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Test 1 - Reading Passage 1: The kākāpō

The kākāpō is a nocturnal, flightless parrot that is critically endangered and one of New
Zealand's unique treasures.

The kākāpō, also known as the owl parrot, is a large, forest-dwelling bird, with a pale owl-like
face. Up to 64 cm in length, it has predominantly yellow-green feathers, forward-facing eyes, a
large grey beak, large blue feet, and relatively short wings and tail. It is the world's only
flightless parrot, and is also possibly one of the world's longest-living birds, with a reported
lifespan of up to 100 years. Kākāpō are solitary birds and tend to occupy the same home range
for many years. They forage on the ground and climb high into trees. They often leap from trees
and flap their wings, but at best manage a controlled descent to the ground. They are entirely
vegetarian, with their diet including the leaves, roots and bark of trees as well as bulbs, and fern
fronds. Kākāpō breed in summer and autumn, but only in years when food is plentiful. Males
play no part in incubation or chick-rearing - females alone incubate eggs and feed the chicks.
The 1-4 eggs are laid in soil, which is repeatedly turned over before and during incubation. The
female kākāpō has to spend long periods away from the nest searching for food, which leaves
the unattended eggs and chicks particularly vulnerable to predators.

Before humans arrived, kākāpō were common throughout New Zealand's forests. However, this
all changed with the arrival of the first Polynesian settlers about 700 years ago. For the early
settlers, the flightless kākāpō was easy prey. They ate its meat and used its feathers to make soft
cloaks. With them came the Polynesian dog and rat, which also preyed on kākāpō. By the time
European colonisers arrived in the early 1800s, kākāpō had become confined to the central
North Island and forested parts of the South Island. The fall in kākāpō numbers was accelerated
by European colonisation. A great deal of habitat was lost through forest clearance, and
introduced species such as deer depleted the remaining forests of food. Other predators such as
cats, stoats and two more species of rat were also introduced. The kākāpō were in serious
trouble.

In 1894, the New Zealand government launched its first attempt to save the kākāpō.
Conservationist Richard Henry led an effort to relocate several hundred of the birds to predator-
free Resolution Island in Fiordland. Unfortunately, the island didn't remain predator free - stoats
arrived within six years, eventually destroying the kākāpō population. By the mid-1900s, the
kākāpō was practically a lost species. Only a few clung to life in the most isolated parts of New
Zealand. From 1949 to 1973, the newly formed New Zealand Wildlife Service made over 60
expeditions to find kākāpō, focusing mainly on Fiordland. Six were caught, but there were no
females amongst them and all but one died within a few months of captivity. In 1974, a new
initiative was launched, and by 1977, 18 more kākāpō were found in Fiordland. However, there
were still no females. In 1977, a large population of males was spotted in Rakiura - a large island

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free from stoats, ferrets and weasels. There were about 200 individuals, and in 1980 it was
confirmed females were also present. These birds have been the foundation of all subsequent
work in managing the species. Unfortunately, predation by feral cats on Rakiura Island led to a
rapid decline in kākāpō numbers. As a result, during 1980-97, the surviving population was
evacuated to three island sanctuaries: Codfish Island, Maud Island and Little Barrier Island.
However, breeding success was hard to achieve. Rats were found to be a major predator of
kākāpō chicks and an insufficient number of chicks survived to offset adult mortality. By 1995,
although at least 12 chicks had been produced on the islands, only three had survived. The
kākāpō population had dropped to 51 birds. The critical situation prompted an urgent review of
kākāpō management in New Zealand.

In 1996, a new Recovery Plan was launched, together with a specialist advisory group called the
Kākāpō Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee and a higher amount of funding. Renewed
steps were taken to control predators on the three islands. Cats were eradicated from Little
Barrier Island in 1980, and possums were eradicated from Codfish Island by 1986. However, the
population did not start to increase until rats were removed from all three islands, and the birds
were more intensively managed. This involved moving the birds between islands,
supplementary feeding of adults and rescuing and hand-raising any failing chicks. After the first
five years of the Recovery Plan, the population was on target. By 2000, five new females had
been produced, and the total population had grown to 62 birds. For the first time, there was
cautious optimism for the future of kākāpō and by June 2020, a total of 210 birds was recorded.
Today, kākāpō management continues to be guided by the kākāpō Recovery Plan. Its key goals
are: minimise the loss of genetic diversity in the kākāpō population, restore or maintain
sufficient habitat to accommodate the expected increase in the kākāpō population, and ensure
stakeholders continue to be fully engaged in the preservation of the species.

Questions 1-6 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage
1? In boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1. There are other parrots that share the kakapo's inability to fly.
2. Adult kakapo produce chicks every year.
3. Adult male kakapo bring food back to nesting females.
4. The Polynesian rat was a greater threat to the kakapo than Polynesian settlers.
5. Kakapo were transferred from Rakiura Island to other locations because they were at risk
from feral cats.
6. One Recovery Plan initiative that helped increase the kakapo population size was caring
for struggling young birds.

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Questions 7-13 Complete the notes below. Choose

ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.

New Zealand's kākāpō A type of parrot:

diet consists of fern fronds, various parts of a tree and 7___________

nests are created in 8___________ where eggs are laid.

Arrival of Polynesian settlers

the 9___________ of the kākāpō were used to make clothes.

Arrival of European colonisers

10___________ were an animal which they introduced that ate the kākāpō's food sources.

Protecting kākāpō

Richard Henry, a conservationist, tried to protect the kākāpō.

a definite sighting of female kākāpō on Rakiura Island was reported in the year 11___________.

the Recovery Plan included an increase in 12___________.

a current goal of the Recovery Plan is to maintain the involvement of 13___________ in kākāpō
protection.

Test 1 - Reading Passage 2: Bringing elms back to Britain

Mark Rowe investigates attempts to reintroduce elms to Britain.

A Around 25 million elms, accounting for 90% of all elm trees in the UK, died during the 1960s
and '70s of Dutch elm disease. In the aftermath, the elm, once so dominant in the British
landscape, was largely forgotten. However, there's now hope the elm may be reintroduced to
the countryside of central and southern England. Any reintroduction will start from a very low
base. 'The impact of the disease is difficult to picture if you hadn't seen what was there before,'
says Matt Elliot of the Woodland Trust. 'You look at old photographs from the 1960s and it's
only then that you realise the impact [elms had] ... They were significant, large trees... then they
were gone'.

B The disease is caused by a fungus that blocks the elms' vascular (water, nutrient and food
transport) system, causing branches to wilt and die. A first epidemic, which occurred in the
1920s, gradually died down, but in the '70s a second epidemic was triggered by shipments of

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elm from Canada. The wood came in the form of logs destined for boat building and its intact
bark was perfect for the elm bark beetles that spread the deadly fungus. This time, the beetles
carried a much more virulent strain that destroyed the vast majority of British elms.

