Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 211

CHAPTER 12
MORDERN PHYSICS
1. At the tail end of the nineteenth century, physics was considered by many physicists to
be a complete science.
2. This illusion of a complete science is the man's lack of experience with atomic size
particles and with objects that move at nearly the speed of light.
3. However, in the space of just few years, scientists discover new experimental
observations and phenomena concerning with extreme conditions, such as high
velocities that are comparable to the speed of light and small distances comparable to
the atomic radius.
4. These findings lead to the development of Modem physics, which is based on drastic
assumptions, and concepts that had no historical precedents.
5. In this chapter, we will introduce the discovery of cathode rays, models of the atom,
photoelectric effect, quantum theory and some other topics of modem physics.
212 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

12.1 CATHODE RAYS

Cathode rays: Cathode rays are fast moving electrons emitted from the cathode of a
discharge tube.
1. Cathode rays were discovered while studying the electric discharge through gases at
low pressure.
2. A glass tube is equipped with two electrodes (cathode and anode), and a high voltage
is applied while the gas inside is pumped out gradually. {Figure 12.1}
3. Electric discharge first occurs at about 20 mm Hg.
4. As the pressure is reduced further, at very low pressure (~ 0.01 mm Hg), the glass
behind the positive electrode (anode) is observed to glow.
5. This is due to the rays (later found to be composed of electrons) emitted from the
cathode striking the walls of the glass tube.
6. Cathode rays were first observed in 1869 by Julius Plucker and Johann Hittorf, and
were named in 1876 by Eugen Goldstein as cathode rays.
discharge tube air at very low pressure

cathode cathode rays anode

to vacuum pump

high voltage
Figure 12.1: Production of cathode rays

7. In 1897, British physicist Joseph John Thomson showed that cathode rays composed of
a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was later named the electron.
8. He measured the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of electron. [-1.759  1011 C kg-1.]
9. Combining with the charge of the electron -1.602  10-19 (measured by Robert Andrews
Millikan in 1906), the mass of the electron is 9.107  10-31 kg.
10. Both Thomson and Millikan were honoured with Nobel Prize in Physics.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 213

Properties of cathode rays

From the experiment with cathode rays, it is found that
(1) cathode rays travel in straight lines,
(2) cathode rays have momentum and kinetic energy,
(3) cathode rays can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields,
(4) cathode rays can ionize the gases through which they pass, and
(5) cathode rays can produce fluorescence.

cathode

anode

high voltage
power supply

Figure 12.2 Cathode rays travel in straight line

cathode rays hitting the
cathode paddle wheel cause it anode
to turn and roll

glass

Figure 12.3 Cathode rays have momentum and kinetic energy

214 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

magnet
cathode anode

slit cathode ray

Figure 12.4 Cathode rays can be deflected by a magnetic field
Cathode Ray Tubes
Cathode ray tube: The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that contains an electron
gun, a deflection system and a fluorescent screen, and is used to display electron images.
11. The cathode ray tube accelerates the electrons emitted from the cathode, deflects the
electron beam, and focused onto the fluorescent screen to create the images.
12. Before late 2000 AD, CRTs are widely used in cathode ray oscilloscopes (CROs),
television sets and computer monitors.
13. Since then, CRTs have been largely superseded by newer flat-panel display
technologies such as liquid crystal display (LCD), plasma display, and organic light-
emitting diode (OLED) displays, which have lower manufacturing costs and power
consumption, as well as significantly less weight and bulk.
14. Flat-panel displays can also be made in very large sizes; whereas 38 in to 40 in (97 cm
to 102 cm) was about the largest size of a CRT television, flat panels are available in
85 in and even larger sizes.

horizontal deflection plates

focusing electrode fluorescent screen
electron beam
cathode anode
heater wave from

grid
vertical deflection plates
Figure 12.5 Cathode ray tube (CRT)
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 215

CHAPTER 12: EXERCISE 12.1

R172: (1) How can it be known that cathode rays are electrically charged particles? [p. 172]
Ans: Cathode rays can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields. So it can be
known that cathode rays are electrically charged particles.
R172: (2) Name the instruments, which employ cathode ray tube. [p. 172]
Ans: CRTs are widely used in cathode ray oscilloscopes (CROs), television sets and
computer monitors.
E12.1:What will happen to the cathode ray when it passes through the electric field? [p. 172]
Ans: When the cathode ray passes through the electric field, it experiences the electric
force by electric field. Therefore, its path is deflected from original direction.
E12.2:Are cathode rays visible? [p. 172]
Ans: Cathode rays are invisible. (However, when cathode rays strike the glass wall of a
tube or a fluorescent screen, they can cause a glow called fluorescence.)
Q01: What are cathode rays? Mention the properties of cathode rays. [p. 184]
Ans: Cathode rays: Cathode rays are fast moving electrons emitted from the cathode of
a discharge tube.
Properties of cathode rays
(1) cathode rays travel in straight lines,
(2) cathode rays have momentum and kinetic energy,
(3) cathode rays can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields,
(4) cathode rays can ionize the gases through which they pass, and
(5) cathode rays can produce fluorescence.
T096: What are the applications of cathode rays?
Ans: Picture tube of old TV sets, oscilloscope, old computer monitor, and radar monitors.
216 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

