Urban Sociology

Unit – I

Urban sociology is the study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. It examines how
cities influence human behavior, social structures, and cultural patterns. It examines how urban
environments shape social behavior, relationships, and institutions. This field explores issues such
as urbanization, migration, inequality, gentrification, and the impact of globalization on cities.

Key Concepts in Urban Sociology:

1. Urbanization – The process of population growth in cities and the expansion of urban
areas.
2. Social Structures – How cities are organized in terms of class, race, and economic
functions.
3. Community and Neighborhoods – The role of local communities in shaping social
interactions.
4. Urban Problems – Issues like poverty, crime, housing shortages, and environmental
challenges.
5. Globalization and Cities – How international forces influence urban life.
6. Gentrification – The transformation of neighborhoods due to economic investment and
displacement of lower-income residents.
7. Urban Planning and Policy – How governments and organizations manage city growth
and infrastructure.

Importance of Urban Sociology

 Helps understand the dynamics of modern cities.

 Informs policies for housing, transportation, and public services.
 Analyzes social inequalities and proposes solutions.
 Studies how technological and cultural shifts affect urban life.

Urbanization & Its Causes

 Urbanization: The process by which rural areas transform into urban areas due to
population growth and industrialization.
 Causes:
o Industrialization (job opportunities in cities)
o Migration (rural to urban movement)
o Economic development
o Technological advancements

Characteristics of Urban Life

 Diversity: People from different backgrounds and cultures.

 Anonymity: Weaker social ties compared to rural communities.
 Social mobility: Opportunities for economic and professional growth.
 Specialization: Division of labor in different industries.
 Formal Social Control: Laws and institutions regulate behavior.
Urban Social Problems

 Overcrowding – High population density leads to housing shortages.

 Unemployment & Poverty – Economic disparities create social inequalities.
 Crime & Violence – Social disorganization and lack of community ties.
 Environmental Issues – Pollution, traffic congestion, waste management problems.
 Gentrification – Wealthier people moving into urban areas, displacing lower-income
residents.

Emergence of Urban Sociology

The emergence of urban sociology as a discipline can be traced back to the 19th and early 20th
centuries, shaped by industrialization, urbanization, and the social transformations they brought.
Below is an overview of both classical and contemporary perspectives in urban sociology.

Classical Perspectives on Urban Sociology

Urban sociology emerged in response to the rapid urbanization and industrialization of the 19th
and early 20th centuries. Classical sociologists sought to understand how cities influence social
relationships, culture, and economic structures. Below are the key classical theories of urban
sociology.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Urbanization and Capitalism

 Key Idea: Urbanization is a product of capitalism, leading to class conflict and social
inequality.

 Main Concepts:
o Industrial capitalism concentrates wealth in cities, leading to worker exploitation.
o The proletariat (working class) is alienated in urban industrial centers.
o Engels’ The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845) exposed the harsh
living conditions in industrial cities.
o Urban areas are shaped by economic forces rather than organic social development.
Critique:
 Focuses mainly on economic factors, neglecting cultural and psychological aspects of
urban life.
 Does not fully account for how cities can also foster innovation and social mobility.

Ferdinand Tönnies: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (1887)

 Key Idea: Urbanization leads to a shift from traditional community-based societies to

impersonal modern societies.

 Main Concepts:
o Gemeinschaft (Community):
 Rural, small-scale societies with strong social ties.
 Relationships are personal, emotional, and long-lasting.
o Gesellschaft (Society):
 Urban, industrialized societies characterized by impersonal relationships.
 Relationships are contractual, rational, and temporary.
Critique:
 Oversimplifies rural-urban differences; modern cities still contain close-knit communities.
 Romanticizes rural life while portraying urbanization negatively.

Émile Durkheim: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity (1893)

 Key Idea: Urbanization changes the way individuals relate to society, moving from shared
traditions to interdependence.

 Main Concepts:
o Mechanical Solidarity:
 Found in traditional, rural societies where people share common values and
lifestyles.
o Organic Solidarity:
 Found in urban, industrial societies where people perform specialized roles.
 Cities create division of labor, making people dependent on one another.
o Anomie: A state of normlessness where rapid social change weakens social ties,
leading to alienation and social instability.
Critique:
 Underestimates the ability of urban societies to create new forms of social cohesion.
 Assumes that traditional societies are more stable and harmonious.

Georg Simmel: The Metropolis and Mental Life (1903)

 Key Idea: Urban life shapes individuals’ psychological and social experiences.

 Main Concepts:
o Blasé Attitude:
 City dwellers develop emotional detachment to cope with urban
stimulation.
o Intensification of Nerve Stimuli:
 Cities bombard people with sensory input, leading to increased rationality
over emotion.
o Individualism in Cities:
 Urbanization promotes personal freedom but also alienation.
Critique:
 Focuses too much on psychological aspects, neglecting structural and economic forces.
 Assumes that urban life is inherently isolating, ignoring cases of strong social networks in
cities.

Max Weber: The City and Rationalization

 Key Idea: Cities evolve through bureaucratic structures and economic specialization.

 Main Concepts:
o Pre-modern vs. Modern Cities:
 Pre-modern cities: Based on traditions and religion.
 Modern cities: Driven by bureaucracy, capitalism, and rational decision-
making.
o Cities are central to the development of capitalism, democracy, and law.
Critique:
 Overemphasizes bureaucracy, ignoring informal social relationships in cities.
 Does not address issues of class struggle as emphasized by Marx.

The Chicago School of Urban Sociology (1920s-1930s)

 Key Idea: Cities function like ecosystems, where different social groups occupy specific
spaces.

 Main Theories:

o Robert Park:
 Cities are social laboratories where human behavior can be studied.
 Urban areas develop through processes like migration, competition, and succession.

o Ernest Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model:

 Cities grow outward in rings, with different zones:
1. Central Business District (CBD)
2. Zone of Transition (slums, immigrants)
3. Working-Class Residential Zone
4. Middle-Class Residential Zone
5. Commuter Zone (suburbs)

o Louis Wirth – Urbanism as a Way of Life:

 Urbanization leads to impersonality, diversity, and segmental relationships.

Critique:
 The concentric zone model is outdated; modern cities do not always follow this pattern.
 Focuses mainly on American cities, limiting its global applicability.

Classical urban sociology laid the foundation for understanding urban life, emphasizing economic
structures, social relationships, psychological impacts, and spatial organization. While these
theories have limitations, they remain influential in contemporary urban studies.

