, SEM Cu2+ [37]
potatoes’ peels Hydrothermal Cd2+-NCNS/ZnO XRD, SEM Cd2+ [38]
Macadaia nut shell In-situ polymerization MNS/PANI/Cr(VI) FAIR Cr6+ [39]
N/A Chemical activation MMS/CS-Hg(II) NR Hg2+ [40]
Orange peels Calcination Cr6+-HLC and Cr6+-LLC NR Cr2+ [41]
N/A Chemical activation Pd(II)-sorbed- PEI/PVC–CFs SEM, FTIR Pd2+ [42]
N/A Chemical activation Phen-MOP-Cu TGA, BET, XRD, EDX, SEM, XPS Cu2+ [43]
Corn cob Chemical activation -Fe-MLAC SEM, FTIR, TGA, Raman CIP [44]
-Fe-MCAC

Cd2+- CFA/CHNCPs: cadmium ion loaded on coal fly ash coated with carbon hybrid nanocomposites.
CFA/GO/WO3/NRs+Pb2+ nanocomposites: lead ion loaded onto coal fly ash decorated with graphene oxide-tungsten oxide nanocomposites.
Cd2+N-CNPs/CeO2NRsNPs: cadmium ions loaded on nitrogen-doped carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) coated on a cerium oxide nanorods nanocomposite.
Pb2+-MnO2–CFA: lead ions loaded onto manganese oxide-coated fly ash.
Cu2+-NCNPs/ZnONP: Copper ion fused on nitrogen carbon nanoparticles fused on zinc oxide nanoparticle nanocomposite.
Cd2+-NCNS/ZnO: cadmium ion fused on nitrogen carbon nanosheets fused on zinc oxide nanoparticle nanocomposite.
HLC: Heavily loaded carbon.
LLC: Lightly loaded carbon.
Phen-MOP-Cu: Copper ions loaded onto Phenanthroline-based microporous organic polymers.
CIP: Ciprofloxacin.
MLAC: modified luffa-activated carbon.
MCAC: modified corn cobs activated carbon.

Table 3
illustrates the regeneration methods discussed and their advantages and shortcomings.
Regeneration Advantages Disadvantages Affecting factors References
methods

Biological Complete uptake capacity recuperation by biodegradation adsorbed *Convenient for biodegradable *Nature and type of [45]
organic compounds on the adsorbents by turning them into small ionic contaminants microorganisms and adsorbents
toxicants. *Toxicity of some *Adsorbent concentration
contaminants to *Microbial growth condition
microorganisms
Thermal *Commonly used *Slow reactivation rate * Heating time and temperature [46]
* Adequate for industrial scale *Significant temperature *Type of adsorbate and
required adsorbent
*Expensive
*Toxic gases are disposed
Chemical *Inexpensive *Effect on the surface *Solvent concentration [47]
*Quick regeneration properties of adsorbents *Adsorbates solubility
*Time to process is so short *Needs further purification of *Adsorbents properties
the solvent *Solution pH
*Partial recuperation of uptake
capacity

example, GAC has shown a stable recovery of 65 % of its adsorption with specific soil types. For example, spent Mg-based and Ca-based
capacity after three cycles when subjected to a heterogeneous Fenton adsorbents exhibit higher arsenite leaching rates than arsenate, a phe­
process [64]. Applying regeneration techniques can help maintain ad­ nomenon influenced by soil composition [66]. The leaching character­
sorbents’ porosity and surface chemistry, thereby reducing the likeli­ istics are critical, as improper disposal can contaminate groundwater,
hood of harmful substances leaching into the environment [65]. Spent posing significant risks to ecosystems and human health [19]. Moreover,
adsorbents may harbor toxic residues that can leach into the environ­ the stability of spent adsorbents, including polyaniline-based materials,
ment. However, encapsulating spent adsorbents in cement has been is vital for their safe repurposing. Research indicates that these materials
demonstrated to significantly mitigate the leaching of heavy metals retain their structural integrity, which is crucial for their potential use in
[61]. Furthermore, specific regeneration processes may generate toxic energy storage and environmental remediation [67]. Techniques such as
by-products; for instance, the Fenton-like process applied to specific solidification, which involves integrating spent adsorbents into cement,
MOFs resulted in negligible adsorption loss and no detectable toxic have been shown to improve mechanical properties while decreasing the
by-products [65]. leachability of heavy metals, thereby reducing environmental hazards
[61]. However, while the repurposing of spent adsorbents offers op­
4.1. The fate of adsorbents post-use: challenges and solutions portunities for resource recovery and energy applications, it also raises
concerns regarding the long-term stability of the contaminants they
The long-term environmental effects of spent adsorbents are pri­ contain, highlighting the need for further investigation into their envi­
marily linked to their potential to leach hazardous substances and their ronmental behavior and safe disposal methods [22].
evolving properties over time. It is essential to comprehend these dy­ A range of strategies can be implemented to effectively address the
namics for effective waste management and environmental safeguard­ environmental and health hazards linked to disposing or reusing spent
ing. In addition, spent adsorbents can release harmful contaminants, adsorbents. These strategies emphasize recovery, regeneration, and
such as arsenic, into the environment, particularly when interacting sustainable management practices. Various desorption techniques, such

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

Fig. 1. Analytical tools for characterizing adsorbents and their results [57].

include repurposing spent adsorbents as raw materials in construction,

particularly in clay ceramics, which helps to immobilize heavy metals
and reduce environmental contamination [20]. Additionally, regener­
ated adsorbents can serve as soil amendments, aiding resource recovery
and fostering a circular economy [63].
Innovative technologies are essential for improving the management
and recycling of spent adsorbents, thereby reducing secondary pollu­
tion. These advancements enhance the efficiency of adsorbent regener­
ation and enable their transformation into valuable materials. Various
desorption agents have been identified that can recover heavy metals
from spent adsorbents, facilitating their reuse in future adsorption
processes and minimizing waste generation and associated costs [62]. A
promising reactivation method involves acid-base coupling, which has
significantly enhanced the surface area and catalytic activity of spent
S-Zorb adsorbents [68]. Additionally, spent adsorbents can be converted
into effective electro-catalysts for water oxidation, illustrating a
"waste-to-wealth" strategy that addresses both energy needs and envi­
ronmental challenges [22]. Emerging technologies indicate potential
uses for spent adsorbents in catalysis, construction materials, and as
precursors for new adsorbents, expanding their applicability and less­
Fig. 2. Factors affecting adsorbent regeneration. ening their environmental footprint [19].

as thermal and chemical desorption, have been assessed for their effi­ 5. Regeneration, reusability and stability
ciency in recovering adsorbents, with graphene-based materials
showing notable reusability [59,63]. Sustainable management practices Regeneration is a distinctive method that restores the uptake ability