12.2 X-RAYS
X-rays: X-rays are electromagnetic waves like light, but their wavelengths are much
shorter than those of light.
1. Wilhelm Conrad Röentgen discovered X-rays in 1895 while experimenting with
cathode rays.
2. He accidentally found a penetrating radiation, which would pass through most
substances but leave shadows of solid objects.
3. Because he did not know what the rays were, he called them X-rays, meaning unknown rays.
4. Later experiments revealed that X-rays are electromagnetic waves, which have a
wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometre (nm).
5. They are shorter in wavelength than ultraviolet (UV) rays and longer than gamma rays.
6. X-rays of energy about 0.1 to 10 keV (wavelength 10 to 0.10 nm) are classified as soft
X-rays. [They have low penetrating abilities.]
7. X-rays of energy about 10 to 100 keV (wavelength 0.10 to 0.01 nm) as hard X-rays.
[They have high penetrating abilities.]
8. Low and hard X-rays are classified according to their penetrating abilities.
9. 1 electron volt (eV) = 1.602  10-19 J is an energy unit used in Atomic and Nuclear Physics.
X-ray Tube
10. An X-ray tube consists of a cathode and a target (anode).
very low gas pressure

cathode
target
(anode) electrons
X-rays
high voltage power supply
Figure 12.6 X-ray tube
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 217

11. A high potential difference (about 10-100 kV) is applied between the target and the
cathode to accelerate electrons emitted from the cathode.
12. X-rays are produced when high-energy electrons strike the target which is made of a
high dense material such as tungsten.
Properties of X-rays
1. X-rays are electromagnetic waves. They have no charge, cannot be deflected by both
electric and magnetic fields.
2. They travel through vacuum with the speed of light.
3. They have high penetrating power. Hence, thick dense shielding, such as high density
concrete or lead is necessary to protect against X-rays.
4. Soft tissue (like organs and skin) cannot absorb the X-rays; however high density
materials (such as bone) absorb X-rays.
5. X-rays can cause ionization by stripping electrons from the atoms and can cause
biological effects.
6. X-rays consist of high energy photons which are energy packets of electromagnetic wave.
Uses of X-rays
1. X-rays have wide medical applications. For example, soft X-rays (low penetrating
power) are used to take X-ray photographs of some parts of human body.
2. Hard X-rays (high penetrating power) are used to destroy cancer cells.
3. X-rays are used in industries for finding defects in welded joints and metal castings.
4. X-rays can exhibit wave nature, and are used to determine the structure of crystals.
5. X-rays are also used in security systems to reveal hidden unlawful materials (such as
weapons and drugs).

Figure 12.7: X-ray photograph of a fractured bone

218 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

13. X-rays can be classified as two types: (i) characteristic X-rays (intense sharp lines) and
(ii) continuous X-rays, or white X-rays.
(i) Characteristic X-rays:
1. When a high energy electron emitted from the cathode bombard the target material, it
may knock an electron in the inner-shell of an atom completely out of its orbit.
2. Hence, a vacancy is created.
3. When outer-shell electrons, having higher energy, fill the vacancy in the inner shell, the
energy is released in the form of X-rays.
4. These X-rays are called characteristic X-rays because they have specific energies
characteristic of the element used as the target.
5. The discrete energy of characteristic X-rays can be explained based on Bohr's atomic model.

high energy K X-ray

incident electron
knocked out electron

electron vacancy

K X-ray
K
nucleus L

Figure: Emission of characteristic x-rays

14. In the emission of X-rays, the energy emitted due to electron transition from n = 2
energy state to n = 1 energy state is K characteristic X-rays, whereas a transition from
n = 3 energy state to n =1 energy state is K characteristic X -rays.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 219

(ii) Continuous X-rays:

1. When an electron striking the target passes through the atoms of the target material,
it will suffer a retarding force in the Coulomb field of the nuclei of the target.
2. When this occurs, the electron will lose some of its kinetic energy and the energy is
released in the form of X-rays.
3. The energy of X-ray photons can take a value from zero to the maximum kinetic
energy of the incident electrons.
4. These X-rays have continuous distribution of wavelengths; hence, bear the name
continuous X-rays, or white X-rays.
5. Continuous X-rays are also called bremsstrahlung radiation (braking radiation)
according to the phenomenon they are produced.

characteristic x-ray
intensity (I)