C Today, elms still exist in the southern English countryside but mostly only in low hedgerows
between fields. 'We have millions of small elms in hedgerows but they get targeted by the
beetle as soon as they reach a certain size,' says Karen Russell, co-author of the report 'Where
we are with elm'. Once the trunk of the elm reaches 10-15 centimetres or so in diameter, it
becomes a perfect size for beetles to lay eggs and for the fungus to take hold. Yet mature
specimens have been identified, in counties such as Cambridgeshire, that are hundreds of years
old, and have mysteriously escaped the epidemic. The key, Russell says, is to identify and study
those trees that have survived and work out why they stood tall when millions of others
succumbed. Nevertheless, opportunities are limited as the number of these mature survivors is
relatively small. 'What are the reasons for their survival?' asks Russell. 'Avoidance, tolerance,
resistance? We don't know where the balance lies between the three. I don't see how it can be
entirely down to luck'.

D For centuries, elm ran a close second to oak as the hardwood tree of choice in Britain and was
in many instances the most prominent tree in the landscape. Not only was elm common in
European forests, it became a key component of birch, ash and hazel woodlands. The use of elm
is thought to go back to the Bronze Age, when it was widely used for tools. Elm was also the
preferred material for shields and early swords. In the 18th century, it was planted more widely
and its wood was used for items such as storage crates and flooring. It was also suitable for
items that experienced high levels of impact and was used to build the keel of the 19th-century
sailing ship Cutty Sark as well as mining equipment.

E Given how ingrained elm is in British culture, it's unsurprising the tree has many advocates.
Amongst them is Peter Bourne of the National Elm Collection in Brighton. 'I saw Dutch elm
disease unfold as a small boy,' he says. 'The elm seemed to be part of rural England, but I
remember watching trees just lose their leaves and that really stayed with me'. Today, the city
of Brighton's elms total about 17,000. Local factors appear to have contributed to their survival.
Strong winds from the sea make it difficult for the determined elm bark beetle to attack this
coastal city's elm population. However, the situation is precarious. 'The beetles can just march
in if we're not careful, as the threat is right on our doorstep,' says Bourne.

F Any prospect of the elm returning relies heavily on trees being either resistant to, or tolerant
of, the disease. This means a widespread reintroduction would involve existing or new hybrid
strains derived from resistant, generally non-native elm species. A new generation of seedlings
have been bred and tested to see if they can withstand the fungus by cutting a small slit on the
bark and injecting a tiny amount of the pathogen. 'The effects are very quick,' says Russell. 'You

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return in four to six weeks and trees that are resistant show no symptoms, whereas those that
are susceptible show leaf loss and may even have died completely'.

G All of this raises questions of social acceptance, acknowledges Russell. 'If we're putting elm
back into the landscape, a small element of it is not native - are we bothered about that?' For
her, the environmental case for reintroducing elm is strong. 'They will host wildlife, which is a
good thing.' Others are more wary. 'On the face of it, it seems like a good idea,' says Elliot. The
problem, he suggests, is that, 'You're replacing a native species with a horticultural analogue*.
You're effectively cloning'. There's also the risk of introducing new diseases. Rather than plant
new elms, the Woodland Trust emphasises providing space to those elms that have survived
independently. 'Sometimes the best thing you can do is just give nature time to recover over
time, you might get resistance,' says Elliot.

horticultural analogue: a cultivated plant species that is genetically similar to an existing species

Questions 14-18 Reading Passage 2 has seven sections, A-G.

Which section contains the following information?

NB You may use any letter more than once.

Column 1 ABCDEFG

14. reference to the research problems that arise from there being only a few
surviving large elms

15. details of a difference of opinion about the value of reintroducing elms to

Britain

16. reference to how Dutch elm disease was brought into Britain

17. a description of the conditions that have enabled a location in Britain to

escape Dutch elm disease

18. reference to the stage at which young elms become vulnerable to Dutch
elm disease

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Questions 19-23 Look at the following statements (Questions 19-23) and the list of people
below.

Match each statement with the correct person, A, B, or C.

NB You may use any letter more than once.

19. If a tree gets infected with Dutch elm disease, the damage rapidly becomes visible.

20. It may be better to wait and see if the mature elms that have survived continue to flourish.

21. There must be an explanation for the survival of some mature elms.

22. We need to be aware that insects carrying Dutch elm disease are not very far away.

23. You understand the effect Dutch elm disease has had when you see evidence of how
prominent the tree once was.

List of People

A. Matt Elliot

B. Karen Russell

C. Peter Bourne

Questions 24-26 Complete the summary below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Uses of a popular tree For hundreds of years, the only tree that was more popular in Britain
than elm was 24___________. Starting in the Bronze Age, many tools were made from elm and
people also used it to make weapons. In the 18th century, it was grown to provide wood for
boxes and 25___________. Due to its strength, elm was often used for mining equipment and
the Cutty Sark's 26___________ was also constructed from elm.

Test 1 - Reading Passage 3: How stress affects our judgement

Some of the most important decisions of our lives occur while we're feeling stressed and
anxious. From medical decisions to financial and professional ones, we are all sometimes
required to weigh up information under stressful conditions. But do we become better or worse
at processing and using information under such circumstances?

My colleague and I, both neuroscientists, wanted to investigate how the mind operates under
stress, so we visited some local fire stations. Firefighters' workdays vary quite a bit. Some are

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pretty relaxed; they'll spend their time washing the truck, cleaning equipment, cooking meals
and reading. Other days can be hectic, with numerous life-threatening incidents to attend to;
they'll enter burning homes to rescue trapped residents, and assist with medical emergencies.
These ups and downs presented the perfect setting for an experiment on how people's ability to
use information changes when they feel under pressure.

We found that perceived threat acted as a trigger for a stress reaction that made the task of
processing information easier for the firefighters - but only as long as it conveyed bad news. This
is how we arrived at these results. We asked the firefighters to estimate their likelihood of
experiencing 40 different adverse events in their life, such as being involved in an accident or
becoming a victim of card fraud. We then gave them either good news (that their likelihood of
experiencing these events was lower than they'd thought) or bad news (that it was higher) and
asked them to provide new estimates. People are normally quite optimistic - they will ignore
bad news and embrace the good. This is what happened when the firefighters were relaxed; but
when they were under stress, a different pattern emerged. Under these conditions, they
became hyper-vigilant to bad news, even when it had nothing to do with their job (such as
learning that the likelihood of card fraud was higher than they'd thought), and altered their
beliefs in response. In contrast, stress didn't change how they responded to good news (such as
learning that the likelihood of card fraud was lower than they'd thought).