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

of spent adsorbents through desorbing pre-adsorbed impurities [69]. In enrofloxacin, and sulfamethoxypyridazine is influenced by pH, with
place of changing the adsorbents, it is frequently regarded as a less high adsorption at acidic pH and decreased adsorption at basic pH,
expensive and superior solution [70]. The desorption mechanism of an impacting their fate in the environment [76]. Additionally, the fluctu­
appropriate nano adsorbent ought to be simple. The contaminants that ating pH in the rhizosphere affects the adsorption-desorption in­
have been adsorbed ought to be quickly desorbed into the solution, and teractions of pharmaceuticals like 17α-ethinyl estradiol, carbamazepine,
the adsorbent must be reapplied. The most desirable adsorbents are and diclofenac sodium, highlighting the importance of considering pH
those with a significant recycling or regeneration potential. In heavy variations when assessing the environmental risks of these compounds
metal desorption techniques, acids, bases, thermal treatment, and (Bauer et al., 2022).
amalgamation have all been used. The steadiness of a nano-adsorbent is Adjusting pH conditions of adsorption materials can significantly
determined by its capacity to endure desorption methods during optimize regeneration efficiency, as highlighted in the study by Cionti
regeneration or its robustness in diverse solvent media. A convenient et al. The research proposes a sequential treatment involving reversible
recovery approach without detrimental impacts on uptake capacity and selective adsorption using polyaniline (PANI)–based hybrid adsor­
would help promote the prospective use of adsorbents in real-world bents, followed by heterogeneous photocatalysis for water remediation
water treatment. Based on the adsorbed species, various strategies [79]. By tuning the adsorption pH, the study demonstrates the effective
have been suggested and tried for adsorbent renewal [71]. regeneration of spent adsorbents through the triggered release of ad­
sorbates in an aqueous solution under mild conditions. This pH-driven
5.1. Factors affecting regeneration selective adsorption enables the separation of multi-dye solutions and
facilitates the selective recovery of components, potentially allowing for
5.1.1. pH dye recycling. Such pH adjustments play a crucial role in enhancing the
The pH is critical in reactivation processes. The pH can change ad­ overall efficiency of the regeneration process, contributing to a more
sorbents’ chemical and even physical properties, resulting in a loss or sustainable and effective water treatment strategy.
gain of adsorbing ability. Since positive ions rapidly adsorb in a primary
environment, acidic pH is considered more appropriate for the desorp­ 5.1.2. Temperature
tion of cationic heavy metals. The properties and type of organic con­ Temperature is essential and must be adequately regulated for
taminants or other organic substrates adsorbed on the adsorbent for adequate regeneration effectiveness [80]. There have been numerous
remediation could also be altered by pH changes [72]. effective attempts at regeneration using dry, hot, and humid air.
Pb2+ and Cd2+ desorption using jute/SA gel was extremely delicate Numerous research studies have found that elevated temperatures
in the pH scale of 1 to 3. Pb2+ and Cd2+ were quickly removed from the improve nanomaterial desorption during regeneration. The recovery
surface at low pH because of significant protonation and competitive rate of activated carbon (AC) was steady for 30 min at 240 ◦ C and grew
interaction with H+ [73]. The recycling, desorption, and regeneration of exponentially as the temperature was raised. In the lack of oxygen, AC
multiwalled-carbon nanotubes were also studied, and the outcomes regeneration is typically carried out at high temperatures ranging from
suggest that the majority of desorbed metal ions happened at pH values 800 ◦ C to 1000 ◦ C [81]. However, organo-bentonites were heated be­
less than two and that the multiwalled carbon nanotubes could be uti­ tween 100◦ and 350 ◦ C for successful regeneration.
lized through three cycles of adsorption without losing efficiency [74]. In an investigation, zeolite was applied for dehydration of aliphatic
The optimal pH range for regenerating different adsorbents varies alcohols and water adsorption, and it was then recovered at tempera­
based on the material used. For instance, in the study by Mubarak et al., tures above 200 ◦ C [82]. Another regenerating study for methyl ethyl
the optimal pH values for the recovery of Fe (III) and Mn (II) using ketone revealed that desorption expanded with heat, rising from 82.9
zeolite composites were found to be in the range of pH 6–8, indicating percent at 80 ◦ C to 97.5 percent at 160 ◦ C in about 1.5 h [83].
the importance of pH in the regeneration process [75]. On the other Temperature is crucial in metal ions’ adsorption kinetics and ca­
hand, the research by Momima and co-workers. Suggests a regeneration pacity onto various adsorbents. Research by Sinta Devi Hariyanti et al.
method for a composite adsorbent for cations involving soaking in acid demonstrates that the adsorption capacity of pumice for Fe2+ metal ions
and alkaline solutions with concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 15 increases with higher activation temperatures, showing the highest
mol/L, without specifying a particular pH range. Therefore, the optimal adsorption capacity at 550 ◦ C [84]. Similarly, Jiashi Li et al. found that
pH range for regenerating adsorbents can vary depending on the specific the adsorption capacity of peanut shells for heavy metal ions (Pb (II), Cu
material and the regeneration method employed. (II), Cd (II)) increases with temperature, indicating a positive correlation
The influence of pH on the desorption kinetics of pollutants from between temperature and adsorption efficiency [85]. Furthermore,
adsorbents varies depending on the specific pollutants and adsorbents Yuebei Yang et al. highlights that the adsorption performance of ε-MnO2
studied. Research has shown that pH fluctuations significantly impact for Pb2+, Cd2+, and Cu2+ also improves with higher synthesis temper­
the desorption processes of various pollutants. For instance, in the study atures, with the best performance observed at 25 ◦ C [86]. Overall,
on the sorption of antibiotics in agricultural soils, desorption values higher temperatures generally enhance metal ions’ adsorption kinetics
were consistently low across a wide pH range, indicating minimal and capacity onto different adsorbents, showcasing the importance of
desorption potential [76]. Additionally, in the investigation on the temperature control in optimizing adsorption processes.
sorption of pharmaceuticals in soil, pH changes were found to notably The activation energy for metal ion adsorption/desorption processes
affect desorption processes, especially in competitive adsorption sce­ is crucial in understanding the impact of temperature on these phe­
narios [77]. Furthermore, kinetic studies on the sorption of acidic her­ nomena. Research by Ismail et al. demonstrated that the activation en­
bicides in soil revealed that pH and the chemical nature of the herbicides ergy for Nickel (Ni2+) adsorption ranged between 5.21 - 6.23 kcal mol-1,
strongly influenced desorption kinetics, with higher pH leading to a with higher energy required for desorption than adsorption [87]. Tseng
decrease in the initial rate of reactions (Palma et al., 2015). These et al. found that most adsorption processes exhibited activation energies
findings highlight the intricate relationship between pH, pollutant of 12.1 to 25.6 kJ mol–1, with some outliers requiring 45.8–72.9 kJ
desorption, and adsorbent characteristics. mol–1, emphasizing the influence of temperature on kinetic data [88].
The pH plays a crucial role in the adsorption-desorption process of Yarusova et al. highlighted low activation energies of 20.74 kJ mol− 1 for
various compounds in different environmental settings. pH-sensitive Co2+ ions and 14.2 kJ mol− 1 for Ni2+ ions during sorption processes,
peptides exhibit facilitated adsorption under acidic conditions due to a indicating the ease of metal ion removal at elevated temperatures [89].
barrier-free mechanism at low pH, contrasting with a hindered process Temperature plays a crucial role in influencing the selectivity of
at high pH, as revealed by a statistical-thermodynamic theory [78]. In adsorbents for different metal ions. For instance, the study on ε-MnO2
agricultural soils, the adsorption of antibiotics like doxycycline, adsorbent demonstrated that at varying synthesis temperatures (25 ◦ C,