K K

continuous x-ray

wavelength ()
Figure 12.8 A continuous x-ray spectrum with two characteristic lines superimposed
220 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 12: EXERCISE 12.2

R174: (1) Mention the uses of X-rays. [p. 174]
Ans: Uses of X-rays
(1) X-rays have wide medical applications. For example, soft X-rays (low penetrating
power) are used to take X-ray photographs of some parts of human body.
(2) Hard X-rays (high penetrating power) are used to destroy cancer cells.
(3) X-rays are used in industries for finding defects in welded joints and metal
castings.
(4) Since X-rays can exhibit wave nature, they are used to determine the structure of
crystals.
(5) X-rays are also used in security systems to reveal hidden unlawful materials (such
as weapons and drugs).
R174: (2) State similarity and difference between light and x-rays. [p. 174]
Ans: Similarities
Both light and X-rays are electromagnetic waves.
Both light and X-rays travel with the speed of light in vacuum.
Both light and X-rays can pass through vacuum.
Both light and X-rays cannot be deflected by electric field as well as by magnetic
field.
Differences
Light is visible, but X-rays are invisible.
Wavelength of light is longer than wavelength of X-rays.
Frequency of light is smaller than that of X-rays.
Energy of light is less than that of X-rays.
Light cannot pass through opaque material, but X-rays can pass through some
opaque materials including metals.
X-rays have more penetrating power than light.
X-ray have more ionizing power than light
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 221

E12.3:In which approximate wavelength region of the electromagnetic spectrum do X-rays

lie? Find the maximum energy of X-ray photon. [p. 174, T097(1)]
Ans: X-rays are electromagnetic waves which have a wavelength in the range of 10 to
0.01 nm approximately.
hc
Photon energy is, E  h 

For maximum energy,  = 0.01 nm = 10-11 m
hc 6.626 1034  3 108
E  h   = 1.99 × 10-14 J
 1011
1 eV
 1.99 1014 J  19
= 1.24 × 105 eV
1.6 10 J

E12.4:How are X-rays produced?

Ans: X-rays are commonly produced in X-ray tubes by accelerating electrons through a
potential difference (a voltage drop) and directing them onto a target material
(tungsten).
Q03: Give the properties of X -rays. [p. 184]
Ans: Properties of X-rays
(1) X-rays are electromagnetic waves. They have no charge, cannot be deflected
by both electric and magnetic fields.
(2) They travel through vacuum with the speed of light.
(3) They have high penetrating power. Hence, thick dense shielding, such as high
density concrete or lead is necessary to protect against X-rays.
(4) Soft tissue (like organs and skin) cannot absorb the X-rays; however high
density materials (such as bone) absorb X-rays.
(5) X-rays can cause ionization by stripping electrons from the atoms and can
cause biological effects.
(6) X-rays consist of high energy photons which are energy packets of
electromagnetic wave.
222 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q02: Explain characteristic X-rays and continuous X-rays. [p. 184]

Ans: (i) Characteristic X-rays:
1. When a high energy electron emitted from the cathode bombard the target material,
it may knock an electron in the inner-shell of an atom completely out of its orbit.
2. Hence, a vacancy is created.
3. When outer-shell electrons, having higher energy, fill the vacancy in the inner
shell, the energy is released in the form of X-rays.
4. These X-rays are called characteristic X-rays because they have specific energies
characteristic of the element used as the target.
5. The discrete energy of characteristic X-rays can be explained based on Bohr's atomic
model.
(ii) Continuous X-rays:
1. When an electron striking the target passes through the atoms of the target material,
it will suffer a retarding force in the Coulomb field of the nuclei of the target.
2. When this occurs, the electron will lose some of its kinetic energy and the
energy is released in the form of X-rays.
3. The energy of X-ray photons can take a value from zero to the maximum
kinetic energy of the incident electrons.
4. These X-rays have continuous distribution of wavelengths; hence, bear the
name continuous X-rays, or white X-rays.
5. Continuous X-rays are also called bremsstrahlung radiation (braking radiation)
according to the phenomenon they are produced.

T097: (2) Find the energy of the X-rays photon of wavelength 0.1 nm.
Ans: wavelength  = 0.1 nm = 10-10 m, energy E =?

hc 6.626  1034  3  108

E  h   = 1.99 × 10-15 J
 1010
1 eV
 1.99 1015 J  19
= 1.24 × 104 eV
1.6 10 J
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 223

12.3 BOHR'S HYDROGEN ATOM AND ATOMIC SPECTRA

1. Rutherford's model states that an atom has
a central nucleus and an electron or
electrons revolve around it.
2. According to electromagnetic theory,
accelerating charged particles, i.e., the nucleus electron
orbiting electrons will emit radiation and
finally they will collapse into the nucleus.
3. In order to overcome this drawback of Figure 12.10 Drawback of
Rutherford's atomic model, Niels Bohr Rutherford's atomic model

proposed a new model.