Back in our lab, we observed the same pattern in students who were told they had to give a
surprise public speech, which would be judged by a panel, recorded and posted online. Sure
enough, their cortisol levels spiked, their heart rates went up and they suddenly became better
at processing unrelated, yet alarming, information about rates of disease and violence.

When we experience stressful events, a physiological change is triggered that causes us to take
in warnings and focus on what might go wrong. Brain imaging reveals that this 'switch' is related
to a sudden boost in a neural signal important for learning, specifically in response to
unexpected warning signs, such as faces expressing fear. Such neural engineering could have
helped prehistoric humans to survive. When our ancestors found themselves surrounded by
hungry animals, they would have benefited from an increased ability to learn about hazards. In
a safe environment, however, it would have been wasteful to be on high alert constantly. So, a
neural switch that automatically increases or decreases our ability to process warnings in
response to changes in our environment could have been useful. In fact, people with clinical
depression and anxiety seem unable to switch away from a state in which they absorb all the
negative messages around them.

It is also important to realise that stress travels rapidly from one person to the next. If a co-
worker is stressed, we are more likely to tense up and feel stressed ourselves. We don't even
need to be in the same room with someone for their emotions to influence our behaviour.

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Studies show that if we observe positive feeds on social media, such as images of a pink sunset,
we are more likely to post uplifting messages ourselves. If we observe negative posts, such as
complaints about a long queue at the coffee shop, we will in turn create more negative posts.

In some ways, many of us now live as if we are in danger, constantly ready to tackle demanding
emails and text messages, and respond to news alerts and comments on social media.
Repeatedly checking your phone, according to a survey conducted by the American
Psychological Association, is related to stress. In other words, a pre-programmed physiological
reaction, which evolution has equipped us with to help us avoid famished predators, is now
being triggered by an online post. Social media posting, according to one study, raises your
pulse, makes you sweat, and enlarges your pupils more than most daily activities.

The fact that stress increases the likelihood that we will focus more on alarming messages,
together with the fact that it spreads extremely rapidly, can create collective fear that is not
always justified. After a stressful public event, such as a natural disaster or major financial crash,
there is often a wave of alarming information in traditional and social media, which individuals
become very aware of. But that has the effect of exaggerating existing danger. And so, a reliable
pattern emerges - stress is triggered, spreading from one person to the next, which temporarily
enhances the likelihood that people will take in negative reports, which increases stress further.
As a result, trips are cancelled, even if the disaster took place across the globe; stocks are sold,
even when holding on is the best thing to do.

The good news, however, is that positive emotions, such as hope, are contagious too, and are
powerful in inducing people to act to find solutions. Being aware of the close relationship
between people's emotional state and how they process information can help us frame our
messages more effectively and become conscientious agents of change.

Questions 27-30 Choose the correct letter,

A, B, C or D.

27. In the first paragraph, the writer introduces the topic of the text by

A. defining some commonly used terms.

B. questioning a widely held assumption.

C. mentioning a challenge faced by everyone.

D. specifying a situation which makes us most anxious.

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28. What point does the writer make about firefighters in the second paragraph?

A. The regular changes of stress levels in their working lives make them ideal study subjects.

B. The strategies they use to handle stress are of particular interest to researchers.

C. The stressful nature of their job is typical of many public service professions.

D. Their personalities make them especially well-suited to working under stress.

29. What is the writer doing in the fourth paragraph?

A. explaining their findings

B. justifying their approach

C. setting out their objectives

D. describing their methodology

30. In the seventh paragraph, the writer describes a mechanism in the brain which

A. enables people to respond more quickly to stressful situations.

B. results in increased ability to control our levels of anxiety.

C. produces heightened sensitivity to indications of external threats.

D. is activated when there is a need to communicate a sense of danger.

Questions 31-35 Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, below.

31. At times when they were relaxed, the firefighters usually

32. The researchers noted that when the firefighters were stressed, they

33. When the firefighters were told good news, they always

34. The students' cortisol levels and heart rates were affected when the researchers

35. In both experiments, negative information was processed better when the subjects

A. made them feel optimistic.

B. took relatively little notice of bad news.

C. responded to negative and positive information in the same way.

D. were feeling under stress.

E. put them in a stressful situation.

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F. behaved in a similar manner, regardless of the circumstances.

G. thought it more likely that they would experience something bad.

Questions 36-40 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 3?

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

36. The tone of the content we post on social media tends to reflect the nature of the posts in
our feeds.

37. Phones have a greater impact on our stress levels than other electronic media devices.

38. The more we read about a stressful public event on social media, the less able we are to
take the information in.

39. Stress created by social media posts can lead us to take unnecessary precautions.

40. Our tendency to be affected by other people's moods can be used in a positive way.

Test 2 - Reading Passage 1: Manatees

Manatees, also known as sea cows, are aquatic mammals that belong to a group of animals
called Sirenia. This group also contains dugongs. Dugongs and manatees look quite alike - they
are similar in size, colour and shape, and both have flexible flippers for forelimbs. However, the
manatee has a broad, rounded tail, whereas the dugong's is fluked, like that of a whale. There
are three species of manatees: the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), the African
manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) and the Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis).

Unlike most mammals, manatees have only six bones in their neck - most others, including
humans and giraffes, have seven. This short neck allows a manatee to move its head up and
down, but not side to side. To see something on its left or its right, a manatee must turn its
entire body, steering with its flippers. Manatees have pectoral flippers but no back limbs, only a
tail for propulsion. They do have pelvic bones, however a leftover from their evolution from a
four-legged to a fully aquatic animal. Manatees share some visual similarities to elephants. Like
elephants, manatees have thick, wrinkled skin. They also have some hairs covering their bodies
which help them sense vibrations in the water around them.

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Seagrasses and other marine plants make up most of a manatee's diet. Manatees spend about
eight hours each day grazing and uprooting plants. They eat up to 15% of their weight in food
each day. African manatees are omnivorous - studies have shown that molluscs and fish make
up a small part of their diets. West Indian and Amazonian manatees are both herbivores.

Manatees' teeth are all molars - flat, rounded teeth for grinding food. Due to manatees'
abrasive aquatic plant diet, these teeth get worn down and they eventually fall out, so they
continually grow new teeth that get pushed forward to replace the ones they lose. Instead of
having incisors to grasp their food, manatees have lips which function like a pair of hands to
help tear food away from the seafloor.

Manatees are fully aquatic, but as mammals, they need to come up to the surface to breathe.
When awake, they typically surface every two to four minutes, but they can hold their breath
for much longer. Adult manatees sleep underwater for 10-12 hours a day, but they come up for
air every 15-20 minutes. Active manatees need to breathe more frequently. It's thought that
manatees use their muscular diaphragm and breathing to adjust their buoyancy. They may use
diaphragm contractions to compress and store gas in folds in their large intestine to help them
float.

