UNIT 1

WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

Chemistry is that part of science which deals with the composition of matter and with the
changes taking place in it. As a science, i.e. ordered knowledge, chemistry began only
about the middle of the seventeenth century but men had been interested in chemical
experiments for at least two thousand years before then. Some chemical processes such as
the making of metals and glass are very old. The prehistoric man who first made use of fire
made one of the greatest chemical discoveries, although he had no thought of chemistry.

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

In chemistry we are interested in the properties of substances, which may be either physical
properties or chemical properties. Physical properties of a substance are those which can
be observed or measured without changing it into another substance. For example, its
colour, form, odour, hardness, and its melting and boiling points. Chemical properties of a
substance are those which describe its behavior when it changes into other substance, e.g.
when it burns or is destroyed by acids.

Table 1.1
Some properties of water, alcohol and benzene

Observation Water Alcohol Benzene

color colorless colorless Colorless
taste tasteless characteristic acrid
burning taste

odor odorless sweet definite odor

state of room
temperature liquid liquid liquid
freezing point 0o C -117oC 5.5oC
boiling point 100oC 78oC 80.1oC
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 solubility soluble in alcohol soluble in water insoluble in water
soluble in alcohol
density 1.0g/ml 0.78g/ml 0.80g/ml
flammability Nonflammable flammable Flammable

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL CHANGES

A physical change is defined as a change which does not alter the chemical composition of
a material. Changing ice to water, crushing salt into a powder and condensing ethyl alcohol
in a distillation process all involve physical changes. The rusting of iron and the burning
of gasoline are examples of chemical changes. When iron rusts, it combines with oxygen
to form an iron oxide. When gasoline burns, it combines with oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water. Both of these chemical changes are accompanied by physical changes.
Rust has a different color and is different from iron in hardness and other physical
properties. Liquid gasoline is converted to two new gaseous substances when it burns. In
general, it is true that a chemical change is accompanied by a physical change, whereas
physical changes, as we have noted, do not involve a change in composition of matter.
Both physical and chemical changes involve the absorption or release of energy.

Table 1.2

Physical change Chemical change

No substance formed or destroyed Substances changed. New substances formed
No change in weight Change in weight
Reverse change easy Reverse change difficult
Energy changes often small Energy changes often large

I. Competing Sentences
properties composition
physical observation
chemical

2
1) Chemistry is the study of the _________of matter and of ___________ changes.
2) Chemists use the term _________ to describe the characteristics.
3) Some of these properties of a substance can be determined by simple physical
__________.
4) The melting and boiling point, the solubility and the density are ___________
properties.

II. True / False

1) A chemical change occurs when a substance is changed into one or more other
substances.
2) A physical change occurs when a substance is changed in properties but is not
changed into other substance.
3) The melting of wax and the formation of dew are chemical changes.
4) Both physical and chemical changes are accompanied by changes in energy.
5) The conversion of ice into steam is a physical change.

III. Comprehension
1) What is the difference between chemical and physical properties of a substance?
2) List separately the chemical and physical properties of silver nitrate as described
by the following, silver nitrate is a colorless, crystalline salt, readily soluble in
water, its density is 4.3 g/ml. On heating, a brown gas is evolved and when
exposed to light a black film of silver is formed.
3) What is the difference between physical change and chemical change?
4) Classify the following: frying an egg, melting fat, burning paper, nail rusting,
burning toast, beating cream into butter, defrosting refrigerator.

IV. Word forms

Verb Noun
change ________
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 ______ discovery
Observe _________
_______ absorption
Destroy ________
_________ condensation
_________ distillation
Define ________

Complete the following sentences with the correct form of the appropriate word:
1) Physical properties are those which we can ___________

2) In the chemical change, substances are __________ into new substances having
different properties.
3) Dry sand _____________ water.
4) The process in which the vapour is converted back into water is called
_________
5) Columbus _________ America.
6) The forest was ___________by the fire.
7) Sea water can be made drinkable by _________out the salt.
8) ___________ should not be more difficult to understand than the words they
define.

V. Grammar
- Simple past
- Past perfect
Example:
Chemistry began only about the middle of the seventeenth century but men had been
interested in chemical experiments for at least two thousand years before then.
(English Grammar in Use – Raymond Murphy)

