# Prove that the followings are identical:

(i) ~(p ∨ q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q

Solution:

p q ~p ~q p∨q ~(p ∨ q) ~p ∧ ~q

T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F

F F T T F T T

(ii) ~(p ∧ q) ≡ ~p ∨ ~q

# Using truth tables, prove the following logical equivalences :

(p ∧ q) ≡ ~ (p → ~ q)
p ↔ q ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (~p ∧ ~q)
1.

(p ∧ q) → r ≡ p → (q → r)
2.

p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
3.
4.
# Tautology :
A statement pattern having truth value always T, irrespective of the truth values
of its component statement is called Tautology.
For example, consider (p ↔ q) ↔ (q ↔ p)
p q p↔q q↔p (p ↔ q) ↔ (q ↔ p)

T T T T T
T F F F T
F T F F T

F F T T T
In the above truth table, all the entries in the last column are T.
∴ The given statement pattern is a tautology

# Contradiction :
A statement pattern having truth value always F, irrespective of the truth values
of its component statement is called a Contradiction.
For example, consider p ∧ ~ p

p ~p p∧~p

T F F

F T F

In the above truth table, all the entries in the last column are F.
∴ The given statement pattern is a Contradiction.
# Contingency :
A statement pattern which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called
Contingency.
For example, consider (p ↔ q) ∧ ~(p → ~ q)

p q p↔q ~q p →~q ~(p → ~q) (p ↔ q) ∧~(p

→~q)

T T T F F T T
T F F T T F F
F T F F T F F

F F T T T F F

In the above truth table, the entries in the last column are a combination of T
and F.
∴ The given statement pattern is neither a tautology nor a contradiction, it is a
contingency

# Using truth tables examine whether the following statement

patterns are tautology, contradiction or contingency.

1. (p ∧ ~ q) ↔ (p → q)….Ans. Contradiction

2. (~p ∧ q) ∧ (q → p) …Ans. Contradiction

3. (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)…Ans. Contingency

4. [(p ∨ q) ∨ r] ↔ [p ∨ (q ∨ r)]… Ans. Tautology

5. (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)… Ans. Contingency

 # Prepare the truth table of the following statement patterns :
1. (p ↔ r) ∧ (q ↔ p)

(p ↔ r) ∧(q ↔
p q r p↔r q↔p

p)

T T T T T T

T T F F T F
T F T T F F
T F F F F F
F T T F F F
F T F T F F
F F T F T F

F F F T T T

# Prepare the truth table of the following statement patterns :

1. [(p → q) ∧ q] → p

2. (p ∧ q) → (~p)

3. (p → q) ↔ (~p ∨ q)

4. (p ∨ ~q) → (r ∧ p)
 # Quantifiers :
Quantifiers are the symbols used to denote a
group of words or a phrase. Generally, two types of
quantifiers are used. They are as follows:
1. Universal Quantifier
2. Existential Quantifier

1. Universal Quantifier:

For example, Consider A = {1, 2, 3} Let p: ∀ x ∈ A, x < 4

The symbol „∀‟ stands for “all values of” and is known as universal quantifier.

Here, the statement p uses the quantifier „for all‟(∀).

This statement is true if and only if each and every element of set A satisfies the
condition „x < 4‟ and is false otherwise.

3 satisfy the condition, „x ∈ A, x < 4‟.

Here the given statement is true for all the elements of set A, as 1, 2,

2. Existential Quantifier :
The symbol „∃‟ stands for „there exists‟ and is known as existential quantifier.
For example, Consider A = {4, 14, 66, 70}.
Let p: ∃ x ∈ A such that x is an odd number.
Here, the statement p uses the quantifier „there exists‟ (∃).
This statement is true if at least one element of set A satisfies the
condition „x is an odd number‟ and is false otherwise.

satisfy the condition,„x ∈ A such that x is an odd number‟.

Here, the given statement is false as none of the elements of set A

# Quantified statement :
The statement containing quantifiers is known as quantified statement.
Generally, an open sentence with a quantifier becomes a statement
and is called quantified statement.
For example:
Use quantifiers to convert open sentence x + 2 < 4 into a statement.

∃ x ∈ N such that x + 2 < 4, is a true statement, since x = 1 ∈ N

Solution:

satisfies x + 2 < 4.

Example-1 If A = {3, 4, 6, 8}, determine the truth value of each of

1. ∃ x ∈ A, such that x + 4 = 7
the following:

Ans. Since x = 3 ∈ A, satisfies x + 4 = 7

∴ The given statement is true.
∴ Its truth value is „T‟.

2. ∀ x ∈ A, x + 4 < 10.
Ans. Since x = 6, 8 ∈ A, do not satisfy x + 4 < 10,
∴ The given statement is false.
∴ Its truth value is „F‟

3.∀ x ∈ A, x + 5 ≥ 13…Ans.F
4. ∃ x ∈ A, such that x is odd…Ans.T
5. ∃ x ∈ A, such that (x − 3) ∈ N…Ans.T

# Duality :
Two compound statements S1 and S2 are said to be duals of each other, if
one can be obtained from the other by interchanging „∧‟ and „∨‟ and
vice- versa.
The connectives „∧‟ and „∨‟ are duals of each other.
Also, a dual is obtained by replacing t by c and c by t, where „t‟ denotes
tautology and „c‟ denotes contradiction.

Remarks:
1. The symbol „∼‟ is not changed while finding the dual.
2. Dual of a dual is the statement itself.
3. The special statements „t‟ (tautology) and „c‟ (contradiction) are
duals of each other.
4. T is changed to F and vice-versa.