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

50 ◦ C, and 75 ◦ C), the adsorption performance for Pb2+, Cd2+, and Cu2+ effects on adsorption capacities and long-term stability during regen­
differed significantly, with Pb2+ being adsorbed best followed by Cd2+ eration cycles [100]. Moreover, Oliveira et al. demonstrated that NaA
and Cu2+ (Yang et al., 2022). On the other hand, research on MOF-74 zeolite maintained a constant working capacity for CO2 adsorption
(Ni) revealed that with increasing temperature, the adsorption capac­ during different regeneration processes, indicating stability over multi­
ity of C3H8 decreased sharply compared to C3H6, leading to an enhanced ple cycles, which could be attributed to its pore structure and charac­
C3H6/C3H8 adsorption selectivity due to stronger π-complexation teristics [101].
bonding between C3H6 and the MOF-74(Ni) [87].
5.1.3.2. Adsorbate concentration and regeneration. The initial adsorbate
5.1.3. Other factors concentration significantly impacts the regeneration process in adsorp­
Numerous other parameters influence adsorbent regeneration and tion technologies. Higher initial concentrations can lead to faster satu­
should be regulated for efficient recovery. The time taken to regenerate ration of adsorbents, necessitating more frequent regeneration [102].
exhausted adsorbents significantly impacts the adsorbent’s uptake The initial concentration also influences adsorption capacity and ki­
capability [90]. Effective time management is critical to ensuring the netics, affecting the efficiency of the regeneration process [103].
adsorbent is neither destroyed nor loses its adsorption efficacy. The time Moreover, in the case of diesel particulate filters, the initial particle layer
needed for desorption is closely attributed to variables including pH and thickness resulting from the concentration can affect the regeneration
temperature. The number of adsorption-desorption cycles necessary for time and energy efficiency, with excessive thickness leading to longer
good desorption of pollutants or HMs ions from adsorbent is another regeneration times and lower efficiency [104]. Therefore, understand­
crucial aspect to consider for optimal regeneration [91,92]. ing and controlling the initial adsorbate concentration is crucial for
In addition to pH and temperature, several other factors influence optimizing the regeneration process and ensuring the effectiveness and
the efficiency and effectiveness of adsorbent regeneration. Under­ sustainability of adsorption-based wastewater treatment methods [105].
standing the interplay of these variables is crucial for optimizing the Regeneration efficiency can vary with different initial adsorbate
regeneration process and maximizing adsorbent reuse. The following loadings based on the type of adsorbent and regeneration technique
section explores the impact of additional parameters on adsorbent per­ used. In the study by H. M. Mohammad et al., electrochemical regen­
formance and regeneration, including adsorbent particle size, pore eration of a graphite interaction compound loaded with a phenol
structure, adsorbate concentration, and regeneration cycle frequency. adsorbate showed a regeneration efficiency greater than 100%, indi­
cating effective removal of the pollutant but also oxidation of the carbon
5.1.3.1. Adsorbent particle size and pore structure. The particle size dis­ surface, impacting adsorbent life [106]. A different approach was taken
tribution of an adsorbent plays a crucial role in its regeneration effi­ by A. Kaushal, who regenerated mango leaf powder loaded with zinc
ciency and the recovery of adsorbed pollutants. Research indicates that ions using desorbing agents like HCl and HNO3, achieving high elution
the shape and size of the adsorbent material can be controlled to efficiencies and allowing for multiple reuse cycles with minimal loss in
enhance its adsorption and desorption capabilities [93]. Different efficiency [94]. Additionally, Xiaoliang Ma et al. investigated the
desorbing agents such as salts, alkalis, acids, and chelating agents have regeneration of granular activated carbon loaded with 2,4-dinitro­
been used to efficiently desorb pollutants from spent adsorbents, with phenol, showing less than 10 % regeneration efficiency using UV light
varying desorption efficiencies observed based on the desorbing agent irradiation or solvent extraction, possibly due to limitations in reaching
used [94,95]. Regeneration processes like chemical regeneration, ther­ the adsorbed compound within the pores [107]. These findings highlight
mal regeneration, electrochemical regeneration, biological regenera­ the importance of considering the specific adsorbate-adsorbent system
tion, microwave regeneration, and ultrasound regeneration have been and regeneration method when assessing regeneration efficiency.
explored to enable the reuse of adsorbents and the recovery of pollut­
ants, with electrochemical regeneration showing high efficiencies over 5.1.3.3. Regeneration cycle frequency. The number of regeneration cy­
90% in decomposing pollutants and regenerating the adsorbents cles significantly impacts adsorbent performance and stability. Research
simultaneously [96]. Therefore, optimizing the particle size distribution has shown that the desulfurization performance of activated carbon
of adsorbents can significantly impact their regeneration efficiency and decreases gradually with an increase in the number of cycles of
the successful recovery of adsorbed pollutants. adsorption and regeneration, attributed to the rise in acidic functional
The pore size distribution in adsorbents plays a crucial role in their group contents and calcium sulfate levels on the activated carbon sur­
regeneration behavior. Studies on biomass-activated carbon adsorbents face [108]. However, in the case of manganese oxide-based catalysts,
(BACAs) highlighted that the adsorption capacity for benzene, toluene, experimental studies have demonstrated that these catalysts can un­
and xylene is significantly influenced by specific pore size ranges, such dergo up to 150 adsorption-regeneration cycles without visible changes
as 2.60 ~ 3.25 nm, 2.68 ~ 3.35 nm, and 4.20 ~ 4.90 nm, respectively in adsorption capacity, oxidation activity, or composition, indicating
when BACAs have similar specific surface areas [97]. Moreover, the remarkable stability under forced periodical cycling conditions (Zagor­
desorption of adsorbed molecules, notably benzene, is predominantly uiko et al., 2017). To maintain adsorbent efficiency and sustainability,
dependent on the pore structure within the 3.95 ~ 4.60 nm range [97]. exploring various regeneration methods such as chemical, thermal,
Additionally, in shale gas reservoirs, pore characteristics, including electrochemical, biological, microwave, and ultrasound regeneration is
micropores, mesopores, and macropores, impact the regeneration crucial for reusing spent adsorbents and ensuring environmental
behavior of adsorbents. Micropores contribute significantly to specific friendliness and cost-effectiveness [95].
surface area, while mesopores and macropores predominantly affect The optimal regeneration cycle frequency is crucial in maximizing
pore volume and connectivity, influencing the regeneration properties the adsorbent lifespan. Research by Tejeda et al. introduces a method to
of the adsorbents [98]. determine the ideal replacement time for dye affinity adsorbents,
The stability of an adsorbent during multiple regeneration cycles can considering severe regeneration conditions [109]. Additionally, Pons
be influenced by particle size and pore structure. For instance, in the discusses the importance of the cycle period in adsorption cycles with
study by Chen et al., it was found that the particle size of Platinum thermal regeneration, highlighting an objectively optimal cycle period
nanoparticles in Pt/Al2O3 catalysts affected the activity and stability based on the efficiencies of the processes involved [110]. Furthermore,
during dehydrogenation cycles, with smaller particle sizes leading to Huang and Fair’s study on the regeneration of activated carbon beds
higher stability [99]. Additionally, Meng et al. highlighted the impor­ emphasizes the significance of parameters like purge gas type, contact
tance of porous solid supports in polyethyleneimine (PEI) functionali­ time, and temperature in achieving optimal regeneration cycles, which
zation for CO2 adsorption, showing that different supports had varying are essential for thermal swing applications [111]. By carefully