4
 Chemical engineering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of
physical science (e.g. chemistry and physics), with mathematics, to the process of
converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. As well as
producing useful materials, chemical engineering is also concerned with pioneering
valuable new materials and techniques; an important form of research and development. A
person employed in this field is called a chemical engineer.
Chemical engineering largely involves the design and maintenance of chemical processes
for large-scale manufacture. Chemical engineers in this branch are usually employed under
the title of process engineer. The development of the large-scale processes characteristic
of industrialized economies is a feat of chemical engineering, not chemistry. Indeed,
chemical engineers are responsible for the availability of the modern high-quality materials
that are essential for running an industrial economy.
Examples
Following is an example that illustrates the engineering aspect of chemical engineering:
"The difference between chemical engineering and chemistry can be illustrated by
considering the example of producing orange juice. A chemist working in the laboratory
investigates and discovers a multitude of pathways to extract the juice of an orange. The
simplest mechanism found is to cut the orange in half and squeeze the orange using a manual
juicer. A more complicated approach that is found is to peel and then crush the orange and
collect the juice.
"A company then commissions a chemical engineer to design a plant to manufacture
several thousand tons of orange juice per year. The chemical engineer investigates all the
available methods for making orange juice and evaluates them according to their economic
viability. Even though the manual juicing method is simple, it is not economical to employ
thousands of people to manually juice oranges. Thus, another -- cheaper -- method is used
(possibly the 'peel and crush' technique). The easiest method of manufacture on a laboratory
bench will not necessarily be the most economical method for a manufacturing plant."
Chemical engineers
Chemical engineers are aiming for the most economical process. This means that the entire
production chain must be planned and controlled for costs. A chemical engineer can both
simplify and complicate "showcase" reactions for an economic advantage. Using a higher
pressure or temperature makes several reactions easier; ammonia, for example, is simply
5
produced from its component elements in a high-pressure reactor. On the other hand,
reactions with a low yield can be recycled continuously, which would be complex, arduous
work if done by hand in the laboratory. It is not unusual to build 6-step, or even 12-step
evaporators to reuse the vaporization energy for an economic advantage. In contrast,
laboratory chemists evaporate samples in a single step, wasting the energy.
The individual processes used by chemical engineers (eg. distillation or filtration) are
called unit operations and consist of chemical reaction, mass-, heat- and momentum-
transfer operations. Unit operations are grouped together in various configurations for the
purpose of chemical synthesis and/or chemical separation. Some processes are a
combination of intertwined transport and separation unit operations, (e.g. reactive
distillation).
Three primary physical laws underlying chemical engineering design are conservation of
mass, conservation of momentum and conservation of energy. The movement of mass and
energy around a chemical process are evaluated using mass balances and energy balances
which apply these laws to whole plants, unit operations or discrete parts of equipment. In
doing so, chemical engineers use principles of thermodynamics, reaction kinetics and
transport phenomena. The task of performing these balances is now aided by process
simulators, which are complex software models that can solve mass and energy balances
and usually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations.
Modern chemical engineering
The modern discipline of chemical engineering encompasses much more than just process
engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production of a
diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty chemicals. These products
include high performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical,
electronic, environmental and space and military applications. Examples include ultra-
strong fibers, fabrics, adhesives and composites for vehicles, bio-compatible materials for
implants and prosthetics, gels for medical applications, pharmaceuticals, and films with
special dielectric, optical or spectroscopic properties for opto-electronic devices.
Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and biomedical
engineering. Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding
biopolymers (proteins) and mapping the human genome.

6
Laboratory Equipment
Success Criteria:
Be able to give the name and describe the use for each of the pieces of equipment in
this section.
Identify laboratory equipment by name and explain what it is used for.
Notes: The following are some of the common pieces of laboratory apparatus.

Description Description
beaker graduated cylinder
Used as a cup/container. May be heated. Used for accurate measurement of liquid
Volume markings are approximate. volume.

Erlenmeyer flask test tube

Used as a container. Contents may be swirled Used for mixing and reacting small
to mix. quantities of liquids.
May be heated.

Bunsen burner ring stand

Used to heat chemicals in beakers, flasks or Used to support lab apparatus.
test tubes.

tongs test tube holder

Used for picking up and holding hot things. Used for holding a test tube while
heating.

clamp pinch clamp

Used to attach a piece of equipment to a ring Used to clamp rubber tubing so no
stand. liquid comes out.

wire gauze iron ring

Used to spread the heat of a flame onto the Fastens to ring stand. Used to hold lab
bottom of a beaker or flask. apparatus.

7
mortar & pestle evaporating dish
Used to grind chemicals to a fine powder. Used to hold solutions over a Bunsen
burner to evaporate the liquid.

stirring rod pipette

Used to stir mixtures and to help pour liquids Used to transfer small amounts of
without spilling. liquid.

watch glass crucible & cover/Lid

Used to cover liquids being heated in a beaker Used to heat small amounts of solids
to avoid spatter. Should not be heated. to high temperatures.

funnel pipestem triangle

Used to help pour liquids without spilling Used to hold a crucible while heating.
and/or to hold filter paper.

