THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

This PDF is available at http://nap.edu/26322 SHARE

   

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete

Pavement (2021)

DETAILS

134 pages | 8.5 x 11 | PDF

ISBN 978-0-309-67417-1 | DOI 10.17226/26322

CONTRIBUTORS

GET THIS BOOK Jeff Stempihar, Jose Medina, Thomas Van Dam, Linda Pierce, James Bruinsma, Kurt
Smith, David Peshkin; Airport Cooperative Research Program; Transportation
Research Board; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

FIND RELATED TITLES

SUGGESTED CITATION

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2021. Rapid Slab

Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26322.


Visit the National Academies Press at NAP.edu and login or register to get:

– Access to free PDF downloads of thousands of scientific reports

– 10% off the price of print titles
– Email or social media notifications of new titles related to your interests
– Special offers and discounts


Distribution, posting, or copying of this PDF is strictly prohibited without written permission of the National Academies Press.
(Request Permission) Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences.

Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 234

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement
of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Jeff Stempihar
Jose Medina
Thomas Van Dam
Linda Pierce
Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.
Reno, NV

James Bruinsma
Kurt Smith
David Peshkin
Applied Pavement Technology, Inc.
Urbana, IL

Subscriber Categories
Aviation • Design • Pavements

Research sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration

2021

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 234

Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in transpor- Project 09-18
tation of people and goods and in regional, national, and international ISSN 2572-3731 (Print)
commerce. They are where the nation’s aviation system connects with ISSN 2572-374X (Online)
other modes of transportation and where federal responsibility for man- ISBN 978-0-309-67417-1
aging and regulating air traffic operations intersects with the role of state Library of Congress Control Number 2021942922
and local governments that own and operate most airports. Research is
© 2021 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
necessary to solve common operating problems, to adapt appropriate new
technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into the
airport industry. The Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP)
serves as one of the principal means by which the airport industry can COPYRIGHT INFORMATION
develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it. Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining
The need for ACRP was identified in TRB Special Report 272: Airport written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously
Research Needs: Cooperative Solutions in 2003, based on a study spon- published or copyrighted material used herein.
sored by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). ACRP carries out Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in
applied research on problems that are shared by airport operating agen- this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with
cies and not being adequately addressed by existing federal research pro- the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA,
grams. ACRP is modeled after the successful National Cooperative High- FHWA, FTA, GHSA, NHTSA, or TDC endorsement of a particular product, method, or
practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational
way Research Program (NCHRP) and Transit Cooperative Research and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted
Program (TCRP). ACRP undertakes research and other technical activi- or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.
ties in various airport subject areas, including design, construction, legal,
maintenance, operations, safety, policy, planning, human resources, and
administration. ACRP provides a forum where airport operators can
cooperatively address common operational problems. NOTICE
ACRP was authorized in December 2003 as part of the Vision 100— The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication
Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The primary participants in according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board
and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
the ACRP are (1) an independent governing board, the ACRP Oversight
Committee (AOC), appointed by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the
Transportation with representation from airport operating agencies, other researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transporta-
tion Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or
stakeholders, and relevant industry organizations such as the Airports the program sponsors.
Council International-North America (ACI-NA), the American Associa-
The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
tion of Airport Executives (AAAE), the National Association of State
Medicine; and the sponsors of the Airport Cooperative Research Program do not endorse
Aviation Officials (NASAO), Airlines for America (A4A), and the Airport products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names or logos appear herein solely
Consultants Council (ACC) as vital links to the airport community; (2) because they are considered essential to the object of the report.
TRB as program manager and secretariat for the governing board; and (3)
the FAA as program sponsor. In October 2005, the FAA executed a contract
with the National Academy of Sciences formally initiating the program.
ACRP benefits from the cooperation and participation of airport
professionals, air carriers, shippers, state and local government officials,
equipment and service suppliers, other airport users, and research organi-
zations. Each of these participants has different interests and responsibili-
ties, and each is an integral part of this cooperative research effort.
Research problem statements for ACRP are solicited periodically but
may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility
of the AOC to formulate the research program by identifying the highest
priority projects and defining funding levels and expected products.
Once selected, each ACRP project is assigned to an expert panel
appointed by TRB. Panels include experienced practitioners and
research specialists; heavy emphasis is placed on including airport
professionals, the intended users of the research products. The panels
prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors,
and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the
project. The process for developing research problem statements and Published research reports of the
selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing coop-
AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
erative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, ACRP
project panels serve voluntarily without compensation. are available from
Primary emphasis is placed on disseminating ACRP results to the Transportation Research Board
intended users of the research: airport operating agencies, service pro- Business Office
500 Fifth Street, NW
viders, and academic institutions. ACRP produces a series of research Washington, DC 20001
reports for use by airport operators, local agencies, the FAA, and other
interested parties; industry associations may arrange for workshops, and can be ordered through the Internet by going to
training aids, field visits, webinars, and other activities to ensure that https://www.mytrb.org/MyTRB/Store/default.aspx
results are implemented by airport industry practitioners. Printed in the United States of America