Postulate I: Bohr postulated that in an atom, an n=3
E = h
electron can move only in allowed circular orbits. If an n=2
electron is moving in such an orbit, it does not absorb, n=1
or emit radiation. The atom can exist in certain stable
+e
states with a definite total energy.
Postulate II: An electron revolves around the nucleus
in circular orbits with angular momentum L which is
Figure 12.11
an integral multiple of , Bohr’s hydrogen atom

L=n

h
where   , h =Planck's constant and n = 1, 2, 3, ... integer numbers.
2
4. This postulate is the concept of angular momentum quantization.
Postulate III: An electron can undergo transition from an orbit to another by absorbing or
emitting energy, which is equal to the energy difference between the two states.
224 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Energy and Radius of the Atom States

5. An electron of charge e and mass m moving in a circular orbit of radius r experiences
the centripetal force Fc provided by the attractive Coulomb force Fe between the
electron and the proton (nucleus).
mv 2
the centripetal force is, Fc  (1)
r
q1q2
the Coulomb force is, Fe  k (2)
r2
In electrostatic unit (esu) [Gaussian units],
k = 1, and for proton and electron, q1 = q2 = e
e2
Fe  2 (3)
r
Fc  Fe

mv 2 e2
 2 (12.1)
r r
By Bohr’s postulate II, L  mvr  n (12.2)
n
v (4)
mr
n22
v  2 2
2
(5)
mr

m  n2 2  e2
Using (5) in (12.1)   (6)
r  m2r 2  r 2

n22
r (12.3)
me 2
The total energy of the hydrogen atom is,
E = kinetic energy (KE) + potential energy (PE)
1 2 e2
E mv  (7)
2 r
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 225

1 e2 e2
Using the value of mv2 from (12.1), E  (8)
2 r r
1 e2
E (9)
2 r
1 me 4
Using (12.3) in (9), E (12.4)
2 n2 2
6. According to above equation, all the energy values are negative which means electron
is bound to the nucleus.
c2 1 mc 2 e 4
Multiplying (12.4) with 2 , E (10)
c 2 n22c 2
7. We would introduce an important constant, which is called the fine structure constant
e2 1
  , which is a dimensionless constant,
c 137
where c = 197.3 MeV fm (or) 197.3  106 eV fm.
1 mc 2 2
E  (11)
2 n2
8. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom with n = 1 could be obtained as follows,
where mass of electron must be given in MeV/c2 (or) eV/c2 units and radius r in fm.
1
Using mass of electron m = 0.511  106 eV/c2, or mc2 = 0.511  106 eV and   ,
137
we get from equation (11)
2
1 0.511 106  1 
E    eV (12)
2 n2  137 
Energy of the hydrogen atom in the nth state is,
13.6
En   eV (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
n2
n22
The radius of hydrogen atoms is, r = 52896 n2 fm = 0.52896 n2 Å
me 2
For n = 1, the radius of the hydrogen atom is called Bohr’s radius (rB),
rB = 0.52896 Å
226 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Energy and Radius of the Atom States [SI version] v

-e
1. An electron of charge e and mass m moving in a certain circular
+e Fc
orbit of radius rn experiences the centripetal force Fc provided by
r
the attractive Coulomb force Fe between electron and proton.

mv 2
the centripetal force is, Fc  mac  (1)
rn
q1q2
the Coulomb force is, Fe  k (2)
 rn 
2

2. For proton and electron, q1 = +e, q2 = -e

e2
Fe   k (3)
 rn 
2

3. The Coulomb force and centripetal force are equal in magnitude,

Fc  Fe (4)

mv 2 e2
k (5)
 rn 
2
rn

e2
mv 2  k (6)
rn

v 
4. The angular momentum, L  I    mrn 2     mvrn (7)
 rn 
5. By Bohr’s postulate II, L  mvrn  n (8)

n
v (9)
mrn

n2 2
v2  (10)
m 2 rn 2
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 227

n22 e2
6. Using (10) in (6) m  k (11)
m 2 rn 2 rn

n2 2
rn  (12)
kme2
7. Using  = 1.054  10-34 J s, k = 9  109 N m2 C-2,

m = 9.1  10-31 kg, e = 1.6  10-19 C

1.054  10 N m s 
34 2

rn  n2 (13)
 9 10 C    9.110 kg   1.6 10 C
9 2 31 19 2
N m2

rn = 5.2986  10-11 n2 m (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
8. Multiplying both sides of (6) by ½,
1 2 1 e2
mv  k (14)
2 2 rn
9. Kinetic energy of the electron,
1 e2
KE  k (15)
2 rn
10. The potential energy of the electron is the electric potential energy due to the proton.
11. The electric potential energy of q2 due to the force of q1 is,
q1q2
V k (16)
rn
12. The potential energy of the electron in the nth orbit is,
e2
PE  k (17)
rn
228 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