Assignment: Add pictures of above apparatus

8
 UNIT 2
THE COMPONENTS OF MATTER

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

The majority of substances are built up from simpler substances although the method of
separating them is not as easy as, for example, in a building where the bricks, tiles, wood,
cement and metal which have been used to make the building are easily separated.
Rust, such as that formed by the iron nail, when heated forms water vapour and brown iron
oxide. The iron oxide can be separated, with some difficulty, into iron and oxygen. Iron,
oxygen and hydrogen, however, cannot be separated by chemical means into anything else.
They are called elements.
Elements include a number of gases such as oxygen and nitrogen which occur free in air.
Hydrogen is a gas which occurs combined chemically with oxygen as water. Two elements
are liquid at room temperature, mercury which is used in barometers and thermometers,
and bromine, a brown unpleasant-smelling liquid.
The solid elements can be separated into two main classes, non-metals and metals. The
non-metals include carbon (diamond, graphite or soot), sulphur (a yellow powder) and
phosphorus (either a red powder or a soft white putty-like material). Most of the elements
are metals. Common metals which are elements include iron, copper, zinc, silver, nickel,
chromium and tin.
We can recognise three distinct types of matter: elements, which cannot be divided into
simpler substances; compounds, which contain two or more elements combined
chemically; and mixtures, which may contain either elements or compounds in any
proportion.
Most natural materials are mixtures because pure substances by themselves are rare in
nature. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen with other gases,
such as water vapour, carbon dioxide and argon, called an inert gas because it does not
form compounds. The sea is a mixture of water with common salt (sodium chloride, a
compound) and other substances.
An element cannot be changed into simpler substances by chemical means.
A compound consists of two or more elements combined chemically. It has
properties different from those of the elements which form it.

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 Table 2.1
Elements, mixtures and compounds

Element Mixture Compound

Same composition No fixed composition Same composition

throughout throughout
Cannot be decomposed by Can be separated by Can be decomposed by
chemical methods physical methods chemical methods
Properties distinct from all Ingredients retain their Properties unlike element
other elements individual properties present

I. Completing Sentences
- Elements - compounds
- Mixtures - substances
- Chemically - matter
1) Hydrogen and oxygen are __________; they cannot be reduced to anything simpler
without destroying their properties.
2) When elements are ___________ combined, they form compounds.
3) Elements may be recovered from ___________ only by chemical reactions.
4) We now know that air contains the elements oxygen and nitrogen, the compounds
water and carbon dioxide and many other __________.
5) Most of the things we know about and work with in our daily life are __________
of pure substances.
6) We say that the universe is composed of __________ which we define as anything
that has mass and occupies space.

II. Short Answers

Write M (Mixture), E (Element), or C (Compound) after each of these sentences.
1) Limestone is a combination of calcium, carbon and oxygen. The original elements
can be restored only by chemical action.

10
 2) Dry table salt combined with limestone flour can be separated by dissolving out the
salt.
3) A combination of sulfur and iron filings stirred together in a bowl can be separated
by pulling out the fillings with a magnet.
4) Air can be separated by physical means.
5) Tantalum cannot be reduced to any simpler from by any chemical method.
6) Gunpowder contains the elements sulfur and carbon, in addition to potassium
nitrate. When water is allowed to filter through gunpowder, the nitrate is dissolved
out leaving the sulfur and carbon behind.

III. Comprehension
1) What is the difference between
a) An element and a compound?
b) A compound and a mixture?
2) What are the two main classes of elements? How do elements in one class differ
from those in the other?
3) The group which contains non-metal is
a) Carbon, sulphur, zinc.
b) Phosphorus, lead, sulphur.
c) Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous
d) Sodium, potassium, oxygen.

TYPICAL METALS
Element Properties and Uses
ALUMINIUM
Silvery metal of low density and good Resists corrosion, widely used in items
mechanical strength. from aeroplanes to kitchen saucepans.
COPPER Conducts heat and electricity well.
Dense, salmon-pink metal Used in electrical work, and for making
heating coppers.
IRON
Hard-dense, tough, grey metal.

11
Steels are iron modified by the addition of Most commonly used metal. Used in
other elements. making all types of articles, from nails to
the frames of sky-scraper building.
LEAD
Dense, soft, grey metal. Silvery when Used in plumbing, for keels of boats and in
freshly scratched. solder.
MAGNESIUM
Silvery metal of low density, which dulls in Burns readily in the form of powder or
air. ribbon. Used for flares and for light
aeroplane alloys.
MERCURY
Dense, silvery, liquid metal. The only In thermometers, and for making
metal liquid at ordinary temperatures. amalgams with other metals, e.g. silver
amalgam, used for dental fillings.
SILVER
Dense white metal, not easily dulled by air. Used for ornamental ware, and for coinage
for which it is hardened by the addition of
copper.
SODIUM
Light, silvery metal which dulls Decomposes water violently, forming a
immediately in air. Similar to Potassium. solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic
soda) and hydrogen.
ZINC
Dense, bluish-white metal Used in brass, iron is protected from
corrosion by galvanizing, i.e. dipping in
molten zinc.

