FREQUENCY MODULATION

Definition of Angle Modulation: Angle modulation is a process by which angle (frequency or phase) of the
carrier is varied in accordance with instantaneous amplitude of message.

FREQUENCY MODULATION

Definition: Frequency Modulation is a process by which frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with
instantaneous amplitude of message.

As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency increases. If the amplitude of the
modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency decreases.

Time Domain Analysis of FM

Frequency Deviation: The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is
known as the frequency deviation fd. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal.
The figure below shows the message, carrier, FM signals
When the modulating signal goes negative, the carrier frequency decreases. It continues to decrease until the
peak of the negative half-cycle of the modulating sine wave is reached. Then as the modulating signal increases
toward zero, the carrier frequency again increases. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. (c), where the carrier
sine waves seem to be first compressed and then stretched by the modulating signal.
Assume a carrier frequency of 150 MHz. If the peak amplitude of the modulating signal causes a maximum
frequency shift of 30 kHz, the carrier frequency will deviate up to 150.03 MHz and down to 149.97 MHz. The
total frequency deviation is 150.03 −149.97 = 0.06 MHz = 60 kHz.
Frequency Shift Keying
When the modulating signal has only two amplitudes, the carrier frequency, instead of having an infi nite
number of values, as it would have with a continuously varying (analog) signal, has only two values. This
phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. below. For example, when the modulating signal is a binary 0, the carrier
frequency is the center frequency value. When the modulating signal is a binary 1, the carrier frequency
abruptly changes to a higher frequency level. The amount of the shift depends on the amplitude of the binary
signal. This kind of modulation, called frequency-shift keying (FSK), is widely used in the transmission of
binary data in Bluetooth headsets, wireless speakers, and many forms of industrial wireless.
PHASE MODULATION
Definition: Phase modulation is defined as a process by which phase angle of the carrier is varied in
accordance with instantaneous amplitude of message
Time Domain Analysis of PM

Assume that a phase shifter can be built that will cause the amount of phase shift to vary with the amplitude
of the modulating signal. The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift.
Assume further that positive alternations of the modulating signal produce a lagging phase shift and negative
signals produce a leading phase shift. If a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency carrier sine wave is applied
to the phase shifter whose phase shift is varied by the intelligence signal, the output of the phase shifter is a
PM wave. As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag, and thus the delay of the carrier
output, increases with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs during the time when the
modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate. For a sine wave modulating signal, the rate of change of
the modulating signal is greatest when the modulating wave changes from plus to minus or from minus to
plus. The figure below shows the message, carrier, PM signals. As Fig. (d) shows, the maximum rate of change
of modulating voltage occurs exactly at the zero crossing points. In contrast, note that in an FM wave the
maximum deviation occurs at the peak positive and negative amplitude of the modulating voltage. Thus,
although a phase modulator does indeed produce FM, maximum deviation occurs at different points of the
modulating signal.
Relationship between Modulations Signals and Carrier deviation

In FM, the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. The
maximum deviation occurs at the peak positive and negative amplitudes of the modulating signal. In PM, the
frequency deviation is also directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. The maximum
amount of leading or lagging phase shift occurs at the peak amplitudes of the modulating signal. This effect,
for both FM and PM, is illustrated in Fig. (a). below
Fig.(b), shows that the frequency deviation of an FM signal is constant for any value of modulating frequency.
Only the amplitude of the modulating signal determines the amount of deviation. In case of PM higher the
modulating signal frequency, the shorter its period and the faster the voltage changes In PM, then, the carrier
frequency deviation is proportional to both the modulating frequency (slope of modulating voltage) and the
amplitude. In FM, frequency deviation is proportional only to the amplitude of the modulating signal,
regardless of its frequency.
CONVERTING PM TO FM
We know that the expressions for FM and PM are

FM can be obtained by passing the message through an integrator and then this resulting signals through a
phase modulator as shown in the fig below.