Contemporary Perspectives on Urban Sociology

As urbanization continues to evolve, contemporary urban sociology has expanded beyond classical
theories to incorporate globalization, neoliberalism, digitalization, environmental issues, and
cultural identity. Below are key contemporary perspectives in urban sociology.

Marxist and Neo-Marxist Urban Sociology

 Key Idea: Cities are shaped by capitalism, with urban space being controlled by economic
elites.

 Key Theorists: Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, Manuel Castells

 Main Concepts:
o The Right to the City (Lefebvre, 1968): Cities should belong to all residents, not
just economic elites.
 o Urban Political Economy (Harvey, 1973):
 Cities are shaped by capital accumulation, gentrification, and real estate
speculation.
 Neoliberal policies drive urban inequalities.
o Manuel Castells – Urban Social Movements:
 Focuses on how marginalized groups resist capitalist urbanization.
 Examines issues like housing crises, infrastructure struggles, and digital
divides.
Critique:
 Overemphasizes economic factors, neglecting cultural and technological influences.
 Assumes that all urban development is exploitative without considering progressive urban
policies.

Globalization and Urban Sociology

 Key Idea: Cities are interconnected global hubs influencing economic, political, and social
life.

 Key Theorists: Saskia Sassen, John Friedmann, Anthony Giddens

 Main Concepts:
o The Global City (Sassen, 1991):
 Cities like New York, London, and Tokyo are key financial and political
hubs.
 Globalization leads to economic polarization within cities.
o World Cities Theory (Friedmann, 1986):
 Cities are ranked in a global hierarchy based on their economic influence.
o Time-Space Compression (Harvey, 1989):
 Advances in technology and transportation make global cities more
interconnected.
Critique:
 Focuses mainly on elite global cities, ignoring urban life in smaller cities.
 Overlooks the role of local cultures in shaping cities.

Postmodern and Cultural Theories of Urban Sociology

 Key Idea: Cities are fragmented, diverse, and shaped by cultural identities and media.

 Key Theorists: Edward Soja, Michel Foucault, David Harvey

 Main Concepts:
o Postmodern Urbanism (Soja, 1996):
 Cities do not have a single structure; instead, they are decentralized and
fragmented.
o Heterotopia (Foucault, 1986):
 Cities contain spaces that challenge social norms (e.g., ghettos, malls,
refugee camps).
o Hyperreality and Simulacra (Baudrillard, 1981):
 Urban life is influenced by media, advertising, and digital culture.
Critique:
 Lacks a concrete framework for analyzing urban inequalities.
 Overemphasizes theory without enough empirical data.

Environmental and Sustainable Urban Sociology

 Key Idea: Cities must be analyzed in terms of environmental sustainability and resilience.

 Key Theorists: Peter Newman, Andy Merrifield, Manuel Castells

 Main Concepts:
o Ecological Urbanism:
 Cities must integrate sustainability, green infrastructure, and resilience.
o Smart Cities and Urban Technology:
 Digital innovations (e.g., AI, big data) can improve urban planning.
o Climate Gentrification:
 Wealthy populations move to climate-resilient areas, displacing poorer
residents.
Critique:
 Technology-driven solutions may not address deep-rooted social inequalities.
 Focuses mainly on policy rather than urban social life.

Feminist and Intersectional Urban Sociology

 Key Idea: Cities are gendered spaces that must be analyzed through gender, race, and class.

 Key Theorists: Dolores Hayden, Leslie Kern

 Main Concepts:
o Gendered Spaces:
 Cities are designed for men’s convenience, often ignoring women’s safety
and mobility.
o Feminist Cities (Kern, 2020):
 Advocates for safer urban spaces for women, LGBTQ+ communities, and
marginalized groups.
Critique:
 Can be overly focused on gender, sometimes neglecting broader economic and
technological urban issues.

Digital Urban Sociology and Smart Cities

 Key Idea: Technology, data, and artificial intelligence are reshaping urban life.

 Key Theorists: Anthony Townsend, Rob Kitchin

 Main Concepts:
o Smart Cities:
 Use of AI, IoT, and big data for better urban management.
o Surveillance Urbanism:
 Increased use of facial recognition and predictive policing in cities.
 o Digital Divide:
 Unequal access to technology in urban areas.
Critique:
 Overlooks privacy concerns and ethical dilemmas of surveillance.
 Digital technologies may reinforce existing inequalities.

Contemporary urban sociology has moved beyond classical theories to address issues like
globalization, neoliberal urbanism, digital transformation, gender, and sustainability. These
perspectives offer a more nuanced understanding of how modern cities function.

Urban sociology has evolved from classical theories focused on industrialization and urbanization
to contemporary analyses of globalization, digitalization, and environmental sustainability. While
early theorists emphasized the structural and economic dimensions of urban life, modern scholars
integrate cultural, technological, and political factors to understand cities in the 21st century.
 Unit – II – Theorising Urban Space

Theorizing urban space involves examining the social, cultural, economic, and political
dynamics that shape the production, use, and experience of urban environments. Here are some
key concepts and theories:

Key Concepts
1. *Space*: A social construct that is produced, negotiated, and contested by various actors,
including governments, corporations, communities, and individuals.
2. *Place*: A specific location with unique social, cultural, and economic characteristics that
shape the experiences and identities of its inhabitants.
3. *Scale*: The level of analysis, ranging from local to global, that helps to understand the
relationships between urban spaces and broader social, economic, and political processes.

Theories of Urban Space

1. *Henri Lefebvre's Production of Space*: Lefebvre argues that space is a social product,
shaped by the interactions between everyday life, social relations, and the built environment.
2. *David Harvey's Spatial Justice*: Harvey contends that urban spaces are shaped by capitalist
processes, leading to spatial injustices and unequal distributions of resources and opportunities.

3. *Michel de Certeau's Everyday Life*: De Certeau emphasizes the importance of everyday

practices and tactics in shaping urban spaces and resisting dominant power structures.

4. *Doreen Massey's Spatial Divisions of Labor*: Massey argues that urban spaces are shaped
by the spatial divisions of labor, leading to unequal distributions of economic opportunities and
resources.

Critical Urban Theory

1. *Marxist Urban Theory*: Focuses on the role of capitalism in shaping urban spaces and the
experiences of urban inhabitants.