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, non-
governmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for
outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the
practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering.
Dr. John L. Anderson is president.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions
to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent,
objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions.
The National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase
public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org.

The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major programs of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation improvements and innovation through
trusted, timely, impartial, and evidence-based information exchange, research, and advice regarding all modes of transportation. The
Board’s varied activities annually engage about 8,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from
the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by
state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation,
and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation.

Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

CRP STAFF FOR ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 234

Christopher J. Hedges, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Lori L. Sundstrom, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Marci A. Greenberger, Manager, Airport Cooperative Research Program
Brittany Summerlin-Azeez, Program Coordinator
Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications
Janet M. McNaughton, Senior Editor

ACRP PROJECT 09-18 PANEL

Field of Maintenance
Karen A. Scott, Inspired Strategies LLC, Louisville, KY (Chair)
Diane Hofer, Olsson, Lincoln, NE
Matthew Johnson, City of Scottsdale—Scottsdale Airport, Scottsdale, AZ
Angel E. Ramos, AECOM, Phoenix, AZ
Quintin B. Watkins, Michael Baker International, Peachtree Corners, GA
Shenghua Wu, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL
Mike Rottinghaus, FAA Liaison
Christopher J. Oswald, Airports Council International–North America Liaison

AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported herein was performed under ACRP Project 09-18 by Nichols Consulting
Engineers, Chtd. (NCE), with assistance from Applied Pavement Technology, Inc., C&S Engineers, Inc.
(C&S), and Pavement Engineering and Research Consultants, Inc. (PERC). NCE was the prime contractor
for this study. The authors acknowledge Mark B. Snyder of PERC and Lance McIntosh of C&S for their
guidance throughout this project, technical input, and thorough review of this document. The authors
greatly appreciate the review efforts of and feedback from the members of the ACRP Project 09-18 Panel.
Individuals with the following organizations completed an online survey that provided a general under-
standing of industry trends in current rapid slab repair and replacement (RSRR) practices:
• Airport International Group,
• Airports Authority of India,
• Chandler Municipal Airport,
• City of San Antonio Aviation Department,
• Columbus Regional Airport Authority,
• Denver International Airport,
• Duluth International Airport,
• Golden Triangle Regional Airport,
• Hatch Corporation,
• Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport,
• Los Angeles World Airports,

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (Continued)

• McFarland Johnson, Inc.,
• Michael Baker International,
• National University of Singapore,
• Ogden–Hinckley Airport,
• Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport,
• Port Authority of New York and New Jersey,
• Salt Lake City International Airport,
• Seattle–Tacoma International Airport,
• T-O Engineers, and
• Venango Regional Airport.
Individuals at the following airport agencies (and/or their engineering consultants) participated in
case example interviews or accommodated field visits during construction projects, which allowed
documentation of RSRR practices:
• Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (C&S Engineers),
• Gerald R. Ford International Airport (C&S Engineers),
• Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport (Michael Baker International),
• John Glenn Columbus International Airport,
• Los Angeles International Airport,
• Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport (HNTB Corporation),
• McCarran International Airport,
• Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport,
• Raleigh–Durham International Airport [Jacobs Engineering Group Inc (CH2M)],
• San Francisco International Airport,
• Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, and
• Vancouver International Airport (Hatch Corporation and Associated Engineering).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