Integrator Phase FM Wave

Modulator
Message
signal

Carrier
Signal

To make PM compatible with FM, pass the intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network, as illustrated
in Fig. below. This low-pass filter called a frequency-correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f fi lter, causes the
higher modulating frequencies to be attenuated. The predistorter compensates for the excess frequency
deviation caused by higher modulating frequencies. The result is an output that is the same as an FM signal.
The FM produced by a phase modulator is called indirect FM. Here the LPF acts like an integrator.
Phase Shift Keying
PM is also used with binary signals, as Fig. below shows. When the binary modulating signal is 0 V, or binary
0, the PM signal is simply the carrier frequency. When a binary 1 voltage level occurs, the modulator, which
is a phase shifter, simply changes the phase of the carrier, not its frequency. In Fig. 5-6 the phase shift is 180°.
Each time the signal changes from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0, there is a 180° phase shift. The PM signal is still the carrier
frequency, but the phase has been changed with respect to the original carrier with a binary 0 input.
The process of phase-modulating a carrier with binary data is called phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary phase-
shift keying (BPSK). The PSK signal shown in Fig. below uses a 180° phase shift from a reference, but other
phase-shift values can be used, for example, 45°, 90°, 135°, or 225°.

Modulation Index
The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation index mf :

where fd is the frequency deviation and fm is the modulating frequency.

In most communication systems using FM, maximum limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.
When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum modulating frequency are used in
computing the modulation index, mf is known as the deviation ratio.
Frequency Domain Analysis of FM
In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband frequencies are produced. In addition, a large number
of pairs
of upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually wider
than that of an equivalent AM signal.
Fig. 5-7 shows the frequency spectrum of a typical FM signal produced by modulating a carrier with a single-
frequency sine wave. Note that the sidebands are spaced from the carrier fc and from one another by a
frequency equal to the modulating frequency fm.

Theoretically, the FM process produces an infinite number of upper and lower sidebands and, therefore, a
theoretically infinitely large bandwidth. However, in practice, only those sidebands with the largest amplitudes
are significant in carrying the information. Typically any sideband whose amplitude is less than 1 percent of
the unmodulated carrier is considered insignificant.
BESSEL FUNCTIONS
The FM equation is given as

This equation is solved with a complex mathematical process known as Bessel functions. The result is as
follows:
The first term is the carrier with an amplitude given by a Jn coefficient, in this case J0. The next term
represents
a pair of upper and lower side frequencies equal to the sum and difference of the carrier and modulating signal
frequency. The amplitude of these side frequencies is J1. The next term is another pair of side frequencies
equal to the carrier ±2 times the modulating signal frequency. The other terms represent additional side
frequencies spaced
from one another by an amount equal to the modulating signal frequency.
The coefficient Jn is given by

The Bessel coefficients for a range of modulation indexes are given in Fig. below. The leftmost column gives
the modulation index mf. The remaining columns indicate the relative amplitudes of the carrier and the various
pairs
of sidebands. Any sideband with a relative carrier amplitude of less than 1 percent (0.01) has been eliminated.
Fig. below shows the curves that are generated by plotting the data in Fig. above. The carrier and sideband
amplitudes and polarities are plotted on the vertical axis; the modulation index is plotted on the horizontal
axis.

Narrowband FM
With a modulation index of 0.25, the FM signal occupies no more spectrum space than an AM signal. This
type of FM is called narrowband FM, or NBFM. NBFM is a FM whose modulation index values range
between 0.2 and 0.25.
The figure below shows FM spectrum for different modulation indices
FM SIGNAL BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth can then be determined with the simple formula
BW = 2fmN
where N is the number of significant sidebands in the signal.
Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carson’s rule. This rule recognizes only
the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2 percent of the carrier. This rule is

NOISE SUPPRESSION EFFECTS OF FM

Definition of Noise: Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and
any power line switching that produces transient signals. Such noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with
very high frequencies. They add to a signal and interfere with it.
The figure below shoes FM signal with Noise

FM signals, however, have a constant modulated carrier amplitude, and FM receivers contain limiter circuits
that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal. Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM
signal are effectively clipped off, as shown in Fig. above. This does not affect the information content of the
FM signal, since it is contained solely within the frequency variations of the carrier. Because of the clipping
action of the limiter circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated.
Noise and Phase Shift
The noise amplitude added to an FM signal introduces a small frequency variation, or phase shift, which
changes or distorts the signal. Fig.below shows how this works. The carrier signal is represented by a fixed-
length (amplitude) phasor S. The noise is usually a short duration pulse containing many frequencies at many
amplitudes and phases.
In Fig.(a), this noise signal is represented as a rotating phasor N. The composite signal of the carrier and the
noise, labeled C, is a phasor whose amplitude is the phasor sum of the signal and noise and a phase angle
shifted from the carrier by an amount φ.
The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise and signal phasors are at a right angle to each other, as
illustrated in Fig. (b). This angle can be computed according to the formula
The frequency shift produced by this phase shift is