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considering these factors and conducting analyses as suggested in the the latter most often is discarded in the environment, which constitutes
research, industries can design and operate adsorption systems effec­ secondary pollution.
tively to extend the lifespan of adsorbent. Ionic liquids (ILs) are effective adsorbents for environmental reme­
diation due to their unique properties such as high thermal and chemical
5.2. Regeneration methods stability, non-volatility, customizable design, and eco-friendliness. They
maintain structural integrity under extreme conditions, do not evapo­
The kind and nature of adsorbent and adsorbate, as well as the cost rate, and can be tailored for selective pollutant adsorption, which en­
and processing parameters, all influence the method of regeneration of hances their efficiency in removing contaminants [124]. In addition, ILs
adsorbents. As a result, the technology used to regenerate spent adsor­ produce minimal vapor emissions and can effectively decontaminate
bent should be environmentally benign, simple to handle, inexpensive, toxic metals, supporting environmental sustainability [125]. However,
efficient, and allow for the reuse of exhausted adsorbent in water challenges related to cost and scalability remain, highlighting the need
treatment. The regeneration of exhausted adsorbents is critical for for further research to improve their practical applications.
removing pollutants from water solutions. Various techniques for reac­ Adsorption has proven to be an effective and versatile technique for
tivation of saturated adsorbents were reported in the literature, and they removing a wide range of pollutants from wastewater. Despite its ad­
are categorized into three main types: biological, thermal, and chemical vantages, the management of spent adsorbents presents a significant
[112]. challenge to the widespread adoption of this technology [126]. While
Chemical reactivation entails the desorption of certain species in regeneration processes can restore adsorbent capacity, their effective­
solution by applying precise solvents and chemical species or the ness is often limited by factors such as the type of pollutant, adsorbent
breakdown of adsorbed species by utilizing chemicals that serve as ox­ material, and operational conditions [127]. Moreover, the energy con­
idants at supercritical or subcritical parameters. The regeneration ca­ sumption and chemical usage associated with regeneration can render
pacity of any adsorbent is affected by the pH of the solution and the rate the process economically unattractive in many cases [128].
of oxidation and decomposition by complexion [113]. MXenes have been identified as very effective adsorbents for
Thermal regeneration (TR) is heating an adsorbent to a specific extracting heavy metals, radionuclides, and organic contaminants from
temperature to crack the bonds between an adsorbate and an adsorbent. aqueous environments, due to their large surface area and variable
This approach is presently employed in numerous companies and plants surface chemistry [129]. These characteristics considerably improve
to regenerate activated carbon. TR has also been used in the laboratory their adsorption effectiveness, positioning them as viable candidates for
to reactivate spent clay adsorbents [114]. environmental cleanup initiatives. Simultaneously, carbon-based ad­
Microbial regeneration of an adsorbent entails regenerating the sorbents are increasingly being used to remove micro- and nanoplastics
adsorbent through microbial biodegradation of the adsorbed organics from water due to their ecologically friendly properties and economic
[115]. It is accomplished by combining microorganisms, such as bac­ feasibility. Researchers are continually working to improve their
teria, with saturated adsorbents. Biological degradation can be accom­ modification and recycling methods [97]. Furthermore, used polyani­
plished in two ways: by combining bacteria with saturated activated line adsorbents, particularly those combined with transition metals,
carbon in offline systems or by achieving it during biological handling have a high potential for reapplication in energy storage and catalysis
[116]. In a batch process, microbial nutrients and diffused oxygen are due to their durability and excellent chemical properties [67]. In the
coupled with pollutant-loaded adsorbents, accompanied by adsorbate food business, used sorbents such as activated carbon and kieselguhr are
desorption and breakdown of the adsorbents [115]. being repurposed for wastewater treatment, showcasing their efficacy
The main disadvantage of microbial regeneration is its slow regen­ and cost-efficiency in remediating organic materials [130].
eration rate, which makes it unappealing for large-scale work. Exploring alternative applications for spent adsorbents is imperative
Furthermore, not all adsorbents lend themselves to microbial renewal. to address these limitations and promote sustainable waste manage­
Some chemicals, including cationic surfactants, that have been applied ment. By repurposing these materials, researchers and industries can
to alter adsorbents to enhance their cation-exchange capacity are mitigate the environmental impacts of adsorbent disposal and create
harmful to microbes [45]. value from waste products.
Furthermore, other than the methods discussed above, organic Fig. 3 shows that if the metal-loaded adsorbent is not handled
contaminants may be rejuvenated through ultrasonic, microbiological, correctly, it results in secondary pollution, while Fig. 4 illustrates a
microwave-assisted regeneration, ozonation, photo-assisted oxidation, possible adequate adsorbent disposal. The three major applications of
and electrochemical oxidation [117]. Following continuous wasted adsorbents are as follows: as a catalyzer, in the manufacturing of
adsorption-regeneration cycles decreases the efficiency of the adsorbent, ceramics, and as a fertilizer (Fig. 5).
which later results in the redundancy of the adsorbent with the same
contaminant [24]. The exhausted adsorbent could be discharged in a 6.1. Ionic liquid-based adsorbents and their applications in
landfill, incinerated, or recycled [118]. Before landfill disposal, used nanocomposite synthesis
adsorbents with hazardous elements can be stabilized or solidified,
increasing the cost of the adsorbent’s life cycle evaluation [119]. So­ Ionic liquid-based adsorbents exhibit many distinct characteristics
lidifying the adsorbent’s sustainability might be achieved by adequately that augment their efficacy in extracting heavy metals. Their minimal
discharging and reutilizing it in other applications. The used adsorbent vapor pressure and reduced flammability make them safer alternatives
can be reused in numerous ways, including as a catalyst [120], in brick to conventional volatile organic solvents, mitigating the health hazards
formulations [121], in road construction [122], or cement clinkers associated with emissions [132]. Moreover, ionic liquids can be metic­
[123]. ulously tailored through modifications to their cation and anion con­
figurations, facilitating heightened selectivity for specific metals,
6. Potential applications for the reuse of the spent adsorbents including platinum, lithium, and neodymium, all the while preserving
low ecological toxicity [133]. The inherent tunability of ionic liquids
Numerous technologies have been applied to remove pollutants, facilitates the design of these solvents to preferentially extract rare earth
including heavy metals, from water and wastewater. The most prevalent elements as opposed to transition metals, which is substantiated by the
technology used is adsorption due to its ease of operation and low cost. effective separation of Sm(III) from Co(II) [132]. Furthermore, the
Adsorption technology has helped solve environmental pollution and tendency of ionic liquids to form stable complexes with metal ions in
purify wastewater. However, the fate of the adsorbents after the metal/ aqueous solutions markedly improves their extraction efficiency, as
pollutant is loaded onto them has yet to be extensively addressed, and demonstrated through the application of hydrophilic ionic liquids that

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

Fig. 3. Metal-loaded adsorbent inappropriately handled, leading to secondary pollution.

Fig. 4. Proper handling of the adsorbent disposal after adsorption.

selectively engage with metal cations [72]. Together, these character­ tailored solutions for diverse extraction challenges [135]. In comparison
istics underscore the favorable potential of ionic liquids in sustainable to traditional adsorbents, ILs present several advantages. They are
metal extraction techniques. environmentally friendly due to their non-volatile and less toxic nature,
Ionic liquids (ILs) demonstrate distinctive molecular interactions which mitigates ecological concerns [136,137]. Their inherent stability
with heavy metals, positioning them as superior alternatives to con­ allows for repeated usage, rendering them economically viable for
ventional adsorbents for environmental remediation. Their capacity for long-term applications. Furthermore, integrating ILs into polymer in­
electrostatic, dipole, and van der Waals interactions enhances the effi­ clusion membranes has enhanced extraction processes and selectivity
ciency of metal extraction [134]. Additionally, ILs possess low vapor for heavy metals [135]. Despite these benefits, challenges such as high
pressure and thermal stability, which broadens their applicability across costs and scalability issues persist, underscoring the need for ongoing
various domains. The molecular interactions of ILs, particularly their research to optimize the use of ILs in heavy metal remediation efforts.
ability to form robust bonds with metal ions, contribute to improved Ionic liquid-based adsorbents have demonstrated significant effec­
extraction efficacy. Moreover, ILs can be specifically designed for the tiveness in removing specific heavy metals from contaminated water.
selective recovery of metal ions from complex mixtures, thus offering Recent research emphasizes the capabilities of various materials,

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

Fig. 5. Feed additive applications of after-adsorption [131].

