1.

Design Principles

Design principles guide developers in writing clean, maintainable, and scalable code.

a. SOLID Principles (Object-Oriented Design)

 S – Single Responsibility Principle

A class should have only one reason to change.
Example: Separate classes for handling database operations and UI logic.

 O – Open/Closed Principle
Software entities should be open for extension, but closed for modification.
Use interfaces and abstract classes to extend functionality.

 L – Liskov Substitution Principle

Subtypes must be substitutable for their base types.
Derived classes should not break the behavior of the base class.

 I – Interface Segregation Principle

Many small, specific interfaces are better than one large, general interface.
Avoid forcing classes to implement unused methods.

 D – Dependency Inversion Principle

High-level modules should not depend on low-level modules. Both should depend on
abstractions.

b. Other Principles

 DRY (Don’t Repeat Yourself): Avoid duplicate code.

 KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid): Prefer simple, understandable solutions.

 YAGNI (You Aren’t Gonna Need It): Don’t build features unless necessary.

 Law of Demeter: A class should only communicate with its immediate friends.

2. Design Heuristics

Heuristics are experience-based strategies to improve the quality of software design.

Key Heuristics:

 High Cohesion: Group related functions/data together.

 Low Coupling: Minimize interdependencies between modules.

 Information Hiding: Expose only what is necessary (use private/internal access).

 Separation of Concerns: Divide a program into distinct features that overlap in functionality
as little as possible.

 Encapsulation: Bundle data and methods that operate on that data.

 Refactoring: Continuously improve internal code structure without changing functionality.

3. Design Patterns

Design patterns are time-tested solutions to common software design problems.

a. Creational Patterns

 Singleton: One instance of a class (e.g., Logger).

 Factory Method: Delegates object creation to subclasses.

 Abstract Factory: Create related objects without specifying their concrete classes.

 Builder: Step-by-step object construction.

 Prototype: Clone existing objects.

b. Structural Patterns

 Adapter: Connect incompatible interfaces.

 Decorator: Add new behavior to objects dynamically.

 Facade: Simplify complex subsystems.

 Composite: Tree-like structure of objects.

 Proxy: Provide a surrogate for another object.

c. Behavioral Patterns

 Observer: Notify multiple objects of state changes.

 Strategy: Swap algorithms at runtime.

 Command: Encapsulate a request as an object.

 Iterator: Traverse a collection without exposing its internal structure.

 State: Change behavior based on state.

4. Architectural Styles

Defines high-level system organization.

a. Layered Architecture

 Divides system into layers (UI, Business Logic, Data Access).

 Clear separation of concerns.

 Example: Web applications using MVC.

b. Client-Server

 Clients request services from centralized servers.

 Example: Web browsers and servers.

c. Microservices
  Decompose applications into loosely coupled services.

 Each service runs independently.

 Example: Netflix architecture.

d. Event-Driven

 Components communicate via events and listeners.

 Example: JavaScript event handling.

e. Model-View-Controller (MVC)

 Model (data), View (UI), Controller (logic).

 Separates concerns, making code more manageable.

f. Pipe and Filter

 Data passes through a series of transformations.

 Example: Unix command-line pipeline.

5. Implementation: Introduction

Implementation turns design into actual code.

Key Activities:

 Translate designs to code in a selected programming language.

 Implement classes, methods, and modules.

 Follow structured programming and object-oriented paradigms.

 Write clean, understandable, and testable code.

 Ensure test cases cover all features.

6. Coding Standards and Best Practices

Standards improve readability, consistency, and maintainability.

a. Naming Conventions

 Use meaningful names: calculateInterest() instead of calc().

 Use camelCase for variables/methods and PascalCase for classes.

b. Commenting

 Use comments to explain “why,” not “what.”

 Avoid redundant or outdated comments.

c. Formatting and Indentation

  Consistent indentation improves readability.

 Use linters to enforce format (e.g., Prettier, ESLint).

d. Error Handling

 Handle exceptions gracefully.

 Provide meaningful error messages.

e. Code Reviews

 Peer reviews help catch issues early.

f. Testing

 Write unit tests (JUnit, PyTest, etc.).

 Aim for high code coverage.

7. Object-Oriented Implementation

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) enables reuse and modularity.

Key Concepts:

 Class & Object: Class is a blueprint; object is an instance.

 Encapsulation: Keep data private and expose only necessary methods.

 Inheritance: Reuse code through class hierarchy.

 Polymorphism: Interface or base class methods behave differently depending on the object.

 Abstraction: Hide complexity; expose only essential features.