TYPICAL NON-METALS
Element Properties and Uses
CARBON Diamond is used for cutting other hard
A solid which occurs in two forms either materials. Graphite is used in pencils. Coke
diamond (hard, transparent, and glass-like) and charcoal are used as fuels.
or graphite (a black, soft material present in
charcoal and coke).
CHLORINE Used for making many chemicals,
A yellowish gas with an unpleasant, acrid including insecticides and synthetic rubber,
smell. for bleaching and for disinfecting water.
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 HYDROGEN
A colourless, odourless gas, present in all The least dense gas. Hydrogen has been
acids used in balloons. It is highly inflammable,
and forms water when it burns.
NITROGEN
A colourless, odourless gas which forms Does not burn, it is one of several elements
four-fifths of the atmosphere. always present in living matter.
OXYGEN
A colourless, odourless gas which makes Essential for ordinary burning and for
up almost 50% by weight of the earth’s breathing.
crust, and about one-fifth of the
atmosphere.
PHOSPHORUS
Exists in two forms-red phosphorus. White White phosphorus is used as a rat and
phosphorus is poisonous, and catches fire rabbit poison. Red phosphorus is used in
easily. Red phosphorus is not reactive, match manufacture. White phosphorus is
poisonous, nor so easily ignited as white preserved under water to keep it from
phosphorus. contacting with air.
SULPHUR
A yellow crystalline material which, like Used for making sulphuric acid, which is
carbon and phosphorus, exists in several used in the manufacture of most other
forms called allotropes. chemicals. It is also used in match, for
toughening rubber by the process of
vulcanisation, and as a fungicide.

IV. True/ False

1) Oxygen is essential to respiration. Without oxygen we cannot live.
2) Nitrogen is not vital to living things. It supports combustion.
3) Diamond, a pure form of crystalline carbon, is the hardest substances known.
4) Small amounts of chlorine are added to the water to kill the bacteria.
5) Like aluminum, iron is very light and more resistant to corrosion.
6) Sodium and potassium react violently with water.
7) Hydrogen is the lightest element and is highly flammable.
8) Of all the metals, iron is the cheapest in terms of price but the most valuable in terms
of its importance to our civilization.
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 9) Magnesium burns vigorously in the air, producing a brilliant light. This property has
made it useful in the making of fireworks.
10) All metals, particularly copper, do not conduct heat and electricity

STATES OF MATTER
Matter, whether in the form of elements or compounds can exist as a solid, a liquid, or a
gas. A solid has definite shape and volume. A liquid has definite volume but no definite
shape; it will take the shape of the container which holds it. A gas has neither definite shape
nor definite volume. Gases can be compressed from larger to smaller volumes and will
spontaneously fill any container in which they are placed. In a solid the atoms or molecules
are close together; in a liquid a bit farther apart and in gases, there are few particles and a
great deal of empty space. This is shown by the observation that a given volume of a gas
weighs less than the same volume of a liquid, and the liquid, in general, weighs less than
the same volume of a solid.
With certain exception, matter may exist in any of the three states, and may be changed
from one state to another under the influence of changes in temperature and pressure. We
know, for instance, that water exists in the three forms, as solid ice, as liquid water, and as
a gas or water vapor. Below 0oC water exists as ice and above 100oC it is steam.

I. Completing Sentences

- shape - liquid
- volume - matter
- solid
1. The universe is composed of matter. Rock is matter in the solid form. An ocean is
matter in the liquid form. The atmosphere is a gaseous form of _____________.
2. Glycerin assumes the same shape as its container but does not change its volume
and mass. Glycerin is a ______________.
3. When a sphere of iron is melted in a cylindrical vat, it retains its own volume but
flows freely and assumes the shape of the vat. Thus, a liquid is a state of matter
which retains its volume but can easily change its _______________.

14
 4. X. is a mineral. A cube of X. measuring 1 inch on each side retains its shape and
volume when placed in a large can; the cube has a fixed mass no matter where it is
placed. The cube is, therefore, the form of matter known as____________.
5. If the iron is heated still more, it can change into a vapor or gas. If the vaporizing
chamber is 10 cubic feet in volume, the original cubic foot of iron will expand to
fill very crevice of the chamber. Thus, a gas assumes both the shape and
_____________ of the container.

II. Multiple choice

1. All matter; as it acquires sufficient thermal energy, will change from

a) gas to liquid c) liquid to solid
b) solid to gas d) gas to solid
2. Matter will best retain its shape if it is in the
a) solid state c) gas state
b) liquid state d) all of above
3. Matter will change its volume most easily in the
a) solid state c) gas state
b) liquid state d) none of the above state
4. All forms of matter occupy __________ and have _____________.
a) space and weight c) space and matter
b) volume and shape d) solid and liquid
5. A solid, unless affected by temperature or pressure, changes neither shape nor
a) weight c) collision
b) volume d) property
6. A substance that adjusts its shape and volume to its container is called a
a) solid c) gas
b) liquid d) molecule

15
 UNIT 3
SYMBOLS – FORMULAE – EQUATIONS

Symbols. Elements and compounds can be described concisely by using symbols for the
elements. Symbols are abbreviations of the names of the elements using either the first
letter or the first letter and another letter of the name. Thus hydrogen, H; oxygen, O;
calcium, Ca; aluminium, Al; chlorine, Cl. Symbols for some elements are abbreviations of
latinized names.