How does a phase shift distort the signal depends on the following factor
If very high deviations are allowed, i.e., if there is a high modulation index, the shift can be small and
inconsequential. If the total allowed deviation is small, then the noise-induced deviation can be severe.
The noise interference is of very short duration; thus, the phase shift is momentary, and intelligibility is rarely
severely impaired. With heavy noise, human speech might be temporarily garbled, but so much that it could
not be understood.
The ratio of the shift produced by the noise to the maximum allowed deviation gives us Noise to Signal Ratio

The Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) can be determined using the formula

Preemphasis and Deemphasis

Noise can interfere with an FM signal, and particularly with the high-frequency components of the modulating
signal. Since noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy, it contains a lot of harmonics and other high-frequency
components. Most of the content of a modulating signal, particularly voice, is at low frequencies. In voice
communication systems, the bandwidth of the signal is limited to about 3 kHz. In contrast, musical instruments
typically generate signals at low frequencies but contain many high-frequency harmonics that give them their
unique sound and must be passed if that sound is to be preserved. Thus a wide bandwidth is needed in high-
fidelity systems.
To overcome this problem, most FM systems use a technique known as preemphasis that helps offset high-
frequency noise interference. At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed through a simple network that
amplifies the high- frequency components more than the low-frequency components. The simplest form of
such a circuit is a simple high-pass filter of the type shown in Fig. below.

The output amplitude increases with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave. The preemphasis circuit increases
the energy content of the higher frequency signals so that they become stronger than the high-frequency noise
components.
The preemphasis circuit also has an upper break frequency fu, at which the signal enhancement flattens out
To return the frequency response to its normal, “flat” level, a deemphasis circuit, a simple low-pass filter with
a time constant of 75 μs, is used at the receiver [see fig (c)]. Signals above its cutoff frequency of 2123 Hz are
attenuated at the rate of 6 dB per octave. The response curve is shown in Fig. (d). As a result, the preemphasis
at the transmitter is exactly offset by the deemphasis circuit in the receiver, providing a flat frequency
response.
FREQUENCY MODULATION VS AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Advantages of FM
1. Noise Immunity: The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior immunity to noise, made possible
by the clipper limiter circuits in the receiver, which effectively strip off all the noise variations, leaving
a constant-amplitude FM signal.
2. Capture Effect: Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on the same frequency are
effectively rejected. Because of the amplitude limiters and the demodulating methods used by FM
receivers, a phenomenon known as the capture effect takes place when two or more FM signals occur
simultaneously on the same frequency. If one signal is more than twice the amplitude of the other, the
stronger signal captures the channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.
In contrast, when two AM signals occupy the same frequency, both signals are generally heard,
regardless of their relative signal strengths. When one AM signal is significantly stronger than another,
naturally the stronger signal is intelligible; however, the weaker signal is not eliminated and can still
be heard in the background. When the signal strengths of given AM signals are nearly the same, they
will interfere with each other, making both nearly unintelligible.
3. Transmitter Efficiency: A third advantage of FM over AM involves efficiency. AM can be produced
by both low-level and high-level modulation techniques. The most efficient is high-level modulation
in which a class C amplifier is used as the final RF power stage and is modulated by a high- power
modulation amplifier. In addition, at very high power levels, large-modulation amplifiers are
impractical. Under such conditions, low-level modulation must be used if the AM information is to be
preserved without distortion. The AM signal is generated at a lower level and then amplified with
linear amplifiers to produce the final RF signal. FM signals have a constant amplitude, and it is
therefore not necessary to use linear amplifiers to increase their power level. In fact, FM signals are
always generated at a lower level and then amplified by a series of class C amplifiers to increase their
power.
Disadvantages of FM
1. Excessive Spectrum Use: The greatest disadvantage of FM is that it simply uses too much spectrum
space. The bandwidth of an FM signal is, in general, considerably wider than that of an AM signal
transmitting similar information. Although it is possible to keep the modulation index low to minimize
bandwidth, reducing the modulation index also reduces the noise immunity of an FM signal. Since FM
occupies so much bandwidth, it is typically used only in those portions of the spectrum where adequate
 bandwidth is available, i.e., at very high frequencies. In fact, it is rarely used below frequencies of 30
MHz.
2. Circuit Complexity: One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved the complexity of the circuits
used for frequency modulation and demodulation in comparison with the simple circuits used for
amplitude modulation and demodulation. Today, this disadvantage has almost disappeared because of
the use of integrated circuits.
EXTRA PROBLEMS FROM CLASS NOTES
FREQUENCY MODULATORS
A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. The
carrier is generated by either an LC or a crystal oscillator circuit, and so a way must be found to change the
frequency of oscillation.
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input voltage are generally referred to as voltage-
controlled oscillators (VCOs). Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators are generally referred to as VXOs.
Although VCOs for VHF, UHF, and microwaves are still implemented with discrete components, more and
more they are being integrated on a single chip of silicon along with other transmitter or receiver circuits. An
example of such a VCO is shown in Fig. below.

