APES3075: Lecture ⓬
Insect Physiology
(The Wrap-Up…)
Cambrian
Cambrian Explosion
Explosion
“The origin of Arthropods”
Hallucigenia
“the OG”
4 Main Phyla
Main Arthropod Phylum Subphylum Class
Divisions: Trilobitamorpha Trilobita (extinct)
Merostomata
Chelicerata
Arachnida
Pycnogonida
Crustacea (8 Classes)
Onycophora
Arthropoda Chilopoda
Diplopoda
Myriapoda
Pauropoda
Symphyla
Collembolla
Uniramia Protura
Diplura
Hexapoda
Thysanaura
Pterygota
Main Hexapod Groups
Subphylum Class Infraclass Division Order
Collembolla
Hexapoda Protura
Diplura Odonata
Thysanura Paleoptera
Ephemeroptera
Pterygota
Exopterygota
Neoptera
Endopterygota
TRUE INSECTS…
Insect Physiology
“The recap”
What do think underpins physiology ?
What underpins physiology… in insects
Overall
- Body Plan
- Brain
- Nervous System
- Circulatory System
+ Extras…
Insect Physiology
“The recap”
Heart Nerve Chord
Haemocoel / Coelom
Gastrointestinal
Tract
Nerve Chord Heart
‘Main Brain’ – “3 parts: Cerebral Ganglia”
SOG - Subesophageal Ganglion
Segmental Ganglia
(Thorax)
Ventral Nerve Cord
Nerves
Segmental Ganglia
(Abdomen)
Why would insects want a
“decentralised brain” system…
Decentralising…
Processing by other Ganglia:
- Efficient: Sensory information
- Rapid: Control of movements
- Perform Complex behaviours …
- Flying
- Reproduction
- Feeding
Insect Physiology
“The recap”
Elongated heart (“vessel”)
Circulates Haemolymph…
Heart
Haemocoel:
(“Open Cavity”)
Haemolymph (“blood”)
90% Water: Plasma…
Nutrients / Waste / Hormones…
Movement of Haemolymph via “the heart”
For the little dudes…
Small body size = Passive diffusion
“energy free”
BUT…
Limits body size as ↑ Size lowers efficiency
of gas exchange…
What about larger insects…
Passive diffusion is problematic…
OVERCOME BY…
Highly Efficient
Larger Tracheae: ↑ Volume of air
Air Sacs: air stores and ↑ Ventilation
Active ventilation: contract muscles ↑
Circulation
(coupled with activity)
Insect Physiology
“The recap”
Insect Digestive System Summary
Foregut:
Acquire food → Initial digestion (softening)
mouth / esophagus / crop
Midgut:
Main region of digestion + nutrient uptake
Length inversely prop. to the nitrogen level in food…
↑nitrogen diet = ↓ midgut length
Hindgut:
Final passage → non-nutritive material out…
Waste materials enter (Malpighian tubules)
intestine / rectum / anus
Nutrition is Key…
+ Minerals
Macronutrients
(Carbohydrates / Protein / Fats)
+ Vitamins
GUT Microbes
specialized symbionts
How do insects ‘attempt’ to gain adequate nutrition?
Nutrition Strategies…
Niche
partitioning
Specialist Generalist
Co-evolved
+ Reduced competition
+ Efficient using the resource
- Limited resource use…
The Physiology of Growing Up…
+ GENETICS
Egg:
+ HORMONES
Embryo in a protective ‘shell’
most insects: oviparous + ENVIRONMENT
Juvenile:
Larva / Nymph / Instar / Maggot…
Go through several molts as they grow
Focus on feeding / growth
Pupa: Adult:
Occurs in holometabolous insects… No further molts
Metamorph inside a protect casing Wings formed (optional) +
Larval tissues : reorganized… Functional reproductive system…
Ecdysone
(ECH)
Concentration
ECH Juvenile
Hormone
Hormone
(JH)
JH
Controlling Screw-worm fly:
Sterile Insect Technique – S.I.T
(Sterile Male Release)
Edward Knipling
“Genetic control programme
Releases ↑↑ numbers of artificially
sterilised males into the population…
result in sterile matings and consequently a
reduction in population size…”
Sterile Male
Forensic Entomology:
(The Role of Blow-flies)
Sense freshly dead organic matter....
“Blowflies are 1st to arrive...<10 mins…
Lay egg batches…
Cambrian
Explosion:
~530 – 540 MYa
Modern day Phyla
emergence…
Arthropods:
Trilobites
extinct
Vision driven…
Insect Imaging (Compound Eyes):
Lens:
Cornea: outer structure, initially focuses light
Cone: directs lights to the photoreceptors
Rhabdom:
Light absorption and channeling occurs…
Photoreceptor:
“Retinula cells”…
contain pigments to detect light and converting it to
electrical signals…
Nocturnal Insects:
Moths: Low Resolution
High Sensitivity to Light…
Antennae:
Antennae:
Main receptors…
Gustatory reception:
Legs / mouthparts
Sensilla:
Pores
Peg
Olfactory Receptor Neuron (ORN)
Pheromones:
Same species… communication|
Various types of pheromone.