13. The total energy of the hydrogen atom in the nth orbit is,
En = kinetic energy (KE) + potential energy (PE)
1 e2 e2
En  k  k (18)
2 rn rn

1 e2
En   k (19)
2 rn

14. Using rn = 5.2986  10-11 m, k = 9  109 N m2 C-2, e = 1.6  10-19 C

2.1742 1018
En   J (20)
n2
2.1742 1018 1 eV 13.572
En   J 19
 eV (21)
n 2
1.6 10 J n2
13.6
En   eV (n = 1, 2, 3, …) (22)
n2
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 229

Hydrogen Spectrum
9. A hydrogen discharge tube is a slim tube containing hydrogen gas at low pressure with
an electrode at each end.
10. If a high voltage is applied, the tube lights up with a bright pink glow.
11. If the light is passed through a prism, it is split into various colors as shown in Figure 12.12.

slits
prism
blue violet

blue green
violet

gas discharge
red

tube containing
hydrogen
486.1 nm
410.0 nm
434.0 nm

656.2 nm

Figure 12.12 Hydrogen atomic spectrum

12. Bohr's model explains the spectral lines of the hydrogen atomic emission spectrum.
13. When the atom gains energy, the electron jumps from the ground state to another state with
higher energy.
230 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

14. Energy levels are designated with an integer n which is called principal quantum number.
15. The ground state is n = 1, the first excited state is n = 2, and so on.
16. Energy of the hydrogen atom in the nth state is,
13.6
En   eV (n = 1, 2, 3, …) (12.5)
n2
17. The energy gained by the atom is equal to the difference in energy between the two
energy levels.
18. When the electron returns back from the higher energy state to a lower energy state, it
releases energy that is equal to the difference in energy of the two orbits.
19. The energy E is released in the form of an electromagnetic radiation with frequency .
hc
20. Radiated energy, E  h   Eni  Enf , and ni  nf .

where Eni = the energy of initial state, Enf = the energy of final state,

n = the frequency of the radiation,  = the wavelength of the radiation,

c = the velocity of the radiation.
21. Table 12.1 expresses the principal quantum number and energy of the hydrogen atom.
Table 12.1 Energy of a hydrogen atom
13.6
Principal quantum number n Energy En   eV
n2
1 -13.6 eV
2 -3.4 eV
3 -1.51 eV
4 -0.85 eV
5 -0.54 eV
.
.
.
 0
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 231

22. As the energy increases further and further from the nucleus, the spacing between the
levels gets smaller and smaller. {Figure 12.13}

n= 0 eV
n=4 -0.85 eV
n=3 -1.51 eV

n=2 -3.4 eV

Pfund series

Brackett series
UV Paschem series

Balmer series

Lyman series

n=1 -13.6 eV
Figure 12.13 Hydrogen atomic spectrum

Colour Wavelength (nm) Frequency (THz) Energy (eV)

violet 380-450 668-789 2.75-3.26
blue 450-495 606-668 2,50-2.75
green 495-570 526-606 2.17-2.5
yellow 570-590 508-526 2.10-2.17
orange 590-620 484-508 2.00-2.10
red 620-750 400-484 1.65-2.00
232 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 12: EXERCISE 12.3

R178: (1) Why does an electron moving around the nucleus not fall into the nucleus? [p. 178]
Ans: Bohr postulated that in an atom, an electron can move only in allowed circular
orbits. If an electron is moving in such an orbit, it does not absorb, or emit radiation.
The atom can exist in certain stable states with a definite total energy.
R178: (2) When does an atom emit the radiation? [p. 178]
Ans: An atom emits the radiation when an electron undergoes transition from an orbit (at
higher energy state) to another (at lower energy state).
E12.5:A photon is emitted when a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from the n = 3
state to the n = 1 state. Find the energy of the emitted photon in electron volt, its
frequency and wavelength. (h = 6.626  10-34 J s) [p. 178]
Ans: ni = 3, nf = 1, h = 6.626  10-34 J s, energy of the emitted photon E =?
frequency of the photon  =? the wavelength of the electron  =?
13.6
En   eV
n2
13.6 eV  13.6 eV 
E  Eni  Enf    
ni 2  nf 2 

 1 1  1 1
 13.6 eV  2  2   13.6 eV  2  2  = 12.09 eV
 nf ni  1 3 

E = h
E (10.09 eV)  (1.6  1019 J/ eV)
  34
= 2.91  1015 Hz
h 6.626  10 J s

c 3  108
  = 1.03  10-7 m = 103 nm
 2.91  10 15
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 233