2. *Feminist Urban Theory*: Examines the ways in which urban spaces are shaped by and
reflect patriarchal power structures.

3. *Postcolonial Urban Theory*: Analyzes the ways in which urban spaces in the Global South
are shaped by colonial and postcolonial power dynamics.

Contemporary Debates
1. *Gentrification*: The process of wealthier, more affluent individuals and groups displacing
lower-income, working-class communities in urban areas.

2. *Urban Sustainability*: The pursuit of environmentally sustainable and socially just urban
development practices.
3. *Smart Cities*: The integration of technology and data analytics into urban planning and
governance, raising questions about surveillance, privacy, and inequality.

Theorizing urban space involves critically examining the complex social, cultural, economic,
and political dynamics that shape urban environments. By drawing on a range of theoretical
perspectives, researchers and practitioners can better understand and address the challenges
facing urban communities.

Urban space is a complex entity that encompasses various dimensions, including culture,
occupation, population, economy, and ecology.

Culture
1. *Symbolic Landscapes*: Urban spaces are imbued with symbolic meanings, reflecting the
cultural values, history, and identity of their inhabitants.

2. *Public Art and Architecture*: Urban spaces feature public art, monuments, and architecture
that express cultural narratives and values.

3. *Cultural Events and Festivals*: Urban spaces host various cultural events, festivals, and
performances that showcase the diversity of urban cultures.

4. *Urban Mythology and Folklore*: Urban spaces have their own mythology and folklore,
reflecting the collective imagination and experiences of their inhabitants.

Occupation
1. *Land Use Patterns*: Urban spaces are characterized by distinct land use patterns, including
residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational areas.

2. *Workplaces and Industries*: Urban spaces are home to various workplaces, industries, and
economic activities that shape the occupation and livelihoods of their inhabitants.
3. *Urban Planning and Zoning*: Urban spaces are governed by planning and zoning
regulations that influence the occupation and use of urban land.

4. *Informal Economies and Street Vendors*: Urban spaces often feature informal economies
and street vendors, highlighting the complexities of urban occupation and livelihoods.

Population
1. *Demographic Characteristics*: Urban spaces are shaped by demographic characteristics,
such as population size, density, age, sex, and ethnicity.

2. *Migration and Mobility*: Urban spaces are influenced by migration and mobility patterns,
including internal and international migration.

3. *Urbanization and Growth*: Urban spaces are characterized by rapid urbanization and
growth, leading to challenges and opportunities for urban planning and governance.
4. *Social Segregation and Inequality*: Urban spaces often exhibit social segregation and
inequality, reflecting broader societal issues and power dynamics.
Economy
1. *Urban Economic Systems*: Urban spaces are characterized by complex economic systems,
including formal and informal sectors, and various industries and services.
2. *Globalization and Trade*: Urban spaces are influenced by globalization and trade, leading
to new economic opportunities and challenges.
3. *Urban Poverty and Inequality*: Urban spaces often struggle with poverty and inequality,
highlighting the need for inclusive and equitable urban economic development.

4. *Innovation and Entrepreneurship*: Urban spaces are hubs for innovation and
entrepreneurship, driving economic growth and development.

Ecology
1. *Urban Environmental Challenges*: Urban spaces face various environmental challenges,
including air and water pollution, waste management, and climate change.

2. *Green Spaces and Urban Parks*: Urban spaces feature green spaces and urban parks,
providing ecological benefits and recreational areas for inhabitants.

3. *Urban Biodiversity and Ecosystems*: Urban spaces are home to unique biodiversity and
ecosystems, highlighting the importance of urban ecological conservation.

4. *Sustainable Urban Development*: Urban spaces are increasingly focused on sustainable

development, incorporating ecological principles and practices into urban planning and
governance.

Urban space is a multifaceted entity that encompasses culture, occupation, population,

economy, and ecology. Understanding these various dimensions is essential for developing
holistic and sustainable approaches to urban planning, governance, and development.
 Urban Sociology
Unit – III

Contested Spaces and Identities of the Urban

Definition:

 Contested spaces are areas in cities where different social, political, economic, or cultural
groups compete for access, representation, and control.
 These spaces can be physical (e.g., public squares, housing areas) or symbolic (e.g.,
cultural heritage sites).
 Contested spaces reflect power struggles, socio-economic inequalities, historical conflicts,
and urban planning challenges.

Causes of Contestation in Urban Spaces

1. Gentrification and Displacement

o Wealthier populations moving into low-income areas, leading to rising rents and
displacement.
o Example: Brooklyn, New York; Brixton, London.
2. Conflicting Land Use and Development
o Disputes over whether spaces should be commercial, residential, or public.
o Example: Conflicts over green spaces being converted into commercial
developments.
3. Political and Ethnic Struggles
o Cities as battlegrounds for political protests, ethnic tensions, or social movements.
o Example: Tahrir Square (Egypt) during the Arab Spring; Belfast’s sectarian
divisions.
4. Public vs. Private Space Conflicts
o Privatization of public areas limits accessibility for marginalized groups.
o Example: Restrictions on public gatherings in privatized urban areas.
5. Informal Settlements and Housing Rights
o Governments demolishing slums for urban redevelopment, ignoring the rights of
informal dwellers.
o Example: Dharavi (Mumbai), Rocinha (Rio de Janeiro).

Identities of the Urban

Definition of Urban Identity

 Urban identity refers to how individuals and communities define themselves within a city.
 Influenced by migration, socio-economic status, culture, history, and politics.

Factors Shaping Urban Identities

1. Migration and Multiculturalism

o Cities are melting pots of cultures, leading to hybrid urban identities.
 o Example: Chinatown in San Francisco, Indian diaspora in London.
2. Socioeconomic Divisions
o Economic class affects access to urban spaces, services, and housing.
o Example: Division between elite gated communities and working-class
neighborhoods.
3. Historical and Political Narratives
o Cities carry collective memories of colonialism, war, segregation, and resistance.
o Example: The Berlin Wall’s impact on East and West Berlin identities.
4. Gender and the Urban Experience
o Gendered spaces in cities affect mobility, safety, and access to opportunities.
o Example: Women's safety concerns in public transport and night-time urban spaces.
5. Race, Ethnicity, and Segregation
o Cities often exhibit racial and ethnic divides due to historical discrimination.
o Example: Apartheid-era spatial planning in Johannesburg, racial segregation in
U.S. cities.