The symbol Na for sodium comes from the Latin natrium, and Cu for copper comes from
the Latin word cuprum. With minor exception, the chemical symbols are international.
Scientists throughout the world know what is meant by NaCl even though they may use
quite different common names for the substance we call salt or table salt.
Common elements and their symbols

Metals Non metals

Aluminum Al Carbon C
Calcium Ca Chlorine Cl
Copper Cu (cuprum) Fluorine F
Iron Fe (ferrum) Helium He
Magnesium Mg Hydrogen H
Manganese Mn Iodine I
Potassium K (kalium) Nitrogen N
Silver Ag (argentum) Oxygen O
Sodium Na (natrium) Phosphorus P
Zinc Zn Sulfur S

Chemical Formulae and Names. The symbol for an element represents not only the name
of the element but also one atom of the element and therefore the mass of the atom. A
chemical formula for a compound lists the atoms in the smallest possible particle of the
compound. Thus, iron sulphide contains one iron atom, Fe, and one sulphur atom, S, and
its formula is FeS.
In chemical formulae for compounds of a metal with a non-metal, the symbol for the metal
is written first and followed by the symbol for the non-metal, the name of which is altered

16
so that it ends in “-ide”. For example, magnesium and oxygen form a compound
magnesium oxide, MgO. Sodium and chlorine form a compound sodium chlorite, NaCl.
When more than one atom of one kind is present in a molecule, the number of atoms is
written after the symbol, thus water is H2O (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom).
Many compounds contain more than two elements. A common third element is oxygen.
The names of such compounds are made up as for two elements, except that the ending is
changed, generally, to “-ate” which therefore indicates “including oxygen”. Thus, iron
sulphate is a compound of iron, sulphur and oxygen. Potassium silicate is a compound of
potassium, silicon and oxygen.

Chemical Equations. A chemical change, also called a chemical reaction, can be described
in a concise way by means of a chemical equation, using symbols for the various substances
involved with numerical subscripts following them to denote the numbers of each atom in
the molecule. Numbers are prefixed to denote the least number of atoms or molecules
which can be involved in the transformation. An arrow separates the reacting substances
from their products. Thus, the combination of one volume of nitrogen, represented by the
symbol N and the molecular formula N2, with 3 of hydrogen, represented by H2, to form
ammonia, NH3 is represented:
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
An equation is balanced when the number of atoms of each kind in the reacting substances
equals the number of atoms of that kind in the products. The 6 atoms in the 3 diatomic
molecules of hydrogen, in the above example, thus, equal the 6 atoms of hydrogen in the 2
molecules of ammonia, each of which contains 3.

I. True/ False
1. Magnesium oxide is a mixture of magnesium and oxygen.
2. The symbols K, Ca, Pb, Mg, Cu and P all represent metals.
3. S, M and P are the chemical symbols for sulfur, magnesium and potassium
respectively.
4. The symbols today consist of the initial letter or initial two letters of the Latin name
of the element or its name in a modern language.
II. Comprehension
1. Name the compounds represented by the following formula: MgO, Na2S, FeS,
ZnSO4, FeSO4
17
 2. What does a chemical symbol represent?
3. What are the names of the elements represented by the symbols: S, C, N, Al, Zn,
and Na?
4. Are the same symbols adopted by all chemists throughout the world?
5. What is a chemical equation?
6. Do we have to alter the formulae of either the products or reactants when we balance
the equations?
III. Grammar
Common connectors in written English
a) Connectors which show addition
also furthermore,
and in addition to
as well moreover
besides
b) Connectors which illustrate
For example For instance For one thing
c) Connectors which show result
Accordingly so
As a result therefore
Consequently thus
d) Connectors which show contrast
However nevertheless
In spite of this on the one hand….._on the other hand
Instead
e) Connectors which show sequence
First (second, third…) then
Next finally After that
f) Connectors which show emphasis
Indeed Infact

18
1. She is taking Life Science _____________ Chemistry _____________ Physics.
2. _____________Life Science, she is _________ taking Physics and Chemistry.
3. _____________ , she is studying Life Science and Astronomy __________.
4. a + b = c ______________ a = c – b
5. Several factors caused the metal workers to strike last week. ____________, they
wanted a pay-increase.
6. The weather-map shows a low pressure area over Sydney. _________ rain is
expected tomorrow.
7. Most people are frightened of snakes. __________, many varieties are harmless.
8. In the 17th century, Galileo stated that the Earth rotated round the sun.
____________ the Church refused to accept this fact.
9. To make fried rice, ____________ fry some onions in a little oil. _________ add
some small pieces of meat and vegetables. ___________, add some cooked rice.
___________, stir in some soya sauce before you serve it.
10. Laura is a very pretty girl. ____________, I think she is the prettiest girl in the class.

