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Wednesday May 8, 2019

Energy Efficiency: An Overview

Why is energy important for MNOs?

For many operators, energy consumption has historically been a significant
consideration as it is one of the highest operating costs, alongside employee
remuneration (see figure 1). Energy is becoming even more important due to
climate change and sustainability considerations. The potential increase in data
traffic (up to 1,000 times more) and the infrastructure to cope with it in the 5G era
could make 5G to, arguably, consume up to 2-3 times as much energy. This
potential increase in energy, coming from a high number of base stations, retail
stores and office space, maintaining legacy plus 5G networks and the increasing
cost of energy supply – call for action.

The current reality is that overall energy usage by the telecoms industry needs to
come down as the industry consumes between 2 – 3% of global energy currently.
Many national governments are mandating businesses to adhere to energy
reforms (e.g. EU’s 2030 climate and energy framework) with the global goal to
reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, since 2014, by 30% in absolute terms by
2020 and 50% by 2030. The telecoms industry is not exempt from these
pressures and the evolution to 5G is an opportunity to deliver a cleaner, greener
telecoms footprint – indeed, 3GPP’s 5G specification calls for a 90% reduction in
energy use.

A growing number of operators have taken a leading role in sustainability, and the
use of renewables to meet or exceed these decarbonisation goals and these will
expand in the 5G era. The many solutions to enhance network energy efficiency
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fall into two major groups: increasing the use of alternative energy sources to
reduce dependence on the main power grid; network load optimisation to reduce
energy consumption.
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Figure 1

Network energy costs

Energy consumption constitutes between 20 – 40% of network OPEX, and there
are two schools of thought on how this will evolve for 5G.

There are two opposing schools of thought with regards to network energy
consumption in 5G. Some stakeholders point to no overall net increase in the
energy consumption of 5G networks by more efficient equipment. For example,
Telia and Ericsson believe that the rise in energy usage will be offset by more
efficient equipment resulting in no net increase in energy usage. This view is also
shared by Nokia, who also, in 2017 found that existing site equipment renewal
delivered efficiencies of 44% which are expected to offset any increase.

On the other hand, other stakeholders believe that the energy consumption of
wireless networks will initially fall before picking up again. Huawei estimates that
energy consumption will fall initially until “around 2021” (MDPI report). However, in
the same way, 5G data traffic (and network deployments) increase, so does
energy usage. They calculate this increase to be at a rate of 5% p.a. from 2022
until 2025. Even this value is contingent on a breakthrough in “efficient 5G
technologies”, a delay of which could see global energy usage increasing by an
additional incremental 30%.

In addition to the data load question, i.e., equipment will be able to handle more
bandwidth with the same or lower energy consumption, this does not address the
increase in cell sites with Huawei pointing to a doubling of network energy
consumption. It is worth highlighting that issues of power capacity at existing
sites, may also affect CAPEX and deployment times.

Figure 2 highlights the cost contributions and total cost of ownership (TCO) for a
hypothetical operator in a developed market. It is based on the GSMA’s Network
Economics Model and has been designed to support operators in understanding
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critical value levers to deliver lower TCO.
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Figure 2

Key drivers in the case for energy

Energy is a crucial consideration for the following reasons:

20-40% of network OpEx – for many operators RAN and base stations make up
much of this, and cost reduction is a key driver

Stagnating revenues in many markets and clarity around revenue opportunities

meaning cost reduction is a key priority

Energy increase in 5G, while the jury is still out on just how much this energy
increase may be through densification and increased traffic demand, what’s
clear is many operators will maintain a 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G networks (GSMA, 5G
report)

Carbon energy market volatility, cost of carbon-based energy is affected by

geopolitical events

Cost reduction in renewables – 90% reduction in PV cost in last ten years,

further 50% in the next five years (IRENA report?) Cost of wind turbines has
fallen 37-56% and PVs by 80% in last 10years? (check IRINA 2018b). Cost of
renewables cheaper than the grid in many markets – price parity

Climate change – Paris Agreement’s objective of keeping the rise of global

average temperatures to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial
levels

Corporate sustainability of growing in importance for consumers and investors

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Scope Solutions and impact Discover Get involved About us Newsroom

The scope is network infrastructure:

Out of scope:-

Operational infrastructure (offices, factories, fleets, supply chain)

End-user consumption

Device-level efficiency

Equipment components (e.g. processor efficiency)

Supply chain efficiency

Regulatory matters

Sourcing
Sourcing refers to where energy supply is can be obtained either directly or using
conversion or transformation, for example, solid fuels, liquid fuels, solar energy,
and biomass.