Case Studies of Contested Urban Spaces

1. Gentrification and Resistance: Brixton, London

 Historically an Afro-Caribbean community facing displacement due to rising rents.

 Protests against high-end developments and corporate takeovers of local markets.

2. Public Protests and Political Contested Spaces: Tahrir Square, Egypt

 A key location for the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.

 Symbolizes resistance against government repression and public demand for democracy.

3. Slums and Housing Rights: Dharavi, Mumbai

 One of Asia’s largest informal settlements, threatened by urban redevelopment.

 Struggles over land rights, housing security, and economic survival.

4. Ethnic and Religious Conflict: Belfast, Northern Ireland

 Segregated Catholic and Protestant neighborhoods due to historical political conflicts.

 Peace walls separate communities, reflecting ongoing divisions despite peace efforts.

Theoretical Perspectives on Contested Spaces and Urban Identities

1. Henri Lefebvre – “Right to the City” (1968)

 Urban spaces should belong to everyone, not just economic elites.

 Advocates for participatory city planning and equitable urban development.

2. David Harvey – Urban Political Economy

 Cities are shaped by capitalism and economic power.

 Contested spaces emerge due to inequality in wealth distribution.
3. Jane Jacobs – Livable Cities (1961)

 Cities should be designed for communities, with mixed-use spaces that promote diversity
and safety.
 Criticized top-down urban planning that displaces communities.

4. Edward Soja – Spatial Justice (2010)

 Access to urban spaces is a matter of social justice.

 Argues for equitable city development that benefits all residents.

Summary of Key Ideas

 Urban spaces are sites of contestation due to social, political, and economic conflicts.
 Urban identities are shaped by migration, class, gender, and historical narratives.
 Power struggles over land use, public space, and housing rights are central to contested
spaces.
 Theories of urban contestation highlight the need for equitable, inclusive, and participatory
urban planning.
 Urban Sociology
Unit – IV

Urbanization and Urbanism in India – A Brief Overview

 Ancient India: Urban settlements like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa.

 Medieval India: Urban centers as administrative, religious, and trading hubs (Delhi, Agra,
Varanasi).
 Colonial Period: British developed port cities (Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai), railway
towns, and hill stations.
 Post-Independence: Focus on planned cities (e.g., Chandigarh), public sector-led
development, industrial cities.

Urbanization

Urbanization is the process where more and more people move from rural areas to cities and towns.
It leads to the growth of cities in terms of size, population, and infrastructure. Urbanization is the
process by which an increasing proportion of a country's population lives in urban areas.

Urbanization refers to the increasing number of people living in towns and cities, leading to the
physical growth of urban areas. It is both a demographic and spatial process.

In India, urbanization has been increasing steadily. In 1951, only about 17% of Indians lived in
cities—today, it's over 35%. This shift is driven by the search for jobs, education, healthcare, and
a better lifestyle.

In India, urbanization has been accelerating rapidly, especially after independence in 1947. The
country is shifting from a predominantly rural society to a more urban one.

Trends in Urbanization

 Growth Rate: Urban population increased from 17.3% (1951) to ~35.4% (2021 Census
estimate). By 2047, it is expected to reach 50%.

 Urban Agglomerations: Mega cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Kolkata dominate
urban growth.
 Urban Sprawl: Cities expanding into surrounding rural areas, often unplanned.

 Tier 2 & 3 Cities Growth: Cities like Surat, Indore, and Lucknow are emerging as growth
centers.

Urbanization in Different Regions

 North India: Delhi NCR, Jaipur, Chandigarh – government and services driven.
 South India: Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai – IT, education, healthcare hubs.
 West India: Mumbai, Pune, Ahmedabad – industrial and financial centers.
  East and Northeast India: Kolkata, Guwahati – slower urbanization due to geography,
connectivity.

Causes of Urbanization in India

1. Rural-to-Urban Migration
o People move to cities for better jobs, education, and healthcare.
o Push factors: Poverty, unemployment, lack of amenities in rural areas.
o Pull factors: Opportunities, facilities, lifestyle in cities.
2. Industrialization
o Development of industries attracts labor to urban centers.
o Cities like Mumbai, Surat, and Bengaluru grew rapidly due to industrialization.
3. Economic Development & Globalization
o Economic liberalization since the 1990s led to the growth of IT and service sectors.
o Cities became hubs of global business.
4. Infrastructure Growth
o Better roads, railways, and air connectivity made cities more accessible and livable.
5. Natural Population Growth
o Higher birth rates and lower death rates in cities also contribute to urban growth.

Features of Urbanization in India

 Unplanned Urban Growth: Cities often grow faster than planned, leading to
infrastructure problems.
 Urban Sprawl: Cities spread into rural areas, forming peri-urban zones.
 Rise of Mega Cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, and Kolkata have populations over 10
million.
 Growth of Tier-2 and Tier-3 Cities: Cities like Indore, Lucknow, and Coimbatore are
emerging urban centers.

Impacts of Urbanization

✅ Positive Impacts:

 Economic development and job creation

 Improved education and healthcare services
 Better transportation and communication
 Increased innovation and modern infrastructure

❌ Negative Impacts:

 Slum proliferation (e.g., Dharavi in Mumbai).

 Pressure on infrastructure.
 Traffic congestion and pollution.
 Inequality and urban poverty.
 Urban crimes and social stress.

Major Challenges

1. Housing Shortages
 oLack of affordable housing; rise of informal settlements.
2. Unplanned Urban Growth
o Poor urban planning leads to congestion, pollution, poor living conditions.
3. Infrastructure Deficit
o Inadequate transport, water supply, sanitation, and electricity.
4. Environmental Issues
o Air and water pollution, waste management, urban heat island effect.
5. Urban Governance
o Multiple authorities with overlapping roles; poor municipal capacity.

Government Initiatives

1. Smart Cities Mission (2015)

o Aim: Sustainable and citizen-friendly cities.
o 100 cities selected for development with ICT-based infrastructure.
2. AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation)
o Focus on basic infrastructure (water supply, sewerage, transport).
3. PMAY (Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana - Urban)
o Affordable housing for all by 2022.
4. Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban)
o Goal: Clean cities through sanitation, solid waste management.
5. National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF)
o Drafted by NITI Aayog to provide a strategic framework for urban growth.

Urbanization is shaping the future of India. By 2047 (100 years of independence), half the
population may live in cities. It’s important to manage this growth sustainably, with proper
planning and inclusive development.