Benefits:

 Reusability

 Scalability

 Maintainability

8. Version Control with Git

Tracks code changes and enables collaboration.

a. Basic Git Commands

 git init: Initialize repository

 git clone <url>: Clone a repo

 git add: Stage changes

 git commit -m "message": Save changes

  git push/pull: Sync with remote repo

 git branch: List/create branches

 git merge: Merge branches

b. Branching

 Use branches for features, bug fixes, experiments.

 Merge via Pull Requests.

c. Best Practices

 Commit often with clear messages.

 Don’t commit large binaries or secrets.

 Use .gitignore to exclude files.

9. Code Structure and Organization

Well-organized code is easier to navigate, test, and scale.

Best Practices:

 Follow a consistent project structure

o Example (Python):

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project/

├── src/

├── tests/

├── docs/

├── requirements.txt

└── README.md

 Modularization: Break code into reusable modules.

 Avoid Monolithic Files: Split by responsibility.

 Configuration Management: Use config files for environment settings.

 Dependency Management: Use tools like npm, pip, Maven.

 Documentation: Add README, docstrings, and inline documentation.

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Design Principles, Heuristics, Patterns, and Implementation: Class Notes

Design Principles

 Cohesion: Each module or class should have a single, well-defined responsibility.

 Coupling: Minimize dependencies between modules to make code easier to maintain and
test.

 Encapsulation: Hide internal details and expose only what is necessary through interfaces.

 Separation of Concerns (SoC): Divide a program into distinct sections, each addressing a
separate concern.

 KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid): Prefer simple solutions over complex ones.

 DRY (Don’t Repeat Yourself): Avoid code duplication by abstracting repeated logic.

 YAGNI (You Aren’t Gonna Need It): Don’t implement features until they are necessary.

 Law of Demeter: A module should only talk to its immediate friends, not strangers.

 Composition Over Inheritance: Favor composing objects over inheriting from classes689.

Design Heuristics (L2)

 Visibility of System Status: Keep users informed about system status with feedback15.

 Match Between System and Real World: Use concepts and language familiar to users15.

 User Control and Freedom: Allow users to undo and redo actions15.

 Consistency and Standards: Follow platform and industry conventions15.

 Error Prevention: Design to prevent problems before they occur15.

 Recognition Rather Than Recall: Minimize user memory load by making options visible15.

 Flexibility and Efficiency of Use: Allow both novice and expert users to use the system
efficiently15.

 Aesthetic and Minimalist Design: Avoid unnecessary information and clutter15.

 Help Users Recognize, Diagnose, and Recover from Errors: Use clear error messages and
recovery options15.

 Help and Documentation: Provide easily accessible help15.

Design Patterns

Pattern Type Example Patterns Description

Creational Singleton, Factory Control object creation

Structural Adapter, Composite Compose classes/objects into larger structures

 Pattern Type Example Patterns Description

Behavioral Observer, Strategy Manage communication and responsibility between objects

 Gang of Four (GoF) Patterns: 23 classic patterns for solving common object-oriented design
problems689.

 Use Patterns To: Promote code reuse, improve maintainability, and communicate design
solutions.

Architectural Styles

 Layered (n-tier): Organize system into layers (e.g., presentation, business, data).

 Client-Server: Separate client (user interface) from server (data processing).

 Model-View-Controller (MVC): Separate data (Model), UI (View), and logic (Controller)9.

 Microservices: Build applications as a suite of independently deployable services.

Implementation: Introduction

 Implementation is the process of translating design into working code.

 Focus on writing clear, maintainable, and efficient code that follows design specifications.

Coding Standards and Best Practices

 Naming Conventions: Use meaningful, consistent names for variables, functions, and
classes.

 Indentation and Formatting: Follow consistent formatting for readability.

 Commenting: Write clear comments for complex logic, but avoid obvious comments.

 Error Handling: Use exceptions or error codes to handle unexpected situations.

 Testing: Write unit and integration tests to ensure code correctness.

 Version Control: Use tools like Git to manage code changes and collaboration68.

Object-Oriented Implementation

 Classes and Objects: Model real-world entities as classes, create instances as objects.

 Inheritance: Reuse code by creating new classes from existing ones.

 Polymorphism: Use interfaces or abstract classes to allow different implementations.

 Encapsulation: Protect object data by exposing only necessary methods689.

Version Control with Git

 Repository: Stores all code and history.

 Commit: A snapshot of changes.

 Branch: A parallel line of development.

  Merge: Combine changes from different branches.

 Pull/Push: Download/upload changes to/from a remote repository.

 Best Practices: Commit often, write clear messages, use branches for features and bug fixes.

Code Structure and Organization

 Modularity: Organize code into modules or packages.

 Directory Structure: Use a logical folder structure (e.g., src/, tests/, docs/).

 Separation of Concerns: Keep different functionalities in separate files or classes.

 Reusable Components: Write generic, reusable code where possible68.