- Mating / Trails / Alarm / Aggregation…
Volatile Organic Compounds:
Odour molecules detected in the same way
information about food and threats
Insect Immunity :
Innate Immune System:
Immediate but non-specific response…
Pre-programmed response to certain pathogens
BUT no “memory”…
Mammalian Immune System:
Innate + Adaptive response…
Respond to certain pathogens and “remember”,
quicker + efficient in future exposures…
The Physiology of Resistance:
Insecticide Resistance:
Metabolic:
enzymes detoxify / break down insecticide before it
reaches its target site or lethal levels…
Target-Site:
mutations can prevent the insecticide from binding…
often eliminates an entire group of insecticides (MoA).
Behavioural:
alter their behavior to avoid exposure to the insecticide.
Insects: Elevated CO2
Indirect Implications
~25%
(animals) Phytophagous Insects:
Major Group
> 500 000 species
All Plants have 1+ Phytophagous insect sp.
Insects: Elevated CO2 Compensatory
Plant-Insect Implications Feeding
↑ C:N Ratios
“Lower Quality”
Compensatory
Feeding
↑ Plant Structure
“Harder to Eat”
Specialist
↑ Metabolites
“Harder to Digest”
↑ CO2
(atmosphere)
Insects: Elevated CO2
General Implications
Phytophagous Insects:
↑ CO2
(atmosphere) Growth
slowed growth = ↑ C:N ratio
Development
prolonged development =↑ C:N ratio
Metabolism
↑ C:N ratio + ↑ metabolites = ↓ digestion
Reproduction
↓ body size + ↓ nutrition = ↓ fecundity
Insects: Temperature Temperature Increases…
“Bigger Picture” Uneven globally (> Equator…)
Temperature
Fluctuations…
Further from the Equator
Insect Thermal Basics CTmin CTmax
Protection…
Cells / Proteins
“avoid lysis / denaturing”
Insects: Temperature
“Bigger Picture”
Expansion
~Generalists + ↑ Thermal Range
Shifting
Distributions
Variety + ~Thermal Range
(Populations)
Decline
Specialised + ↓Thermal Range Indirect Effects
Insect Apocalypse
“The Underlying Causes”
Insect Apocalypse
“The Underlying Causes”
Physiology…
Offset some drivers
Primary Drivers:
Habitat Loss / Fragmentation
Pollution
Pesticide Usage
Invasive Species
Climate Change
Insect Apocalypse
“The Underlying Causes”
Physiology…
Primary Drivers: Unlikely: combination
Habitat Loss / Fragmentation
+
Pollution
+
Pesticide Usage
+
Invasive Species
+
Climate Change
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Question:
“Explain when a change in the length of an insect's midgut would be beneficial?”
(5 marks)
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Question:
“Explain when a change in the length of an insect's midgut would be beneficial?”
(5 marks)
Show & Apply…
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Answer 1:
The length of insect midguts is known to be related to nitrogen content in their
diet… Decreasing nitrogen is associated with a longer midgut length…
Increasing the length of the midgut allows for food to be digested longer and
more nutrient uptake. This is likely to be beneficial to insects that have low
nitrogen diets, such as many insect herbivores…
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Answer 1:
The length of insect midguts is known to be related to nitrogen content in their
diet… Decreasing nitrogen is associated with a longer midgut length…
Increasing the length of the midgut allows for food to be digested longer and
more nutrient uptake. This is likely to be beneficial to insects that have low
nitrogen diets, such as many insect herbivores…
Inverse Answer…
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Question 2:
“Briefly explain how some insects are able to endure a heat wave, even
when it approaches their CTmax ?”
(3 marks)
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Answer 2:
“Insects often respond to increased temperatures through the release of
Heat Shock Proteins. These HSPs help stabilize insect proteins at higher
temperatures, preventing / limiting the amount of heat stress experienced…
allowing them to endure heat waves”
(3 marks)
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Question 3:
“Briefly explain why insects don’t die from the build-up of internal waste,
despite lacking kidneys ?”
(3 marks)
Insect Physiology
“The Class Test”
Sample Answer 3:
“Insects make use of the Malpighian tubules to filter their haemolymph and
extract (nitrogenous) waste products. These tubules transport the waste
to the hindgut for excretion, preventing internal waste build-up…
(3 marks)
Insect Physiology
“The November Exam”
~20-mark Essay Question…
- Know the underlying physiology of insects… processes
- Physiology underpins behaviour
- Integrate & Apply your knowledge to the essay question…