 Projected Urban Population: ~50% by 2047 (centenary of independence).

 Need for sustainable urban planning, inclusive growth, and climate resilience.
 Focus on smart villages to reduce migration pressures on cities.

Urbanism

Urbanism refers to the social, cultural, and economic lifestyle and behavior associated with urban
living. Urbanism refers to the way people live in cities — their lifestyles, behaviors, and cultural
patterns. Urbanism is the way of life, attitudes, values, and behavior patterns characteristic of urban
areas.

Urbanism shapes how people interact, dress, work, and even think in urban spaces. It’s about how
people live, interact, work, and behave in a city environment.

It includes:

 Experiencing diverse cultures and fast-paced lifestyle

 Greater anonymity and individualism
 Nuclear family structure
 Exposure to diverse cultures and ideas
 Increased dependence on technology and services
Urbanism in India

 Changing Lifestyles: Westernization, nuclear families, fast-paced life.

 Social Stratification: Coexistence of slums and high-rises, informal economy.
 Cultural Hybridization: Mix of regional and global cultures in urban centers.
 Public Spaces and Civic Life: Emergence of malls, parks, cafes, gated communities.

Understanding Urbanism in India

Urbanism in India reflects a blend of traditional and modern lifestyles. It shapes:

 Social Life: More nuclear families, changing gender roles.

 Culture: Fusion of regional traditions and global influences.
 Work Culture: Fast-paced, competitive, tech-driven environments.
 Public Life: Increasing use of malls, cafes, co-working spaces, and gated communities.

Urbanization and urbanism are reshaping India’s future. While cities offer opportunities and
progress, they also bring serious challenges. As future professionals and citizens, it's important to
understand how to make urban growth sustainable, inclusive, and equitable.

Urbanization and Urbanism in India: Colonial and Post-Independence Experience

Colonial Urbanization in India (1757–1947)

During British rule, urbanization in India took a different path compared to pre-colonial times. It
was largely shaped by economic exploitation, administrative needs, and commercial interests.

Types of Colonial Cities

 Port Cities: Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata (Calcutta), Chennai (Madras) grew due to trade
and shipping.
 Hill Stations: Shimla, Darjeeling, Ooty were built for British officials.
 Administrative Capitals: Delhi, Allahabad, and others were developed to serve as seats
of power.
 Military Cantonments: Pune, Lucknow, and Meerut were created to house British troops.

Characteristics of Colonial Urbanization

 Dual cities: British quarters (civil lines, cantonments) vs. native quarters (old city areas).
 Segregation: Physical and social segregation based on race, class, and function.
 Limited Industrialization: Only certain cities like Mumbai and Kanpur saw textile
industries.
 Neglect of Indian Needs: Urban planning mainly served colonial administration and
commerce.
Impact of Colonial Rule

 Urbanization was uneven and limited to a few pockets.

 Infrastructure (railways, ports) was developed, but often to extract resources.
 Rise of urban poverty and slums due to lack of investment in basic services for natives.
 Decline of traditional towns and industries (e.g., handloom centers) as British policies
favored imports from Britain.

Post-Independence Urbanization (1947–Present)

After 1947, India began reshaping its cities to support nation-building, industrial growth, and
modernization.

Early Planning Phase (1950s–1980s)

 Focus on state-led development and industrialization (e.g., Bhilai, Rourkela).

 Creation of planned cities like Chandigarh (designed by Le Corbusier) and
Bhubaneshwar.
 Establishment of Industrial Townships and Public Sector Units (PSUs).
 Urban growth was slow but steady, mostly concentrated around new industrial and
administrative hubs.

Liberalization and Economic Reform Phase (1991 onwards)

 Economic reforms led to rapid urbanization, especially in service and IT sectors.

 Growth of cities like Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Pune, and Gurugram as tech hubs.
 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) brought in malls, high-rises, and global lifestyles.
 Real estate booms and peri-urban expansion occurred, but with uneven development.

Contemporary Urbanization Trends

 Rise of Mega Cities: Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata saw population explosions.
 Urban Sprawl: Expansion into rural hinterlands without proper planning.
 Growth of Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities: More balanced growth beyond metros.
 Slum proliferation: Due to housing shortage and rural migration.

Urbanism: Social and Cultural Dimensions

Colonial Period:

 Urbanism shaped by British lifestyle, planning, and architecture.

 Rigid class and racial divisions in city design and public space usage.
 Emergence of modern education, print media, and nationalist movements in urban
areas.

Post-Independence:

 Cities became centers of innovation, politics, and culture.

 Rise of middle class, nuclear families, and consumer culture.
 Increased mobility, urban anonymity, and lifestyle shifts.
  Growth of cosmopolitanism, especially in metro cities.

Challenges in the Post-Independence Era

 Urban Poverty: Millions still live in informal settlements with limited access to services.
 Infrastructure Stress: Water, transport, electricity often inadequate.
 Environmental Degradation: Pollution, deforestation, and waste issues.
 Urban-Rural Divide: Sharp contrast in quality of life and opportunities.

Government Responses

 Five-Year Plans emphasized urban development through industrialization and PSU towns.
 Urban Land Ceiling Act (1976) tried to control land speculation.
 Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT, and PMAY launched in the 2010s to modernize urban
infrastructure and make cities more livable.
 Policies now focus on inclusive and sustainable urbanization.

Urbanization and urbanism in India have undergone major transitions:

Period Focus Nature of Urbanization

Colonial Trade & Administration Uneven, exploitative, segregated
Post-Independence (Early) Nation-building Planned, slow, state-driven
Post-1991 Economic growth Fast, market-driven, tech-oriented

Today, India’s urban future holds immense potential, but it also requires thoughtful planning,
sustainability, and inclusive growth to ensure cities are livable for all.
 Unit V: The Underbelly of Cities
(Poverty and Crime and Street Culture and Segregation of cities)

The Underbelly of Cities

The underbelly of cities refers to the hidden, often marginalized, and sometimes illicit aspects
of urban life. This can include:

The underbelly of cities refers to the darker aspects of urban life, including poverty, crime, and
street culture.

Key Aspects

Poverty and Crime

Urban Poverty: Poverty is a persistent issue in many cities, with high concentrations of poverty
in certain neighborhoods.

Crime and Violence: Crime and violence are often linked to poverty, with high rates of crime
in disadvantaged neighborhoods.