The traditional approach for legacy networks has been to use grid-supplied
energy as a primary power source, and main supply of energy is conventional grid
supply were available with diesel generators providing back up power, or often as
a primary power source in a bad-grid or no grid scenario.

A growing number of operators have taken a leading role in sustainability, and the
use of renewables to meet or exceed these decarbonisation goals and these will
expand in the 5G era. The many solutions to enhance network energy efficiency
fall into two major groups: increasing the use of alternative energy sources to
reduce dependence on the primary power grid; network load optimisation to
reduce the energy consumption.

Grid energy
For over 100 years, coal and other fossil fuels have been used by power plants to
produce the electricity we use every day. The grid is a network of powerlines and
substations that carry electricity from powerlines to homes and businesses. In
many markets, the grid faces many problems, including the need to update and
capacity issues. When powerlines break or power stations cannot produce enough
power,
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content can occur, which can have significant economic and social
impacts.
Traditional grids are often reliant upon a single power source and often lack
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address these problems in the past, utility providers have built more power
stations to deal with the demand thus addressing any shortfall. It is worth noting,
in many markets, utility providers are working towards sustainability and reducing
their reliance upon traditional carbon-based fossil fuels by moving to alternatives
such as nuclear energy or renewables adding stability and efficiency while
improving their “energy mix”.

In doing so businesses and consumers, can purchase cleaner energy directly

through green tariffs, often at a premium, facilitating decarbonisation strategies.

Smart Grids
The smart grid means adding sensors and software to the existing grid giving new
information to utilities and individuals to help them understand and react to
changes in supply quickly. For example, if a tree falls on a power line and 1000
homes lose power, with the current grid, utility engineers often physically reroute
power, taking time. With a smart grid, sensors and software would detect and
immediately re-route power around the problem, limiting the issues. Also, the
price of electricity changes throughout the day, but we can’t see it with the
current metres, it may be experienced in the peak hours and cheaper in off-peak
hours. The installation of new smart meters at home, driving consumer behaviour
provided more predictability around usage and also pricing.

The smart grid is being rolled out in many markets, but soon we’ll be able to make
a more informed decision of usage.

TESCOs & IESCOs

A crucial driver of the conversion to greener alternatives will be Energy Service
Companies (ESCOs) that provide energy to towers owned by Mobile Network
Operators (MNOs) and dedicated Tower Companies (TowerCos). [1]Many MNOs
across the world, especially in Asia and Africa, are in the process of selling off their
tower assets, including the energy infrastructure, to third-party structures. This
trend, brought on by a strong imperative to cut network deployment and
operating costs, is expected to intensify in the 5G era. In a rapidly evolving tower
energy landscape, that requires a high degree of customisation across multiple
tower sites and specific technical expertise, MNOs are not best-positioned to drive
energy efficiency. Moreover, MNOs have an incentive to reduce the complexity of
non-revenue generating operations like power, to focus on revenue-generating
parts of their business. MNOs place a priority on expanding networks and
upgrading technology of active equipment.[2] With limited funds for CAPEX,
MNOs will always favour investments in existing radio equipment over
investments in energy solutions. There are two types of ESCOs in the market
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today, each facing specific challenges related to the transition of the industry to
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TowerCo ESCOs (TESCOs)

These are TowerCos that generate and provide electricity to their MNO tenants at
telecom tower sites. TESCOs typically bundle their energy services with other
standard functions of dedicated TowerCos (e.g. site security, monitoring of active
equipment and upgrade of passive infrastructure), and charge an all-inclusive
fixed monthly fee for all rendered services. Critically, TESCOs own, operate and
bear all operating costs for the tower’s energy assets. Because energy generation
and provision can constitute up to 60% of all annual operating expenses, TESCOs
are incentivised to continuously seek long-term opportunities for energy
efficiency, energy cost reduction, and cost predictability. Their primary challenge
is that historically, TowerCo and MNO contracts are structured to provide
TowerCos with little or no commercial or business incentives to prioritise energy
cost reductions and energy efficiency, i.e. they had incentives to be TESCOs.
While the contracts have now reversed, inertia remains that work against greater
adoption green and renewable energy solutions, even though on paper they
promise substantial cost reductions.