Q04: An electron of excited hydrogen atom at n = 5 energy level makes a transition to

n = 2 level. What is the wavelength of the emitted photon? Is this wavelength in the
visible region? [p. 184]
Ans: ni = 5, nf = 2, h = 6.626  10-34 J s, the wavelength of the electron  =?
13.6
En   eV
n2

13.6 eV  13.6 eV 
E  Eni  Enf    
ni 2  nf 2 

 1 1   1 1
 13.6 eV  2  2   13.6 eV  2  2  = 2.86 eV
 nf ni  2 5 
hc
E


hc  6.626  10 J s    3 10 m s 
34 8 1

  = 4.34  10-7 m = 434 nm

E (2.86 eV)  (1.6  1019 J/ eV)

Since the wavelength is in the range 400-700 nm, it is in the visible region.
T098: Using Bohr’s model, determine the energy of the photon emitted when an electron
in the hydrogen atom moves from the orbit ni = 5 to nf = 2.
Ans: ni = 5, nf = 2, h = 6.626  10-34 J s, energy of the photon emitted E=?
13.6
En   eV
n2

13.6 eV  13.6 eV 
E  Eni  Enf    
ni 2  nf 2 

 1 1   1 1
 13.6 eV  2  2   13.6 eV  2  2  = 2.86 eV
 nf ni  2 5 
234 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

12.4 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND PHOTON CONCEPT

Photoelectric Effect: When electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light) of sufficient energy
incident on the metal surface then electrons are ejected from its surface. This phenomenon
is known as photoelectric effect.
incident light
1. Only certain frequencies of
light are able to cause the ejected
photoelectrons
ejection of electrons.
2. These ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons.
metal surface
3. Figure 12.14 illustrates the
Figure 12.14 Illustration of photoelectric effect
emission of photoelectrons as a
result of the photoelectric effect.

light
quartz window (W) photoelectrons
evacuated glass tube

e
D C
V
voltmeter

A
variable resistor battery (B) ammeter

Figure 12.15 Experimental setup of photoelectric effect

4. Figure 12.15 shows experimental setup of photoelectric effect.
5. In an evacuated glass tube, two zinc plates C and D are enclosed.
6. Plate C acts as an anode and D acts as a photosensitive plate.
7. Two plates are connected to a battery B and ammeter A.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 235

8. If the radiation (light) is incident on the plate D through a quartz window W, electrons
are ejected out of the plate and current flows in the circuit which is known as
photocurrent.
9. Plate C can be maintained at desired potential (positive or negative) with respect to
plate D.
10. There are no electrons emitted below a certain frequency of incident light which is
different for different metals. This frequency is called the threshold frequency 0.
11. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
12. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the
incident light.
The Concept of Photons
13. The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave.
14. However, this phenomenon can be explained by the particle nature of light, in which
light can be visualized as a stream of particles of electromagnetic energy.
15. These particles are called photons.
16. The energy of a photon is related to the frequency of light as,
hc
E  h 

where E is the energy of the photon, h is the Planck's constant,  is the frequency of
light, c is the speed of light (in a vacuum) and  is the wavelength of the light.
17. The relation (E = h) is known as Planck's equation.
18. The most important consequence of photoelectric effect leads to the concept of wave-
particle dual nature of either particles or waves.
19. That means light behaves sometimes as a particle and the other times behaves like a
wave.
236 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 12: EXERCISE 12.4

R180: (1) Why does a photon have no electric charge? [p. 180]
Ans: Because it is a particle of electromagnetic energy.
R180: (2) How does photoelectric current depend on intensity of the incident light? [p. 180]
Ans: Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
E12.6:Light of wavelength 550 nm is incident on a surface of metal. Find the energy of
photon in light. [p. 180]
Ans: wavelength = 550 nm = 550  10-9 m, energy E =?

E  h 
hc

 6.626  10 34
J s    3  108 m s 1 
= 3.6  10-19 J
 550  10 9
m

1 eV
 3.6  1019 J  = 2.25 eV
1.6  1019 J

T099: In a photoelectric effect experiment, if the threshold wavelength of the incident light
is 260 nm, what is the energy of the photon?
Ans: wavelength = 260 nm = 260  10-9 m, energy E =?