This circuit uses silicon-germanium (SiGe) bipolar transistor to achieve an operating frequency centered near
10 GHz. The oscillator uses cross- coupled transistors Q1 and Q2 in a multivibrator or flip-flop type of design.
The signal is a sine wave whose frequency is set by the collector inductances and varactor capacitances. The
modulating voltage, usually a binary signal to produce FSK, is applied to the junction of D1 and D2. Two
complementary outputs are available from the emitter followers Q3 and Q4.
A CMOS version of the VCO is shown in Fig. below. This circuit also uses a crosscoupled LC resonant circuit
design and operates in the 2.4- to 2.5-GHz range.
Fig. (a) below is a block diagram of one widely used IC VCO, the popular NE566. External resistor R1 at pin
6 sets the value of current produced by the internal current sources. The current sources linearly charge and
discharge external capacitor C1 at pin 7.
 An external voltage VC applied at pin 5 is used to vary the amount of current produced by the current
sources. The Schmitt trigger circuit is a level detector that controls the current source by switching
between charging and discharging when the capacitor charges or discharges to a specific voltage level.
 A linear sawtooth of voltage is developed across the capacitor by the current source. This is buffered
by an amplifier and made available at pin 4. The Schmitt trigger output is a square wave at the same
frequency available at pin 3.
.A complete frequency modulator circuit using the NE566 is shown in Fig. (b).
 The current sources are biased with a voltage divider made up of R2 and R3. The modulating signal is
applied through C2 to the voltage divider at pin 5. The 0.001-μF capacitor between pins 5 and 6 is used
to prevent unwanted oscillations.
 The center carrier frequency of the circuit is set by the values of R1 and C1. Carrier frequencies up to
1 MHz may be used with this IC.
FREQUENCY DEMODULATORS
SLOPE DETECTOR
A simple circuit of a slope detector is shown in the fig below. It is similar to AM detector.

The FM signal is applied to transformer T1 made up of L1 and L2. Together L2 and C1 form a series resonant
circuit. The signal voltage induced into L2 appears in series with L2 and C1. The response curve of this tuned
circuit is shown in Fig. below. Note that at the resonant frequency fr the voltage across C1 peaks. At lower
or higher frequencies, the voltage falls off.

We can see that the carrier frequency of the FM signal is centred at the leading edge of the response curve. As
the carrier frequency varies above and below its center frequency, the tuned circuit responds as shown in the
figure. If the frequency goes lower than the carrier frequency, the output voltage across C1 decreases. If the
frequency goes higher, the output across C1 goes higher. Thus, the ac voltage across C1 is proportional to the
frequency of the FM signal. The voltage across C1 is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load R1.
These are filtered into a varying dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original modulating signal.
Difficulties of Slope Detector:
 The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning them so that the FM signal is correctly centered
on the leading edge of the tuned circuit.
 The tuned circuit does not have a perfectly linear response. It is approximately linear over a narrow
range, but for wide deviations, amplitude distortion occurs because of the nonlinearity.
PHASE LOCKED LOOP
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a frequency- or phase-sensitive feedback control circuit used in frequency
demodulation, frequency synthesizers, and various filtering and signal detection applications. All phase-
locked loops have the three basic elements, shown in Fig. below.