19
 UNIT 4. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
This discipline is concerned with any material in which metals and metalloid elements are
of primary interest. Inorganic chemistry is therefore concerned with the structure,
synthesis, and bonding of a very diverse range of compounds. One of the early interests
was the composition of minerals and the discovery of new elements; from this has grown
the specialized area of geochemistry. Early synthetic work emphasized compounds of the
main group elements, and particularly in this century, complex compounds of the
transition metals. These studies have led to soluble transition-metal catalysts, and a greatly
increased understanding of catalytic processes and the pivotal role of metal atoms in major
biochemical processes, such as oxygen transport in blood, photosynthesis, and biological
nitrogen fixation. Other contributions of inorganic chemistry are seen in chemicals,
fertilizers, advanced ceramics, high-performance composite materials, and the growing
number of high-temperature superconductors.
(From McGraw-Hill Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology)
Strong Acids and Strong Bases
The common acids that are almost one hundred percent ionized are:
HNO3 – nitric acid
HCl1 – hydrochloric acid
H2SO4 – sulfuric acid
HClO4 – perchloric acid
HBr1 – hydrobromic acid
HI1 – hydroiodic acid
The acids on this short list are called strong acids, because the amount of acid quality of a
solution depends upon the concentration of ionized hydrogens. Muriatic acid is the name
given to an industrial grade of hydrochloric acid that is often used in the finishing of
concrete. Less concentrated hydrochloric acid can be found in the human stomach. Strong
acids are completely ionized in water. You are not likely to see much HBr or HI in the
lab because they are expensive. You are not likely to see perchloric acid in a school setting
because it can explode if not treated carefully. Other acids are incompletely ionized,
existing mostly as the unionized form. Incompletely ionized acids are called weak acids,
because there is a smaller concentration of ionized hydrogens available in the solution. Do

20
not confuse this terminology with the concentration of acids. The differences in
concentration of the entire acid will be termed dilute or concentrated.
In the list of strong acids, sulfuric acid is the only one that is diprotic, because it has two
ionizable hydrogens per formula (or two mols of ionizable hydrogen per mol of acid).
(Sulfuric acid ionizes in two steps. The first time a hydrogen ion splits off of the sulfuric
acid, it acts like a strong acid. The second time a hydrogen splits away from the sulfate ion,
it acts like a weak acid.) The other acids in the list are monoprotic, having only one
ionizable proton per formula. Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is a weak acid. Phosphoric acid has
three hydrogen ions available to ionize and lose as a proton, and so phosphoric acid is
triprotic. We call any acid with two or more ionizable hydrogens polyprotic.
Stomach acid is hydrochloric acid. Although tasting stomach acid is not pleasant, it has the
sour taste of acid. Acetic acid is the acid ingredient in vinegar. Citrus fruits such as lemons,
grapefruit, oranges, and limes have citric acid in the juice. Sour milk, sour cream, yogurt,
kimchi, and cottage cheese have lactic acid from the fermentation of the sugar lactose.
Likewise, there is a short list of strong bases, ones that completely ionize into hydroxide
ions and a conjugate acid. All of the bases of Group I and Group II metals except for
beryllium are strong bases. Again, like the strong acids, the strong bases are completely
ionized in water solution. Lithium, rubidium and cesium hydroxides are not often used in
the lab because they are expensive. The bases of Group II metals, magnesium, calcium,
barium, and strontium are strong, but all of these bases have somewhat limited
solubility. Barium hydroxide has a high enough solubility to really call it the only dibasic
strong base. Magnesium hydroxide has a particularly small solubility. Potassium and
sodium hydroxides both have the common name of lye. Soda lye (NaOH) and potash lye
(KOH) are common names to distinguish the two compounds.
LiOH1 – lithium hydroxide
NaOH1 – sodium hydroxide
KOH1 – potassium hydroxide
RbOH1 – rubidium hydroxide
CsOH1 – cesium hydroxide
(Mg(OH)2 – magnesium hydroxide)
(Ca(OH)2 – calcium hydroxide)
(Sr(OH)2 – strontium hydroxide)
Ba(OH)2 – barium hydroxide