The West Indian manatee reaches about 3.5 metres long and weighs on average around 500
kilogrammes. It moves between fresh water and salt water, taking advantage of coastal
mangroves and coral reefs, rivers, lakes and inland lagoons. There are two subspecies of West
Indian manatee: the Antillean manatee is found in waters from the Bahamas to Brazil, whereas
the Florida manatee is found in US waters, although some individuals have been recorded in the
Bahamas. In winter, the Florida manatee is typically restricted to Florida. When the ambient
water temperature drops below

20∘C, it takes refuge in naturally and artificially warmed water, such as at the warm-water
outfalls from powerplants.

The African manatee is also about 3.5 metres long and found in the sea along the west coast of
Africa, from Mauritania down to Angola. The species also makes use of rivers, with the
mammals seen in landlocked countries such as Mali and Niger.

The Amazonian manatee is the smallest species, though it is still a big animal. It grows to about
2.5 metres long and 350 kilogrammes. Amazonian manatees favour calm, shallow waters that
are above

23∘C. This species is found in fresh water in the Amazon Basin in Brazil, as well as in Colombia,
Ecuador and Peru.

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All three manatee species are endangered or at a heightened risk of extinction. The African
manatee and Amazonian manatee are both listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It is estimated that 140,000. Amazonian manatees were killed
between 1935 and 1954 for their meat, fat and skin, with the latter used to make leather. In
more recent years, African manatee decline has been tied to incidental capture in fishing nets
and hunting. Manatee hunting is now illegal in every country the African species is found in.

The two subspecies of West Indian manatee are listed as Endangered by the IUCN. Both are also
expected to undergo a decline of 20% over the next 40 years. A review of almost 1,800 cases of
entanglement in fishing nets and of plastic consumption among marine mammals in US waters
from 2009 to 2020 found that at least 700 cases involved manatees. The chief cause of death in
Florida manatees is boat strikes. However, laws in certain parts of Florida now limit boat speeds
during winter, allowing slow-moving manatees more time to respond.

Questions 1-6 Complete the notes below.

Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.

Manatees Appearance

look similar to dugongs, but with a differently shaped 1___________

Movement

have fewer neck bones than most mammals

need to use their 2___________ to help to turn their bodies around in order to look sideways

sense vibrations in the water by means of 3___________ on their skin

Feeding

eat mainly aquatic vegetation, such as 4___________

grasp and pull up plants with their 5___________

Breathing

come to the surface for air every 2-4 minutes when awake and every 15-20 while sleeping

may regulate the 6___________ of their bodies by using muscles of diaphragm to store air
internally

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Questions 7-13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 1?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

7. West Indian manatees can be found in a variety of different aquatic habitats.

8. The Florida manatee lives in warmer waters than the Antillean manatee.
9. The African manatee's range is limited to coastal waters between the West African
countries of Mauritania and Angola.
10. The extent of the loss of Amazonian manatees in the mid-twentieth century was only
revealed many years later.
11. It is predicted that West Indian manatee populations will fall in the coming decades.
12. The risk to manatees from entanglement and plastic consumption increased significantly
in the period 2009-2020.
13. There is some legislation in place which aims to reduce the likelihood of boat strikes on
manatees in Florida.

Test 2 - Reading Passage 2: Procrastination

A psychologist explains why we put off important tasks and how we can break this habit.

A Procrastination is the habit of delaying a necessary task, usually by focusing on less urgent,
more enjoyable, and easier activities instead. We all do it from time to time. We might be
composing a message to a friend who we have to let down, or putting together an important
report for college or work; we're doing our best to avoid doing the job at hand, but deep down
we know that we should just be getting on with it. Unfortunately, berating ourselves won't stop
us procrastinating again. In fact, it's one of the worst things we can do. This matters because, as
my research shows, procrastination doesn't just waste time, but is actually linked to other
problems, too.

B Contrary to popular belief, procrastination is not due to laziness or poor time management.
Scientific studies suggest procrastination is, in fact, caused by poor mood management. This
makes sense if we consider that people are more likely to put off starting or completing tasks
that they are really not keen to do. If just thinking about the task threatens our sense of self-
worth or makes us anxious, we will be more likely to put it off. Research involving brain imaging
has found that areas of the brain linked to detection of threats and emotion regulation are

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actually different in people who chronically procrastinate compared to those who don't
procrastinate frequently.

C Tasks that are emotionally loaded or difficult, such as preparing for exams, are prime
candidates for procrastination. People with low self-esteem are more likely to procrastinate.
Another group of people who tend to procrastinate are perfectionists, who worry their work will
be judged harshly by others. We know that if we don't finish that report or complete those
home repairs, then what we did can't be evaluated. When we avoid such tasks, we also avoid
the negative emotions associated with them. This is rewarding, and it conditions us to use
procrastination to repair our mood. If we engage in more enjoyable tasks instead, we get
another mood boost. In the long run, however, procrastination isn't an effective way of
managing emotions. The 'mood repair we experience is temporary. Afterwards, people tend to
be left with a sense of guilt that not only increases their negative mood, but also reinforces their
tendency to procrastinate.

D So why is this such a problem? When most people think of the costs of procrastination, they
think of the toll on productivity. For example, studies have shown that procrastination
negatively impacts on student performance. But putting off reading textbooks and writing
essays may affect other areas of students' lives. In one study of over 3,000 German students
over a six-month period, those who reported procrastinating over their university work were
also more likely to engage in study-related misconduct, such as cheating and plagiarism. But the
behaviour that procrastination was most closely linked with was using fraudulent excuses to get
deadline extensions. Other research shows that employees on average spend almost a quarter
of their workday procrastinating, and again this is linked with negative outcomes. In fact, in one
US survey of over 22,000 employees, participants who said they regularly procrastinated had
less annual income and less employment stability. For every one-point increase on a measure of
chronic procrastination, annual income decreased by US$15,000.

E Procrastination also correlates with serious health and well-being problems. A tendency to
procrastinate is linked to poor mental health, including higher levels of depression and anxiety.
Across numerous studies, I've found people who regularly procrastinate report a greater
number of health issues, such as headaches, flu and colds, and digestive issues. They also
experience higher levels of stress and poor sleep quality. They are less likely to practise healthy
behaviours, such as eating a healthy diet and regularly exercising, and use destructive coping
strategies to manage their stress. In one study of over 700 people, I found people prone to
procrastination had a 63% greater risk of poor heart health after accounting for other
personality traits and demographics.

