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Lecture 01

This lecture covers structural steel properties, design considerations, and various types of steel sections and their applications. Key topics include stress-strain behavior, design strengths, effects of thickness on strength, and considerations for fatigue, brittle fracture, fire protection, and corrosion. Additionally, it discusses different beam types, their actions, and classifications of beam cross-sections as per EN standards.

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Hassn Alnseeh
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0 views39 pages

Lecture 01

This lecture covers structural steel properties, design considerations, and various types of steel sections and their applications. Key topics include stress-strain behavior, design strengths, effects of thickness on strength, and considerations for fatigue, brittle fracture, fire protection, and corrosion. Additionally, it discusses different beam types, their actions, and classifications of beam cross-sections as per EN standards.

Uploaded by

Hassn Alnseeh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Objective

In this lecture, the following topics will be covered:

 Structural steel properties.

 Design considerations.

 Steel Sections.

 Section Properties.

 Beams; types & uses, types of actions.

 Classification of beam cross-sections.


1- Structural Steel Properties

 Steel comprises about 98% of Iron, with the main alloying

elements carbon, silicon, and manganese.

 Copper and chromium are added for weather-resistant

steels that do not require corrosion protection.

 Structural steel grades commonly used in buildings are

S235, S275, S355 and S450.


Stress-strain diagrams for typical structural steels
 Initially, steel exhibits a linear stress-strain relationship, where the slope
corresponds to Young's modulus, E.
 The limit of linear elastic behavior is defined by the yield stress, fy, and the
corresponding yield strain εy = fy /E.
 Elastic design is confined to the elastic region, and since steel behaves
almost perfectly elastically within this range, designing based on elastic
theory is highly effective.
 Beyond the elastic limit, the stress-strain curve exhibits a plateau with no
increase in stress until the strain-hardening strain, εst is reached.
 At this point, the material begins to gain strength due to strain hardening.
 The plastic range typically accounts for the ductility of the steel.
 Stress increases beyond the yield stress, fy when the strain-hardening
strain εst is exceeded, and this continues until the ultimate tensile stress fu
is reached.
Stress-strain diagram for plastic design
2- Design Considerations
Ductility Requirement:
 The design strengths for steel are given in Section 3.2 of EN1993-1-
1.
 The design strength may be taken as:
- The ratio fu /fy of the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength
fu to the specified minimum yield strength, fy

-The elongation at failure on a gauge length of 5.65 𝐴0 ,(where


𝐴0 is the original cross-sectional area).
-The ultimate strain εu, where εu corresponds to the ultimate

strength fu.
• The limiting values of the ratio fu /fy , the elongation at failure, and the
ultimate strain εu may be defined in the National Annex (NA2.5).
• The following values are recommended:
a) Elastic global analysis
- fu /fy ≥ 1.10
- The elongation at failure ≥ 15 %
- εu ≥ 15 εy (yield strain εy = fy / E)
b) Plastic global analysis
- fu /fy ≥ 1.15
- The elongation at failure ≥ 15 %
- εu ≥ 20 εy (yield strain εy = fy / E)
 The code states that the following values for the elastic properties are to
be used:
- Modulus of elasticity, E = 210,000 N/mm2
- Shear Modulus, G = 81,000 N/mm2
- Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.30
Effect of Thickness on Strength
For the same steel grade, thicker steel sections have reduced strength due to:

• Non-uniform cooling: Slower cooling at the core leads to coarser grain structures

and lower strength.

• Residual stresses: Manufacturing processes introduce internal stresses that reduce

load-carrying capacity, such as rolling, cooling, etc.

• Material inhomogeneity: Variations in properties and defects (e.g., inclusions,

voids) weaken the material.

• Plasticity effects: Greater deformation reduces effective yield strength.

• Less work hardening: Thicker sections experience less strain hardening during

production.
Table 3.1: Nominal values of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu
for hot-rolled structural steel
Fatigue:
 Fatigue failure can occur in members or structures subjected to
fluctuating loads such as crane girders, bridges, and structures that
support machinery, wind, and wave loading.
 Failure occurs through the initiation and propagation of a crack that starts
at a fault or structural discontinuity, and the failure load may be well
below its static value.
 To help avoid fatigue failure, stress concentrations and abrupt changes in
the section should be avoided in regions of tensile stress.
Brittle Fracture:
 The brittle fracture occurs due to the presence or formation of a small
crack in a region of high local stress.
 Once initiated, the crack may propagate in a ductile manner, with the
external forces providing the energy needed to tear the steel.
 The ductility of structural steel depends on its composition, heat
treatment, and thickness and varies with temperature.
 In design, brittle fracture should be avoided using steel quality grade with
adequate impact toughness.
 Quality steels are designated JR, J0, J2, K2.
Effect of temperature on resistance to brittle fracture.
Fire Protection:
 Structural steelwork performs poorly in fires, as its strength decreases
with increasing temperature.
 At 550°C, the yield stress has fallen to approximately 0.7 of its value at
normal temperatures; that is it has reached its working stress and failure
occurs under working loads.
 Fire protection can be provided by encasing the member in concrete, fire
board, or cementitious fibre materials.
 More recently, intumescent paint has been used, especially for exposed
steelwork.
 All multi-storey steel buildings require fire protection. Single-storey
factory buildings normally do not require fire protection for the steel
frame.
Fire protection for steel columns and beams
Corrosion Protection:
 Exposed steelwork can be severely affected by corrosion in the
atmosphere.
 The type of protection depends on the surface conditions and length of
life required.
 The main types of protective coatings are:
a) Metallic coatings: coating of either aluminum or zinc is used
b) Painting:
 The most important factor in achieving a sound corrosion-protection
coating is surface preparation.
 Careful attention to design detail is required.
 Access for future maintenance should be provided.
3- Steel Sections