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The bases of Group I metals are all monobasic. The bases of Group II metals are all dibasic.
Aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3 is tribasic. Any material with two or more ionizable
hydroxyl groups would be called polybasic. Most of the alkaline organic compounds (and
some inorganic materials) have an amino group -(NH2) rather than an ionizable hydroxyl
group. The amino group attracts a proton (hydrogen ion) to become -(NH3 )+.
Memorize the strong acids and strong bases. All other acids or bases are weak.
FERTILIZERS
A dictionary defines fertilizer simply as a substance added to soil to increase its fertility,
but it is not that simple.
Plant nutrients are chemical elements or compounds that are essential to plant growth.
Nutrients come from various sources. Those supplied by air and water — carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen — are things we can’t control.
The ones we can control are in the products that we buy, mix or make. These are referred
as major (macro), minor and micro nutrients, and are represented by their elemental
symbols.
The major nutrients in fertilizers are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K).
The minor nutrients are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (SO).
The micro nutrients are: boron, copper, iron, manganese, zinc, chlorine and cobalt in tiny
amounts.
Fertilizers come in many different forms from naturally occurring in the soil, to commercial
or "organic" products, liquid and dry, and in many different formulations. It also can
include some forms of compost. Each "store-bought" container tells you what the
ingredients are but you need to know what each one does to make an informed decision
about what plants need.
The availability of nutrients already in your soil is somewhat dependent on the pH, a
measurement of acidity or alkalinity. If it is too high or too low the nutrients may be locked
up and not available to plants.

Commercial fertilizers
These are made from synthetically derived materials or are mined, and come in many
different formulas depending on the suggested use of each product. There are many N, P,
K combinations such as 16-16-16, 5-10-10 or 4-6-6 as examples.
They come in dry, liquid or slow release forms. Dry or liquid products are fast-acting and
easily leached by rains. The slow-release products are not very good for the coast due to
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the fact that they usually are made to be released at about 70º; soil temps rarely get that
warm there.
Each package should tell you if the product has any minor nutrients. All commercial
nutrients are available as single products.
There are many combinations made for specific uses such as lawn, rhododendron or
vegetable "food." Some commercial ingredients are derived from sources that are
becoming scarce.
The package should tell you how much to use by the square footage.
Organic fertilizers
The word "organic" refers only to things that are derived or harvested from once-living
plants or animals.
The other minerals such as phosphorus, which can come from bone meal, potassium and
the minor nutrients, are added and certified for use in organic growing. These frequently
are produced in ways that do not damage the earth. They generally have lower N, P, K
values than commercial products.
Dry types are slow acting, however they will feed your plants over a longer period of time.
All organic products are labeled as such. Organic approval comes from the oversight
agency OMRI, the Organic Materials Review Institute, which certifies compliance with
USDA Organic Standards and Practices. You will see the OMRI emblem on all store-
bought products that are organic.
Liquid fertilizers
These can be either commercial or organic, and may be high or low in nutrient values.
These are very fast acting and will give plants a quick boost.
They are especially useful when the soil is cold since dry organic products may not break
down and become useful to plants until the soil warms. This is the time when liquids
become especially valuable.
Liquids are also best when you are starting seeds or growing seedlings. Liquids are very
valuable in midseason when plants need a boost and digging in more dry fertilizer doesn’t
work quickly.
Compost
For our purposes compost is organic matter that has been processed to create a useful
product to add back to the soil. Nutrient values can vary widely in compost, so you need to
have your compost analyzed by a laboratory if you'd like to know the nutrient analysis of
your compost.
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You can make your own using kitchen waste or yard debris. Commercially it is made of
forest products, peat, coir, woody municipal debris, and possibly poultry and animal
manure, or added nutrients.
If the product is not completely composted it will use available nitrogen (N) in the soil to
continue breaking down.
It is commonly available bagged or in bulk and makes a wonderful addition as a "soil
conditioner" or side dressing.
When it comes to choosing which compost to buy, this is where you get what you pay for;
the better the compost, the higher the price is likely to be.
What fertilizer to use, when to use it and how to use it are questions that you must answer
for yourself. The answers depend on the individual plant, its size and stage of growth, the
season of the year and whether you see that it needs one particular nutrient or a general-
purpose product. It will help to know what the major and minor nutrients do for plants.
Following is a general description of each.
Nitrogen: This element promotes rapid green, leafy growth. Too much can cause a plant
to grow too fast or not produce the part of the plant that you are growing it for. For example:
too much on a tomato may cause the plant to grow lots of green leaves and few flowers,
delay fruit set and attract insects such as aphids. The same is true of flowering and
ornamental plants.
Phosphorous: It stimulates early root growth and hastens blooming. Too much may be
lost in the soil and wash into water ways.
Potassium: Increases resistance to drought and disease, and quality of seeds.
Calcium: Improves root formation and vigor, and helps regulate the uptake of other
nutrients. A deficiency combined with insufficient water will result in blossom end rot of
tomatoes.
Magnesium: Aids in chlorophyll formation and phosphorus metabolism. Regulates the
uptake of other nutrients.
Sulfur: Imparts dark green color, stimulates seed production and formation of amino acids
and vitamins.
Micronutrients: These are all necessary in tiny amounts, they work with the other
nutrients to provide a balanced diet to all plants.

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 UNIT 5. THERMODYNAMICS

You are going to read a text about Thermodynamics, a branch of physics, which deals with
the energy and work of a system.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and work of a system.
It was born in the 19th century as scientists were first discovering how to build and operate
steam engines. Thermodynamics deals only with the large scale response of a system
which we can observe and measure in experiments. Small scale gas interactions are
described by the kinetic theory of gases. The methods complement each other; some
principles are more easily understood in terms of thermodynamics and some principles are
more easily explained by kinetic theory.
There are three principal laws of thermodynamics. Each law leads to the definition of
thermodynamic properties which help us to understand and predict the operation of a
physical system.