F Finding better ways of managing our emotions is one route out of the vicious cycle of
procrastination. An important first step is to manage our environment and how we view the

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task. There are a number of evidence-based strategies that can help us fend off distractions that
can occupy our minds when we should be focusing on the thing we should be getting on with.
For example, reminding ourselves about why the task is important and valuable can increase
positive feelings towards it. Forgiving ourselves and feeling compassion when we procrastinate
can help break the procrastination cycle. We should admit that we feel bad, but not be overly
critical of ourselves. We should remind ourselves that we're not the first person to
procrastinate, nor the last. Doing this can take the edge off the negative feelings we have about
ourselves when we procrastinate. This can all make it easier to get back on track.

Questions 14-16 Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A-F.

Which paragraph contains the following information?

NB You may use any letter more than once.

Column 1 ABCDEF

14. mention of false assumptions about why people procrastinate

15. reference to the realisation that others also procrastinate

16. neurological evidence of a link between procrastination and emotion

Questions 17-22 Complete the summary below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

What makes us procrastinate?

Many people think that procrastination is the result of 17___________. Others believe it to be
the result of an inability to organise time efficiently.

But scientific studies suggest that procrastination is actually due to poor mood management.
The tasks we are most likely to put off are those that could damage our self-esteem or cause us
to feel 18___________ when we think about them. Research comparing chronic procrastinators
with other people even found differences in the brain regions associated with regulating
emotions and identifying 19___________.

Emotionally loaded and difficult tasks often cause us to procrastinate. Getting ready to take
20___________ might be a typical example of one such task. People who are likely to
procrastinate tend to be either 21___________ or those with low self-esteem.

Procrastination is only a short-term measure for managing emotions. It's often followed by a
feeling of 22___________, which worsens our mood and leads to more procrastination.

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Questions 23 and 24

Choose TWO letters, A-E.

23-24 Which TWO comparisons between employees who often procrastinate and those who
do not are mentioned in the text?

A. Their salaries are lower.

B. The quality of their work is inferior.

C. They don't keep their jobs for as long.

D. They don't enjoy their working lives as much.

E. They have poorer relationships with colleagues.

Questions 25 and 26 Choose TWO letters, A-E.

25-26 Which TWO recommendations for getting out of a cycle of procrastination does the
writer give?

A. not judging ourselves harshly

B. setting ourselves manageable aims

C. rewarding ourselves for tasks achieved

D. prioritising tasks according to their importance

E. avoiding things that stop us concentrating on our tasks

Test 2 - Reading Passage 3: Invasion of the Robot Umpires

A few years ago, Fred DeJesus from Brooklyn, New York became the first umpire in a minor
league baseball game to use something called the Automated Ball-Strike System (ABS), often
referred to as the 'robo-umpire'. Instead of making any judgments himself about a strike*,
DeJesus had decisions fed to him through an earpiece, connected to a modified missile-tracking
system. The contraption looked like a large black pizza box with one glowing green eye; it was
mounted above the press stand.

Major League Baseball (MLB), who had commissioned the system, wanted human umpires to
announce the calls, just as they would have done in the past. When the first pitch came in, a
recorded voice told DeJesus it was a strike. Previously, calling a strike was a judgment call on the
part of the umpire. Even if the batter does not hit the ball, a pitch that passes through the 'strike

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zone' (an imaginary zone about seventeen inches wide, stretching from the batter's knees to the
middle of his chest) is considered a strike. During that first game, when DeJesus announced
calls, there was no heckling and no shouted disagreement. Nobody said a word.

For a hundred and fifty years or so, the strike zone has been the game's animating force-
countless arguments between a team's manager and the umpire have taken place over its
boundaries and whether a ball had crossed through it. The rules of play have evolved in various
stages. Today, everyone knows that you may scream your disagreement in an umpire's face, but
you must never shout personal abuse at them or touch them. That's a no-no. When the robo-
umpires came, however, the arguments stopped.

During the first robo-umpire season, players complained about some strange calls. In response,
MLB decided to tweak the dimensions of the zone, and the following year the consensus was
that ABS is profoundly consistent. MLB says the device is near-perfect, precise to within
fractions of an inch. "It'll reduce controversy in the game, and be good for the game," says Rob
Manfred, who is Commissioner for MLB. But the question is whether controversy is worth
reducing, or whether it is the sign of a human hand. A human, at least, yells back.

When I spoke with Frank Viola, a coach for a North Carolina team, he said that ABS works as
designed, but that it was also unforgiving and pedantic, almost legalistic. "Manfred is a lawyer,"
Viola noted. Some pitchers have complained that, compared with a human's, the robot's strike
zone seems too precise. Viola was once a major-league player himself. When he was pitching,
he explained, umpires rewarded skill. "Throw it where you aimed, and it would be a strike, even
if it was an inch or two outside. There was a dialogue between pitcher and umpire".

The executive tasked with running the experiment for MLB is Morgan Sword, who's in charge of
baseball operations. According to Sword, ABS was part of a larger project to make baseball more
exciting since executives are terrified of losing younger fans, as has been the case with horse
racing and boxing. He explains how they began the process by asking fans what version of
baseball they found most exciting. The results showed that everyone wanted more action: more
hits, more defense, more baserunning. This type of baseball essentially hasn't existed since the
1960s, when the hundred-mile-an-hour fastball, which is difficult to hit and control, entered the
game. It flattened the game into strikeouts, walks, and home runs a type of play lacking much
action.

Sword's team brainstormed potential fixes. Any rule that existed, they talked about changing-
from changing the bats to changing the geometry of the field. But while all of these were ruled
out as potential fixes, ABS was seen as a perfect vehicle for change. According to Sword, once
you get the technology right, you can load any strike zone you want into the system. "It might

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be a triangle, or a blob, or something shaped like Texas. Over time, as baseball evolves, ABS can
allow the zone to change with it".

"In the past twenty years, sports have moved away from judgment calls. Soccer has Video
Assistant Referees (for offside decisions, for example). Tennis has Hawk-Eye (for line calls, for
example). For almost a decade, baseball has used instant replay on the base paths. This is
widely liked, even if the precision can sometimes cause problems. But these applications deal
with something physical: bases, lines, goals. The boundaries of action are precise, delineated
like the keys of a piano. This is not the case with ABS and the strike zone. Historically, a certain
discretion has been appreciated".

I decided to email Alva Noë, a professor at Berkeley University and a baseball fan, for his
opinion. "Hardly a day goes by that I don't wake up and run through the reasons that this [robo-
umpires] is such a terrible idea," he replied. He later told me, "This is part of a movement to use
algorithms to take the hard choices of living out of life". Perhaps he's right. We watch baseball
to kill time, not to maximize it. Some players I have met take a dissenting stance toward the
robots too, believing that accuracy is not the answer. According to Joe Russo, who plays for a
New Jersey team, "With technology, people just want everything to be perfect. That's not
reality. I think perfect would be weird. Your teams are always winning, work is always just great,
there's always money in your pocket, your car never breaks down. What is there to talk about?"

strike: a strike is when the batter swings at a ball and misses or when the batter does not swing
at a ball that passes through the strike zone.

