EFFECTS OF PLASTICISER MIXTURES ON

PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF MEDICAL GRADE POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
(PVC)

MOK WEN RU

UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

 EFFECTS OF PLASTICISER MIXTURES ON PHYSICAL AND
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MEDICAL GRADE POLYVINYL
CHLORIDE (PVC)

MOK WEN RU

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of Bachelor of Engineering
(Hons.) Chemical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering and Science

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman

September 2012
 ii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project report is based on my original work except for
citations and quotations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it
has not been previously and concurrently submitted for any other degree or award at
UTAR or other institutions.

Signature : _________________________

Name : MOK WEN RU

ID No. : 09UEB00585

Date : 21/9/2012
 iii

APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION

I certify that this project report entitled EFFECTS OF PLASTICISER

MIXTURES ON PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MEDICAL GRADE POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) was prepared by MOK
WEN RU has met the required standard for submission in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Engineering (Hons.) Chemical
Engineering at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman.

Approved by,

Signature : _________________________

Supervisor : Ms Bee Soo Tueen

Date : 21/9/2012
 iv

The copyright of this report belongs to the author under the terms of the
copyright Act 1987 as qualified by Intellectual Property Policy of University Tunku
Abdul Rahman. Due acknowledgement shall always be made of the use of any
material contained in, or derived from, this report.

© 2012, Mok Wen Ru. All right reserved.

 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my research supervisor, Ms Bee Soo

Tueen for providing valuable advice, guidance, support and enormous patience
throughout the development of this research. Besides that, I would like to thank SCC
Compounding Sdn. Bhd. and Sumo Hose Sdn. Bhd. for providing technical support
including raw materials and equipments required for this research. I would also like
express my appreciation to Mr Chua Ngan from SCC Compounding Sdn. Bhd. and
Mr Lee Chun Yuan from Sumo Hose Sdn. Bhd. for giving me guidance throughout
the experiment. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family members, friends
and lab assistants who had contributed to the successful completion of this project.
 vi

EFFECTS OF PLASTICISER MIXTURES ON PHYSICAL AND

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MEDICAL GRADE POLYVINYL
CHLORIDE (PVC)

ABSTRACT

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has been widely used in manufacturing of disposal, pre-
sterilized medical device such as urine bag and urinary tubing due to its flexibility,
durability, transparency, sterilization performance, and low cost. Plasticiser typically
di-2-etylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is normally incorporated into PVC resins to
increase the flexibility. However, the migration tendency and toxicity of DEHP has
led to gradual shift of plasticiser to high molecular weight phthalate or other
alternative plasticisers. The effect of different plasticiser mixtures (mixture of dioctyl
adipate (DOA) with epoxidised soybean oil (ESO), mixture of diisononyl phthalate
(DINP), DOA and ESO and mixture of dioctyl terephthalate (DOTP) with ESO) and
different plasticiser concentration on physical as well as mechanical properties of
PVC compounds were investigated. PVC resins and additives were compounded by
two roll mill machine and compression moulded with hot press machine. The
physical and mechanical properties of PVC compounds were examined by
conducting tensile test, hardness test, specific gravity test and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). As the plasticisers’ concentration increased, the tensile strength,
Durometer hardness and specific gravity of PVC compound decreased while
elongation at break increased. Besides that, among three plasticiser mixtures
investigated in this study, the combination of DOA and ESO showed highest
plasticising efficiency in tensile strength and Durometer hardness but lowest
compatibility with PVC resins. The increment on elongation at break was also high
but only limited to low plasticiser concentration. On the other hand, PVC compound
plasticised with DINP, DOA and ESO posed intermediate tensile strength,
Durometer hardness and compatibility. The elongation at break for this combination
 vii

was lower than DOA and ESO filled PVC compounds at low plasticiser
concentration (< 60 phr) but became higher when the plasticiser loading level
exceeded 60 phr. Lastly, combination of DOTP and ESO showed poorest plasticising
efficiency in mechanical properties including tensile strength, elongation at break
and Durometer hardness but highest compatibility with PVC resins.
 viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ii
APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS/ ABBREVATIONS xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objectives 3
1.4 Scope of Study 4

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Plasticisers 5
2.1.1 Mechanisms of Plasticisation 6
2.1.2 Classification of Plasticisers 8
2.1.2.1 Phthalates 8
2.1.2.2 Adipates 9
2.1.2.3 Epoxides 11
 ix

2.1.2.4 Terephthalates 12
2.1.2.5 Trimellitates 13
2.1.2.6 Citrates 14
2.1.2.7 Di-isononyl-1,2-dicarboxylate 15
(DINCH)
2.1.3 Leaching of Plasticisers and its Prevention 16
2.1.3.1 Surface Crosslinking 17
2.1.3.2 Modification of Surface 18
Hydrophilicity/ Lipophilicity
2.1.3.3 Surface Coating 19
2.2 Effectiveness of Plasticisers 19
2.3 Effect of Plasticisers on Mechanical and Physical 20
Properties
2.3.1 Tensile Strength and Elongation at Break 20
2.3.2 Hardness 22
2.4 Disposal of PVC Products by Incineration 24

3 METHODOLOGY 26
3.1 Materials 26
3.2 Equipments 26
3.3 PVC Compound Formulations 27
3.4 Sample Preparation 28
3.5 Characterization Testing 29
3.5.1 Tensile Test 29
3.5.2 Hardness Test 30
3.5.3 Specific Gravity Test 31
3.5.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 31

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 32

4.1 Tensile Strength 32
4.2 Elongation at Break 34
4.3 Durometer Hardness 36
4.4 Specific Gravity 38
 x

4.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 43

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 47

5.1 Conclusions 47
5.2 Recommendations 48

REFERENCES 49

APPENDIX 53
 xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

2.1 Molecular Weight and Substitution Factor for

Some Common Plasticisers. 23

3.1 PVC Compound Formulation 1 (DOA/ESO) 27

3.2 PVC Compound Formulation 2

(DINP/DOA/ESO) 27

3.3 PVC Compound Formulation 3 (DOTP/ESO) 28

3.4 Specimen Dimensions 29

4.1 Tensile strength of Plasticised PVC Compounds 33

4.2 Elongation at Break of Plasticised PVC

Compounds 35

4.3 Durometer Hardness of Plasticised PVC

Compounds 37

4.4 Specific Gravity of Chemicals 38

4.5 Weight Percent of Chemicals in Formulation 1

(DOA/ESO) 39

4.6 Weight Percent of Chemicals in Formulation 2

(DINP/DOA/ESO) 39

4.7 Weight Percent of Chemicals in Formulation 3

(DOTP/ESO) 39

4.8 Experimental Specific Gravity of Plasticised PVC

Compounds 40

4.9 Theoretical Specific Gravity of Plasticised PVC

Compounds 41
 xii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

2.1 General Structural Formula of Phthalates 8

2.2 Structural Formula of (a) DEHP and (b) DINP 9

2.3 General Structural Formula of Adipates 10

2.4 Structural Formula of (a) DEHA, and (b) DINA 11

2.5 Unsaturated fatty acid of soybean oil and the

epoxidation reaction 11

2.6 Structural Formula of Epoxidised Soybean Oil 12

2.7 Structural Formula of Dioctyl Terephthalate 12

2.8 Structural Formula of Trimellitic Anhydride 13

2.9 Structural Formula of Tri-2-etylhexyl Trimellitate 14

2.10 Chemical Structures of Citrates Used in

Commercial Plasticisers 15

2.11 Structural Formula of Acetyl Tributyl Citrate

(ATBC) 15

2.12 Production of DINCH by Hydrogenation of DINP 16

2.13 Effects of Plasticiser Concentration on (a) Tensile

Strength and (b) Elongation 21

2.14 The Effect of Number of Carbon Atoms in Alcohol

and PHR Ratio on Tensile Strength 22

2.15 Hardness of PVC Plasticised with DINP and DOP

at Different Amount 22

3.1 Dumbbell Shape Test Specimen Type IV 29

 xiii

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

3.2 Type A Indenter 30

4.1 Tensile Strength of PVC Compounds Filled with

Different Types of Plasticisers 33

4.2 Elongation at Break of PVC Compounds Filled with

Different Types of Plasticisers 35

4.3 Void Appears in (a) Sample 4 and (b) Sample 5 of

Formulation 1 (DOA/ESO) by Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) 36

4.4 Morphologies of Fracture Surface for (a) Sample 3

of Formulation 1 (DOA/ESP) and (b) Sample 5 of
Formulation 2 (DINP/DOA/ESO) 36

4.5 Durometer Hardness of PVC Compounds Filled

with Different Types of Plasticisers 38

4.6 Specific Gravity of PVC Compounds Plasticised

with DOA/ESO 41

4.7 Specific Gravity of PVC Compounds Plasticised

with DINP/DOA/ESO 42

4.8 Specific Gravity of PVC Compounds Plasticised

with DOTP/ESO 42

4.9 Morphologies of PVC Compounds Filled with

DOA/ESO at the Point of Rupture from Tensile
Strength Specimens for (a) Sample 1, (b) Sample 2,
(c) Sample 3, (d) Sample 4 and (e) Sample 5 by
SEM 44

4.10 Morphologies of PVC Compounds Filled with

DINP/DOA/ESO at the Point of Rupture from
Tensile Strength Specimens for (a) Sample 1, (b)
Sample 2, (c) Sample 3, (d) Sample 4 and (e)
Sample 5 by SEM 45

4.11 Morphologies of PVC Compounds Filled with

DOTP/ESO at the Point of Rupture from Tensile
Strength Specimens for (a) Sample 1, (b) Sample 2,
(c) Sample 3, (d) Sample 4 and (e) Sample 5 by
SEM 46
 xiv

LIST OF SYMBOLS/ ABBREVIATIONS

wt% Weight percent

ATBC Acetyl tributyl citrate

ATHC Acetyl trihexyl citrate
BTHC Butyryl trihexyl citrate
Ca/Zn Calcium/ Zinc stearate
DBA Dibutyl adipate
DBP Di-n-butyl phthalate
DEHA/ DOA Di-2-ethylhexyl adipate/ Dioctyl adipate
DEHP Diethylhexyl phthalate
DEHTP/DOTP Di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate/ Dioctyl terephthalate
DIDA Diisodecyl adipate
DIDP Diisodecyl phthalate
DINA Diisononyl adipate
DINCH Di-isononyl-1,2-dicarboxylate
DINP Diisononyl phthalate
EBS Ethylene bis-stearamide
ELO Epoxidised linseed oil
ESO Epoxidised soybean oil
HPLC Hyperbranch poly(ɛ-caprolactone)
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
MEHP Monoethylhexyl phthalate
PACVD Plasma-assisted chemical vapour deposition
PCDD Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
PCDF Polychlorinated dibenzofuran
PHR Part per hundred resin
 xv

PVC Polyvinyl chloride

SEM Scanning electron microscopy
SF Substitution factor
SG Specific gravity
TBC Tributyl citrate
TEHTM/TOTM Tri-2-ethylhexyl trimellitate/ Trioctyl trimellitate
TMA Trimellitic anhydride
TMC Trimethyl citrate
TMTM Trimetyl trimellitate
VCM Vinyl chloride monomer
WHO World Health Organization
 xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDICES TITLE PAGE

A Data for Tensile Strength and Elongation at Break 53

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a thermoplastic polymer produced from

polymerization of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) which can be obtained by
hydrochlorination of acetylene or thermal cracking of ethylene dichloride. It is rated
as the second most produced commodity plastic after polyethylene in plastic industry
(Gil et al., 2006). PVC can be polymerized through suspension, emulsion and mass
polymerization where different method produces polymer with different properties
and applications. The resulting PVC normally contains less than 1 ppm of VCM as
regulated by the British Pharmacopeia 2010.