particularly Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) and chitosan compos­ Current challenges in using ionic liquid (IL)-based adsorbents for
ites, in this regard. Co-derived MOFs have exhibited high adsorption heavy metal extraction and nanocomposite synthesis include viscosity,
capacities for heavy metals, achieving 526.31 mg/g for Pb2⁺ and 344.82 selectivity, and eco-toxicity issues. The high viscosity of certain ILs,
mg/g for Cd2⁺ through mechanisms of ion exchange and adsorption particularly those with long alkyl chains, complicates mass transfer
[138]. Notably, UIO-66-BTC(Zr) has shown remarkable selectivity and during extraction processes, necessitating prolonged mixing and heating
capacity for Pb (II), with an adsorption capacity of 881.35 mg/g, sur­ to achieve equilibrium [132]. Additionally, while machine learning
passing that of other metals such as Cd (II) and Cu (II) due to chelation models have shown promise in predicting IL structures with high metal
and electrostatic interactions [139]. Functionalized chitosan adsorbents selectivity and low eco-toxicity, synthesizing these tailored ILs can be
have attained removal efficiencies of 92–94 % for metals, including Ni, complex and may not always yield liquids at room temperature [133].
Pb, and Cd, under optimized pH and temperature conditions [140]. The Furthermore, the effectiveness of ILs in selectively complexing metals
inherent properties of chitosan further enhance its adsorption capabil­ can be hindered by their miscibility with aqueous phases, which can
ities, rendering it a versatile option for the removal of various heavy lead to suboptimal separation outcomes [72].
metals [141]. Future research should optimize the performance and applicability
Ionic liquid-based adsorbents are crucial in developing nano­ of ionic liquid (IL)-based adsorbents for broader industrial and envi­
composites, significantly enhancing their properties and functionalities. ronmental applications. This involves investigating the structural
These materials enable innovative applications across diverse fields by properties of ILs that influence their metal selectivity, eco-toxicity, and
integrating ionic liquids (ILs) with various substrates and combining stability, mainly through machine learning techniques that can screen
ionic liquids with polymers, resulting in innovative materials with and identify ILs with optimal characteristics for specific pollutants
customized characteristics, making them ideal for environmental [133]. Structural modifications, such as adjusting cation and anion
remediation, optoelectronics, and biomedicine [129]. In nanofluid sys­ combinations, are crucial for enhancing solubility, stability, and
tems, ionic liquids improve the absorption of gases such as H2S when adsorption capacity, which are key to improving performance in appli­
paired with nanometer-sized metal-organic frameworks (nMOFs), which cations like electrochemical processes and catalysis [139]. Additionally,
enhance gas-liquid mass transfer and promote effective desulfurization integrating computational methods, such as COSMO-RS, with experi­
[142]. mental validation can deepen insights into solvation phenomena and
Integrating ionic liquid (IL)-based adsorbents into nanocomposites refine the design of ILs for targeted applications [133]. Expanding the
for environmental remediation offers numerous advantages. ILs possess range of metals and pollutants that these ILs can effectively target will be
unique properties, such as tunable solubility and selectivity, which essential for addressing broader environmental challenges [145].
enhance the extraction efficiency of targeted pollutants, including Moreover, comprehensive studies on the environmental impact and
metals like platinum, lithium, and neodymium, achieving over 80% degradation pathways of ILs are necessary to ensure their safe and
extraction efficiency in laboratory settings [132]. The reusability of sustainable use, addressing potential toxicity and persistence within
IL-based adsorbents is a crucial factor, demonstrating effective perfor­ ecosystems [146].
mance across multiple cycles, thereby enhancing their economic
viability [139,143]. Furthermore, the eco-toxicity of ILs can be miti­ 6.2. Treatment of organic contaminants: pharmaceuticals and pesticides
gated through careful selection of cation structures, promoting envi­
ronmentally friendly remediation processes. These materials also The adsorption behavior of organic contaminants, such as pharma­
contribute to reduced hazardous sludge generation compared to con­ ceuticals and pesticides, differs significantly from that of inorganic
ventional methods, presenting a more sustainable alternative for contaminants due to their distinct chemical characteristics and in­
wastewater treatment [143]. The application of machine learning to teractions with adsorbents. Organic Contaminants: Pharmaceuticals,
optimize IL design facilitates the rapid identification of effective mate­ including amlodipine and carbamazepine, demonstrate strong hydro­
rials, expediting the development of advanced nanocomposite adsor­ phobic interactions and hydrogen bonding with functionalized surfaces,
bents for diverse environmental applications [133]. Additionally, the which affect their adsorption energetics and capacity [147]. The pres­
functionalization of polymers with ionic liquids leads to the develop­ ence of organic matter in soils has been shown to enhance the sorption of
ment of smart materials customizable for various environmental uses, these contaminants, with a positive correlation observed between
extending their applicability beyond water remediation [144]. Howev­ sorption affinity and organic carbon content [148]. Conversely, inor­
er, assessing the potential toxicity and environmental impact of the ionic ganic contaminants primarily depend on ionic interactions and elec­
liquids themselves is imperative to ensure their safe application in trostatic forces, which are less affected by the presence of organic
remediation efforts. matter. Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) exhibit superior