Questions 27-32 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading
Passage 3?

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

27. When DeJesus first used ABS, he shared decision-making about strikes with it.

28. MLB considered it necessary to amend the size of the strike zone when criticisms were
received from players.

29. MLB is keen to justify the money spent on improving the accuracy of ABS's calculations.

30. The hundred-mile-an-hour fastball led to a more exciting style of play.

31. The differing proposals for alterations to the baseball bat led to fierce debate on Sword's
team.

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32. ABS makes changes to the shape of the strike zone feasible.

Questions 33-37 Complete the summary using the list of phrases, A-H, below.

Calls by the umpire Even after ABS was developed, MLB still wanted human umpires to shout
out decisions as they had in their 33___________. The umpire's job had, at one time, required a
34___________ about whether a ball was a strike. A ball is considered a strike when the batter
does not hit it and it crosses through a 35___________ extending approximately from the
batter's knee to his chest. In the past, 36___________ over strike calls were not uncommon, but
today everyone accepts the complete ban on pushing or shoving the umpire. One difference,
however, is that during the first game DeJesus used ABS, strike calls were met with
37___________.

A. pitch boundary

B. numerous disputes

C. team tactics

D. subjective assessment

E. widespread approval

F. former roles

G. total silence

H. perceived area

Questions 38-40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

38. What does the writer suggest about ABS in the fifth paragraph?

A. It is bound to make key decisions that are wrong.

B. It may reduce some of the appeal of the game.

C. It will lead to the disappearance of human umpires.

D. It may increase calls for the rules of baseball to be changed.

39. Morgan Sword says that the introduction of ABS

A. was regarded as an experiment without a guaranteed outcome.

B. was intended to keep up with developments in other sports.

C. was a response to changing attitudes about the role of sport.

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D. was an attempt to ensure baseball retained a young audience.

40. Why does the writer include the views of Noë and Russo?

A. to show that attitudes to technology vary widely

B. to argue that people have unrealistic expectations of sport

C. to indicate that accuracy is not the same thing as enjoyment

D. to suggest that the number of baseball fans needs to increase

Test 3 - Reading Passage 1: Frozen Food

A US perspective on the development of the frozen food industry.

At some point in history, humans discovered that ice preserved food. There is evidence that
winter ice was stored to preserve food in the summer as far back as 10,000 years ago. Two
thousand years ago, the inhabitants of South America's Andean mountains had a unique means
of conserving potatoes for later consumption. They froze them overnight, then trampled them
to squeeze out the moisture, then dried them in the sun. This preserved their nutritional value-
if not their aesthetic appeal.

Natural ice remained the main form of refrigeration until late in the 19th century. In the early
1800s, ship owners from Boston, USA, had enormous blocks of Arctic ice towed all over the
Atlantic for the purpose of food preservation. In 1851, railroads first began putting blocks of ice
in insulated rail cars to send butter from Ogdensburg, New York, to Boston.

Finally, in 1870, Australian inventors found a way to make 'mechanical ice'. They used a
compressor to force a gas-ammonia at first and later Freon-through a condenser. The
compressed gas gave up some of its heat as it moved through the condenser. Then the gas was
released quickly into a low-pressure evaporator coil where it became liquid and cold. Air was
blown over the evaporator coil and then this cooled air passed into an insulated compartment,
lowering its temperature to freezing point. Initially, this process was invented to keep Australian
beer cool even in hot weather. But Australian cattlemen were quick to realize that, if they could
put this new invention on a ship, they could export meat across the oceans. In 1880, a shipment
of Australian beef and mutton was sent, frozen, to England. While the food frozen this way was
still palatable, there was some deterioration. During the freezing process, crystals formed within
the cells of the food, and when the ice expanded and the cells burst, this spoilt the flavor and
texture of the food.

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The modern frozen food industry began with the indigenous Inuit people of Canada. In 1912, a
biology student in Massachusetts, USA, named Clarence Birdseye, ran out of money and went to
Labrador in Canada to trap and trade furs. While he was there, he became fascinated with how
the Inuit would quickly freeze fish in the Arctic air. The fish looked and tasted fresh even months
later.

Birdseye returned to the USA in 1917 and began developing mechanical freezers capable of
quick-freezing food. Birdseye methodically kept inventing better freezers and gradually built a
business selling frozen fish from Gloucester, Massachusetts. In 1929, his business was sold and
became General Foods, but he stayed with the company as director of research, and his division
continued to innovate. Birdseye was responsible for several key innovations that made the
frozen food industry possible. He developed quick-freezing techniques that reduced the damage
that crystals caused, as well as the technique of freezing the product in the package it was to be
sold in. He also introduced the use of cellophane, the first transparent material for food
packaging, which allowed consumers to see the quality of the product. Birdseye products also
came in convenient size packages that could be prepared with a minimum of effort.

But there were still obstacles. In the 1930s, few grocery stores could afford to buy freezers for a
market that wasn't established yet. So, Birdseye leased inexpensive freezer cases to them. He
also leased insulated railroad cars so that he could ship his products nationwide. However, few
consumers had freezers large enough or efficient enough to take advantage of the products.

Sales increased in the early 1940s, when World War II gave a boost to the frozen food industry
because tin was being used for munitions. Canned foods were rationed to save tin for the war
effort, while frozen foods were abundant and cheap. Finally, by the 1950s, refrigerator
technology had developed far enough to make these appliances affordable for the average
family. By 1953, 33 million US families owned a refrigerator, and manufacturers were gradually
increasing the size of the freezer compartments in them.

1950s families were also looking for convenience at mealtimes, so the moment was right for the
arrival of the 'TV Dinner'. Swanson Foods was a large, nationally recognized producer of canned
and frozen poultry. In 1954, the company adapted some of Birdseye's freezing techniques, and
with the help of a clever name and a huge advertising budget, it launched the first 'TV Dinner'.
This consisted of frozen turkey, potatoes and vegetables served in the same segmented
aluminum tray that was used by airlines. The product was an instant success. Within a year,
Swanson had sold 13 million TV dinners. American consumers couldn't resist the combination of
a trusted brand name, a single-serving package and the convenience of a meal that could be
ready after only 25 minutes in a hot oven. By 1959, Americans were spending $2.7 billion
annually on frozen foods, and half a billion of that was spent on ready-prepared meals such as
the TV Dinner.

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Today, the US frozen food industry has a turnover of over $67 billion annually, with $26.6 billion
of that sold to consumers for home consumption. The remaining $40 billion in frozen food sales
come through restaurants, cafeterias, hospitals and schools, and that represents a third of the
total food service sales.