The First Law of Thermodynamics can be stated something like this: " Heat is a form of
energy. Types of energy can be transferred from one type to another, and it is possible to
account for all of the energy to show no loss or gain of energy from the transfer." This
law is apparently violated by the famous Einstein equation, E = m c2, in which E is energy,
m is mass and c is the velocity of light. This is the equation that shows that an incredibly
small mass disappears when a nuclear reaction occurs and an incredibly large amount of
energy is made. Einstein's equation does not violate the first law, but just shows us the
difficult idea that mass and energy are just two different forms of the same thing. Mass is
just a very concentrated form of energy. It is pretty difficult to get energy from mass. (And
even more difficult to get mass from energy!)

The Second Law of Thermodynamics is a bit more complex. There are several ways to
express it and several parts to it. "Usable work from a heat engine is available from a
difference in temperature rather than any amount of material at the same temperature."
and "When two materials are combined, the temperature of both of them will become the
same, a weighted average based on the specific heat and mass of the two materials coming
together."

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The Third Law of Thermodynamics describes material under a very specialized
condition. It shows that it is impossible to bring and keep a material to absolute zero
temperature, since absolute zero is the condition wherein a material has absolutely no
motion of the atoms or molecules.
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/thermo.html
http://www.chemtutor.com/sta.htm
Match the words (1-8) from the text with their synonyms (a-h).

1. observe a. complicated
2. principles b. happens
3. principal c. connected
4. apparently d. see
5. occurs e. main
6. complex f. laws
7. combined g. state
8. condition h. obviously

READING
Look at the text above again and decide whether these sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. Thermodynamics deals only with small scale response of a system which we can observe
and measure in experiments.
2. Large scale gas interactions are described by the kinetic theory of gases.
3. Thermodynamic properties help us to understand and predict the operation of a physical
system.
4. The First Law of Thermodynamics is in harmony with the famous Einstein equation.
5. When two materials are combined, the temperature of both of them will become the
same.
6. According to the Third Law of Thermodynamics it is impossible to bring and keep a
material to absolute zero temperature.

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LISTENING and SPEAKING
Watch the video about the Laws of Thermodynamics and then discuss these laws with a
partner.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dL9NfiJjV14 (Zeroth, First, Second and Third Laws of
Thermodynamics)
The following key words and expressions might help you:
• energy transfer
• heat flow +work done
• conservation of energy
• entropy dictates!
• absolute zero: impossible

LANGUAGE USE Read the text about thermodynamics and find all the instances of
RELATIVE CLAUSES there. Then give reasons for their use. Below you can get useful
information on relative clauses. After reading the text, do the exercise on the last page.
Relative clauses

Relative clauses
Defining relative clauses are used to I have a friend who speaks five languages. I
specify which person or thing we mean. have a friend that speaks five languages.
We don't put commas between the noun She showed me the coat which she had
and a defining relative clause. bought.
Who or that are used for people. She showed me the coat that she had
Which or that are used for things. bought.

Non-defining relative clauses (extra

information clauses) are used to add extra who speaks five languages, works as a
information to a sentence. translator for the EU.
We put commas before a non-defining
relative clause (and also after, if
necessary). The area, which has very high
unemployment, is in the north of the country.
Who is used for people.
Which is used for things.
That cannot be used.

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Relative pronouns

We use who or that when we talk about This is the man who helped us. (more
people. formal)
Who is more formal than that. This is the man that helped us. (less formal)
We cannot use what

We use which or that when we talk about It's the watch which my husband bought me
things (not people). for my birthday. (more formal)
Which is more formal than that. It's the watch that my husband bought me
for my birthday. (less formal)

In informal speech, we can omit It's the watch my husband bought me for my
which and that when the pronoun birthday.
refers to the object of the sentence.
In this sentence, 'the watch' is the object of
the verb 'bought' so we don't need to use
that or which.

We cannot omit which and that when the It was the man that sold me the car. In this
pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence, 'the man' is the subject of the verb
sentence. 'sold' so we need to use that or who.
We use whose to show possession. John, whose brother was also a musician,
plays over 100 concerts every year.

Do the following exercise:

1. He is a famous architect ____designs won an international award last year.
2. He is the one ____the award should be given to.
3. This is Mary, ____ is taking over my job when I leave.
4. Its the invoice ____ you sent us last week.
5. He is a consultant ____advice I rely on.
6. The photocopier, ____ has a two-year guarantee, cost $2000.
7. The people ____were stopped at the border were all from Eastern Europe.
8. They expect his decision soon, ____ should help us solve the problem.
9. The President of the company, ____ I really admire, is visiting us next week.

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