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performance in adsorbing organic pollutants due to their adjustable energy and environmental issues. This process can be SE into HE, an
porosity and surface chemistry, surpassing conventional materials efficient approach to addressing energy and environmental issues [161].
[149]. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are recognized for their se­ Photocatalysis has been applied to disinfect various surfaces by
lective adsorption capabilities for pharmaceuticals, with adsorption eliminating yeast and E. coli pathogens. It has also been explored for air
processes typically conforming to the Langmuir isotherm model, indi­ purification by decomposing air pollutants. Photocatalytic materials
cating monolayer adsorption on surfaces [150,151]. have the potential to bind or degrade harmful gases in the atmosphere,
The adsorption and subsequent reuse of adsorbents for organic thereby decreasing the negative impacts of harmful gases on the ecology
contaminants encounter several specific challenges, primarily linked to [54,162].
the characteristics of the contaminants and the adsorbents themselves. In wastewater treatment, photocatalysis was applied to degrade in­
These issues can impede effective remediation and recycling efforts. dustrial wastes. Oil substances, reaction aids, paper stocks, acids and
Traditional adsorption techniques often struggle with ionic and hydro­ alkaline substances, fiber impurities, colors, and inorganic salt com­
philic organic pollutants due to their low affinity for standard adsor­ pounds are all common constituents of industrial effluent. In most cases,
bents, necessitating alternative methods such as electro-sorption to industrial effluent is resistant to decomposition. Biological, chemical,
improve efficacy [152]. The diverse range of organic pollutants, and physical approaches are now used to decompose industrial effluent.
including pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Unfortunately, the three procedures described above do not clean the
complicates the development of adsorbents that can effectively target wastewater; they all have limitations. Compared to standard wastewater
multiple contaminants at once [153,154]. Regeneration processes purification methods, photocatalytic technology may eliminate con­
frequently diminish performance significantly when shaping and reus­ taminants and have a significant degrading effect regardless of whether
ing adsorbents like metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) [150]. Many ad­ the contaminants are liquid or gaseous [161].
sorbents do not possess simple on-site regeneration methods, which can Few studies have explored using photocatalysis to reuse the metal-
restrict their practical application in real-world settings [152]. The loaded adsorbent to avoid secondary pollution. Umujeru and co­
stability of adsorbents during repeated usage is a major concern, as some workers prepared coal fly ash coated with carbon hybrid nanocomposite
materials may deteriorate or lose their adsorption capacity over time for the removal of Cd2+and reuse of the spent adsorbent in photo­
[155]. The financial implications of producing and maintaining catalytic application [163] and synthesized coal fly ash decorated with
high-performance adsorbents present a significant barrier, particularly graphene oxide–tungsten oxide nanocomposite for rapid removal of
for large-scale applications in sectors such as oil and gas [154]. Pb2+ ions and reuse of spent adsorbent for photocatalytic degradation of
Recent developments in adsorbent technology aimed at addressing acetaminophen [35].
organic pollutants have centered on innovative materials and method­
ologies, notably metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and carbon-based 6.4. Reuse in latent fingerprint application
structures. These advancements significantly improve the efficiency
and specificity of pollutant elimination. MOFs are characterized by their Latent fingerprint (LFP) could be another approach to solving the
high porosity and surface area, which make them effective in adsorbing issue of secondary pollution and providing a reuse approach for the
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) through various interactions, metal-loaded adsorbent nanocomposite. FPs are material evidence that
including electrostatic and hydrogen bonding [156]. Recent research plays a significant role in distinctive recognition because they are
has underscored the potential of MOFs in catalytic degradation, where distinct and last a lifetime. An FP is an impression of a ridge pattern, and
they function as both adsorbents and catalysts, thereby enhancing recessed ridges and furrows are generated when a finger touches a
pollutant removal efficiency [157]. The development of surface. Most FPs at a crime scene are unnoticeable and are referred to as
metal-pyridine-N (M-N-C) structures has demonstrated potential in latent fingerprints (LFPs). LFPs are frequent at crime scenes and must be
selectively adsorbing organic pollutants with high ionization potentials seen using appropriate technologies to determine the provenance of the
by facilitating electron transfer, which improves adsorption perfor­ fingerprints in routine forensic practice [164].
mance [155]. Advancements in membrane separation technologies, Different techniques were developed for the use of LFP detection,
such as reverse osmosis and nanofiltration, are also noteworthy, as they including the spray method (SPM) and powder dusting method (PDM)
offer practical solutions for diverse organic pollutants while addressing [165,166]. The powder-dusting process is based on attaching powder
challenges such as membrane fouling [158]. particles to fingerprint deposits, resulting in ridges and furrows.
Following cyanoacrylate fuming, colored or fluorescent powders are
6.3. Reuse in photocatalysis frequently used. To boost LFP fluorescence imaging capability, organic
small molecules must be mixed with other matrices [167,168].
The utilization of photocatalysis proves to be a promising technology Fluorescent materials research has also arisen, demonstrating that
in wastewater treatment due to its capability to break down a diverse they are new agents for producing LFPs because of their distinct optical
range of pollutants through light energy. Although this mechanism holds and chemical features, which include more vigorous luminous intensity,
the potential to induce the complete mineralization of specific con­ better luminescence durability, and higher contrast. Many studies on
taminants into innocuous final products such as carbon dioxide and heavy metal quantum dots, rare earth nanoparticles, and noble metal
water, it is crucial to acknowledge the potential formation of interme­ nanoparticles for fluorescence imaging of LFPs have been conducted;
diate byproducts throughout the degradation process [159]. The for­ however, their raw ingredients are restricted, challenging to obtain, and
mation of these secondary products may demonstrate variability possibly hazardous to the ecosystem and people [169,170].
contingent upon factors like the nature of the contaminant, catalyst Metal-loaded adsorbents, such as carbon nanomaterials coated with
employed, and reaction circumstances. Hence, accounting for the metal oxides for heavy metal removal [171] and nitrogen carbon
plausible generation of intermediary by-products and their corre­ nanoparticles fused on zinc oxide nanoparticles for copper ion uptake
sponding environmental implications is imperative when employing [37], can play a crucial role in addressing the secondary pollution issue
photocatalysis for wastewater treatment [160]. Photocatalysis has been by offering a dual-purpose utilization. After being used for wastewater
used for the production of hydrogen. There are several methods for treatment, these adsorbents can be repurposed for latent fingerprint
creating hydrogen, the most prevalent of which is to break down hy­ detection applications, thus preventing their disposal and subsequent
drocarbon deposits. environmental risks. By repurposing spent adsorbents for forensic sci­
Nonetheless, this system is ultimately dependent on hydrocarbon ence applications like latent fingerprint identification, the need for their
deposits. Water’s photocatalytic decomposition to form hydrogen to disposal is eliminated, reducing the generation of secondary waste and
convert solar energy (SE) to hydrogen energy (HE) efficiently addresses contributing to a more sustainable and eco-friendly approach to