Unmodified PVC produced from polymerization has low commercial value

due to its brittleness and rigidity at ambient temperature. Besides that, severe
degradation of polymer during processing at elevated temperature and pressure
shows that it has low process ability. Thus, raw PVC is normally compounded with
additives such as plasticiser, stabiliser, lubricant, filler, flame retardants and other
processing aids to enhance properties, improve processing characteristic and reduce
cost. With the benefit of low cost, high performance, versatility, wide availability
and long service life, PVC is indeed an ideal material for wide range of applications
including buildings, transportation, food packaging, toys and medical devices (Louis,
2009).

PVC has been used in medical device manufacturing since 1950s to replace
glass and natural rubber. The flexibility, durability, transparency, chemical stability,
low toxicity, biocompatibility, sterilization performance, ease of fabrication and low
 2

cost of PVC has led to domination of this material in disposable, pre-sterilized

medical devices production. Urine bag and urinary tubing are examples of disposable
medical devices that are used to empty the bladder of post operation patients or those
suffering from urine retention intermittently. They are frequently used due to the
reduce risk of infection and ease of handling (Hakan et al., 2008).

Since flexibility is one of the major concerns of urine bag and urinary tubing,
the selection and composition of plasticisers in PVC is very essential. Plasticisers are
the largest volume additive used in PVC and serves to soften PVC and increase
flexibility. There are more than three hundred different types of plasticisers in the
world with approximately one hundred types are commercially available. Currently,
the most commonly used plasticisers are phthalates, especially di-2-ethylhexyl
phthalate (DEHP) due to its high plasticising efficiency, wide availability and low
cost. However, the toxicity issue of DEHP has led to gradual shift of plasticiser to
high molecular weight phthalate including diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and
diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP) and other alternatives such as adipates, citrates, epoxies,
terephthalates, trimellitates, diisononylcyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH) and
phosphate esters polymerics (Markarian, 2007). The VinylPlus programme by
European PVC industry also set a new target to evolve the use of plasticiser towards
high molecular weight phthalates by 2020 (Ertl, 2011).

1.2 Problem Statement

To produce urine bag and urinary tubing, flexibility of material is crucial.

Thus, plasticising becomes a vast subject in PVC due to the nature of raw PVC that
is rigid at ambient temperature. Most of the previous studies concentrate on
application of single type plasticiser which has limited application and is very
different from real industrial formulation. Therefore, effects of plasticiser mixtures
on mechanical and physical properties of PVC compound are worth to be studied.
However, different combination and concentration of plasticisers would offer
different plasticising efficiency. In order to overcome this, following problems were
identified:
 3

1. What is the effect of different plasticiser mixtures (mixture of dioctyl adipate

(DOA) with epoxidised soybean oil (ESO), mixture of diisononyl phthalate
(DINP), DOA and ESO and mixture of dioctyl terephthalate (DOTP) with ESO)
on mechanical and physical properties of plasticised PVC blends?

2. What is the effect of different concentration of plasticisers in the plasticiser

mixtures on mechanical and physical properties of plasticised PVC blends?

1.3 Objectives

The main objective of this study was to investigate optimum combination of DINP,
DOTP, DOA and ESO plasticisers in PVC compound for medical grade urine bag
and urinary tubing manufacturing.

In order to achieve the main objective, several specific objectives were identified as
follow:

1. To investigate the effect of different plasticiser mixtures on PVC mechanical and

physical properties of plasticised PVC blends.

2. To investigate the different concentration of plasticisers in the plasticiser

mixtures on mechanical properties and physical properties of plasticised PVC
blends.

3. To determine the most suitable combination of plasticisers and concentration of

plasticiser mixture that provides optimum physical and mechanical properties.
 4

1.4 Scope of Study

To achieve the objectives of this study, the following scopes have been carried out:

(1) Sample preparation:

 PVC resins and additives such as plasticisers, heat stabiliser and lubricant
were dry blended by high speed mixer.

 The dry blends were then compounded with two roll mill machine and
compressed into desired shape and thickness through compression moulding.

(2) Characterization Testing:

 Tensile Test: The tensile strength and elongation at break of PVC was tested
with Shimadzu Universal Testing Machine in accordance to ASTM D 638.

 Hardness Test: The hardness of PVC was measured with Omnipotent

Instruments Hardness Tester in accordance to ASTM D 2240 Type A.

 Specific gravity: The specific gravity of PVC was measured with

Matsuttaku Electronic Densimeter MH – 300E in accordance to ASTM D
792 Method A.

 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): The morphology of PVC was

scanned with Hitachi S-3400N scanning electron microscope.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Plasticisers

Suspension polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a semi-crystalline polymer with

relatively high tensile modulus which can be reduced by incorporating plasticisers
into it. For semi-rigid and flexible application, PVC resins range from medium to
high molecular weight with sufficient porosity is used to absorb plasticisers to
achieve the desired flexibility of intended end-product (William, 2005). Plasticisers
are often inert hydrocarbon compounds used to increase flexibility and processability
of polymers by reducing their glass transition temperature. The International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) had defined plasticiser as a “substance or
material incorporated in a material to increase its flexibility, workability, or
distensibility” (Vierra et al., 2011). Plasticisers are expected to reduce the modulus,
tensile strength, hardness, density, melt viscosity and glass transition temperature;
meanwhile increasing the flexibility, elongation at break and toughness of polymer
(Matthews, 1996).

Plasticisers can be either internal or external, where internal plasticisers are

inherently part of the plastic and remain part of the product while external
plasticisers are not bonded to polymer chains and can therefore be lost by
evaporation, migration or extraction (Frados, 1976). External plasticisers can be
further divided into two main groups that are the primary and secondary types.
Primary plasticisers are more compatible with polymer enabling them to be used as
the sole plasticizer or as the major component of plasticiser in polymer. On the other
hand, secondary plasticisers are less compatible and will exude from polymer if used
alone. Therefore, they are normally blended with primary plasticisers to improve
 6

certain performance properties and reduce cost (Wojciechowska, 2011). PVC

medical device should fulfil criteria including low toxicity, low migration,
transparency, flexibility, strength, elasticity, stability at low and high temperatures,
chemically inert as well as permeability to water, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
desired range. Thus, a good plasticiser should have high boiling point, low volatility,
light colour, resistance to chemical reaction, non-toxic and low cost. Several
plasticisers may be mixed to achieve the desired properties of the end product as no
single plasticiser is capable to satisfy all the criteria.

2.1.1 Mechanisms of Plasticisation

Plasticisers are able to increase flexibility of polymers, but how do they work?
Several theories were developed to explain the concept of plasticisation (Krauskopf
& Godwin, 2005).

The Lubricating Theory states that upon heating, plasticiser molecules will
diffuse into the polymer matrix weakening the polymer-polymer interaction (Van der
Waals forces). These molecules act as shields to prevent formation of rigid networks
when the polymer is cooled to ambient temperature again. This mechanism reduces
the PVC glass transition temperature and allows the polymer chains to move rapidly,
increasing the flexibility, softness and elongation (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005).

The Gel Theory assumes that polymers and plasticisers molecules are loosely
held together by an internal, three-dimensional network of weak secondary bonding
forces. These bonding forces are easily overcome when external stress is applied,
allowing the plasticised polymer to bend, elongate and compress. The presence of
plasticiser molecules have separated the polymer chains, increased the space between
polymer molecules and in turn reduced the rigidity of the gel structure. Besides that,
plasticiser molecules that are not attached to polymer chains are tend to aggregate,
allowing the polymer molecules to move more freely, thus enhancing the gel
flexibility (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005).
 7

Free Volume Theory states that the presence of a plasticiser lowers the glass
transition temperature of polymer. Free volume is a measure of internal space
available within a polymer matrix. In glassy state, the molecules are packed closely
and the free volume is low. The molecules cannot move past each other easily
creating rigid and hard polymer. When the polymer is heated to above the glass
transition temperature, molecules absorb the thermal energy and vibrate more
vigorously creating additional free volume which allows the molecules to move past
each other rapidly. This makes the polymer system more flexible and rubbery. When
the plasticiser molecules are added to separate the PVC molecules creating more free
volume, the glass transition temperature is reduced, increasing the flexibility of
polymer (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005).

The Mechanistic Theory considers that plasticiser molecules are not bound
permanently to the polymer chains, but are free to associate and dissociate with the
amorphous sites of polymer molecules. Since the interactions between plasticiser and
polymer molecules are weak, there is a dynamic exchange process where one
plasticiser molecule attached at a site is readily dislocated and replaced by another.
Different plasticisers possessed different strength in plasticiser-polymer and
plasticiser-plasticiser interactions. At low plasticizer levels, the plasticiser-polymer
interactions are dominant; while at high plasticizer concentrations, plasticiser-
plasticiser interactions predominate. This has explained the occurrence of
“antiplasticization” phenomenal, where low plasticizer levels increase rigidity in
PVC (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005).
 8

2.1.2 Classification of Plasticisers

There are over 100 types of plasticisers available commercially which can be
categorized into general purpose plasticisers, specialty plasticisers, organic
plasticisers and others. Some commonly used plasticisers are discussed as follow.