Social Exclusion: Poverty and crime can lead to social exclusion, with individuals and
communities feeling disconnected from mainstream society.

Street Culture

Informal Economies: Street culture often involves informal economies, such as street vending,
sex work, and drug dealing.

Street Gangs: Street gangs are a common feature of urban street culture, often involved in crime
and violence.

Cultural Expression: Street culture can also be a form of cultural expression, with music, art,
and fashion being important aspects of urban identity.

Segregation of Cities

Residential Segregation: Cities are often segregated along racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic
lines, with certain neighborhoods being predominantly inhabited by specific groups.

Economic Segregation: Economic segregation can also occur, with certain neighborhoods
having limited access to resources, services, and opportunities.

Social Segregation: Social segregation can lead to a lack of social cohesion, with different
groups having limited interaction and understanding of one another.

Consequences

Urban Decay: The underbelly of cities can contribute to urban decay, with neighborhoods
experiencing physical deterioration and disinvestment.
Social Unrest: The underbelly of cities can also lead to social unrest, with protests, riots, and
other forms of civil disturbance.

Negative Impact on Health and Well-being: The underbelly of cities can have negative impacts
on health and well-being, with individuals and communities experiencing poor health outcomes
and limited access to healthcare.

Addressing the Underbelly of Cities (Solutions)

Investment in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods: Investing in disadvantaged neighborhoods can

help to address poverty and crime, with initiatives such as community development programs,
job training, and social services.

Community Engagement: Community engagement is critical to addressing the underbelly of

cities, with initiatives such as community policing, youth programs, and cultural events.

Policy Reforms: Policy reforms can also help to address the underbelly of cities, with initiatives
such as affordable housing, education, and job training programs.

Examples

Skid Row in Los Angeles: Skid Row is a neighborhood in Los Angeles known for its high
concentration of poverty, homelessness, and crime.

Favelas in Rio de Janeiro: Favelas are informal settlements in Rio de Janeiro, often
characterized by poverty, crime, and limited access to resources and services.

Street Gangs in Chicago: Chicago has struggled with street gangs and violence, particularly in
disadvantaged neighborhoods on the city's South Side.

Poverty in cities

Poverty in cities is a complex and multifaceted issue that affects millions of people worldwide.

Causes of Urban Poverty

Lack of Job Opportunities: Limited access to job opportunities, low wages, and unemployment
can contribute to poverty in cities.

High Cost of Living: The high cost of living in cities, including housing, food, and
transportation, can make it difficult for low-income individuals and families to make ends meet.

Limited Access to Education and Training: Limited access to education and training can make
it difficult for individuals to acquire the skills they need to secure better-paying jobs.

Discrimination and Social Exclusion: Discrimination and social exclusion can limit
opportunities for certain groups, contributing to poverty and inequality.
Consequences of Urban Poverty

Poor Health Outcomes: Poverty can lead to poor health outcomes, including higher rates of
chronic disease, mental health issues, and limited access to healthcare.

Limited Access to Basic Services: Poverty can limit access to basic services, including housing,
sanitation, and clean water.

Increased Crime and Violence: Poverty can contribute to increased crime and violence, as
individuals may turn to crime as a means of survival.

Social Isolation and Disconnection: Poverty can lead to social isolation and disconnection, with
individuals feeling disconnected from mainstream society.

Solutions to Urban Poverty

Affordable Housing: Providing affordable housing options can help to address poverty and
homelessness in cities.

Job Training and Education: Job training and education programs can help individuals acquire
the skills they need to secure better-paying jobs.

Social Services: Providing social services, including healthcare, childcare, and food assistance,
can help to support low-income individuals and families.

Community Development: Community development initiatives, including community

organizing and neighborhood revitalization, can help to build stronger, more resilient
communities.

Poverty in cities in India

Poverty in Indian cities is visible and multidimensional, affecting access to housing, sanitation,
education, health, and employment. Below are key examples and manifestations of urban
poverty in India, drawn from real cities and contexts:

1. Slums and Informal Settlements

 Dharavi (Mumbai): One of Asia's largest slums, housing nearly a million people in 2.1
sq km. Despite its vibrant informal economy, residents live with inadequate water,
sanitation, and housing.
 Seemapuri (Delhi): A resettlement colony with a high population of ragpickers and
daily wage earners living in poor sanitary conditions.
 Bangalore: More than 500 slums house migrant workers, domestic workers, and
construction laborers with minimal civic amenities.
 Chennai’s Kannagi Nagar: A relocation site for evicted slum dwellers, now infamous
for unemployment, crime, and poor service delivery.
2. Homelessness
 Large numbers of homeless people sleep on pavements, near railway stations, or under
flyovers.
o Delhi: Over 46,000 homeless (official count); temporary night shelters exist,
but are inadequate and unsafe.
 o Kolkata: Significant street-dwelling population near Howrah and Sealdah
stations.
o These people often include seasonal migrants, the elderly, and mentally ill
individuals.
3. Child Labor and Street Children
 Street children work as ragpickers, vendors, or beggars in cities like Mumbai, Delhi,
and Hyderabad.
 Example: In Delhi’s Connaught Place or Old Delhi, children are seen collecting
recyclables, selling trinkets, or working in roadside stalls.
 Many lack access to schooling, healthcare, and protection from exploitation.
4. Informal Economy and Precarious Employment
 Urban poor often depend on the informal sector, which lacks job security or benefits:
o Domestic workers, auto drivers, waste pickers, construction laborers.
o Example: In Gurgaon, daily-wage laborers gather at chowks (labor points)
hoping for daily construction work.
o During COVID-19, millions of such workers were left without income or social
protection.
5. Urban Flooding and Climate Vulnerability
 Poor settlements are usually in low-lying, flood-prone areas.
o Chennai (2021 floods): Poor neighborhoods like Saidapet and Velachery were
severely affected.
o Mumbai’s Mithi River slums are regularly submerged during monsoons, with
delayed municipal response.
6. Poor Access to Health and Sanitation
 Public toilets are scarce in slums; many residents practice open defecation or pay per
use.
o In places like East Delhi or Govandi (Mumbai), sanitation-related illnesses
are common due to poor waste disposal.
 Government hospitals are overburdened, and private ones unaffordable for the poor.
7. Gendered Poverty
 Women-headed households in urban slums face added vulnerabilities—lower
income, risk of eviction, and lack of childcare.
 Domestic violence, unsafe public spaces, and poor maternal care are common in urban
poor settlements.
8. Evictions and Displacement
 Slum demolitions without rehabilitation have deepened poverty.
o Delhi’s Yamuna Pushta demolition (2004) displaced over 35,000 people with
inadequate resettlement.
o Such evictions are often linked to beautification drives for international events
or infrastructure projects.