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

wastewater treatment and forensic investigations. This innovative sawdust, sunflower seed hulls, and corn remnants, have been examined
approach enhances environmental remediation practices and advances for their ability to adsorb heavy metals and subsequently immobilize
forensic sciences, showcasing the potential for dual-benefit applications them in clay ceramics, delivering an inexpensive and sustainable
of adsorbent materials. approach for eliminating pollutants and managing waste [20].
BG Fouda Mbanga and co-workers successfully prepared carbon dots Several studies have explored the successful implementation of spent
coated on aluminum oxide nanofibers nanocomposite for lead ion adsorbents in construction projects, showcasing their potential as sus­
adsorption and reused the nanocomposite for LFP detection [172]. In tainable materials. Al-Jabri et al. investigated the use of spent fluid
another study, Moshidi et co-workers synthesized manganese cracking catalyst (SFCC) and spent alumina catalyst (SAC) in the pro­
oxide-coated fly ash nanocomposite to remove lead and reused the duction of concrete, indicating that these used catalysts might act as
metal-loaded adsorbent for LFP identification [173]. Both works partial replacements for sand or cement, with SFCC showing positive
demonstrated that the metal-loaded adsorbent could be successfully effects on the corrosion resistance of concrete [175]. In addition, Yadav
reused in LFPs with the ability to obtain clear images of a suspect on et al. emphasized the importance of secure management protocols for
different surfaces. media contaminated with arsenic, proposing their incorporation into
construction materials while stressing the significance of appropriate
6.5. Reuse in construction application management and disposal practices for such materials in practical ap­
plications [21]. Moreover, Horst and Zeifman introduced an innovative
Construction materials such as ceramic bricks and concrete can be approach for transforming metal-laden adsorbents into effective elec­
produced using spent adsorbents as a component. Research has shown trocatalysts, suggesting the potential for reutilizing these resources for
that the utilization of spent sorbents in ceramic brick production can advanced energy purposes in an eco-friendly manner [22].
enhance the strength of the final product, with an increase from 10.8 to
15.8 MPa when incorporating spent sorbent in the amount of 25 % of the 6.6. Reuse in energy or fuel production revised
total mass [174]. Moreover, by immobilizing spent adsorbents such as
pine sawdust, sunflower seed hulls, and corn residues in clay ceramics, The energy recovery efficiency of different conversion processes
these materials can act as precursors for bricks, thereby assisting in the using spent adsorbents varies based on the specific technology
reduction of contamination resulting from the disposal of spent adsor­ employed. For instance, the conversion of spent adsorbents into hetero-
bents [20]. In addition, spent catalysts from oil refineries, such as spent structured electrocatalysts through a boriding process has shown
fluid cracking catalyst (SFCC) and spent alumina catalyst (SAC), have excellent energy recovery efficiency, with optimized catalysts achieving
been explored for use in concrete production, showing potential as low overpotentials for driving current densities, thus contributing to
partial replacements for sand or cement, with varying effects on con­ energy demand and carbon neutrality goals [22]. On the other hand, the
crete properties and corrosion resistance [175]. These studies highlight integration of biogas in processes like ammonia recovery from anaerobic
the diverse applications of spent adsorbents in the construction industry, digestion effluent has demonstrated efficient energy recovery by utiliz­
contributing to sustainable practices and waste reduction. ing biogas as a stripping gas, which aids in ammonia recovery and fer­
The use of depleted catalysts, like fluid cracking catalysts (SFCC) and tilizer production, showcasing a sustainable approach to energy
alumina catalysts (SAC), in manufacturing concrete may impact the utilization [181]. Additionally, advanced adsorption cooling cycles have
physical properties of the construction material. According to the been studied for their energy recovery potential, with heat recovery
research, the solidifying time of concrete declined as the quantity of cycles showing significant enhancements in exergy efficiency, indicating
spent catalyst increased, irrespective of the type utilized [175]. promising energy recovery capabilities in such systems [182].
Substituting sand with SFCC enhanced the mechanical properties, When converted into efficient electrocatalysts through processes like
whereas no enhancement was noted when SAC was used as a sand boriding, the energy output from spent adsorbents demonstrates
substitute. On the other hand, they were incorporating Spent Tea (ST) in promising potential compared to traditional energy sources. By repur­
cement-based mortars results in a decrease in thermal conductivity, posing metal-laden biochar-based spent adsorbents into magnetic metal
thermal diffusivity, density, and compressive strength as the ST content borides/biochar heterostructures, these materials exhibit excellent ac­
increases, making it suitable for lightweight concrete applications and tivities in reactions like the oxygen evolution reaction, showcasing low
insulation purposes depending on the percentage used [176]. overpotentials and high current densities [22]. Similarly, spent zeolites
Assessing the life cycle of utilizing spent adsorbents in construction from petroleum refining processes show enhanced sorption capacities
involves evaluating factors such as energy consumption, greenhouse gas for toxic elements in wastewater, surpassing commercial and natural
emissions, and waste reduction. Studies have shown that repurposing sorbents in removing radionuclides like cesium-137 and cobalt-60
low-cost agricultural- and biomass-based residues as adsorbents, fol­ [183]. These findings highlight the significant energy output and envi­
lowed by their incorporation into the soil, is a favored choice due to the ronmental benefits that can be achieved through the innovative con­
benefits of pollutant adsorption and carbon sequestration [177]. More­ version of spent adsorbents into high-performing electrocatalysts,
over, a comparative analysis between activated carbon (AC) and positioning them as competitive alternatives to traditional energy
modified AC (MAC) for CO2 adsorption revealed that MAC exhibited sources.
higher economic and environmental implications, notwithstanding its Converting heavy metal-contaminated spent adsorbents into effi­
superior CO2 adsorption capacity. Elements such as human toxicity, cient electrocatalysts or adsorbents offers significant economic benefits
marine and freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, and the dominance of fossil compared to conventional energy sources. By utilizing a "waste-to-
fuels significantly influenced the outcomes [178]. Additionally, within wealth" principle, spent adsorbents can be transformed into valuable
the realm of adsorbents utilized in biohydrogen production, an evalua­ products like magnetic metal borides/biochar heterostructures [22] or
tion of the life cycle of zeolite A, Has-Clay, and Kanuma clay demon­ sulfate-functionalized MgAl-layered double oxides (3S-LDO) [184],
strated that Kanuma clay had the most negligible environmental impact which exhibit excellent catalytic or adsorption properties. These mate­
across various categories, presenting valuable insights for sustainable rials show superior performance in energy applications, such as driving
biohydrogen production processes [179]. the oxygen evolution reaction with low overpotentials or rapidly
Reusing spent adsorbents in the construction sector provides notable adsorbing azo dyes from wastewater.
economic and ecological advantages. Studies have indicated that granite Scaling up spent adsorbent-based energy production processes faces
rock powder (GRP) can serve as colorant adsorbents before repurposing several technical challenges and limitations. The conversion of heavy
as fillers in cement and concrete, exemplifying a circular economy metal-contaminated spent adsorbents into efficient electrocatalysts, as
strategy [180]. Moreover, agricultural waste products, including pine demonstrated in the research by Horst et al., involves a boriding process

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B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

to create magnetic metal borides/biochar heterostructures with excel­ high-dose mineral feeds and promote the use of organic and new inor­
lent oxygen evolution reaction activities [22]. However, scaling up this ganic mineral supplements to reduce pollution and improve growth
process may encounter hurdles related to optimizing catalyst perfor­ performance in animals [195]. Moreover, the absence of specific regu­
mance at larger production scales, maintaining the structural integrity lations for the maximum contents of undesirable substances in bedding
and activity of the heterostructures, and ensuring cost-effectiveness and and environmental enrichment materials in pig farming raises concerns
environmental sustainability throughout the process. Additionally, about the potential ingestion of toxic metals and trace elements by an­
challenges in handling and processing massive amounts of spent ad­ imals, highlighting the necessity for further studies to address feed and
sorbents to extract valuable materials efficiently and economically could food safety implications [196].
impede the scalability of such energy production processes. Addressing Regulatory requirements for using recycled materials as feed addi­
these challenges through further research and development efforts will tives vary depending on the region and the material in question. These
be crucial for successfully implementing spent adsorbent-based energy regulations influence the reuse of spent adsorbents in various applica­
production on a larger scale. tions, such as wastewater treatment and building material production.
The Circular Economy principles promote agro-industrial waste as low-
6.7. Reuse in feed additives cost adsorbents for pollutants, highlighting the importance of waste
recovery [20]. Additionally, the study on the reuse of spent sorbents in
Spent adsorbents can supplement specific nutrients in animal feed, water demineralization emphasizes the need for resource-saving tech­
enhancing its nutritional value. For instance, spent filter media con­ nologies and the creation of low-waste processes for environmental
taining organic carbon, activated carbon, and water can be incorporated protection [197]. The investigation into recycling waste Chromium
into animal feed compositions to promote weight gain in animals, adsorbents as catalysts showcases the potential for repurposing spent
particularly swine [185]. Additionally, the innovative ’feed-sorption materials in green chemistry applications, contributing to environ­
process involves adsorbing protein-rich agricultural, poultry, and farm mental protection and sustainability [198]. These regulatory re­
animal wastes to elevate the protein content of feed ingredients like quirements are crucial in determining the feasibility and safety of
Palm Kernel Cake (PKC) [186]. This process aims to enhance the utilizing spent adsorbents in various industries, impacting their poten­
nutritional profile of low-quality feed by increasing protein content tial applications and environmental benefits.
through the adsorption of protein-rich waste materials. Furthermore,
the inclusion of adsorbents such as Bentonite, Thistle Extract, Yeast 7. Limitations and future perspectives
Extract, Vitamin E, Choline, yeast cell wall, Silymarin, and Algae extract
in broiler feed can improve performance and liver weight when the feed The main drawback of previously published adsorption studies is
is contaminated by mycotoxins [187]. that they are typically carried out in the laboratory without a pilot
Using spent adsorbents as feed additives poses potential health risks experiment or a column filtration system used on a large scale in the
due to their ability to bind mycotoxins and toxic elements, which can industry. The majority of the research work used batch mode experi­
lead to unintended consequences in farm animals. While mineral ad­ ments with simulated mono-pollutant solutions, with only a small
sorbents like bentonite, zeolite, and hydrated sodium calcium alumi­ number using actual wastewater, in addition to the restrictions of the
nosilicate reduce mycotoxin exposure in livestock [188], their use may sorbents used. Most studies on bio-waste adsorption concentrated on
also result in undesirable animal effects. Additionally, spent zeolites removing just one contaminant from the wastewater. More studies in
from petroleum refining processes have shown high sorption capacities multi-pollutant systems with actual textile wastewater should be done to
for toxic elements like arsenic, lead, and mercury in wastewater [183]. meet wastewater treatment needs.
Applying mycotoxin binders (MB) in feed, including inorganic adsor­ Few investigations have been explored concerning the reuse and fate
bents and organic binders, aims to prevent animal mycotoxicosis. of the metal-loaded adsorbent. Therefore, it is recommended that studies
However, their efficacy depends on various factors, such as the prop­ of the adsorbent’s fate be taken seriously to reduce secondary pollution.
erties of the binder and the mycotoxin [189]. Therefore, careful Recent literature identifies significant limitations associated with
consideration is necessary when incorporating spent adsorbents into using spent and ionic liquid-based adsorbents in environmental reme­
animal feed to mitigate potential health risks and ensure animal diation. A primary concern is the potential leaching of contaminants
well-being. from spent adsorbents and the reduced efficiency, which can lead to
The safety and efficacy of spent adsorbents as feed additives can be secondary environmental pollution [126]. Regeneration processes,
evaluated through comprehensive assessments following regulatory including thermal and chemical methods, often result in substantial
guidelines. Studies have shown that the supplementation of organically mass loss (10–20 %) and can compromise the structural integrity of the
modified clinoptilolite (OMC) and multicomponent mycotoxin detoxi­ adsorbents, reducing their reusability and overall effectiveness [199].
fying agents (MMDA) effectively mitigated the adverse effects of dietary Additionally, the high energy demands associated with these regenera­
mycotoxins in piglets, demonstrating their potential in improving ani­ tion techniques, particularly thermal methods, contribute to elevated
mal health [190]. Additionally, guidance documents provide a frame­ operational costs, raising concerns about these strategies’ sustainability
work for preparing and presenting applications for the authorization of and economic viability [200]. Furthermore, the limited availability of
animal nutrition additives, focusing on user safety assessments and ef­ certain ILs and high production costs pose challenges to their wide­
ficacy evaluations of feed additives [191,192]. Moreover, research on spread application. The performance of IL-based adsorbents is also
the application of selective sorbents in fish feed production highlighted influenced by environmental conditions such as pH and temperature,
the effectiveness of ferrocene and alginate additives in reducing radio­ which may limit their effectiveness in real-world scenarios. Lastly,
active contamination in aquaculture, emphasizing the importance of traditional disposal methods for exhausted adsorbents risk reintroduc­
utilizing sorbents to ensure the safety of feed components and protect ing contaminants into the environment, underscoring the need for more
aquatic resources [193]. sustainable disposal solutions.
Studies have highlighted the potential contamination of raw feed Spent adsorbents often require complex regeneration processes,
materials with toxic elements and veterinary drug residues, emphasizing leading to increased operational costs and energy consumption,
the importance of monitoring cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic in reducing their overall effectiveness and sustainability. Additionally,
mineral and marine-derived feed materials [194]. In addition, research disposing of spent adsorbents poses environmental challenges, as
has shown that high concentrations of heavy metals in livestock ma­ improper handling can lead to contamination. On the other hand, IL-
nures, originating from excessive mineral additives in feeds, can lead to based adsorbents, while offering high selectivity and reusability, face
farmland pollution, prompting the need for regulations to restrict scalability issues due to the high cost of ILs and the need for specialized