2.1.2.1 Phthalates

Phthalates, commonly refer to esters of orthophthalic acid, are the most

widely used and discussed plasticisers in the world. They can be produced by
reacting two moles of monohydride alcohol with one mole of phthalic anhydride.
The alcohol used are normally range from C4 to C13 as phthalates produced from
alcohols below C4 are too volatile while from alcohols above C13 have limited
compatibility (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005). The general structural formula of
phthalates is shown in Figure 2.1 where the functional groups, R, can either be linear
aryl groups or alkyl groups with aromatic ring.

Figure 2.1: General Structural Formula of Phthalates (Source: Maag et al., 2010)

In general, phthalates possess most desirable properties of plasticisers

including good compatibility, high gelling capacity, relatively low volatility at
ambient temperature, water resistant and low cost (Rahman & Brazel, 2004). As the
length of functional group increases, the plasticising effect, gelling capacity and
 9

volatility decreases. This means that higher concentration of plasticiser is required to

achieve same flexibility but the extractability will be reduced.

Some of the examples of phthalates plasticisers are di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

(DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and diisodecyl
phthalate (DIDP). Among all these, DEHP which was introduced in 1930 is the most
widely used plasticisers in the world. DEHP having shorter chain offers higher
compatibility and plasticising effect. However, leaching problems occurs especially
in medical device have hindered its application. The trend is gradually changed to
higher molecular weight phthalates such as DINP that has comparable price.
Although DINP offers lower plasticising efficiency, the problem of plasticiser
leaching can be greatly reduced (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005).

Figure 2.2: Structural Formula of (a) DEHP and (b) DINP

(Source: Gil et al., 2006)

2.1.2.2 Adipates

Adipates are esters of adipic acid which are produced by esterification

reaction with monohydride alcohol range from C8 to C10. Generally, lower molecular
weight alcohols are reacted with higher molecular weight acids or vice versa to
produce adipates range between C18 and C26. This is to maintain the apolar/polar
ratio to provide sufficient PVC compatibility along with low temperature properties
(Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005). Adipates with molecular weight of 300 – 350 tend to
 10

be too volatile while those with molecular weight more than 400 have limited
compatibility with PVC (Krauskopf, 1988). The structural formula of adipates is
shown in Figure 2.3 where R is alkyl group.

Figure 2.3: General Structural Formula of Adipates (Source: Wypych, 2004a)

The reduction of glass transition temperature by adipates is lower compared

to the corresponding phthalates, but they flexibilize the amorphous sites of PVC
more efficiently. Thus, they impart higher flexibility with lower molecular weight
and specific gravity (William, 2005). Besides that, adipates perform better in low
temperature flexibility and are relatively safe compared to phthalates. However, they
have higher volatility which causes high migration rate and are more costly than
phthalates. As the molecular weight of adipates increases, the volatility decreases but
at the same time the solubility and compatibility with PVC will also decrease.
Fortunately, the influence of compatibility is very small and a substantial increase in
volatility is capable to compensate the changes in compatibility. Thus, adipate
plasticisers are more permanent when their molecular weight increases.

Examples of adipate plasticiser are di-2-ethylhexyl adipate (DEHA), dibutyl

adipate (DBA), diisononyl adipate (DINA) and diisodecyl adipate (DIDA). DEHA as
the most commonly used adipate plasticiser in PVC is a product of esterification of
2-ethylhexanol with adipic acid. (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005). Other than that, for
application requiring lower plasticiser volatility, DINA with higher molecular weight
is a good alternative. Due to the high cost of adipates, they are commonly blended
with other plasticisers such as phthalates to compromise low temperature properties
and the cost.
 11

Figure 2.4: Structural Formula of (a) DEHA, and (b) DINA

(Source: Gil et al., 2006)

2.1.2.3 Epoxides

Epoxides plasticisers are epoxidized natural products having oxirane oxygen

groups in their molecules that are formed by the epoxidation of olefinic double bond
in their raw material. They normally come from soybean oil or linseed oil with
unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic, linoleic and linolenic that can be epoxidised
with hydrogen peroxide or peracetic acid.

Figure 2.5: Unsaturated fatty acid of soybean oil and the epoxidation reaction
(Source: Wypych, 2004b)

Two examples of most widely used epoxides plasticisers are epoxidised

soybean oil (ESO) and epoxidised linseed oil (ELO). They are used as secondary
plasticiser and secondary stabiliser in PVC due to their ability to form bonds with the
hydrogen chloride when PVC is decomposed. Epoxides plasticisers are the only class
of plasticisers that undergo side chain bonding onto PVC chain at the site of labile
 12

chlorides in the presence of stabilizers (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005). They have very
high molecular weight (approximately 1000), hence they have low volatility and can
hardly migrate out. ESO was previously tested as primary plasticizer with high
concentration (approximately 50 phr), but the result is not satisfactory as photo-
oxidation or hydrolysis of the oxirane oxygen occurs after long time UV-exposure,
resulting in sticky surfaces (Lutz, 1993). Thus, ESO is normally work as secondary
plasticisers and blended with other plasticisers such as phthalates during application.

Figure 2.6: Structural Formula of Epoxidised Soybean Oil

(Source: Maag et al., 2010)

2.1.2.4 Terephthalates

Terephthalates refer to para-phthalates that are one of the isomeric structures of

phthalates. They are esters of terephthalic acid which are produced by reacting
terephthalic acid with monohydride alcohol similar to phthalates. The most common
terephthalates is di(2-etylhexyl) terephthalates (DEHTP) or sometime refers as
dioctyl terephthalate (DOTP). The manufacturing cost and plasticising efficiency is
similar to DEHP but with better low temperature properties and significant lower
volatility due to high molecular weight and long hydrocarbon chain. Thus, DOTP
can be considered as a good alternative to replace volatile and toxic DEHP.

Figure 2.7: Structural Formula of Dioctyl Terephthalate (DOTP).

(Source: Nexant Inc., 2008)
 13

2.1.2.5 Trimellitates

Trimellitates are the products of esterification between three moles of monohydride

alcohols and one mole of trimellitic anhydride (TMA) which has similar structure
with phthalic anhydride except for the third carbonyl group on the aromatic ring.
This additional carbonyl group has contributed to higher molecular weight compared
to phthalates and the third ester group contributes sufficient polarity to maintain PVC
compatibility (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005).

Figure 2.8: Structural Formula of Trimellitic Anhydride (TMA)

(Source: Wypych, 2004a)

Due to high molecular weight and highly branched isomeric structures,

trimellitates plasticiser possessed very low diffusivity and high temperature stability.
The oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability is also enhanced as plasticiser
concentration increases. These features have encouraged their application in medical
device especially for blood and intravenous solution container and tubing where
leaching and permeability are the major concern. However, the oil extraction
resistance is similar to phthalates. The plasticising efficiency is also relatively low
and the cost is higher as compared to phthalate. Thus, higher concentration is needed
to attain the required flexibility consequently induce higher manufacturing cost.
Besides that, at high plasticiser level, PVC will become very soft and sticky
especially after sterilization by autoclaving (Terumo Penpol Limited, 2011). In view
of the high manufacturing cost and relatively low efficiency, trimellitates plasticiser
is not suitable for application in disposable medical devices such as urine bag and
tubing.
 14

Common trimellitate plasticisers are trimethyl trimellitate (TMTM), tri-2-

ethylhexyl trimellitate (TEHTM, also called trioctyl trimelliate (TOTM)) and octyl
dibenzyl trimellitate. TOTM is the most widely used trimellitate plasticiser due to its
extremely low diffusivity and low toxicity. If the price can be reduced by mass
production, it is a good consideration for medical application.

Figure 2.9: Structural Formula of Tri-2-etylhexyl Trimellitate (TEHTM).

(Source: Maag et al., 2010)

2.1.2.6 Citrates

Citrates are bio-derived tetraesters that are produced by reacting one mole of citric
acid with three moles of alcohols. Citrate plasticiser being commercialized for more
than 35 years, is one of the major contenders to replace toxic phthalate plasticiser
typically DEHP due to its high miscibility, high efficiency and low toxocity. Toxicity
tests conducted by the Pfizer Drug Safety Evaluation Department have proved that
citrates are safe through acute dermal toxicity and ocular irritation tests in rabbits,
and acute oral toxicity tests in mice and rabbits (Edenbaum, 1992). It is approved for
use in sensitive application such as pharmaceutical tablet coatings, medical devices
including blood bag, toys, food wraps and cosmetic products. Apart from that, a test
conducted by Morflex Inc. showed that Citroflex B-6 (n-butyryltri-n-hexyl citrate)
combined with ESO give similar properties to PVC as DEHP does (Edenbaum,
1992). However, it is easily extracted by lipid medium and the cost is much higher
than DEHP.
 15

Figure 2.10: Chemical Structures of Citrates Used in Commercial Plasticisers

(Source: Wypych, 2004a)

Examples of citrate plasticiser used in PVC are trimethyl citrate (TMC),

tributyl citrate (TBC), acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), acetyl trihexyl citrate (ATHC),
and butyryl trihexyl citrate (BTHC). In 2004, the European Union Scientific Toxic
Committee stated that ATBC did not possess safety concern when young children
placed PVC toys in their mouths and had approved its use in soft PVC toys (Nexant
Inc., 2008). Besides that, ATBC offers high heat stability and does not discolour
when processed in compounded resins.

Figure 2.11: Structural Formula of Acetyl Tributyl Citrate (ATBC)

(Source: Wypych, 2004a)

2.1.2.7 Di-isononyl-cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH)

Di-isononyl-cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH) is an ester produced by

hydrogenation of the aromatic ring in DINP in the presence of noble catalyst as
shown in Figure 2.12. It was introduced in 2002 by the company BASF and
marketed under the Hexamoll name for sensitive applications such as medical
devices, toys and food packaging where exposure to toxicological material is of great
concern. According to BASF, Hexamoll® DINCH is a colourless, clear and
 16

practically anhydrous liquid with hardly noticeable odour and is compatible with
almost all of the monomeric plasticisers commonly used in PVC.