Questions 1-7 Complete the notes below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

The history of frozen food 2,000 years ago, South America

People conserved the nutritional value of 1___________ using a method of freezing then
drying.

1851, USA

2___________ was kept cool by ice during transportation in specially adapted trains.

1880, Australia

Two kinds of 3___________ were the first frozen food shipped to England.

1917 onwards, USA

Clarence Birdseye introduced innovations including:

quick-freezing methods, so that 4___________ did not spoil the food.

packaging products with 5___________ so the product was visible.

Early 1940s, USA

Frozen food became popular because of a shortage of 6___________.

1950s, USA

A large number of homes now had a 7___________.

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Questions 8-13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 1?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

8. The ice transportation business made some Boston ship owners very wealthy in the early
1800s.

9. A disadvantage of the freezing process invented in Australia was that it affected the taste of
food.

10. Clarence Birdseye travelled to Labrador in order to learn how the Inuit people froze fish.

11. Swanson Foods invested a great deal of money in the promotion of the TV Dinner.

12. Swanson Foods developed a new style of container for the launch of the TV Dinner.

13. The US frozen food industry is currently the largest in the world.

Test 3 - Reading Passage 2: Can the planet's coral reefs be saved?

A Conservationists have put the final touches to a giant artificial reef they have been assembling
at the world-renowned Zoological Society of London (London Zoo). Samples of the planet's
most spectacular corals - vivid green branching coral, yellow scroll, blue ridge and many more
species - have been added to the giant tank along with fish that thrive in their presence: blue
tang, clownfish and many others. The reef is in the zoo's new gallery, Tiny Giants, which is
dedicated to the minuscule invertebrate creatures that sustain life across the planet. The coral
reef tank and its seven-metre-wide window form the core of the exhibition.

'Coral reefs are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth and we want to show people how
wonderful they are,' said Paul Pearce-Kelly, senior curator of invertebrates and fish at the
Zoological Society of London. 'However, we also want to highlight the research and conservation
efforts that are now being carried out to try to save them from the threat of global warming'.
They want people to see what is being done to try to save these wonders.

B Corals are composed of tiny animals, known as polyps, with tentacles for capturing small
marine creatures in the sea water. These polyps are transparent but get their brilliant tones of
pink, orange, blue, green, etc. from algae that live within them, which in turn get protection,
while their photosynthesising of the sun's rays provides nutrients for the polyps. This

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comfortable symbiotic relationship has led to the growth of coral reefs that cover 0.1% of the
planet's ocean bed while providing homes for more than 25% of marine species, including fish,
molluscs, sponges and shellfish.

C As a result, coral reefs are often described as the 'rainforests of the sea', though the
comparison is dismissed by some naturalists, including David Attenborough. 'People say you
cannot beat the rainforest,' Attenborough has stated. 'But that is simply not true. You go there
and the first thing you think is: where are the birds? Where are the animals? They are hiding in
the trees, of course. No, if you want beauty and wildlife, you want a coral reef. Put on a mask
and stick your head under the water. The sight is mind-blowing'.

D Unfortunately, these majestic sights are now under very serious threat, with the most
immediate problem coming in the form of thermal stress. Rising ocean temperatures are
triggering bleaching events that strip reefs of their colour and eventually kill them. And that is
just the start. Other menaces include ocean acidification, sea level increase, pollution by
humans, deoxygenation and ocean current changes, while the climate crisis is also increasing
habitat destruction. As a result, vast areas - including massive chunks of Australia's Great Barrier
Reef - have already been destroyed, and scientists advise that more than 90% of reefs could be
lost by 2050 unless urgent action is taken to tackle global heating and greenhouse gas
emissions.

Pearce-Kelly says that coral reefs have to survive really harsh conditions - wave erosion and
other factors. And 'when things start to go wrong in the oceans, then corals will be the first to
react. And that is exactly what we are seeing now. Coral reefs are dying and they are telling us
that all is not well with our planet'.

E However, scientists are trying to pinpoint hardy types of coral that could survive our
overheated oceans, and some of this research will be carried out at London Zoo. 'Behind our ...
coral reef tank we have built laboratories where scientists will be studying coral species,' said
Pearce-Kelly. One aim will be to carry out research on species to find those that can survive best
in warm, acidic waters. Another will be to try to increase coral breeding rates. 'Coral spawn just
once a year,' he added. 'However, aquarium-based research has enabled some corals to spawn
artificially, which can assist coral reef restoration efforts. And if this can be extended for all
species, we could consider the launching of coral-spawning programmes several times a year.
That would be a big help in restoring blighted reefs'.

F Research in these fields is being conducted in laboratories around the world, with the London
Zoo centre linked to this global network. Studies carried out in one centre can then be tested in
others. The resulting young coral can then be displayed in the tank in Tiny Giants. 'The crucial
point is that the progress we make in making coral better able to survive in a warming world can

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be shown to the public and encourage them to believe that we can do something to save the
planet's reefs,' said Pearce-Kelly. 'Saving our coral reefs is now a critically important ecological
goal'.

Questions 14-19 Reading Passage 2 has six sections, A-F.

Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.

List of Headings

i. Tried and tested solutions

ii. Cooperation beneath the waves

iii. Working to lessen the problems

iv. Disagreement about the accuracy of a certain phrase

v. Two clear educational goals

vi. Promoting hope

vii. A warning of further trouble ahead

Section A

Section B

Section C

Section D

Section E

Section F

Questions 20 and 21 Choose

TWO letters, A-E. 20-21

Which TWO of these causes of damage to coral reefs are mentioned by the writer of the text?

A. a rising number of extreme storms

B. the removal of too many fish from the sea

C. the contamination of the sea from waste

D. increased disease among marine species

E. alterations in the usual flow of water in the seas

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Questions 22 and 23 Choose

TWO letters, A-E.

22-23 Which TWO of the following statements are true of the researchers at London Zoo?

A. They are hoping to expand the numbers of different corals being bred in laboratories.

B. They want to identify corals that can cope well with the changed sea conditions.

C. They are looking at ways of creating artificial reefs that corals could grow on.

D. They are trying out methods that would speed up reproduction in some corals.

E. They are investigating materials that might protect reefs from higher temperatures.

Questions 24-26 Complete the sentences below.

Choose

ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Corals have a number of 24___________ which they use to collect their food.

Algae gain 25___________ from being inside the coral.

Increases in the warmth of the sea water can remove the 26___________ from coral.

Test 3 - Reading Passage 3: Robots and us

Three leaders in their fields answer questions about our relationships with robots.