Crime in cities

Crime in cities is a complex issue that affects many urban areas.

Types of Crime

Violent Crime: Violent crime includes offenses such as homicide, assault, and robbery.

Property Crime: Property crime includes offenses such as burglary, theft, and vandalism.
Organized Crime: Organized crime involves groups of individuals working together to engage
in illicit activities, such as drug trafficking and extortion.

Cybercrime: Cybercrime involves using technology to commit crimes, such as identity theft
and hacking.

Causes of Crime

Poverty and Economic Inequality: Poverty and economic inequality can contribute to crime, as
individuals may turn to crime as a means of survival.

Social and Cultural Factors: Social and cultural factors, such as family breakdown and lack of
community cohesion, can also contribute to crime.

Lack of Opportunities: Limited access to education, job training, and employment

opportunities can contribute to crime.

Environmental Factors: Environmental factors, such as poor lighting and lack of surveillance,
can contribute to crime.

Consequences of Crime

Fear and Anxiety: Crime can lead to fear and anxiety among residents, reducing quality of life.

Economic Costs: Crime can have significant economic costs, including property damage and
loss.

Social Impact: Crime can also have a social impact, damaging community cohesion and trust
in institutions.

Impact on Business and Investment: Crime can deter business and investment, reducing
economic growth and development.

Solutions to Crime

Community Policing: Community policing involves building relationships between law

enforcement and the community, improving trust and cooperation.

Crime Prevention Initiatives: Crime prevention initiatives, such as neighborhood watch

programs and security measures, can help to reduce crime.

Social Programs: Social programs, such as job training and education initiatives, can help to
address underlying causes of crime.

Law Enforcement Strategies: Effective law enforcement strategies, such as intelligence-led

policing and problem-oriented policing, can help to reduce crime.
Crime in cities in India

1. Violent Crimes
 Murder & Attempt to Murder: Often due to personal enmity, property disputes, or gang
rivalries (e.g., gang wars in cities like Delhi, Mumbai).
 Assault: Includes street fights, domestic violence, and attacks over road rage.
 Rape and Sexual Assault: Reported frequently in urban areas like Delhi, Bengaluru, and
Hyderabad.
2. Property Crimes
 Theft and Burglary: House break-ins, chain-snatching, and vehicle thefts are common,
especially in cities like Chennai, Pune, and Bengaluru.
 Robbery and Dacoity: Armed robbery of banks, jewelry shops, or houses, often planned
by gangs.
3. White-Collar Crimes
 Cybercrime: Online fraud, phishing, identity theft, and sextortion are increasingly
reported in tech hubs like Bengaluru and Hyderabad.
 Financial Fraud: Ponzi schemes, bank fraud, and fake investment scams often target
urban populations.
4. Organized Crime
 Drug Trafficking: Narcotics trade through urban centers, especially in Mumbai, Goa,
and parts of Delhi.
 Human Trafficking: Cities act as hubs for trafficking for labor, sex work, or begging
rackets.
 Extortion and Land Grabbing: Often carried out by local mafias or politically connected
individuals.
5. Public Order Offenses
 Riots and Communal Violence: Seen during political or religious unrest (e.g., Delhi
riots 2020).
 Illegal Encroachments and Construction: Supported by corrupt officials or builder
mafias.
6. Crimes Against Women and Children
 Domestic Violence: Frequently reported in urban family courts and women’s helplines.
 Child Labor and Abuse: Often hidden in homes, factories, or shops in cities.

Street culture in cities

Street culture in cities refers to the cultural practices, norms, and values that emerge in urban
environments, often shaped by the experiences and perspectives of marginalized or
underrepresented groups.

Characteristics of Street Culture

Informal Economy: Street culture often involves informal economic activities, such as street
vending, busking, or other forms of entrepreneurship.

Creativity and Self-Expression: Street culture is often characterized by creativity and self-
expression, with individuals using art, music, and other forms of expression to convey their
experiences and perspectives.
Community and Social Bonding: Street culture often involves strong social bonds and a sense
of community, with individuals coming together to share experiences and support one another.

Resistance and Resilience: Street culture can also be a form of resistance and resilience, with
individuals using cultural practices to challenge dominant narratives and assert their identities.

Forms of Street Culture

Street Art: Street art, including graffiti, murals, and other forms of public art, is a key aspect of
street culture.

Hip-Hop and Rap Music: Hip-hop and rap music are popular forms of street culture, often used
to express experiences and perspectives of urban life.

Street Dance: Street dance, including styles such as breakdancing and voguing, is a key aspect
of street culture.

Street Fashion: Street fashion, including styles such as streetwear and urban chic, is a key
aspect of street culture.

Impact of Street Culture

Cultural Innovation: Street culture can drive cultural innovation, with new forms of art, music,
and fashion emerging in urban environments.

Social Commentary: Street culture can also serve as social commentary, with individuals using
cultural practices to critique social issues and challenge dominant narratives.

Community Building: Street culture can help build community and social bonds, with
individuals coming together to share experiences and support one another.

Economic Opportunities: Street culture can also provide economic opportunities, with
individuals using cultural practices to generate income and build businesses.

Challenges and Controversies

Cultural Appropriation: Street culture can be subject to cultural appropriation, with dominant
groups profiting from cultural practices without properly acknowledging or compensating the
originating communities.

Gentrification: Street culture can also be impacted by gentrification, with urban development
and rising property values displacing long-time residents and cultural practitioners.

Censorship and Regulation: Street culture can be subject to censorship and regulation, with
authorities seeking to control or suppress certain forms of cultural expression.

Safety and Security: Street culture can also involve safety and security concerns, with
individuals facing risks related to crime, violence, and exploitation.