Figure 2.12: Production of DINCH by Hydrogenation of DINP

(Source: Nexant Inc., 2008)

Since it is the hydrogenated product of DINP, the performance characteristic

of DINCH in PVC is expected to be similar to DINP but with lower compatibility
due to increasing apolarity. With this, more plasticiser is needed to achieve the same
flexibility. However, high loading of DINCH will cause the PVC to become very soft
and sticky typically after autoclaving (Terumo Penpol Limited, 2011). To overcome
this problem, PVC resins with higher K value should be used.

2.1.3 Leaching of Plasticisers and its Prevention

During compounding, plasticisers are not bonded to the polymer but just embedded
into the polymer matrix. Thus, plasticiser molecules tend to diffuse out from the
polymer matrix due to extraction by solvents, surface rubbing, volatility, migration,
or degradation mechanisms. Plasticized polymers used to manufacture medical
devices are often in contact with stationary or flowing fluids which are highly
susceptible to plasticiser leaching. This leaching problem has become a critical issue
in the world due to the toxicity of plasticisers and the shortening of material useful
life.
 17

Among various types of plasticisers, phthalate plasticiser particularly DEHP

has become a target of worldwide scrutiny due to its potential carcinogenicity and
possible endocrine modulating effects (Tickner et al., 2001). The leaching of DEHP
may depend on the temperature, amount of plasticiser present, agitation of the device,
medical solutions storage time and the type of medium being stored in or moving
through the medical device. Many studies on the leachability of DEHP from PVC
have been done. One of it by Kambia et al. (2001) stated that an average DEHP
quantity of 123 mg was extracted from tubing during a 4 hour dialysis session, of
which approximately 27 mg was retained in the patient’s body. Apart from toxicity,
it is found that PVC has failed to retain its flexibility when the plasticisers leached
out from the polymer.

Despite shifting towards low diffusivity and non toxic plasticisers, a few
surface modification techniques were developed to reduce plasticiser leaching. The
proposed methods are surface crosslinking, modification of surface hydrophilicity/
lipophilicity and surface coating (Rahman & Brazel, 2004). However, these
techniques can only reduce the leaching tendency but not eliminate it.

2.1.3.1 Surface Crosslinking

Surface crosslinking is one of the most commonly studied techniques and often
employed with other surface modification techniques to prevent leaching of
plasticizers. The crosslinked polymer surface acts as a barrier to prevent
transportation of plasticiser molecules between the polymer interface and external
medium. Jayakrishnan and Lakshmi (1998) have tried to immobilize DEHP
molecules by sulfonation process whereby the sulphur groups formed crosslinking on
the PVC surface with presence of catalyst, creating a barrier within the PVC
sufficient to retard the diffusion of DEHP molecules. It was shown that the resulting
DEHP leaching was greatly reduced to a negligible level when tested over prolonged
periods of time, using accelerated leaching conditions in the laboratory.
 18

Audic et al. (2001) also investigated the effect of plasma induced surface
crosslinking on flexible PVC packaging films in limiting leaching of plasticiser
molecules into fatty foodstuff. It is found that Argon plasma gives the best result due
to high degree of crosslinking during plasma treatment and further formation of
oxygen based functional groups when the samples were re-exposed to air. The
leaching tendency also reduced with increasing plasma treatment time.

2.1.3.2 Modification of Surface Hydrophilicity/Lipophilicity

Surface modification by grafting water soluble polymers to the surface of

biomaterials has been studied by several researchers. For example, study by Krishnan
et al. (1991) demonstrated that flexible PVC sheets grafted with N-vinyl pyrrolidone
using ionizing radiation from 60Co source showed significant reduction in plasticiser
leaching into strong organic extractant (n-hexane). Incorporation of crosslinking
agent such as ethylene dimethacrylate during grafting even further reduced the
plasticizer leaching. Besides that, PVC treated with excess sodium polyethylene
glycol (Na-PEG) has reduced leaching of DEHP into petroleum ether, cottonseed oil
and paraffin oil considerably (Lakshmi & Jayakrishnan, 1998). It is assumed that the
reduction is due to the hydrophilic PEG surface which acts as a barrier to the
diffusion of DEHP from the PVC matrix.

Apart from that, flexible PVC can undergo nucleophilic substitution by

sodium azide in aqueous media with tetrabutyl ammonium bromide as phase transfer
catalyst (Jayakrishnan & Sunny, 1996). The azidated PVC surface was then
irradiated by ultraviolet rays to crosslink the surface. It was found that the DEHP
leached into hexane was reduced considerably depending on the extent of azidation
of the PVC surface and the irradiation dose. However, obvious colour change was
observed probably due to dehydrochlorination occurred during grafting process and
the elongation at break was reduced by 35 % resulting from the surface crosslinking.
 19

2.1.3.3 Surface Coating

Plasticised PVC can be coated with some non-migrating material on the surface to
reduce plasticiser migration. Breme et al. (2000) had developed a new plasma-
assisted chemical vapour deposition (PACVD) process to coat polymer with
titanium-based layer at very low temperature. The coating was found to be effective
in preventing leaching of DEHP from PVC and potentially improve the blood
compatibility of polymers. Apart from that, several researchers such as Karle et al.
(1997) had studied the effect of heparin coating on DEHP leaching and concluded
that it is capable to reduce the extraction of DEHP as well as the metabolites,
monoethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) but cannot completely prevent it.

2.2 Effectiveness of Plasticisers

The efficiency of plasticisers is defined as the amount of plasticizer required

to achieve desired mechanical properties for interested material (Sothornvit &
Krochta, 2005). The key performance properties such as the compatibility and
miscibility with polymer, plasticising efficiency, low temperature properties,
diffusivity, volatility and stability to degradation are largely dependent on the
chemical structure of plasticisers, the molecular weight and functional groups and the
concentration of plasticisers (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005).

The compatibility and miscibility of plasticisers are dependent on the

polar/apolar ratio of functional groups. Functional groups such as carbonyl group and
aromatic rings impart higher miscibility while long, plain hydrocarbon chain adds
apolarlity, reducing the compatibility. Generally, high compatibility is preferred, but
plasticisers with too high compatibility will tend to dissolves the crystalline parts of
the polymer and thereby breaks the polymer apart. On the other hand, plasticisers
with linear hydrocarbon chains impart higher flexibility in polymer as large
branching tends to retard the movement of polymer chain when external force is
applied. Next, the volatility and diffusivity of plasticiser molecules are affected by
the molecular weight and size of plasticisers. Plasticisers with lower molecular
 20

weight and smaller size are generally more volatile while those with higher
molecular weight and larger size can retain longer in the polymer. Lastly, the low
temperature performance is enhanced by plasticisers with linear hydrocarbon chain
typically adipates that have lower inherent viscosity at low temperature. The
performance is decreased with increasing branching in plasticisers.

2.3 Effect of Plasticisers on Mechanical and Physical Properties

2.3.1 Tensile Strength and Elongation at Break

Tensile strength and elongation at break is another common indication of plasticiser

efficiency that can be tested in accordance to ASTM D 638. Tensile strength is
defined as the resistance of a material to a force tending to tear it apart (Matthews,
1996). Material with high tensile strength is able to absorb greater force without
deformation. In contrast, low tensile strength material deforms easily to external
force and tends to elongate before rupture.

Since addition of plasticiser increases the flexibility of polymer, it is expected

that plasticised material holds lower tensile strength and larger elongation. The
tensile strength and elongation at break depend primarily on the concentration and
types of plasticisers. As concentration increases, PVC becomes more flexible which
reduces the tensile strength and increase the elongation. The effect of plasticiser
concentration on tensile strength and elongation is shown in Figure 2.13.
 21

Figure 2.13: Effects of Plasticiser Concentration on (a) Tensile Strength and

(b) Elongation (Source: Wypych, 2004b)

Apart from that, the molecular weight of alcohol used in plasticiser also
affects the tensile strength. The influence of plasticiser can be normalized by part per
hundred resin (PHR) ratio as shown in Equation 2.1.

𝑃𝐻𝑅 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑃𝐻𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (2.1)
𝑃𝐻𝑅 𝑚𝑖𝑛

where
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝐻𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝 = × 100 (2.2)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑉𝐶

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝐻𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 × 100 (2.3)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑕𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑉𝐶

PHR ratio of one indicates that there is one plasticiser molecule available to
separate two chains in each helical unit (means all polar groups in PVC are isolated
by monolayer of plasticizer). On the other hand, if PHR ratio equals to three, there is
a substantial amount of free plasticizer in the polymer system. Figure 2.14 shows that
tensile strength decreases with increasing number of carbon atom and decreasing
PHR ratio.
 22

Figure 2.14: The Effect of Number of Carbon Atoms in Alcohol and PHR Ratio
on Tensile Strength (Source: Wypych, 2004b)

2.3.2 Hardness

It is a common practice to quantify plasticisers’ efficiency by PVC hardness which

can be measured by Shore Hardness Test (ASTM D 2240) scale A for flexible
polymer. Shore hardness can be defined as resistance of a material against the
penetration by a cone. It is significantly influenced by the types and concentration of
plasticisers. Generally, plasticisers with lower molecular weight give lower hardness
value (softer). Besides that, hardness will decrease almost linearly with increasing
plasticisers’ concentration as shown in Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Hardness of PVC Plasticised with DINP and DOP at Different
Amount (Source: Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005)
 23

Apart from that, the hardness values can be used to calculate substitution
factor (SF) which is the quantity of specific plasticiser needed to achieve Durometer
A hardness of 80 relative to DEHP plasticiser as shown in Equation 2.4.

𝑝𝑕𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 80

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐹 = 𝑝𝑕𝑟 𝐷𝐸𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 80
(2.4)

For example, the quantity of DEHP needed to achieve Durometer A Hardness

of 80 was 52.9 phr while for DINP the quantity needed was 56.2 phr. Hence, the SF
of DINP calculated from Equation 2.4 will be equal to 1.06.