E  h 
hc

 6.626  10 34
J s    3  108 m s 1 
= 7.65  10-19 J
 260  109 m

1 eV
 7.65  1019 J  = 4.78 eV
1.6  1019 J
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 237

12.5 ISOTOPES
Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses. That is, they have
the same number of protons but have different number of neutrons. In other words, isotopes
have the same atomic number but have different mass numbers.
1. Since isotopes of an element have the same number of electrons, they have the same
electron configuration, and thereby have the same chemical properties.
2. They have different physical properties as they vary in their atomic mass.
3. Some isotopes are stable, that is, they do not decay (or transform) into other elements.
4. However, some are unstable (or radioactive), that is, decay into other elements.
5. Stable isotopes and some radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) exist naturally.
6. Isotopes can also be produced artificially using nuclear reactors and particle
accelerators.
7. Every chemical element has one or more isotopes.
8. Copper has two stable isotopes: Cu and Cu. Cu have 29 protons, 29 electrons and
34 neutrons; whereas, Cu have 29 protons, 29 electrons and 36 neutrons.
9. In nature, stable isotopes of an element occur in different abundance.
10. Of all the stable atoms of copper, 69 % abundance is Cu and 31 % is Cu.
11. Three isotopes of hydrogen are H (hydrogen), H (deuterium), and H (tritium).
12. Tritium is radioactive. It transforms into helium isotope He.
13. Of over 1000 isotopes known thus far, the most abundant one in the entire universe is
the hydrogen isotope H.
238 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 12: EXERCISE 12.5

R181: What are the mass numbers and atomic numbers of the following elements?
206 235 238
(i) 82 Pb (ii) 92 U (iii) 92 U

Ans: (i) For 206

82 Pb, mass number is 206, and atomic number is 82.
235
(ii) For 92 U, mass number is 235, and atomic number is 92.
238
(iii) For 92 U, mass number is 238, and atomic number is 92.

T100: Carbon-14 is a carbon isotope. The atomic mass number for carbon-14 is 14, write
down the number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
Ans: The number of protons in carbon-14 isotope is 6.
The number of electrons in carbon-14 isotope is 6.
The number of neutrons in carbon-14 isotope is 8.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 239

12.6 REDSHIFT, HUBBLE'S LAW AND AGE OF THE UNIVERSE

1. In studying cosmology, we get the information of celestial objects by the light they
emit.
2. Their wavelengths are measured to obtain the astronomical spectra.
3. From the information, we get distance, velocity, temperature, luminosity, energy, or
power of these celestial objects.
4. There are billions of stars (suns), clusters and galaxies in the universe.
Redshift
5. When a source of light waves is travelling away from the observer, the observed
wavelength will be slightly longer than the wavelength of the stationary (rest) source.
6. In astronomy, this shift toward longer wavelengths is referred to as a redshift since red
is at the long-wavelength end of the visible spectrum.
7. Conversely, a shift toward shorter wavelength, which occurs when the source is moving
toward the observer, is called a blueshift.
The main reasons for redshift are as follows.
 Doppler effect, i.e., the movement of objects either closer or apart from each other
in space.
 Strong gravitational force leads to gravitational redshift.
 Cosmological redshift is such that light stretches (longer wavelength) as space
expands.
Hubble's Law
8. In 1929, Edwin Hubble examined a series of velocity measurements for different
galaxies.
9. The distances to the galaxies had also been measured.
10. He noticed that the farther away the galaxy, the faster it moved, and that the relationship
was linear: a galaxy twice as far away as another will move twice as fast, and a galaxy
five times as far away will move five times as fast.
240 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11. This relationship between the velocity of a galaxy and its distance has come to be
known as the Hubble law.
12. It provided the first evidence that the Universe is expanding, a result that was rather
startling at that time, as it had long been assumed that the Universe was static and
unchanging.
Hubble’s Law Formula
Hubble’s law formula is given as follows:
v = H0 d (12.6)
where, v is the velocity of the galaxy in km s-1
H0 is the Hubble constant in km s-1 (Mpc)-1
d is the distance between the observer and the galaxy in Mpc.

laboratory spectrum

spectral lines are shifted

towards the red end of
the spectrum

spectrum from a different galaxy

Figure 12.16 (a) Redshift spectrum

Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 241

recession velocity (km s-1)

10000

1000

100

1 10 100 distance (Mly)

Figure 12.16 (b) Graphical representation of the data for many galaxies (red dots)

13. Figure 12.16 (b) shows the diagram which is a graphical representation of the data for
many galaxies (red dots).
14. This diagram does not have real measured data on it, but gives the qualitative picture
of Hubble's law.
Limitations of Hubble's Law
15. By determining the redshift in observed light, one can determine the distance of the
galaxy from us using Hubble's equation after measuring the recession velocity.
Following are the limitations of Hubble's law, which makes the challenges in measurement.
 Because of the intrinsic motion of galaxies, observed velocity gets influenced.
 Galaxy orbiting due to gravitational movements.
Hubble Constant: Hubble constant is defined as the unit of measurement, which is used
for describing the expansion of the universe. Hubble constant is 72 km s-1 (Mpc)-1.
16. In Figure 12.17, the measured value of H0 is subject to vary for different velocity
measurements of galaxies.
242 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

recession velocity (km s-1)