Independent ESCOs (IESCOs)

These are dedicated or pure-play energy companies that own and operate energy
assets at power telecom tower sites. IESCOs derive revenues from selling energy
to MNOs as well as dedicated TowerCos,6 and share similar incentives as TESCOs
to reduce energy costs by upgrading energy assets. Financing new energy
generation assets, primarily through debt financing at viable interest rates is the
primary challenge facing IESCOs today. The small size and low asset base of
existing IESCOs and those looking to enter IESCO market, has proved particularly
limiting when banks evaluate funding applications. Also, banks often have an
incomplete understanding and experience of IESCO business models, and often
lack effective frameworks to assess funding needs and requirements. As the drive
to decrease telecom tower energy costs gathers momentum over time, TESCOs
are expected to develop appropriate contract management structures in their
dealings with MNOs, which would offer clear incentives for energy efficiency,
innovation and cost reductions. This transition is already underway in key markets.
For example, in India, TowerCos, which currently comprise about 60% of the total
market of 400k telecom towers, have switched from almost universally deployed
‘pass-through’ models to fixed-fee contracts with their MNO tenants, all in the past
2-3 years.

Renewables
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Operators are increasingly shifting their energy sourcing away from carbon
sources towards green
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such as photovoltaic modules and fuel cell generators as their cost continues to
fall. Such non-carbon energy sources can exempt an operator from the burdens of
carbon emissions regulation and enable the networks to be more resilient to
natural disasters or power outages.

The optimal choice of renewable energy will differ depending on the context of
the operator (e.g., fossil fuel costs in the nation, power outages, carbon emissions
regulation), but alternative energy source solutions can be cost-effective. This is
important because energy costs from the central grid or by energy generators
with fossil fuels is a primary concern for operators: the former because the
electricity needs depend on the utilities and the latter because carbon emissions
are being regulated/taxed by some regulators.

Increasingly companies are turning to renewables for their energy requirements,

which have primarily been as a result of massive reductions in the cost of
renewables coupled with a more conscious drive to corporate sustainability from
investors and consumers[3].

Decreasing costs in Renewables tech

The pace of renewable energy deployment in recent years has been remarkable, a
report by IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency)[4], estimates that it
must be accelerated at least six-fold to meet the climate goals and achieve the
necessary decarbonisation of the energy sector by 2050.

Findings from this report indicate that companies actively consumed

approximately 465 terawatt-hours (TWh) of renewable electricity in 2017; this is
comparable to the entire electricity consumption of France.

Corporate sourcing of renewables has the potential to drive significant additional

investment in renewable energy. With the right framework in place, it can help to
accelerate the energy transformation and move the world closer to achieving the
Paris Agreements’s objective.

Non-energy producing companies are increasingly turning to renewables as their

preferred energy choice. In addition to cutting emissions, the economic benefits
os sourcing renewables often cost include cost savings, long-term price stability
and security of supply.

Renewable energy is now the cheapest source of power generation in many parts
of the world and investment in renewable energy is outpacing that of
conventional energy. The cost of wind turbines has fallen by 37 to 56% (IRENA,
2018b)[5] and that of solar photovoltaics (PVs) by approximately 80% (IRENA
and IEA, 2017)[6]
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Renewable electricity sourcing occurs across a broad range of companies.
Although the most significant industry to report renewable electricity
consumption is the Industrial Sector (238 out of 531, presenting 45% of company
reporting data), it is the
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largest proportion of companies sourcing renewable electricity (46 out of 72,
presenting 64% in companies reporting data). Moreover, it is the IT sector that is
pioneering some of the most innovative corporate sourcing models, including
different forms of PPAs, entered into to supply operations such as data centres.

Models for corporate sourcing of renewables

Operators have several options for alternative energy sourcing. First, operators
may purchase green energy directly from their utility provider (often at a
premium).

Second, they can use energy attributes certificates (EACs), which allow an offset
of energy consumption through equivalent renewables-based certificates.