56.2 𝑝𝑕𝑟 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝑃

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐹 = 52.9 𝑝𝑕𝑟 𝐷𝐸𝐻𝑃
= 1.06 (2.5)

This SF indicates that DINP is 6% less efficient than DEHP and needs to be
added at a level of 6% higher than the DEHP to achieve the same hardness. It was
found that this ratio is consistent over plasticiser level range from 20 to 90 phr
(Leonard et al., 2005). The value of SF normally increases with increasing molecular
weight of plasticiser. The SF for some common plasticisers is tabulated in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Molecular Weight and Substitution Factor for Some Common
Plasticisers. (Source: Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005)
Plasticiser Molecular Weight Substitution Factor (SF)
DEHP 390 1.00
DINP 418 1.06
DIDP 446 1.10
DEHA 370 0.93
DINA 398 0.98
ESO 1000 1.10
DOTP 390 1.03
TOTM 546 1.17
 24

2.4 Disposal of PVC Products by Incineration

Incineration is one of the most preferred disposal methods for various PVC wastes
typically medical and construction wastes due to high degree of volume reduction,
pathogens and hazardous organics elimination and the potential of energy recovery.
However, emission of highly toxic pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
(PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) during inadequate or impropriate
incineration has caused serious environmental problem. Both PCDD and PCDF are
dioxins that are classified as carcinogenic substance by the World Health
Organization (WHO) and also adversely affect the immune and endocrine system as
well as development of foetuses (Suna et al., 2003). Besides that, dioxins are
persistent in the environment as they tend to accumulate in the food chain and expose
to all living things. It is recognized that incineration of organic substances in the
presence of chlorine and metals is the major source of PCDD/ PCDF generation
(Singh & Prakash, 2007). Thus, measures controlling and reducing emission of
dioxins became the main interest for both industries and researchers.

The concentration of dioxins released from incinerator exhaust gas can be

well controlled by employing high efficiency air pollution control devices including
dry or wet scrubber, filter system and electrostatic precipitator. Both dry and wet
scrubbers utilizing absorption method are efficient in removing dioxins and acid
gases typically hydrogen chloride and sulphur dioxide. According to Linder et al.
(1990), wet scrubbers can achieve 95 % emission control efficiency while bag house
can only remove 30 % of dioxins based on eight municipal waste incinerators in
California. Besides that, Fritsky et al. (2001) also developed a catalytic filter system
that can destroy dioxins and turn them into non-toxic substance such as carbon
dioxide. The remaining ashes containing toxic metals can be stabilized with cement
to reduce the toxicity before disposal. Apart from that, electrostatic precipitator can
also be used to separate particulate matters through different electrical charge while
the collected particles can be removed by rapping or washing the surface of
collecting medium.
 25

According to Hahn et al. (1992), dioxins are usually formed under incomplete
combustion or in the cooler zone of incinerator at temperature range from 240 –
450 °C. Thus, by elevating the combustion temperature to more than 800 °C, the
generation of dioxins can be greatly suppressed. Examples of high temperature
incinerators are starved air incinerator, excess air incinerator and rotary kiln.
Hydrogen chloride produced during incineration is then recycled for vinyl chloride
monomer (VCM) and PVC production as a way to close the chlorine loop. However,
high temperature incineration is only applicable to large scale incinerators. Dioxins
released from small scale incinerators and open burning in the field or backyard
should also be controlled. One of the controlling methods is by incorporating calcium
carbonate into the PVC wastes. Since calcium carbonate is common filler, PVC
products that had sufficient amount of filler may be incinerated directly. A treatment
process developed by NKT Research Centre can transform PVC with its additives
into calcium chloride, a metal concentrate and energy rich coke and oil for other
applications (Jaksland et al., 2000). In this process, recovery of more than 98 wt%
lead and 99 wt% chlorine originated from PVC wastes was reported and plasticisers
were degraded. No dioxins were detected and concentration of halogenated
hydrocarbons in gas and liquid product was low. Another group of researchers also
found that by adding calcium carbonate with small amount titanium dioxide (TiO2),
the dioxins concentration can be greatly suppressed in both exhaust gas and the
resulting ashes. Suna et al. (2003) proved that the addition of calcium carbonate into
PVC wastes trapped the dioxins in the ash and thus reducing the emission of dioxin
through stack gas. The resulting ashes were then irradiated with UV light or sunlight
where titanium dioxide photocatalyst will decompose the dioxins before disposal.
The efficiency of photocatalyst may be affected by its dispersion in the polymer
matrix. It is reported that low dispersity of titanium dioxide due to agglomeration had
led to catalytic activity reduction during incineration. Kim et al. (2008) tried to attach
the titanium dioxide to hyperbranch poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (HPLC) and found that the
photocatalytic degradation of PVC with HPLC-TiO2 under UV radiation were
improved. The results showed that HPLC-TiO2 with a maximum TiO2 loading of 1.6
wt% can achieve up to 60 – 70 % of dioxins removal which is equivalent to 1.5 times
of TiO2 prepared from conventional method.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials

The base polymer of this study, suspension grade polyvinyl chloride (PVC) powder
of K value 71, was supplied by Thai Plastic and Chemicals Public Company Limited.
Commercial grade plasticisers including diisononyl phthalate (DINP), dioctyl
terephthalate (DOTP), dioctyl adipate (DOA), and epoxidized soybean oil (ESO
Cizer LX-118) used to plasticise PVC were supplied by Luxchem Trading Sdn Bhd,
Malaysia. Liquid form thermal stabiliser, Calcium/Zinc Stearate (Ca/Zn GS-T66)
used to stabilise PVC blends against heat was supplied by Golden Chemical Corp.,
Malaysia. The external lubricant, ethylene bis-stearamide (Akrowax® EBS 290) used
to lubricate PVC blends during sample preparation was supplied by Akrochem
Corporation, Malaysia.

3.2 Equipments

Equipments required to carry out experiments in this study were Accuweigh HP4200
Laboratory Scale, ChangDa SHR-10A high speed mixer, Frank two roll mill, Cabe
Milano compression, Omnipotent Instruments hardness tester, Shimadzu Universal
Testing Machine, MZ – 4102 sheet punching machine, dumbbell-shaped cutter,
Matsuttaku Electronic Densimeter MH – 300E and Hitachi S-3400N scanning
electron microscope.
 27

3.3 PVC Compound Formulations

Three PVC compound formulations employing different types of plasticisers were

used in this study. For each formulation, plasticiser loading level was varied while
concentration of other chemicals such as PVC resin, secondary plasticiser ESO,
Ca/Zn stabilizer and EBS lubricant were fixed. According to British Pharmacopeia
2010, the concentration of phthalate based plasticiser should be less than 40 wt%.
Thus in formulation 2 (Table 3.2), both DINP and DOA were used to limit the
weight percent of phthalate in each formulation. The concentration of chemicals was
tabulated in Table 3.1 to 3.3.

Table 3.1: PVC Compound Formulation 1 (DOA/ESO)

Concentration (phr)
Chemicals
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
PVC resin 100 100 100 100 100
DOA 40 50 60 70 80
ESO 3 3 3 3 3
Ca/Zn 2 2 2 2 2
EBS 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Total (phr) 145.3 155.3 165.3 175.3 185.3

Table 3.2: PVC Compound Formulation 2 (DINP/DOA/ESO)

Concentration (phr)
Chemicals
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
PVC resin 100 100 100 100 100
DINP 25 35 45 55 65
DOA 15 15 15 15 15
ESO 3 3 3 3 3
Ca/Zn 2 2 2 2 2
EBS 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Total (phr) 145.3 155.3 165.3 175.3 185.3
% of DINP 17.2 22.5 27.2 31.4 35.1
 28

Table 3.3: PVC Compound Formulation 3 (DOTP/ESO)

Concentration (phr)
Chemicals
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
PVC resin 100 100 100 100 100
DOTP 40 50 60 70 80
ESO 3 3 3 3 3
Ca/Zn 2 2 2 2 2
EBS 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Total (phr) 145.3 155.3 165.3 175.3 185.3

3.4 Sample Preparation

The formulations of PVC compound summarized in Tables 3.1 to 3.3 were first
weighted. After that, PVC resin, Ca/Zn stabiliser, secondary plasticiser ESO and
EBS lubricant were dry blended using high speed mixer operated at 1500 rpm to
85 °C. Corresponding plasticisers were then added into the PVC blend and mixed
again till 110 °C. Next, the blended powders were preheated to 140 °C for 1 minute
and two-roll milled at 140 °C for another 3 minutes to produce flat sheet with
approximately 1 mm thickness.

Flat sheets from two roll mill were cut into square pieces with a dimension
of 12 cm × 22 cm. To prepare sample for tensile test, 3 – 4 pieces of the cut flat
sheets were placed on the mould of compression moulding machine to obtain
specimen thickness of 3.2 ± 0.4 mm. On the other hand, to prepare sample for
hardness test, 6 – 7 pieces of the cut flat sheets were placed on the mould of
compression moulding machine to obtain specimen thickness of approximately 6 mm.
The flat sheets in the mould were then heated to 170 °C for 5 minutes under pressure
of 50 bar and subsequently compressed at same temperature and pressure of 100 bar
for another 5 minutes. After that, the specimen was cooled and allowed to cure for 1
day before cutting into desired shapes.
 29

3.5 Characterization Testing

3.5.1 Tensile Test

The dumbbell shape specimen was prepared in accordance to ASTM D 638 – 03

Type IV where the shapes and dimensions are shown in Figure 3.1 and Table 3.4
respectively. The dumbbell shape cutter was sized according to the specified
standards to cut the specimen into desired dimensions.

Figure 3.1: Dumbbell Shape Test Specimen Type IV (Source: ASTM D 638 – 03)

Table 3.4: Specimen Dimensions (Source: ASTM D 638 – 03)

Dimensions Length (mm)
Width of narrow section (W) 6 ±0.5
Length of narrow section (L) 33 ±0.5
Width overall (WO) 19 + 6.4
Length overall (LO) ≥ 115
Gage length (G) 25 ±0.13
Distance between grips (D) 65 ±5
Radius of fillet (R) 14 ±1
Outer radius (RO) 25 ±1

The tensile test was conducted in accordance to ASTM D 638 – 03 with

tensile tester at crosshead speed of 50 mm/min and a load of 1 kN. The tensile tester
was calibrated before performing the tensile test. Meanwhile, thickness and width of
specimens were measured and recorded. The dumbbell shape specimen was placed in
the grips of the testing machine where the long axis of the specimen and the grips
were aligned with an imaginary line joining the points of attachment of the grips to
 30

the machine. The specimen was aligned as perfectly as possible with the direction of
pull to prevent slippage at the grips. The grips were then tightened evenly and firmly
and the load was balanced. When the test started, the upper grip pull the specimen
upward until it breaks and the tensile strength and percent elongation at break was
measured. Ten specimens were replicated for each PVC compound formulation and
the average as well as standard deviation of tensile strength and percent elongation at
break was determined.