FOREWORD

By Marci A. Greenberger
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board

Whether in a commercial service or general aviation airport, the closure of a critical

pavement asset has a significant impact on operations, especially if that asset is the runway
at a single-runway airport. ACRP Research Report 234: Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement
of Airfield Concrete Pavement will assist airport personnel in planning, designing, and con-
structing appropriate rapid slab repair and replacement (RSRR) activities to cost-effectively
minimize the impact of pavement-related closures. Airports can benefit from guidance
on these activities, since their execution can differ from traditional pavement repair and
replacement.

The cost and inconvenience of closing critical airfield pavement for repair can be significant.
Airports want to minimize closures for repair and rehabilitation projects and, therefore, are
increasing the use of rapid repair and replacement of airfield concrete pavement slabs. This
report provides updated guidance based on recent advancements in materials and procedures
for rapid repair of airfield concrete pavement.
A team led by Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd., was selected to develop guidance
to help airports determine whether RSRR activities are appropriate for replacement and
rehabilitation of concrete slabs and guide them through the planning, design, and con-
struction phases. The developed guidance is based on surveys, interviews, and site visits
at air­ports engaged in RSRR activities and complements information provided in FAA
Advisory Circular 150/5370-16, Rapid Construction of Rigid (Portland Cement Concrete)
Airfield Pavements.
This guidance will be useful to airport engineering and maintenance staff and engineering
consultants at airports of all sizes and will help them select and execute appropriate RSRR
activities.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

CONTENTS

1 Summary
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Purpose
3 Key Definitions
5 Current Industry Trends
6 Overview
7 Chapter 2 Planning
7 Identify Need for and Extent of Partial- and Full-Depth Repair Work
8 Consider Conventional Versus Rapid Construction
11 Decide Whether Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Is Necessary
13 Coordinate with Stakeholders
14 Select Project Delivery Method
16 Identify Design Requirements
19 Chapter 3 Partial-Depth Repair
19 Introduction to Partial-Depth Repair
19 Candidate Distresses and Conditions
21 Material Selection
23 Design
24 Construction
31 Partial-Depth Repair Assessment Tool
38 Chapter 4 Full-Depth Repair
38 Introduction to Full-Depth Repair
40 Candidate Distresses and Conditions
41 Material Selection
44 Design
46 Construction
55 Full-Depth Repair Assessment Tool
62 Chapter 5 Conclusions
65 Abbreviations
67 References
69 Appendix A Airport Case Examples
92 Appendix B Examples of Rapid Slab Repair
and Replacement Projects

Note: Photographs, figures, and tables in this report may have been converted from color to grayscale for printing.
The electronic version of the report (posted on the web at www.trb.org) retains the color versions.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

