BTE 4417
PROCESS PLANT DESIGN AND SAFETY
Safety and Loss Prevention
What is process safety?
• Process safety generally refers to the
prevention of unintentional release of
chemicals, energy, or other potentially
dangerous materials or microorganisms during
the course of chemical or biochemical
processes that can have a serious effect to the
plant and environment.
Process Safety
To insure Safety in chemical processing the following factors
should be taken into consideration:
1. Identification and assessment of hazards.
2. Control of hazards (containment of flammable, toxic materials)
3. Control of the process (to avoid dangerous situations).
4. Limit the loss of life, damage to equipment and environment
by proper Design, pressure relief, plant layout and provision
of fire fighting.
The hazards
(The potential to cause harm.)
1. Toxicity
2. Biological Hazard (Biohazard)
3. Flammability
4. Explosions
5. Source of ignition
6. Ionizing radiation
7. Pressure
8. Temperature deviations
9. Noise
1. Toxicity
• poisonous chemical
• Acute toxicity - victim becomes ill or injured
after “short exposure”
– sometimes just a few moments
• Chronic toxicity - effects of a toxicant on a
body over a long period, sometimes several
years
– Effects may not be noticed until the damage is too
far advanced to correct.
Measuring Toxicity: LD50
• Lethal Dose. 50% kill
• The dose which, when administered to test animals,
kills half of them.
• Usually refers to ingestion or injection
• Units are mg of toxicant per kg of body mass
• Correlating rat-doses to man-doses
– LD50 for a chemical ingested by rats is 8 mg/kg.
How much would each person in a group of 150
lb people need to ingest to have a 50% fatality
rate?
Measuring Toxicity
• Threshold Limit Value (TLV)
• The maximum concentration of a
toxicant or corrosive in air that is
known NOT to cause damage or
illness.
• Units are ppm (parts per million)
• Used to describe toxicity by
inhalation
Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
Information :
• Chemical Name and Formula
• Type of chemical:
• Physical data: density(specific gravity) g/ml,
formula weight, solubility, appearance, odor,
melting point, boiling point
• Toxicity info: LD50, TLV
• MSDS HCl.pdf
Biological Hazards
(Biohazards)
• Biohazard – biological substances that pose a threat to
the health of living organisms, primarily that of humans.
• This can include medical waste or samples of a
microorganism, virus or toxin (from a biological source)
that can affect human health. It can also include
substances harmful to other animals.
• The international symbol for biological hazard.
Biological Hazards
(Level of Biohazards)
• Biohazard Level 1: Bacteria and viruses including Bacillus subtilis, canine hepatitis,
Escherichia coli, varicella (chicken pox), as well as some cell cultures and non-
infectious bacteria. At this level precautions against the biohazardous materials in
question are minimal, most likely involving gloves and some sort of facial
protection.
• Biohazard Level 2: Bacteria and viruses that cause only mild disease to humans, or
are difficult to contract via aerosol in a lab setting, such as hepatitis A, B, and C,
influenza A, Lyme disease, salmonella, mumps, measles, scrapie, dengue fever.
"Routine diagnostic work with clinical specimens can be done safely at Biosafety
Level 2, using Biosafety Level 2 practices and procedures. Research work (including
co-cultivation, virus replication studies, or manipulations involving concentrated
virus) can be done in a BSL-2 (P2) facility, using BSL-3 practices and procedures.
Biological Hazards
(Biohazards)
• Biohazard Level 3: Bacteria and viruses that can cause severe to fatal disease in humans, but
for which vaccines or other treatments exist, such as anthrax, West Nile virus, Venezuelan
equine encephalitis, SARS virus, tuberculosis, typhus, Rift Valley fever, HIV, Rocky Mountain
spotted fever, yellow fever, and malaria. Among parasites Plasmodium falciparum, which
causes Malaria, and Trypanosoma cruzi, which causes trypanosomiasis, also come under this
level.
• Biohazard Level 4: Viruses and bacteria that cause severe to fatal disease in humans, and for
which vaccines or other treatments are not available, such as Bolivian and Argentine
hemorrhagic fevers, Marburg virus, Ebola virus, hantaviruses, Lassa fever virus, Crimean-
Congo hemorrhagic fever, and other hemorrhagic diseases. Variola virus (smallpox) is an agent
that is worked with at BSL-4 despite the existence of a vaccine. When dealing with biological
hazards at this level the use of a positive pressure personnel suit, with a segregated air supply,
is mandatory. The entrance and exit of a Level Four biolab will contain multiple showers, a
vacuum room, an ultraviolet light room, autonomous detection system, and other safety
precautions designed to destroy all traces of the biohazard. Multiple airlocks are employed
and are electronically secured to prevent both doors opening at the same time. All air and
water service going to and coming from a Biosafety Level 4 (P4) lab will undergo similar
decontamination procedures to eliminate the possibility of an accidental release.