When asked 'Should robots be used to colonise other planets?', cosmology and astrophysics
Professor Martin Rees said he believed the solar system would be mapped by robotic craft by
the end of the century. 'The next step would be mining of asteroids, enabling fabrication of
large structures in space without having to bring all the raw materials from Earth.... I think this is
more realistic and benign than the ... "terraforming"* of planets'. He maintains that colonised
planets 'should be preserved with a status that is analogous to Antarctica here on Earth'.

On the question of using robots to colonise other planets and exploit mineral resources,
engineering Professor Daniel Wolpert replied, 'I don't see a pressing need to colonise other
planets unless we can bring [these] resources back to Earth. The vast majority of Earth is
currently inaccessible to us. Using robots to gather resources nearer to home would seem to be
a better use of our robotic tools'.

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Meanwhile, for anthropology Professor Kathleen Richardson, the idea of 'colonisation' of other
planets seemed morally dubious: 'I think whether we do something on Earth or on Mars we
should always do it in the spirit of a genuine interest in "the Other", not to impose a particular
model, but to meet "the Other"'.

In response to the second question, 'How soon will machine intelligence outstrip human
intelligence?', Rees mentions robots that are advanced enough to beat humans at chess, but
then goes on to say, 'Robots are still limited in their ability to sense their environment: they
can't yet recognise and move the pieces on a real chessboard as cleverly as a child can. Later
this century, however, their more advanced successors may relate to their surroundings, and to
people, as adeptly as we do. Moral questions then arise. ... Should we feel guilty about
exploiting [sophisticated robots]? Should we fret if they are underemployed, frustrated, or
bored?'

Wolpert's response to the question about machine intelligence outstripping human intelligence
was this: 'In a limited sense it already has. Machines can already navigate, remember and
search for items with an ability that far outstrips humans. However, there is no machine that
can identify visual objects or speech with the reliability and flexibility of humans.... Expecting a
machine close to the creative intelligence of a human within the next 50 years would be highly
ambitious'.

Richardson believes that our fear of machines becoming too advanced has more to do with
human nature than anything intrinsic to the machines themselves. In her view, it stems from
humans' tendency to personify inanimate objects: we create machines based on
representations of ourselves, imagine that machines think and behave as we do, and therefore
see them as an autonomous threat. 'One of the consequences of thinking that the problem lies
with machines is that we tend to imagine they are greater and more powerful than they really
are and subsequently they become so'.

This led on to the third question, 'Should we be scared by advances in artificial intelligence?' To
this question, Rees replied, 'Those who should be worried are the futurologists who believe in
the so-called "singularity".** ... And another worry is that we are increasingly dependent on
computer networks, and that these could behave like a single "brain" with a mind of its own,
and with goals that may be contrary to human welfare. I think we should ensure that robots
remain as no more than "idiot savants" lacking the capacity to outwit us, even though they may
greatly surpass us in the ability to calculate and process information'.

Wolpert's response was to say that we have already seen the damaging effects of artificial
intelligence in the form of computer viruses. 'But in this case,' he says, 'the real intelligence is
the malicious designer. Critically, the benefits of computers outweigh the damage that

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computer viruses cause. Similarly, while there may be misuses of robotics in the near future, the
benefits that they will bring are likely to outweigh these negative aspects'.

Richardson's response to this question was this: 'We need to ask why fears of artificial
intelligence and robots persist; none have in fact risen up and challenged human supremacy'.
She believes that as robots have never shown themselves to be a threat to humans, it seems
unlikely that they ever will. In fact, she went on, 'Not all fear [robots]; many people welcome
machine intelligence'.

In answer to the fourth question, 'What can science fiction tell us about robotics?', Rees replied,
'I sometimes advise students that it's better to read first-rate science fiction than second-rate
science more stimulating, and perhaps no more likely to be wrong'.

As his response, Wolpert commented, 'Science fiction has often been remarkable at predicting
the future. Science fiction has painted a vivid spectrum of possible futures, from cute and
helpful robots to dystopian robotic societies. Interestingly, almost no science fiction envisages a
future without robots'.

Finally, on the question of science fiction, Richardson pointed out that in modern society,
people tend to think there is reality on the one hand, and fiction and fantasy on the other. She
then explained that the division did not always exist, and that scientists and technologists made
this separation because they wanted to carve out the sphere of their work. 'But the divide is not
so clear cut, and that is why the worlds seem to collide at times,' she said. 'In some cases, we
need to bring these different understandings together to get a whole perspective. Perhaps then,
we won't be so frightened that something we create as a copy of ourselves will be a [threat] to
us'.

terraforming: modifying a planet's atmosphere to suit human needs

** singularity: the point when robots will be able to start creating ever more sophisticated
versions of themselves

Questions 27-33 Look at the following statements (Questions 27-33) and the list of experts
below.

Match each statement with the correct expert, A, B or C.

NB You may use any letter more than once.

27. For our own safety, humans will need to restrict the abilities of robots.

28. The risk of robots harming us is less serious than humans believe it to be.

29. It will take many decades for robot intelligence to be as imaginative as human intelligence.

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30. We may have to start considering whether we are treating robots fairly.

31. Robots are probably of more help to us on Earth than in space.

32. The ideas in high-quality science fiction may prove to be just as accurate as those found in
the work of mediocre scientists.

33. There are those who look forward to robots developing greater intelligence.

List of Experts

A. Martin Rees B. Daniel Wolpert C. Kathleen Richardson

Questions 34-36 Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-D, below.

34. Richardson and Rees express similar views regarding the ethical aspect of

35. Rees and Wolpert share an opinion about the extent of

36. Wolpert disagrees with Richardson on the question of

A. robots to explore outer space.

B. advances made in machine intelligence so far.

C. changes made to other planets for our own benefit.

D. the harm already done by artificial intelligence.

Questions 37-40 Choose the correct letter,

A, B, C or D.

37. What point does Richardson make about fear of machines?

A. It has grown alongside the development of ever more advanced robots.

B. It is the result of our inclination to attribute human characteristics to non-human entities.

C. It has its origins in basic misunderstandings about how inanimate objects function.

D. It demonstrates a key difference between human intelligence and machine intelligence.

38. What potential advance does Rees see as a cause for concern?

A. robots outnumbering people

B. robots having abilities which humans do not

C. artificial intelligence developing independent thought

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D. artificial intelligence taking over every aspect of our lives

39. What does Wolpert emphasise in his response to the question about science fiction?

A. how science fiction influences our attitudes to robots

B. how fundamental robots are to the science fiction genre

C. how the image of robots in science fiction has changed over time

D. how reactions to similar portrayals of robots in science fiction may vary

40. What is Richardson doing in her comment about reality and fantasy?

A. warning people not to confuse one with the other

B. outlining ways in which one has impacted on the other

C. recommending a change of approach in how people view them

D. explaining why scientists have a different perspective on them from other people

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