3.5.2 Hardness Test

The hardness test for flexible PVC was conducted in accordance to ASTM D 2240 –
05. In this study, Durometer Type A was selected and Type A indenter as shown in
Figure 3.2 was used. The Durometer presser foot must be parallel to the specimen
support table while the vertical distance between the presser foot and surface of test
specimen was adjusted to 25.4 ± 2.5 mm. After that, specimen with a dimension of
30 mm × 30 mm was placed on the specimen support table in a way that the
specimen area has a radius of at least 6 mm from the indenter point. When the
specimen was properly positioned, the lever of operating stand was pressed to allow
the indenter to be applied on the specimen. The reading of Durometer was then
recorded after 15 s. The experiment was repeated 5 times for each PVC compound
formulation and the arithmetic mean and standard deviation was calculated.

Figure 3.2: Type A Indenter (Source: ASTM D 2240 – 05)

 31

3.5.3 Specific Gravity Test

The specific gravity for non-rigid vinyl chloride can be tested with Method A of
ASTM D 792 – 00. The flat sheet from two roll mills was cut into square shape with
dimension of 20mm × 20 mm × 1mm with smooth surface and edges. The specimen
was then weighted in air and the mass was recorded. After that, specimen was
immersed completely into the water at a temperature of 23 ± 2 °C. Bubbles adhering
to the specimen were removed by rubbing them with a wire. The mass of specimen
in water was recorded again and the specific gravity of specimen calculated by the
electronic densimeter was then determined and recorded. The procedures were
repeated 3 times for each PVC compound formulation and the arithmetic mean and
standard deviation was calculated. Meanwhile, the theoretical specific gravity for
each formulation was calculated by equation 3.1.

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (𝑤𝑡%)𝑖 𝑆𝐺𝑖 (3.1)

where
(wt%)i = weight percent of chemical i in the formulation
SGi = specific gravity of chemical i

3.5.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

The fractured surfaces of specimens from tensile test were cut into small pieces with
a thickness of approximately 3 mm at the point of rupture. The cut samples were then
placed on the specimen stub by double-sided sticky tape and coated with a layer of
gold and palladium to facilitate SEM examination. After the coating process, the
samples were mounted on a stub and accommodated in the specimen chamber to
observe the morphology of fractured surface. SEM photographs were taken at
different sites and magnifications of 1000 and 5000 times.
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Tensile Strength

Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1 show that the tensile strength of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
compounds decreased with increasing plasticiser concentration for all plasticiser
types. This complied with the study by Wypych (2004b) where addition of plasticiser
increased the flexibility of PVC and consequently reduced the tensile strength. As
more plasticiser molecules diffused into the polymer matrix, the polymer chains
became further apart and able to move when external force applied (Krauskopf &
Godwin, 2005). Thus, as the specimens were pulled apart, the resistance to the
pulling force was obviously reduced and tend to deform before ruptured. Figure 4.1
shows that the reduction of tensile strength was almost linear with plasticiser
concentration for diisononyl phthalate, dioctyl adipate and epoxidised soybean oil
added PVC compounds (DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC) and dioctyl terephthalate and ESO
added PVC compounds (DOTP/ESO-PVC) but not for DOA and ESO added PVC
compounds (DOA/ESO-PVC). The gradient for DOA/ESO-PVC was relatively high
when plasticiser concentration was less than 60 phr but it dropped dramatically when
it exceeded 60 phr. This shows that effect of plasticiser concentration on tensile
strength of PVC compounds had become insignificant at high loading level of
plasticiser.

Apart from that, Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1 also illustrate that DOA/ESO-PVC
posed lowest tensile strength; followed by DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC and lastly
DOTP/ESO-PVC. This shows that DOA could provide highest plasticising efficiency
compared to DINP and DOTP. It is reasonable as linear chain plasticiser will not
block the movement of polymer chains during stretching and thus impart higher
 33

flexibility (Rahman & Brazel, 2004). By referring to the molecule structure, DINP
(Figure 2.2 (b)) should have more branching than DOTP (Figure 2.7). However,
Figure 4.1 shows that DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC posed lower tensile strength than
DOTP/ESO-PVC. This might be due to the presence of DOA which has higher
plasticising efficiency in formulation 2 (DINP/DOA/ESO). The efficiency might be
complemented and consequently provides lower tensile strength.

Table 4.1: Tensile Strength of Plasticised PVC Compounds

Tensile strength (N/mm2)
Plasticiser (phr)
DOA/ESO DINP/DOA/ESO DOTP/ESO
40 18.8 ±0.63 19.5 ±0.48 22.0 ±0.50
50 14.9 ±0.17 17.7 ±0.42 19.4 ±0.30
60 11.1 ±0.33 15.3 ±0.36 16.2 ±0.53
70 10.0 ±0.48 12.3 ±0.35 13.7 ±0.20
80 9.4 ±0.35 11.2 ±0.35 11.9 ±0.34

24.0

22.0

20.0
Tensile strength (N/mm2)

18.0

16.0 DOA/ESO
DINP/DOA/ESO
14.0
DOTP/ESO
12.0

10.0

8.0
40 50 60 70 80
Plasticiser concentration (phr)

Figure 4.1: Tensile Strength of PVC Compounds Filled with Different Types of
Plasticisers
 34

4.2 Elongation at Break

Generally, elongation at break for PVC compounds increased with increasing

plasticiser concentration as shown in Table 4.2 and Figure 4.2. The elongation at
break of plasticised PVC samples was observed to be very high (ranging from 600 %
to 1100 %) due to high loading level of plasticisers. As proposed by the Lubricating
Theory, small plasticiser molecules diffused into the polymer matrix will weaken the
attraction between polymer chains, enabling them to elongate upon stretching
(Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005). At higher concentration, more plasticiser molecules
separate the polymer chains apart and further weaken the secondary bonding force.
As a consequent, less energy is needed to move the polymer chains and the samples
could elongate further with same pulling force.

Apart from that, Figure 4.2 demonstrates that the elongation at break
increased in a polynomial trend where the percentage of elongation increased rapidly
at low plasticiser concentration but became less significant at high loading level of
plasticiser. Since the plasticisers used in this study are external plasticiser, its
miscibility with PVC is somehow limited especially at high plasticiser concentration.
More voids might occur at high plasticiser loading as shown in Figure 4.3 and
sections with voids are generally weaker and susceptible to failure when external
load applied. Some points with exceptional high elongation at break such as
DOA/ESO at 60 phr and DINP/DOA/ESO at 80 phr were observed. One of the
possible explanations is that the plasticiser molecules were well distributed
throughout the polymer matrix as shown in Figure 4.4. When external load applied to
the polymer, the force was distributed evenly to the matrix and thus enhancing the
mechanical property.

Among the plasticiser mixtures used in this study (DOA/ESO,

DINP/DOA/ESO and DOTP/ESO), DOTP/ESO-PVC posed lowest elongation at
break as shown in Figure 4.2. This indicates that DOTP/ESO holds lowest
plasticising efficiency. On the other hand, the elongation at break of DOA/ESO-PVC
was higher than DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC at low plasticiser concentration (< 60 phr)
but found to be similar at loading level of 60 phr. As the plasticiser concentration
exceeded 60 phr, the elongation at break of DOA/ESO-PVC was lower than
 35

DINP/DOA. This might be due to the fact that DOA is less compatible with PVC
resins typically at high plasticiser concentration. According to Krauskopf and
Godwin (2005), plasticisers with functional group such as carbonyl group and
aromatic rings are more compatible with PVC resin than those with long, plain
hydrocarbon chain. Thus, DINP with benzene ring in the chemical structure is
generally more compatible than linear chain DOA. The effect of compatibility might
not be significant at low level of plasticiser loading but would become more obvious
as the concentration of DOA increased.

Table 4.2: Elongation at Break of Plasticised PVC Compounds

Plasticiser Elongation at break (%)

(phr) DOA/ESO DINP/DOA/ESO DOTP/ESO
40 777 ±23.3 693 ±22.4 663 ±25.2
50 940 ±18.6 867 ±23.2 786 ±16.4
60 918 ±34.7 919 ±32.1 855 ±28.3
70 922 ±53.6 939 ±34.1 884 ±18.9
80 951 ±45.5 1007 ±33.9 915 ±30.9

1100

1000
Elongation at break (%)

900
DOA/ESO

DINP/DOA/ESO
800
DOTP/ESO

700

600
40 50 60 70 80
Plasticiser concentration (phr)

Figure 4.2: Elongation at Break of PVC Compounds Filled with Different Types
of Plasticisers
 36

(a) (b)
Figure 4.3: Void Appears in (a) Sample 4 and (b) Sample 5 of Formulation 1
(DOA/ESO) by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

(a) (b)
Figure 4.4: Morphologies of Fracture Surface for (a) Sample 3 of Formulation 1
(DOA/ESP) and (b) Sample 5 of Formulation 2 (DINP/DOA/ESO)

4.3 Durometer Hardness

The Durometer Hardness of PVC compounds decreased almost linearly with

plasticiser concentration as shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.5. This is in line with
the study of Wypych (2004b) which stated that addition of plasticiser would soften
the PVC compound and consequently reduce the hardness. According to the Free
Volume Theory, plasticiser molecules will separate the polymer chains and increase
the free volume in the polymer matrix (Krauskopf & Godwin, 2005). Therefore,
 37

when the indenter pressed on the specimen’s surface, the free volume in polymer
matrix allows the polymer chains to move further downwards, subsequently reducing
the reaction force towards the indenter.

Based on Figure 4.5, DOA/ESO-PVC was observed to show lowest hardness

value followed by DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC and lastly DOTP/ESO-PVC. This means
that the efficiency of plasticiser mixtures in reducing PVC’s hardness follow a
sequence of DOA, DINP/DOA and DOTP with DOA being the most efficient
plasticiser. According to Krauskopf and Godwin (2005), plasticiser with lower
molecular weight is more effective in reducing hardness of PVC compounds. The
molecular weight of DOA, DINP and DOTP are 370, 418 and 390 respectively. As
expected, DOA with lowest molecular weight was the most efficient. For the other
two plasticisers, DOTP with lower molecular weight should have higher efficiency
than DINP. However, Figure 4.5 shows that DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC posed lower
hardness than DOTP/ESO-PVC. This is because DOA has complemented the
efficiency of DINP in formulation 2 (DINP/DOA/ESO).