2000
H0 = 72 km s-1 (Mpc)-1

1000

Virgo cluster

0
distance (Mpc)
0 10 20

Figure 12.17 The relation between recession velocity and distance for different galaxies
∆
17. The nature of the above graph interprets the linear relation between the redshift and

distance d.
Redshift Formula
18. The redshift formula is given as,
 v
Z 
 c

where, z is the redshift, is the shift in wavelength in the spectra,

 is the wavelength, v is the recession velocity of space object,
c is the speed of light.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 243

Units derived from Hubble constant

19. There are three units that are derived from Hubble constant, which are shown below:
(i) Hubble Time or Age of the Universe: The Hubble time or age of the universe is
defined as the reciprocal of the Hubble constant.
Hubble time is given as follows:
1
tH 
H0
1

72 km s-1  Mpc 
-1

1

 1 
72  103 m s -1   
 3.08  10  10 m 
16 6

= 4.28 × 1017 s
1y
= 4.28  1017 s 
3.15  107 s

= 1.36  1010 y = 13.6  109 y = 13.6 billion years

(ii) Hubble Length: The Hubble length is defined as the product of the speed of light and
the Hubble time. It is also known as the Hubble distance. The product obtained is about
13.6 billion light-years which depends on the value of Hubble constant This length is the
radius of the observable universe (visible universe).
Hubble length = ctH  cH 0 1

(iii) Hubble Volume: The Hubble volume is defined as the volume of the observable
universe (visible universe). It is also defined as the volume of the sphere whose radius is
cH0-1.
244 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 12: EXERCISE 12.6

R183: What is Hubble's law used for? [p. 183]
Ans: By determining the redshift in observed light, one can determine the distance of
the galaxy from us using Hubble's law after measuring the recession velocity.
It can also be used to find Hubble's constant, which is used for the calculation of
the age of the universe, the radius of the observable universe, and the volume of
the observable universe.
E12.7: The velocity of a certain cluster from the earth is measured as v = 103 km s-1. What
is the distance from the earth? [p. 183]
Assume H0 = 72 km s-1 (Mpc)-1, 1 Mpc = 3.08  1019 km
Ans: v = 103 km s-1, H0 = 72 km s-1 (Mpc)-1, 1 Mpc = 3.08  1019 km
v 103 km s -1
d 
H 0 72 km s -1  Mpc 1

103
   3.08  1016  106 m  = 4.28 × 1023 m = 4.28 × 1020 km
72
Q05: In what situations does Hubble's law not apply? [p. 184]
Ans: Following are the limitations of Hubble's law which makes the challenges in
measurement.
 Because of the intrinsic motion of galaxies, observed velocity gets influenced.
 Galaxy orbiting due to gravitational movements.
Q06: Why is Hubble's law so important? [p. 184]
Ans: It provided the first evidence that the Universe is expanding, a result that was
rather startling at that time, as it had long been assumed that the Universe was
static and unchanging.
Q07: Why is Hubble's constant uncertain? [p. 184]
Ans: The measured value of H0 is subject to vary for different velocity measurements
of galaxies.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 245

Q08: The data set of distance against recession velocity of the celestial objects is given
below. Plot a graph using the given data. What is the nature of the graph? Find the
slope of the graph and estimate the age of the universe. Give relevant comments
regarding the graph. [p. 184]
Distance in mega parsecs (Mpc) Recession velocity in km s-1
4.2 300
9 680
9.5 590
10 750
12 870
19 1200
20 1120
20.8 1490
22 1510
24 1900
29 2020
35 2300
39.1 2640
41 2800
Ans:
3000
Recession velocity in km s-1

2500

2000
y
1500

1000

500
x
0 10 20 40 50
30
Distance in mega parsecs (Mpc)

The nature of the graph is a straight line.

246 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

y  2800  300  km s
-1

The slope of the graph = 

x  41  4.2  Mpc
= 67.93 km s-1 (Mpc)-1 = 68 km s-1 (Mpc)-1
the slope = H0
1 1 1
tH   
H 0 68 km s -1  Mpc -1  1 
68  103 m s -1   
 3.08  10  10 m 
16 6

1y
= 4.53 × 1017 s = 4.53  1017 s 
3.15  107 s

= 1.44  1010 y = 14.4  109 y = 14.4 billion years

The correct value of H0 is 72 km s-1 (Mpc)-1.
The correct value of the age of the universe is 13.6 billion years.
The error is 5.15 %.
The graph is acceptable.
T102: An absorption feature of calcium usually has a wavelength of 3934 Å, but it is
observed in a galaxy to have a a wavelength of 4002 Å. How fast is this galaxy
moving, and is it moving towards or away from you?
Ans: the change in wavelength  = 4002 – 3934 = 68 Å
Since this is a positive value, the object is moving away from us.
 v

 c
 68
v c   3 108 = 5.186 × 106 m s-1 = 5186 km s-1
 3934
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 247

for Chapter 12
248 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

for Chapter 12