 A phase detector is used to compare the FM input, sometimes referred to as the reference
signal, to the output of a VCO.
 The VCO frequency is varied by the dc output voltage from a low-pass filter.
 The low-pass filter smoothens the output of the phase detector into a control voltage that varies
the frequency of the VCO.
The primary job of the phase detector is to compare the two input signals and generate an output signal that,
when filtered, will control the VCO. If there is a phase or frequency difference between the FM input and
VCO signals, the phase detector output varies in proportion to the difference. The filtered output adjusts the
VCO frequency in an attempt to correct for the original frequency or phase difference. This dc control voltage,
called the error signal, is also the feedback in this circuit.
Free running frequency: When no input signal is applied, the phase detector and low-pass filter outputs are
zero. The VCO then operates at its normal operating frequency as determined by internal frequency-
determining components. This is known as free running frequency.
The phase detector output is a series of pulses that vary in width in accordance with the amount of phase shift
or frequency difference that exists between the two inputs. The output pulses are then filtered into a dc voltage
that is applied to the VCO. The error voltage forces the VCO frequency to change in the direction that reduces
the amount of phase or frequency difference between the VCO and the input.
Lock Range: If the input frequency changes, the phase detector and low-pass filter produce a new value of
dc control voltage that forces the VCO output frequency to change until it is equal to the new input frequency.
Any variation in input frequency is matched by a VCO frequency change, so the circuit remains locked. The
VCO in a PLL is, therefore, capable of tracking the input frequency over a wide range. The range of
frequencies over which a PLL can track an input signal and remain locked is known as the lock range.
Capture Range: If an input frequency within the lock range is applied to the PLL, the circuit immediately
adjusts itself into a locked condition. The phase detector determines the phase difference between the free-
running and input frequencies of the VCO and generates the error signal that forces the VCO to equal the input
frequency. This action is referred to as capturing an input signal. Once the input signal is captured, the PLL
remains locked and will track any changes in the input signal as long as the frequency is within the lock range.
The range of frequencies over which a PLL will capture an input signal, known as the capture range, is much
narrower than the lock range, but, like the lock range, is generally centered on the free-running frequency of
the VCO. This is shown in the figure below:

Advantages and Applications of PLL

 Phase Locked Loop are often used in signal conditioning applications, where it is desirable to pass
signals only in a certain range and to reject signals outside of that range. The PLL is highly effective
in eliminating the noise and interference on a signal.
 The ability of a PLL to respond to input frequency variations makes it useful in FM applications.
 The ability of a PLL to provide frequency selectivity and filtering gives it a signal to noise ratio
superior to that of any other type of FM detector.
 The linearity of the VCO ensures low distortion and a highly accurate reproduction of the original
modulating signal.
 Although PLLs are complex, they are easy to apply because they are readily available in low-cost IC
form.
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS
Early radios used tuned radio frequency or TRF receiver. However, such a receiver does not usually deliver
the kind of performance expected in modern communications applications. Hence Superheterodyne receivers
are used. Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower frequency, known as the
intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers and filters is used to provide a fixed level of
sensitivity (ability to amplify weak signals) and selectivity. The key circuit is the mixer, which acts as a
simple amplitude modulator to produce sum and difference frequencies. The incoming signal is mixed with a
local oscillator signal to produce this conversion. Fig. below shows a general block diagram of a
superhetrodyne receiver. The basic function of each circuit is as follows:

1. RF Amplifier:
 The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the RF amplifier, also called a low-noise
amplifier (LNA). Because RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and selectivity, they are
sometimes referred to as preselectors.
 Tuned circuits help select the desired signal or at least the frequency range in which the signal
resides. The tuned circuits in fixed tuned receivers can be given a very high Q, so that excellent
selectivity can be obtained.
 In communication receivers that do not use an RF amplifier, the antenna is connected directly to a
tuned circuit, at the input to the mixer, which provides the desired initial selectivity. It is preferable
to use an RF amplifier as it improves sensitivity, because of the extra gain; improve selectivity,
because of the added tuned circuits; and improve the S/N ratio.
 RF amplifiers also minimizes oscillator radiation. The local oscillator signal is relatively strong,
and some of it can leak through and appear at the input to the mixer. If the mixer input is connected
directly to the antenna, some of the local oscillator signal radiates, possibly causing interference to
other nearby receivers. The RF amplifier between the mixer and the antenna isolates the two,
significantly reducing any local oscillator radiation.
2. Mixer and Local Oscillators:
 The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer. The mixer also receives an input
from a local oscillator or frequency synthesizer. The mixer output is the input signal, the local
oscillator signal, and the sum and difference frequencies of these signals.
 Usually a tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference frequency, or intermediate
frequency (IF). The sum frequency may also be selected as the IF in some applications. The mixer
may be a diode, a balanced modulator, or a transistor.
 The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can be adjusted over a relatively wide
range. As the local-oscillator frequency is changed, the mixer translates a wide range of input
frequencies to the fixed IF.
3. IF Amplifier:
  The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same modulation that appeared on the input
RF signal.
 This signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages, and most of the receiver gain is
obtained in these stages.
 Since the intermediate frequency is usually much lower than the input signal frequency, IF
amplifiers are easier to design and good selectivity is easier to obtain.
4. Demodulators:
 The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the demodulator, or detector, which recovers
the original modulating information.
 The demodulator may be a diode detector (for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM), or a product
detector (for SSB).
 In modern digital superheterodyne radios, the IF signal is first digitized by an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) and then sent to a digital signal processor (DSP) where the demodulation is
carried out by a programmed algorithm.
 The recovered signal in digital form is then converted back to analog by a digital-to-analog
converter (DAC). The output of the demodulator or DAC is then usually fed to an audio amplifier
with sufficient voltage and power gain to operate a speaker.
5. Automatic Gain Control:
 The output of a demodulator is usually the original modulating signal,
 The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by a circuit
known as the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit.
 AGC circuits help maintain a constant output voltage level over a wide range of RF input signal
levels.
 The amplitude of the RF signal at the antenna of a receiver can range from a fraction of a microvolt
to thousands of microvolts; this wide signal range is known as the dynamic range.
 With AGC, the overall gain of the receiver is automatically adjusted depending on the input signal
level. The signal amplitude at the output of the detector is proportional to the amplitude of the input
signal; if it is very high, the AGC circuit produces a high dc output voltage, thereby reducing the
gain of the IF amplifiers. This reduction in gain eliminates the distortion normally produced by a
high-voltage input signal. When the incoming signal is weak, the detector output is low. The output
of the AGC is then a smaller dc voltage. This causes the gain of the IF amplifiers to remain high,
providing maximum amplification.
MIXING PRINCIPLES
The function performed by the mixer is called heterodyning. Fig. below is a schematic diagram of a mixer
circuit.
  Mixers accept two inputs. The signal fs, which is to be translated to another frequency, is applied to
one input, and the sine wave from a local oscillator fo is applied to the other input. The signal to be
translated can be a simple sine wave or any complex modulated signal containing sidebands. A mixer
essentially performs a mathematical multiplication of its two input signals. The oscillator is the carrier,
and the signal to be translated is the modulating signal. The output contains not only the carrier signal
but also sidebands formed when the local oscillator and input signal are mixed. The output of the
mixer, therefore, consists of signals fs , fo , fo + fs , and fo - fs or fs - fo.
 The local oscillator signal fo usually appears in the mixer output, as does the original input signal fs in
some types of mixer circuits. These are not needed in the output and are therefore filtered out. Either
the sum or difference frequency in the output is the desired signal. For example, to translate the input
signal to a lower frequency, the lower sideband or difference signal fo - fs is chosen. The local oscillator
frequency will be chosen such that when the information signal is subtracted from it, a signal with the
desired lower frequency is obtained. When translating to a higher frequency, the upper sideband or
sum signal fo + fs is chosen. Again, the local oscillator frequency determines what the new higher
frequency will be. A tuned circuit or filter is used at the output of the mixer to select the desired signal
and reject all the others.
JFET MIXER
FETs make good mixers because they provide gain, have low noise, and offer a nearly perfect square-law
response. An example is shown in Fig. below.
The FET mixer is biased so that it operates in the nonlinear portion of its range. The input signal is applied to
the gate, and the local oscillator signal is coupled to the source. The tuned circuit in the drain selects the
difference frequency.