13
B.G. Fouda-Mbanga et al. Green Analytical Chemistry 11 (2024) 100156

equipment for their recovery and recycling. These factors collectively Effective regeneration methods are essential for removing pollutants
hinder the widespread adoption of both technologies, as they must from water solutions and maintaining the performance of adsorbents
balance performance with economic viability and environmental impact over multiple usage cycles.
to be considered sustainable solutions in various applications. Exploring innovative applications for spent adsorbents, such as their
Recent innovations in materials and techniques are crucial for use in ceramics manufacturing and as fertilizers, can enhance their value
addressing the limitations of current adsorbent technologies, particu­ and sustainability while minimizing waste generation. Rejuvenating and
larly concerning efficiency, reusability, and selectivity. Notable ad­ reusing metal-loaded adsorbents can reduce pollution, conserve re­
vancements include the development of Polyionic Liquids (PILs), which sources, and promote cost-effectiveness in environmental remediation
exhibit remarkable adsorption properties for Freon refrigerants, efforts. The review highlights the benefits of adsorption as a promising
achieving over 96 % desorption rates after multiple cycles, thereby technique for wastewater treatment, emphasizing its simplicity, effi­
enhancing both reusability and efficiency [201]. Additionally, the ciency, and cost-effectiveness. By focusing on the recovery and reuse of
application of nanotechnology in the design of adsorbents has resulted adsorbates and adsorbents, the review underscores these processes’
in materials with customized pore structures and increased surface economic and environmental significance in enhancing the sustain­
areas, significantly improving their ability to capture a wide range of ability of wastewater treatment practices.
water contaminants [202]. Furthermore, the optimization of perfor­ Future research should address existing studies’ limitations, such as
mance through comparative evaluations under standardized testing reliance on batch mode experiments with simulated mono-pollutant
conditions allows for meaningful assessments of new materials against solutions, by conducting more studies in multipollutant systems using
existing ones, thereby underscoring the practical benefits of innovative actual wastewater samples. Further exploration of the fate of adsorbent
adsorbents [203]. It is also essential to consider economic factors, such post-adsorption and developing regeneration techniques that can be
as the costs associated with regeneration and disposal, to ensure that scaled up for industrial applications are needed to bridge the existing
these advancements in adsorbent design are commercially viable [202]. knowledge gaps and enhance the practicality of adsorbent reuse in
Key research areas require further exploration to enhance the per­ environmental remediation.
formance and applicability of spent or ionic liquid (IL)-based adsor­
bents. Optimizing regeneration and reusability is crucial for economic Funding
viability, as current methods may not fully restore adsorption capacity.
Understanding interaction mechanisms between adsorbents and pol­ This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
lutants can also lead to more effective, application-specific materials. agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit organizations.
Addressing scalability in IL-based adsorbent synthesis is also essential
for industrial applications. Furthermore, assessing the environmental CRediT authorship contribution statement
impact of ILs and their degradation products is critical to avoid new
ecological risks. Interdisciplinary approaches, integrating computa­ Bienvenu Gael Fouda-Mbanga: Writing – review & editing, Visu­
tional and experimental methods, can streamline adsorbent design by alization. OP Onotu: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodol­
predicting adsorption behaviors and guiding material synthesis, while ogy, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization. Zikhona Tywabi-
experimental validation ensures real-world applicability. Successfully Ngeva: Writing – review & editing.
overcoming these challenges will reduce waste, lower operational costs,
and enhance pollutant capture, fostering innovation in material science Declaration of competing interest
and promoting environmental sustainability in industrial processes.
Chemical washing, thermal regeneration, and microwave-assisted The authors declare that no conflict of interest could have arisen in
regeneration are some advanced techniques that can be useful in the production of this work.
avoiding secondary contamination. These techniques increase the ma­
terial adsorption capacity by decreasing the amount of residual con­ Data availability
taminants. Encapsulation and immobilization methods are useful for
encapsulating the adsorbents in a stable matrix when they cannot be No data was used for the research described in the article.
entirely regenerated or have harmful contaminants. Secondary pollution
can be reduced by using environmentally friendly disposal methods,
including recycling used adsorbents for reuse in wastewater treatment Acknowledgments
or construction. It is also feasible to prevent the release of pollutants by
employing air pollution control technology or safe landfill containment. The authors would like to thank Nelson Mandela University and the
One strategy to reduce the frequency of regeneration and disposal is to National Research Foundation.
pick adsorption materials with a longer life. One method for reducing
the frequency of regeneration and disposal is to choose adsorption ma­ References
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