Flammability
1. Flash point - the minimum temperature at which a liquid
gives off enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture. Flash-
points of many volatile materials are below normal ambient
temperature.
2. Autoignition temperature - temperature at which it will
ignite spontaneously in air without any external source of
ignition.
3. Flammability limits – the lowest and highest concentrations
in air, at normal pressure and temperature, at which a flame
will propagate through the mixture.
4. Flame traps (flame arresters) – fitted in vent lines of
equipment that contains flammable material to prevent the
propagation of flame through the vents.
Oxidizing agent
Flammable liquid
Explosive substance
Classes of Some Flammable Liquids
Common Name Flash Point (oF)
CLASS IA Ethyl Ether -49
CLASS IB Gasoline -45
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 21
Toluene 40
CLASS IC Xylene 81-115
Turpentine 95
PPT-014-02 17
Flammability Relationships
AUTO
CONCENTRATION OF FUEL
IGNITION
FLAMMABLE REGION
MIST
FLASH AIT
TEMPERATURE
POINT
Source of ignition
• Minimum Ignition Energy -Lowest amount of energy required for ignition -
- Dependent on:
• Temperature
• % of combustible in combustant
• Type of compound
Minimum Ignition Energy
Effects of Stoichiometry
Minimum Ignition Energies
FLAMMABLE MIN. IGNITION ENERGY mJ
CS2 0.009
H2 0.011
C2° 0.017
C2= 0.07
CH3OH 0.14
n- C6° 0.22
n-C7° 0.24
IPA 0.65
ACETONE 1.15
i-C8° 1.35
“FINE” SULPHUR DUST 1.0
“NORMAL” DUSTS >10.
COMMON IGNITION SOURCES BASIC CONTROLS
Fire or Flames:
– Furnaces and Boilers Spacing & Layout
– Flares Spacing & Layout
– Welding Work Procedures
– Sparks from Tools Work Procedures
– Spread from other Areas Sewer Design, Diking,
Weed Control,
Housekeeping
– Matches and Lighters Procedures
COMMON IGNITION SOURCES BASIC CONTROLS
Hot Surfaces:
– Hot Pipes and Equipment Spacing
(>600 oF)
– Automotive Equipment Procedures
COMMON IGNITION SOURCES BASIC CONTROLS
Electrical:
– Sparks from Switches Area Classification
& Motors
– Static Grounding, Inerting,
Relaxation
– Lightning Geometry, snuffing
– Hand Held Electric Equipment Procedures
Flammability Diagram for the System Methane-Oxygen-
Nitrogen
at Atmospheric Pressure and 26oC
Explosions
• Detonation – explosion (chemical reaction) with shock wave greater than
speed of sound
• Deflagration – explosion (chemical reaction) with shock wave less than
speed of sound
• Confined explosion – an explosion occurring within a vessel or a building.
Usually results in injury to the building inhabitants and extensive damage.
• Unconfined explosion – an explosion occurring in the open. Usually
results from spill of a flammable gas spill. These explosions are rarer than
confined since dilution occurs.
• BLEVE – Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion – when liquid is at a
temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. Vessel ruptures –
flammable liquid flashes and results in a fire/explosion
• Dust Explosions - This explosion results from the rapid combustion of fine
solid particles. Many solid materials become very flammable when
reduced to a fine powder.
Ionizing radiation
• Radiation emitted by radioactive materials
• See hse.gov.uk/pubns
Pressure
• Over-pressure – pressure exceeding the
system design pressure ( a serious hazard)
• Pressure relief device are fitted to pressure
vessel/piping so that potential over-pressure
is relieved in a controlled manner.
Pressure
3 basically different types of relief device are commonly
used:
• Directly actuated valves – weight or spring-loaded
valves that open at a predetermined pressure, and
which normally close after the pressure has been
relieved.
• Indirectly actuated valves – pneumatically or
electrically operated valves, which are activated by
pressure sensing instruments.
• Bursting disc – thin disc of material that are designed
and manufactured to fail at a predetermined pressure,
giving a full bore opening for flow.
Pressure
Vent piping
• In designing relief venting system, it is important to
ensure that flammable or toxic gases are vented to a
safe location.
• Vent at sufficient height to ensure that the gasses are
dispersed without creating hazard.
• Provide a scrubber to absorb and “kill” the material;
eg. Caustic scrubbers for chlorine and HCl acid gasses.
• Flammable material- vented at frequent interval; eg.
Some refinery operation – flare stacks are used.
• For complete protection – venting system must be
capable of venting at the same rate as the vapor is
being generated.
Pressure
Under-pressure (vacuum)
• A vessel must be protected against the hazard
of under- and over – pressure.
• Under-pressure – vacuum in the inside and
atmospheric pressure on the outside.
• Slight drop in pressure below atmospheric
pressure – collapse a storage tank.