Third, a third-party power purchase agreement (PPA) as a means to shift supply

to renewables without the initial CapEx investment, agreeing to purchase energy
from the solar or wind farm at a specific rate for a particular period, e.g. 5-20
years.

Lastly, operators can self-generate energy either at the base station with
standalone or hybrid solar-based solutions, (which may extend to off-grid
scenarios); or with large-scale solar and wind farms, requiring CapEx investment.
For base station, energy solutions see later section on energy saving.

Unbundled energy attribute certificates

(EACs).

A company purchases attribute certificates of renewable energy separately

‘unbundled’ form its electricity. Example – Guarantees of Origin (GO) and
renewable energy certificates (RECs).

An EAC is a contractual instrument that represents information about the origin

of the energy generated. It allows markets to track renewable energy
production and permits consumers to make credible claims of renewable energy
use.

The best practice is considered to be the sourcing of certificates within the

geographical region where a company’s electricity purchasing takes place.

Prices for EACs vary depending on local supply and demand, technology,
locational attributes, and contract length.

Advantages of EACs are flexibility, simplicity and lower operational risk

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 Disadvantages are the low average price of unbundled EACs tend to cast doubt
on the extent to which
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new additional capacity.

Power Purchase Agreement (PPA).

A company enters into a contract with an independent power producer, a utility

or a financier and commits to purchasing a specific amount of renewable
electricity, or the output from a particular asset, at an agreed price and for an
agreed period.

The typical duration of a PPA for a newly built project is ten years or longer.
However, the term can vary between sectors and locations.

PPAs are an option for companies to lock in a cost-competitive price.

Virtual PPA is a contract where the renewable energy generator sells its
electricity in the spot market and then settles the price based on the difference
between the variable market price and the strike price with the company who
receives the associated EACs

Sleeved PPAs are where the renewable energy generator sells the electricity
and related EACs directly to a company.

In 2017, a record level of new corporate PPAs was reached, with over 5 GW of
capacity contracted, this was predominately in wind and solar projects. This is
almost an increase of a third on 2016 numbers. (RMI, 2018)[7]

PPAs often include energy storage to ensure reliability and security of supply.

Examples:

Telefonica Mexico Case Study

Orange Jordan Case Study

AT&T Blog

Renewable energy offerings form utilities or

electric suppliers.
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 A company purchases renewable electricity from its utility either through green
premium products
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a green tariff programme.

Green premium products enable corporate buyers to conveniently purchase

renewable electricity directly from the utility without a long-term commitment.

Utility green tariffs (also known as renewable utility contracts) are longer-term
agreements whereby customers purchase renewable electricity bundled to a
specific renewable energy asset.

The telecommunication Service sector purchases 40% of their electricity

through various utility contract.

Production for self-consumption.

A company invests in its own renewable energy systems, on-site or off-site, to

produce electricity primarily for self-consumption.

In Direct investment in self-generation, the company is responsible for the entire

project life cycle, from commissioning, assuming the associated risks and
financing responsibilities

Alternative models can involve a third party developer installing an on-site

system for a self-generation under a lease contract, thus limiting the end users
risk.

Direct investment for self-generation takes place in almost every country that
permits some form of grid connection at a rate of compensation (through net
metering or feed-in tariff scheme.

Other examples of direct investment for self-generation include companies with

agricultural by-products capable of producing biomass or biogas, such systems
allow direct control over the conversion of waste products into energy.

Most commonly, self-generation projects are located on-site; however, in some

cases, electricity is generated off-site and transferred either physically or under
a financial contract to the end-user.

For off-site projects, transmission or wheeling charges may apply, if access to

transmission assets is required to deliver the electricity to the sites.

Sourcing trends indicate that direct investment will increase its share in the
coming years as the cost of renewable energy systems continues to decline and
companies continue to source renewable electricity more directly.

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NTT Docomo Case Study
Storage Solutions and impact Discover Get involved About us Newsroom

Energy storage is the answer to balancing intermittent generation – the capture of

energy produced at one time to be used at another. Common examples of usage
in mobile networks are largely battery and fossil-based generators, though more
recently this is shifting to alternative technologies, e.g. fuel cells.