Street culture in India

Street culture in India is rich, diverse, and deeply rooted in the country's urban life. It reflects
creativity, resistance, tradition, and modernity all at once. Here are some notable examples of
Indian street culture:

1. Street Art and Graffiti

 Shahpur Jat (Delhi) and Lodhi Art District (Delhi): Known for vibrant wall murals.
 Mahalaxmi (Mumbai) and Kolkata's Park Street: Feature politically charged graffiti
and social commentary.
 Bollywood posters: Hand-painted film posters are iconic parts of Indian street
aesthetics.
2. Street Food Culture
 Every city has its own unique street food identity:
o Pani puri and vada pav in Mumbai
o Chole bhature in Delhi
o Jhal muri and puchka in Kolkata
o Dosa and idli carts in Chennai
 Street vendors often serve as hubs of social interaction.
3. Street Performers and Folk Artists
 Magicians, snake charmers, puppeteers, and traditional musicians perform in public
spaces.
 In places like Pushkar (Rajasthan) or Benares ghats, these performances blend
spiritual and artistic traditions.
4. Informal Fashion and Jugadu Innovation
 Jugaad culture: Creative street-level engineering and DIY fixes (e.g., modified
scooters, mobile food stalls).
 Street fashion: Blend of traditional wear with urban styles—bandanas, graphic T-
shirts, denim mixed with kurta.
5. Street Protests and Political Expression
 Streets are political arenas: from Shaheen Bagh protests to student rallies in JNU or
Jamia.
 Posters, wall slogans, and impromptu speeches reflect a dynamic democratic street
culture.
6. Informal Markets and Hawker Culture
 Bazaars like Sarojini Nagar (Delhi), Colaba Causeway (Mumbai), and New Market
(Kolkata) are known for bargaining, social energy, and unique fashion.
 These markets serve both economic and cultural functions.
7. Music and Dance in Public Spaces
 Rap and hip-hop scenes, like those showcased in Gully Boy, reflect youth identity
(e.g., Divine and Naezy from Mumbai).
 Street bhangra or dhol players during festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi or Durga Puja.
8. Religious and Cultural Street Processions
 Ganesh Visarjan (Mumbai), Durga immersion (Kolkata), Muharram processions, and
Holi celebrations—all transform streets into cultural theatres.

Segregation of cities
Segregation of cities refers to the separation or isolation of groups within a city, often based on
socioeconomic, racial, ethnic, or other characteristics. Here are some key aspects:

Types of Segregation

Racial Segregation: Racial segregation involves the separation of racial groups, often resulting
in unequal access to resources and opportunities.

Socioeconomic Segregation: Socioeconomic segregation involves the separation of groups

based on income, education, or occupation, often resulting in unequal access to resources and
opportunities.

Ethnic Segregation: Ethnic segregation involves the separation of ethnic groups, often resulting
in cultural and social isolation.

Residential Segregation: Residential segregation involves the separation of groups in

residential areas, often resulting in unequal access to resources and opportunities.

Causes of Segregation

Historical Factors: Historical factors, such as discriminatory laws and practices, can contribute
to segregation.

Economic Factors: Economic factors, such as income inequality and housing costs, can
contribute to segregation.

Social Factors: Social factors, such as prejudice and stereotyping, can contribute to segregation.

Government Policies: Government policies, such as zoning laws and housing policies, can
contribute to segregation.

Consequences of Segregation

Unequal Access to Resources: Segregation can result in unequal access to resources, such as
education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.

Social Isolation: Segregation can lead to social isolation, reducing opportunities for social
interaction and community building.

Increased Poverty and Crime: Segregation can contribute to increased poverty and crime, as
well as other social problems.

Reduced Economic Opportunities: Segregation can reduce economic opportunities, limiting

access to job markets and other economic resources.

Solutions to Segregation
Inclusive Zoning Policies: Inclusive zoning policies can help to promote mixed-income and
mixed-use development, reducing segregation.

Affordable Housing: Affordable housing initiatives can help to increase access to housing for
low-income and marginalized groups.

Community Development: Community development initiatives can help to build stronger,

more resilient communities, reducing segregation.

Education and Awareness: Education and awareness initiatives can help to reduce prejudice
and stereotyping, promoting greater understanding and inclusion.

Segregation of cities in India

Segregation in Indian cities is multifaceted, reflecting lines of class, caste, religion,

occupation, and migration status. It is often spatial, social, and economic, and results in stark
contrasts in access to infrastructure, security, and opportunity. Here are key examples of
segregation in Indian cities:

1. Caste-Based Segregation
 Dalit colonies (often called Harijan bastis) are still common on the peripheries of towns
and villages that have urbanized.
o Example: In cities like Madurai or Ahmedabad, Dalit settlements are physically
separated and often lack basic amenities.
 Urban slums sometimes reflect this segregation, though caste is intertwined with
poverty.
2. Religious Segregation
 Muslim ghettos have emerged due to discrimination and communal violence.
o Mumbai: Areas like Mumbra and Govandi have high Muslim populations,
partly due to post-1992 Babri Masjid violence.
o Ahmedabad: Post-2002 riots, Muslim families moved into Juhapura, now one
of the largest Muslim enclaves in India.
o Delhi: Seelampur and parts of Jamia Nagar show informal clustering of
religious minorities.
3. Class-Based Segregation and Gated Communities
 Elite enclaves are physically and socially insulated.
o Examples:
 South Delhi: Affluent localities like Vasant Vihar, Greater Kailash.
 Mumbai: Malabar Hill, Bandra Pali Hill vs nearby informal settlements.
o Gated housing societies often restrict access to domestic workers, vendors, and
lower-income groups, creating visible class boundaries.
4. Migrant Worker Segregation
 Migrants from rural Bihar, UP, or Odisha often live in transit camps, labour colonies,
or informal settlements.
o Example: Dharavi (Mumbai) and Perungudi (Chennai) house migrant workers
but are excluded from planning processes.
o These are often unregulated and lack water, sanitation, or formal tenure.
5. Spatial Segregation by Occupation
 Manual scavengers, sanitation workers, and others are often housed in specific
municipal quarters.
o Example: In cities like Bhopal or Pune, sanitation workers (many from
Scheduled Castes) live in municipality-provided housing on the outskirts.
6. Planned vs. Unplanned Urban Spaces
 Cities like Bangalore or Hyderabad have IT corridors (e.g., Whitefield, Gachibowli)
that contrast sharply with adjacent slums or peri-urban villages.
 Master-planned developments (like Lavasa or Gurgaon’s Cyber City) stand in stark
contrast to older, organically developed, or unauthorized areas.

7. Environmental Segregation
 Polluting industries and waste dumps are often near slums or poor neighborhoods.
o Example: Residents of Deonar (Mumbai) live near India’s largest garbage
dump, exposing them to health risks.