Temperature deviation
In the design of processes where high temperatures are
hazards, protection against high temperature is provided
by:
1. Provision of high-temperature alarm and interlock to
shut down reactor feeds, or heating system, if the
temperature exceeded critical limit.
2. Provision of emergency cooling system for reactors,
where heat continues to be generated after shut-
down
3. Structural design of equipment to withstand the
worst possible temperature excursion.
4. Selection of intrinsically safe heating for hazardous
materials.
Noise
• Excessive noise- hazard to health and safety
• Long exposure to high noise level – can cause
permanent hearing damage.
• Lower level noise – a distraction and fatigue.
Common Sounds may be louder than
you think…
Loss Prevention
• Loss represents the financial loss associated with
an accident (includes cost of repairing and
replacing the damaged facilities, taking care of all
damage claim, loss of earnings from lost
production during repair period and any
associated lost sales opportunities.
1. Hazard and operability (HAZOP)
2. Fault-tree analysis (FTA)
3. Failure mode-and-effect analysis (FMEA)
4. Safety indexes
5. Safety Audit
HAZOP study
• A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a
structured and systematic examination of a
planned or existing process operation in order
to identify and evaluate problems.
HAZOP – Basic principles
Example: The figure shows a chlorine vaporizer, supplies chlorine
at 2 bar to a chlorination reactor. The vaporizer is heated by
condensing steam.
HAZOP (Example)
• Consider steam supply line and associated control
instrumentation. The designer intention – steam
shall be supplied at a pressure and flow rate to
match the required chlorine demand.
HAZOP (Example)
Apply guide word : NO
• Possible deviation – no steam flow
• Possible cause- blockage, valve failure (mechanical or power), failure of
steam supply (fracture of main, boiler shut down).
• Consequences – the main consequences is loss of chlorine flow to the
chlorination reactor. The effect of this on the reactor operation would
have to be considered. This would be brought out in the operability study
on the reactor; it would be a possible cause of no chlorine.
HAZOP (Example)
Apply guide word : MORE
• Possible deviation – more steam flow.
• Possible cause- valve stuck open.
• Consequences – low level in vaporizer (this should activate the low level
alarm), higher rate of flow to the reactor.
• Hazard – depends on the possible effect of high flow on the reactor.
• Possible deviation- more steam pressure.
• Possible causes – failure of pressure-regulating valves.
• Consequences- increase in vaporization rate. Need to consider the
consequences of the heating coil reaching the maximum possible steam
system pressure.
• Hazard – rupture of lines, effect of sudden increase in chlorine flow on
reactor.
Environment protection
• Environmental regulations
– http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%203/Act%20127.pdf (Environmental Quality Act 1974)
– http://www.cidb.gov.my/cidbv4/images/pdf/Comp_Envi_Acts.pdf
– http://water.gov.my/malaysian-laws-aamp-regulations-resource-centre-447
• Development of a Pollution Control System
– involves an engineering evaluation of several factors
which consists of complete system;
• investigation on pollution source,
• determining the properties of the pollution emissions,
• design of collection and transfer systems,
• selection of control device, and
• dispersion of the exhaust to meet applicable regulations.
Environment protection (cont.)
• Air Pollution Abatement
• Particulate Removal (Figure 1)
• Noxious Gas Removal
• Water Pollution Abatement
– Physical treatment
– Chemical treatment
– Biological treatment
• Solid Waste Disposal
– Recycling and Chemical conversion
– Incineration
– Pyrolysis
– Landfill
• Thermal Pollution Control
• Noise Control
Plant Location
1. Raw materials availability
2. Markets
3. Energy availability
4. Climate
5. Transportation facilities
6. Water supply
7. Waste disposal
8. Labor supply
9. Taxation and legal restrictions
10. Site characteristics
11. Flood and fire protection
12. Community factors
Plant Layout
Proper layout will include arrangement of processing areas, storage
areas and handling areas in efficient coordination and include;
1. New site development or addition to previously developed site
2. Type and quantity of products to be produced
3. Type of process and product control
4. Operational convenience and accessibility
5. Economic distribution of utilities and services
6. Type of building required and building code requirements
7. Health and safety considerations
8. Waste disposal requirements
9. Auxiliary equipment
10. Space available and space required
11. Road and railroads
12. Possible future expansion
Youtube link to:
• Plant Layout
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ekg24t6oo5M&list=RDCM
UCjhAvryxxGVKx16fsJ92Z_A&start_radio=1&rv=ekg24t6oo5M&
t=791
• How to prepare an Equipment Layout | Considerations |
Safety Distances
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTANyEYM1cg&list=RDCM
UCjhAvryxxGVKx16fsJ92Z_A&index=3
Plant Operation and Control
• Instrumentation
• Maintenance
• Utilities
• Structural design
• Storage
• Material Handling