Batteries
Innovation in battery tech is advancing at a rapid pace, but the elusive high
capacity, long-life; the super battery is yet to be discovered. Batteries are
particularly valuable because they offer sub-second frequency response – that is if
there is a failure of power, batteries can instantly take over. However, this is often
for a short period, usually 4-6 hours. The scaling of other industry such as the
electric vehicle (EV) and photovoltaic (PV) or solar panel markets are helping to
reduce costs. Batteries are By controlling the batteries exposure to heat; you can
lengthen the life cycle and keep your battery running like new.

Lead Acid
While the use of smart (or electronic) batteries has been increasing in recent
years, lead-acid batteries remain the industry standard used for storage in backup
power supplies in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like datacentres, and
stand-alone power systems.

VRLA
VRLA is a replacement for the traditional flooded lead-acid battery. In valve
regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries, hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells
largely recombine into the water – retaining moisture within the battery. VRLA
batteries are often referred to as maintenance-free as they do not require regular
checking of the electrolyte level. However, this is somewhat of a misnomer. VRLA
cells do require maintenance. As the electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells “dry-out” and
lose capacity, which can be detected by taking regular measurements to
determine whether further action is required. New maintenance procedures have
been developed allowing “rehydration”, often restoring significant amounts of lost
capacity – this should be checked in conjunction with supplier warranty.

Different types of batteries have been developed to overcome this leakage, e.g.
gel cell VRLA batteries, which add silicate to ensure efficacy. However, these are
often at a premium and have challenging charging processes.

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LithiumSolutions
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The lithium-ion family receives the most attention and is gradually replacing the
lead-based predecessors that dominated the battery world.

Li-ion is presently more expensive than lead-acid; however, when calculating the
price-per-cycle, it is superior to lead acid when repeat cycling is required and
basing calculations on cost per kilowatt hour (kWh) no longer holds; operational
costs must be considered.

Developments in EV and PV sectors are significantly reducing the cost of lithium-

ion, which has fallen dramatically – over 80% since 2010.

Figure 3

Future developments
The pace of demand in battery tech drives constant innovation that either
enhance or could potentially replace existing solutions. These include graphene,
solid-state and ultrafast charging, which may provide a step-change in
capabilities. When adding timelines to tech adoption, it takes an estimated 4-5
years for new technologies to be fully commercialised, so it is not expected that
solid-state batteries to make a meaningful contribution to the global EV market
until the late 2020s at the earliest.

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Generators (back up and primary source)
Diesel Solutions and impact Discover Get involved About us Newsroom

Diesel Generators often referred to as generator sets or “gensets” are one of the
most economical ways to generate electricity and are often relied upon as a
backup power once batteries have become depleted or as a primary power
source in off-grid/bad grid scenarios. Proper dimensioning and sizing of diesel
generators is critical to avoid low-load or a shortage of power, which is
particularly challenging with modern electronics and non-linear loads.

Generators can be adapted to support Liquid and natural gas.

Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that produces
electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen into water. Like batteries, fuel cells
convert potential chemical energy into electrical energy and generate heat as a
by-product. However, the chemical energy is stored inside batteries—rather than
generated— they can only operate for a limited duration until they need to be
discarded or recharged. Fuel cells, on the other hand, can continuously generate
electricity subject to sufficient fuel supply (e.g. hydrogen) and an oxidant.[8]

Hydrogen distribution is an issue, and alternative fuels such as methane and

ammonia have been explored as an alternative which can overcome safety and
cost concerns.

GenCell Case Study

Energy efficiency in Networks

Network load optimisation is essential to ensure a reduction in total energy
consumption. This is a prescient requirement for 5G era networks. Improving
energy efficiency to consume less energy can be achieved through a multitude of
solutions, including smart building, virtualising the core, and enhancing RAN
efficiency through modernisation of legacy equipment and implementation of low-
powered solutions.

While existing core networks enjoy the benefits of having well-established energy
management systems (including remote management systems), the critical
elements for access network infrastructure such as power systems, batteries, air
conditioners, free cooling and generators (gen-sets) often do not come with
holistic, well-developed energy management systems.

Remote monitoring and automation of management functions for the main site
infrastructure elements allow operators to identify CapEx and OpEx reduction
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opportunities and develop energy efficiency strategies. Further energy efficiency
gains will also come from network automation and using shared network
infrastructure.Solutions and impact Discover Get involved About us Newsroom

Saving
The many solutions to enhance network energy efficiency fall in two major groups:
increasing the use of alternative energy sources to reduce dependence on the
main power grid, and network load optimisation to reduce the energy
consumption.