Table 4.3: Durometer Hardness of Plasticised PVC Compounds

Durometer Hardness
Plasticiser
(phr) DOA/ESO DINP/DOA/ESO DOTP/ESO
40 80.4 ±0.55 83.4 ±0.55 86.4 ±0.55
50 72.0 ±0.00 77.2 ±0.45 79.4 ±0.55
60 65.4 ±0.55 72.6 ±0.55 74.8 ±0.45
70 61.8 ±0.45 65.6 ±0.55 68.8 ±0.45
80 58.2 ±0.45 60.4 ±0.55 64.2 ±0.45
 38

90

85

80

Durometer Hardness 75
DOA/ESO
70
DINP/DOA/ESO
65 DOTP/ESO

60

55

50
40 50 60 70 80
Plasticiser concentration (phr)

Figure 4.5: Durometer Hardness of PVC Compounds Filled with Different

Types of Plasticisers

4.4 Specific Gravity

The theoretical specific gravity of PVC compounds was calculated by equation 3.1 as
shown in section 3.5.3 using specific gravity of individual raw material tabulated in
Table 4.4 as well as weight percent of chemicals in Tables 4.5 to 4.7. The calculated
value was then compared with the experimental specific gravity obtained from the
densimeter.

Table 4.4: Specific Gravity of Chemicals

Chemical Specific Gravity
PVC 1.4
DOA 0.928
DINP 0.974
DOTP 0.985
ESO 0.99
Ca/Zn 0.969
EBS 0.97
 39

Table 4.5: Weight Percent of Chemicals in Formulation 1 (DOA/ESO)

Weight Percent
Chemical
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
PVC 0.688 0.644 0.605 0.570 0.540
DOA 0.275 0.322 0.363 0.399 0.432
ESO 0.021 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016
Ca/Zn 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011
EBS 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Table 4.6: Weight Percent of Chemicals in Formulation 2 (DINP/DOA/ESO)

Weight Percent
Chemical
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
PVC 0.688 0.644 0.605 0.570 0.540
DINP 0.172 0.225 0.272 0.314 0.351
DOA 0.103 0.097 0.091 0.086 0.081
ESO 0.021 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016
Ca/Zn 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011
EBS 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Table 4.7: Weight Percent of Chemicals in Formulation 3 (DOTP/ESO)

Weight Percent
Chemical
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
PVC 0.688 0.644 0.605 0.570 0.540
DOTP 0.275 0.322 0.363 0.399 0.432
ESO 0.021 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016
Ca/Zn 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011
EBS 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Table 4.8 and Table 4.9 show the experimental and theoretical specific
gravity of PVC compounds filled with different plasticiser mixtures respectively. The
specific gravity of PVC compounds decreased with increasing plasticiser
concentration for all plasticiser types as shown in Figures 4.6 to 4.8. This is because
plasticisers have lower specific gravity than PVC resins. The specific gravity of a
substance mainly depends on its density which considers the ratio of mass to volume.
 40

Substance with low specific gravity normally has lower density and larger volume.
As large volume substances such as plasticisers, stabiliser and lubricant embedded
into the polymer matrix, the matrix was forced to expand, thus increasing the total
volume. As a result, density of PVC compound was decreased and in turn reduced
the specific gravity.

By comparing Figures 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8, the difference between theoretical
specific gravity and the experimental specific gravity was largest for DOA/ESO-
PVC (Figure 4.6) followed by DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC (Figure 4.7) and lastly
DOTP/ESO-PVC (Figure 4.8). This shows that DOA was least compatible with PVC
while DOTP was the most compatible among all plasticisers used in this study. As
was mentioned before by Krauskopf and Godwin (2005), linear hydrocarbon chain
plasticiser such as DOA is less compatible with PVC due to its non-polar nature.
Whereas for DINP and DOTP, the presence of aromatic ring in their chemical
structure has increased their polarity. These polar sides form stronger secondary
bond with the polymer matrix, increasing the compatibility while reducing the total
volume of PVC compound. The difference between experimental and theoretical
specific gravity for DOTP/ESO-PVC was slightly smaller compared to
DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC. One of the possible reasons is the presence of less
compatible DOA in formulation 2 (DINP/DOA/ESO). Besides that, DOTP with
symmetrical structure might pose better balance between polar and non-polar portion
which could provide higher compatibility. The effect of compatibility was more
significant at high plasticiser loading as shown in Figures 4.6 to 4.8 where the
difference between experimental and theoretical specific gravity becomes larger as
plasticiser concentration increased.

Table 4.8: Experimental Specific Gravity of Plasticised PVC Compounds

Experimental Specific Gravity
Plasticiser
(phr) DOA DINP/DOA DOTP
40 1.228 ±0.0005 1.238 ±0.0000 1.257 ±0.0055
50 1.192 ±0.0010 1.219 ±0.0015 1.235 ±0.0006
60 1.171 ±0.0020 1.201 ±0.0015 1.209 ±0.0065
70 1.160 ±0.0021 1.187 ±0.0029 1.196 ±0.0030
80 1.147 ±0.0015 1.163 ±0.0041 1.183 ±0.0012
 41

Table 4.9: Theoretical Specific Gravity of Plasticised PVC Compounds

Theoretical Specific Gravity
Plasticiser (phr)
DOA DINP/DOA DOTP
40 1.255 1.263 1.270
50 1.234 1.244 1.252
60 1.215 1.228 1.236
70 1.199 1.213 1.222
80 1.184 1.200 1.209

1.280

1.260

1.240
Specific gravity

1.220
theoratical
1.200 Experimental

1.180
y = -0.001x + 1.296
R² = 0.936
1.160

1.140

1.120
40 50 60 70 80
Plasticiser concentration (phr)

Figure 4.6: Specific Gravity of PVC Compounds Plasticised with DOA/ESO

 42

1.280

1.260

Specific gravity 1.240

1.220 Theoretical
Experimental
1.200
y = -0.001x + 1.310
1.180 R² = 0.994

1.160

1.140
40 50 60 70 80
Plasticiser concentration (phr)

Figure 4.7: Specific Gravity of PVC Compounds Plasticised with

DINP/DOA/ESO

1.280

1.260
Average specific gravity

1.240

Theoretical
1.220
y = -0.001x + 1.328 Experimental

1.200 R² = 0.976

1.180

1.160
40 50 60 70 80
Plasticiser concentration (phr)

Figure 4.8: Specific Gravity of PVC Compounds Plasticised with DOTP/ESO

 43

4.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Figure 4.9 shows the fractured surface morphologies of DOA plasticised PVC
compounds. The cracking and tearing structure appeared on fracture surface indicates
that all the samples were pulled until break. At low plasticiser loading (Figure 4.9 (a)
& (b)), the surface shows severe cracking but the contraction of polymer matrix is
not readily observed. However, at high plasticiser loading (Figure 4.9 (c), (d) & (e)),
obvious tearing structure was observed and the tore section was contracted into a
wave form. These scenarios happen when the PVC compound elongate and try to
contract back to the original position after the polymer breaks apart. During
elongation, some regions undergo elastic deformation while some undergo plastic
deformation. When the polymer contracts, only regions that undergo elastic
deformation could return to original position; regions that undergo plastic
deformation was unable to contract, resulting in wave like structure formation in the
fracture surface.
(c)

Similar situation occurs in DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC (Figure 4.10) and

DOTP/ESO-PVC (Figure 4.11) where cracking structure appears at low plasticiser
loading level while tearing structure appears at high plasticiser concentration. Woven
structure was observed in Figure 4.10 (e) and Figure 4.11 (e), showing that polymer
matrix undergo contraction after breakage. As large amount of plasticisers were
blended into the PVC resins, most of the polymer matrixes exhibit high flexibility
and would undergo elastic deformation upon stretching. When the tensile stress was
removed, the elongated polymer matrixes could contract back to the original position.
Apart from that, some string like structure was shown in Figure 4.10 (d) and Figure
4.11 (c). This indicates that the polymer matrix undergoes plastic deformation during
elongation and remains in that position even though the specimen had broken apart.
 44

(e)

Figure 4.9: Morphologies of PVC Compounds Filled with DOA/ESO at the

Point of Rupture from Tensile Strength Specimens for (a) Sample 1,
(b) Sample 2, (c) Sample 3, (d) Sample 4 and (e) Sample 5 by SEM
 45

Figure 4.10: Morphologies of PVC Compounds Filled with DINP/DOA/ESO at

the Point of Rupture from Tensile Strength Specimens for (a)
Sample 1, (b) Sample 2, (c) Sample 3, (d) Sample 4 and (e) Sample 5
by SEM
 46

Figure 4.11: Morphologies of PVC Compounds Filled with DOTP/ESO at the

Point of Rupture from Tensile Strength Specimens for (a) Sample
1, (b) Sample 2, (c) Sample 3, (d) Sample 4 and (e) Sample 5 by
SEM
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

In conclusion, addition of plasticisers had imposed pronounce effect on the

mechanical and physical properties of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) compound. As the
plasticisers’ concentration increased, the tensile strength, Durometer hardness and
specific gravity of PVC compound decreased while elongation at break increased.
The tensile strength decreased almost linearly with increasing plasticiser loading for
PVC compound plasticised with diisononyl phthalate, dicotyl adipate and epoxidised
soybean oil (DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC) as well as dioctyl terephthalate and ESO
(DOTP/ESO-PVC) but in a polynomial trend for dioctyl adipate and ESO added
PVC compound (DOA/ESO-PVC). On the other hand, all plasticiser mixtures used
in this study showed a polynomial trend of increment in elongation at break. For
Durometer hardness and specific gravity, all three formulations showed linear
reduction with increasing plasticiser concentration.