Rolled and formed Sections:


• Universal beams: very efficient for resisting bending moments about the
major axis.
• Universal columns: produced primarily to resist axial load with a high
radius of gyration about the minor axis to prevent buckling in that plane.
• Channels: used for beams, bracing members, truss members, and
compound members.
• Equal and unequal angles: used for bracing members, truss members and
purlins, and side rails.
• Structural tees: produced by cutting a universal beam or column into two
parts. Tees are used for truss members, ties, and light beams.
Rolled and formed Sections:
• Circular, square, and rectangular hollow sections: very efficient
compression members and are used in a wide range of applications as
members in roof trusses, lattice girders, building frames, purlins, sheeting
rails, etc.
Rolled and formed sections
Compound Sections:
Compound sections are formed by the following means:
• Strengthening a rolled section such as a universal beam by welding on
cover plates.
• Combining two separate rolled sections, as in the case of the crane girder.
• Connecting two members to form a strong combined member: such as
laced and battened members.
Compound sections: (a) compound beam; (b) crane girder;
(c) battened member; (d) laced member
Built-up Sections:
• Built-up sections are made using welding plates to form I, H, or box
members.
• They are known as plate girders, built-up columns, box girders, or
columns, respectively.
• These members are used to carry heavy loads.
• Plate and box girders are commonly used to support long spans.
Built-up sections
Cold-formed Open Sections:
• Thin steel plates can be formed into a wide range of sections using cold
rolling.
• The most important uses for cold-rolled open sections are for purlins and
sheeting rails.
• The common sections are the zed, sigma, and lipped channels.
Cold-rolled sections
Beams
Types and Uses
 Beams span between supports to carry lateral loads that are resisted by
bending and shear.
 Beams should satisfy the deflection limit to avoid damage to finishes.
 The main uses of beams are to support floors and columns and carry roof
sheeting as purlins and side cladding as sheeting rails.
Types of Beam Actions

 Concentrated loads from secondary beams and columns.


 Distributed loads from self-weight and floor slabs.
The actions are further classified by their variation in time as follows:
 Permanent actions (G):
Self-weight of the beams, slabs, finishes, and fixed equipment.
 Variable actions (Q):
Imposed loads on building floors and beams, wind actions, or snow loads.
 Accidental actions (A):
Explosions or impact loads.
Beam loads: (a) slab loads on floor beams
(b) actual loads on a beam
Classification of Beam Cross Sections
Definition of classes
 The projecting flange of an I beam will buckle prematurely if it is too
thin.
 Webs will buckle under compressive stress from bending and from
shear.
 The EN 1993, Clause 5.5 gives classifications of the four beam cross
sections, which are classified according to their behaviour in bending:
Class 1 cross-sections:
Can form a plastic hinge with rotation capacity required from plastic analysis
without reduction of the resistance.
Class 2 cross-sections:
Can develop their plastic moment resistance but have limited rotation
capacity because of local buckling.
Class 3 cross-sections:
Elastic stress in the extreme compression fiber can reach the yield strength
under an elastic distribution, but local buckling may limit the development of
plastic moment resistance.
Class 4 cross-sections:
Local buckling will occur before the attainment of yield stress in one or more
parts of the cross-section.
Four behavioural classes of cross-section defined by EC 3
 Flat elements in a cross-section are classified as:

1. Internal elements supported on both longitudinal edges.

2. Outside elements attached on one edge with the other free.

 The classification limits provided in Table 5.2 in EN 1993-1-1 are

compared with c/t ratios (compressive width-to-thickness ratios), with the

appropriate dimensions for c and t.

 The limiting width-to-thickness ratios are modified by a factor ε that is

dependent upon the yield strength.

𝟐𝟑𝟓
 𝜺=
𝒇𝒚
Definition of compression width c for common cases: (a) outstand flanges;
(b) internal web
 The ratios of the flange outstand to thickness (cf /tf ) and the web
depth to thickness (cw /tw ) are given for I, H, and channel
sections.
𝟏
 For I and H sections: 𝒄𝒇 = 𝒃 − 𝒕𝒘 + 𝟐𝒓
𝟐

 For channel sections: 𝒄𝒇 = 𝒃 − 𝒕𝒘 + 𝒓

 For I, H, and channel sections: 𝒄𝒘 = 𝒅 = 𝒉 − 𝟐 𝒕𝒇 + 𝒓

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