The following solutions are considered a means to improve energy consumption in

networks in addition to the backhaul, infrastructure and automation online
documents which by their nature, reduce energy consumption.

Ran Infrastructure Modernisation

As technology advances, developments in new tech can bring a significant
reduction in energy consumption. However, ran infrastructure modernisation often
requires high CapEx investment, coupled with long break-even time. Ran
modernisation is usually executed with other scenario change (Vendor band,
technology, format, refarm, and others). However, this can “hide” OpEx increases
related to additional tech-band support.

Lightweight base station

Recent developments in free air cooling and outdoor sheltering are now evolving
into deployments of light-weight base stations, coupling limited coverage and
capacity with low power, renewably sourced solutions, deployed at a fraction of
the cost benefiting, in particular, rural connectivity scenarios.

Ruralstar solution

Moving radio power equipment to exterior

shelters
The relocation of equipment from interior sites to exterior shelter reduces the
HVAC energy consumption, usually executed during modernisation projects.

Installing Free Cooling Equipment

The commissioning of free air cooling can reduce the AVAC and in some climates
can
Skipprove very useful to address only the heat aspect. Free Air Cooling requires
to content
moderate CAPEx investment and mostly applicable if external cooling is available
most of the year and and
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Pure software /Self-optimising network

solution

Automation Overview

Powerstar Case Study

Intelligent site connectivity

With the addition of intelligent connectivity through software and IoT sensors at a
base station or other infrastructure sit, more significant data can be captured
which can drive intelligence, for example, in site power consumption, maintaining
cooling, battery life cycle management.

Turkcell case study

Alternative Energy Sources

See section on sourcing.

Other power strategies and solutions

A good example is CommScope Powershift dynamically voltage adjustment

system, interesting for new deployments.

Partial integration of alternative power systems, like solar panels can be

attractive as the cost is lower than the total of a grid-like supply, though,
retrofitting may be somewhat complicated depending on existing
configurations

Higher efficiency rectifiers though most modern rectifiers achiever 95%+

efficiency

Tight battery ageing control (old-lead acid batteries burn energy)

Migration to Lithium Ion/alternative energy storage solution

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Energy Recovery
Heat Solutions and impact Discover Get involved About us Newsroom

While ICT and telecoms technologies continue to become more efficient, the
facilities that support them have been traditionally energy intensive. To take
advantage of this, designers and engineers need to adjust how they approach hot
air conditioning – thinking in terms of heat recovery, as opposed to cooling. The
application of waste heat recovery is impacted by two significant obstacles: the
size of the installation and the physical distance to facilities which could utilise the
recovered heat.

Datacentre heating
Data centres can consume large amounts of power and generate significant waste
heat, often more than is required by to heat a typical office building and so are
often coupled with a central campus or increasingly, municipal district heating
projects[9].

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[1] https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-
content/uploads/2015/01/140617-GSMA-report-draft-vF-KR-v7.pdf

[2] Core radio equipment (including equipment) that is responsible for

broadcasting mobile phone signals to users. Passive infrastructure, on the other
hand, includes the non-electronic equipment including the tower itself, energy
infrastructure, etc.

[3] https://on.ft.com/2WXCslK

[4] IRENA (2018), Corporate Sourcing of Renewables: Market and Industry Trends
– Remade Index 2018. International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi.

[5] Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2017,

https://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Apr/IRENA_Report_GET_2018

[6]Perspectives for the energy transition – investment needs for low-carbon

energy system ©OECD/IEA and ORENA 2017, https://irena.org/404?
item=%2fpublications%2f2017%2fmar%2fperspectives-energy-transition-
investment-needs-for-a-low-carbon-energy-
system&user=extranet%5cAnonymous&site=IrenaLivehttp

[7] RMI (Rocky Mountain Institute) (2018), Corporate Renewable Deals 2013 – 2018
YTD, https://businessrenewables.org/?s=corporate+transactions

[8] https://www.gencellenergy.com/gencell-technology/what-is-a-fuel-cell/
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[9] https://www.siliconrepublic.com/enterprise/stockholm-heat-data-centres
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