Among three types of plasticiser mixture investigated, DOA/ESO showed the

highest plasticising efficiency in both tensile strength and Durometer hardness. The
increment on elongation at break was also high but only limited to low plasticiser
concentration. When the DOA concentration exceeded 50 phr, the changes in
elongation at break became insignificant. The major drawback of formulation 1 was
the relatively low compatibility of DOA with PVC resins. On the other hand,
combination of DINP, DOA and ESO in formulation 2 gave intermediate efficiency
in tensile strength and Durometer hardness. The elongation at break for
DINP/DOA/ESO-PVC was lower than DOA/ESO-PVC at low plasticiser
 48

concentration (< 60 phr) but became higher than DOA/ESO-PVC when plasticiser
loading level exceeded 60 phr. The compatibility with PVC resins was also slightly
lower than DOTP but better than DOA. Lastly, the combination of DOTP and ESO
showed lowest plasticising efficiency in tensile strength, elongation at break and
Durometer hardness. Yet, DOTP was most compatible with PVC resins compared to
DOA and DINP/DOA. By comparing three formulations investigated in this study,
PVC compound blended with DINP, DOA and ESO (formulation 2) is most suitable
for urine bag and urinary tubing application. Although the plasticising efficiency was
lower than DOA, it is still acceptable as the compatibility with PVC resins was
higher.

5.2 Recommendations

Homogeneity of PVC compounds was found important in determining the

mechanical and physical properties. Thus, it is recommended to prepare the PVC
compounds in pellet form through extrusion instead of two roll milling. Product from
extrusion is generally more homogeneous and the data obtained during characteristic
testing is more reliable. Besides that, specimens should have similar thermal history
and impurities must be avoided to improve data accuracy. On the other hand, future
study shall look into the structure of PVC compounds and investigate the migration
tendency of plasticiser to produce high quality products for consumer use.
 REFERENCES

ASTM Standard D638, 2003, "Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of
Plastics," ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2003.

ASTM Standard D792, 2000, "Standard Test Methods for Density and Specific
Gravity (Relative Density) of Plastics by Displacement," ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA, 2003.

ASTM Standard D2240, 2005, "Standard Test Method for Rubber Property –
Durometer Hardness," ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2003.

Audic, J., Epaillard, F., Reyx, D., & Brosse, J. (2001). Cold plasma surface
modification of conventionally plasticised poly(vinyl chloride)-based flexible
films: global and specific migration of additives into isooctane. Applied Polymer
Science, 79(8), 1384-1293.

Bilgif, T. (1998). Processing of PVC. In P. Nicholas, Advanced Polymer Processing

Operations (pp. 39-68). New Jersey: Noyes Publication.

Breme, F., Buttstaedt, J., & Emig, G. (2000). Coating of polymers with titanium
based layer by a novel plasma-assisted chemical vapour deposition process. Thin
Solid Films, 377-378, 755-759.

British Pharmacopoeia Commission. (2010). Materials based on plasticised

poly(vinyl chloride) for containers for aqueous solutions for intravenous infusion.
In British Pharmacopeia Commission, British pharmacopoeia 2010 (pp. A495-
A497). London: Stationery Office.

Edenbaum, J. (1992). Plastics additives and modifiers handbook (pp. 17-35). New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Ertl, J. (2011). Europe’s PVC industry launches VinylPlus initiative. Addiitives for
Polymers, 10 , 11.

Frados, J. (1976). Plastics Engineering Handbook 4th Edition (pp. 40-50). New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Fritsky, K. J., Kumm, J. H., & Wilken, M. (2001). Combined PCDD/F destruction
and particulate control in a bag house: Experience with a catalytic filter system at
a medical waste incineration plant. Air and Water Management Association, 1642-
1649.
 50

Garcia, D., Balart, R., Crespo, J. E., & Lopez, J. (2006). Mechanical properties of
recycled PVC blends with styrenic polymers. Applied Polymer Science, 101,
2464-2471.

Gil, N., Negulescu, I., & Saska, M. (2006). Evaluation of the effects of bio-based
plasticizers on thermal and mechanical properties of poly (vinylchloride). Applied
Polymer Science, 1366-1373.

Hahn, J., Nagge, C., Pohlot, P., Bahor, B., & Sussman, D. (1992). Control by using
automatic combustion with dry scrubber/fabric filtration (DS/FF). Chemosphere,
25 (1-2), 153-156.

Hakan, S., Robert, W., & Daniel, H. (2008). Development and environmental
improvements of plastics for hydrophilic catheters in medical care: An
environmental evaluation. Cleaner Production, 16, 1764-1776.

Jaksland, C., Rasmussen, E., & Rohde, T. (2000). A new technology for treatment of
PVC waste. Waste Management, 20, 463-467.

Jayakrishnan, A., & Lakshmi, S. (1998). Immobile plasticiser in flexible poly(vinyl)

chloride. Nature, 396-638.

Jayakrishnan, A., & Sunny, M. C. (1996). Phase-transfer catalyzed surface

modification of plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) in aqeous media to retard
plasticizer migration. Polymer, 37 (23), 5213-5218.

Kambia, K., Dine, T., Azar, R., Gressier, B., Luyckx, M., & Brunet, C. (2001).
Comparative study of leachability of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and tri(2-
ethylhexyl) trimellitate from haemodialysis tubing. International Journal of
Pharmaceutics, 139-146.

Karle, V. A., Short, B. L., & Martin, G. R. (1997). Extracorporeal membrane

oxygenation exposes infants to the plasticiser, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Critical
Care Medicine, 696-703.

Kim, S. H., Ahn, S. Y., & Kwak, S. Y. (2008). Suppression of dioxin emission in
incineration of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) as hybridized with titanium dioxide
(TiO2) nanoparticles. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 79, 296-305.

Krauskopf, L. G. (1988). Plasticizers: Types, properties and performance. In L. I.

Nass, & C. A. Heiberger, Encyclopedia of PVC, 2nd Ed., Vol. 2 (pp. 143-261).
New York: Marcel Dekker.

Krauskopf, L. G., & Godwin, A. (2005). Plasticizers. In C. E. Wilkes, J. W.

Summers, & C. A. Daniels, PVC Handbook (pp. 173-193). Hanser Garderer
Publisher.
 51

Krishnan, V. K., Jayakrishnan, A., & Francis, J. D. (1991). Radiation grafting of

hydrophilic monomers on to plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) sheets: II. Migration
behaviour of the plasticizer from N-vinyl pyrrolidone grafted sheets. Biomaterials,
12(5), 489-492.

Lakshmi, S., & Jayakrishnan, A. (1998). Migration resistant, blood compatible

plasticized polyvinyl chloride for medical and related applications. Artificial
Organs, 22(3), 222-229.

Linder, G., Jenkins, A. C., McCormack, J., & Adrian, R. C. (1990). Dioxins and
furans in emissions from medical waste incinerators. Chemosphere, 20, 1793-
1800.

Louis, R. C. (2009). A vital and sustainable resource. Plastic, Additives and

Compounding, 11(2), 22-23.

Lutz, J. T. (1993). Epoxy plasticizers. In E. J. Wickson, Handbook of PVC

Formulating (pp. 253-274). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Maag, J., Lassen, C. B. & Brandt, U. K. (2010). Identification and assessment of

alternatives to selected phthalates. Denmark: Environmental Project No. 1341.

Markarian, J. (2007). PVC additives - What lies ahead? Plastics, Additives and
Compounding, 9 (6), 22-25.

Matthews, G. (1996). PVC: Production, properties and uses (pp. 85-110). London:
Institute of Metals.

Nexant Inc. (2008). Developments in non-phthalate plasticizers: Report abstract.

Chem Systems PERP Program. Retrieved March 9, 2012 from
http://www.chemsystems.com/reports/search/docs/abstracts/0708S4_abs.pdf

Rahman, M., & Brazel, C. S. (2004). The plasticizer market: An assessment of

traditional plasticzers and research trends to meet new challenges. Progress in
Polymer Science, 29, 1223-1248.

Sibylle, L. H., Hans-Dieter, L., Gerhard, Z., & Hans, P. W. (2005). PVC-plasticizer
DEHP in medical products: Do thin coatings really reduce DEHP leaching into
blood? Perfusion, 20, 351-357.

Singh, S., & Prakash, V. (2007). Toxic environmental releases from medical waste
incineration: A review. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 132, 67-81.

Sothornvit, R., & Krochta, J. M. (2005). Innovations in food packaging. In J. H. Han,

Plasticizers in edible films and coatings (pp. 403-428). Elsevier.

Suna, R. D., Iriea, H., Nishikawab, T., Nakajimac, A., Watanabec, T., & Hashimotoc,
K. (2003). Suppressing effect of CaCO3 on the dioxins emission from poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC) incineration. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 79, 253-256.
 52

Terernce, G., Laurie, S., David, H., & Demetrios, M. S. (2010). Simple surface
sulfonation retards plasticisre migration and impacts upon blood/ material contact
activation processes. Perfusion, 25(1), 31-39.

Terumo Penpol Limited. (2011). A process for making non DEHP compounds
suitable for the fabrication of containers for the storage of platelet concentrates
and for making flexible devices and tubing for medical application. Patent Scope,
WO2011004390.

Tickner, J. A., Schettler, T., Guidotti, T., McCally, M., & Rossi, M. (2001). Health
risks posed by use of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in PVC medical devices:
A critical review. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 39(1), 100-111.

Vieira, M. G., da Silva, M. A., dos Santos, L. O., & Beppu, M. M. (2011). Natural-
based plasticizers and biopolymer films: A review. European Polymer Journal, 47,
254-263.

Wendel, H. P., Hildenbrand, S., Woldraz, R., Aebert, H., & Ziemer, G. (2003).
Heparin-coating decreases DEHP release from polyvinyl chloride. Eighteenth
European Conference on Biomaterials including Third Young Scientists' Forum,
Poster 115.

William, C. (2005). Flexible PVC. In E. W. Charles, W. S. James, & A. D. Charles,

PVC Handbook (pp. 315-331). Hanser Garderer Publisher.

Wojciechowska, P. (2011). The effect of concentration and type of plasticizer on the

mechanical properties of cellulose acetate butyrate organic-inorganic hybrids.
Recent Advances in Plasticizers, 141-164.

Wypych, G. (2004a). Plasticizer types. In G. Wypych, Handbook of Plasticizer (pp.

7-53). Toronto: ChemTec Publishing.

Wypych, G. (2004b). Effect of plasticizers on properties of plasticized material. In G.

Wypych, Handbook of Plasticizers (pp. 193-272). Toronto: Chemtec Publishing.
 APPENDIX

APPENDIX A: Data for tensile strength and elongation at break