SUMMARY

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement

of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Proper maintenance and repair of concrete airfield pavements are critical to their
longevity and ability to safely support airport operations over their design life. However,
these activities can be costly and operationally disruptive, as they require closure of the
pavement facility. To minimize the construction impacts, airports of all sizes are relying
on rapid slab repair and replacement (RSRR) activities that include partial- and full-depth
repairs (both partial- and full-slab replacements). Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5370-16, Rapid Construction of Rigid (Portland Cement Concrete)
Airfield Pavements (FAA 2007), addresses many key components and considerations for
accelerated concrete construction but stops short of providing sufficient details or specific
methods to aid airport personnel or consulting engineers in making informed decisions.
Furthermore, AC 150/5370-16 focuses on larger areas of concrete replacement and provides
only limited information on individual slab replacement or smaller repairs. In addition,
FAA Item P-501, “Portland Cement Concrete Pavement” in Standard Specifications for
Construction of Airports (AC 150/5370-10H) (FAA 2018), does not provide specifications
for construction featuring early-strength concrete or prepackaged repair materials used
in RSRR projects.
Major challenges to completing RSRR include stakeholder coordination, airfield closures,
high construction costs, and lack of experience with early-strength concrete repair materials.
While the necessary level of stakeholder coordination regarding airfield closures varies
by airport size and function, high costs and lack of experience with these types of repairs are
a universal challenge. Large hub airports have good experience with RSRR, and some have
advanced programs in place. Importantly, elements of their RSRR programs and practices
are easily applied by smaller airports (e.g., nonhub primary and general aviation) that are
less likely to have RSRR experience.
This guidebook was developed to assist airport personnel and engineering consultants
in selecting and executing RSRR projects, and it provides relevant information for airport
maintenance personnel performing RSRR work. It is based on a review of the literature,
an online survey of airports, interviews with airport personnel and engineering consultants
with RSRR experience, and site visits to observe and document important aspects of RSRR
construction. Furthermore, this guidebook covers the overall RSRR process, including plan-
ning, design, and construction. It builds on information provided in FAA AC 150/5370-16
(FAA 2007) and other relevant documents considered to represent current state-of-the-
practice for RSRR.
Ten case examples of RSRR practice and programs at airports across the country along
with key takeaways from observing five RSRR construction projects are provided to illus-
trate the guidance provided herein. Key technical documents are cited throughout the
guidebook to provide additional resources and technical information.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Background
Proper maintenance and repair of concrete airfield pavements is critical to the longevity of
these pavements and their ability to safely support airport operations over their design life.
However, these activities can be costly and operationally disruptive, as they require closure of
the pavement facility. To minimize the cost to airline operators and passengers, multirunway
airfields with spare capacity can shift traffic to other runways to permit required closures for
these activities. Similarly, airports with multiple taxiways or large aprons can sometimes reroute
traffic or temporarily shift aircraft parking, respectively. However, these alternatives can still
result in delays. At smaller, single-runway airfields or those operating at or near capacity,
shutting down a runway (or an entire taxiway/apron) for an extended period to conduct repairs
is simply not an option. To minimize construction impacts, airports of all sizes rely on rapid slab
repair and replacement (RSRR) activities (Figure 1) done on an accelerated construction time
frame, often with overnight construction windows. In such circumstances, the planning and
design phases become important components in delivering an accelerated product.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5370-16, Rapid Con-
struction of Rigid (Portland Cement Concrete) Airfield Pavements (FAA 2007), addresses many
key components and considerations for accelerated concrete construction but stops short of
providing sufficient details or specific methods to aid airport personnel or consulting engineers
in making informed decisions. Furthermore, AC 150/5370-16 focuses on larger areas of concrete
replacement and provides only limited information on replacement of an individual slab
or smaller repairs. In addition, FAA Item P-501, “Portland Cement Concrete Pavement” in
Standard Specifications for Construction of Airports (AC 150/5370-10H) (FAA 2018), does
not provide specifications for early-strength concrete (ESC)—also known as rapid-strength,
rapid-set, or fast-track repair materials—needed for RSRR projects.
An online survey was conducted to determine current trends with RSRR. Twenty-one
individuals responded to the survey, representing 10 large hub, three medium hub, one small
hub, four nonhub primary, and three general aviation airports. The survey results indicated
the following:
• These airports possess a wide range of experience, from planning to construction. Respondents
that reported no previous RSRR experience represented either nonhub primary or general
aviation airports.
• Stakeholder coordination and lack of skilled contractors and workforce are primary challenges.
While the level of stakeholder coordination varies across airports (by size and function), the
lack of skilled contractors and workforce is a universal challenge.
• Airport satisfaction with RSRR performance is mixed, with shorter-than-expected service
life cited as the main reason for dissatisfaction.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Introduction  3

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 1.   Example of rapid slab replacement on an airfield: (a) slab removal (saw cut into pieces)
and (b) concrete finishing.

The airport responses indicated that although RSRR projects are common, guidance would
be welcomed to improve performance.

Purpose
The purpose of this guidebook is to assist airport personnel and engineering consultants in
selecting and executing RSRR projects and to provide relevant information for airport main-
tenance personnel performing RSRR work. It covers the overall RSRR process (i.e., planning,
procurement/project delivery, design, and construction) with detailed emphasis on construction
considerations, materials, specifications, and practices that build on information provided in
FAA AC 150/5370-16, Rapid Construction of Rigid (Portland Cement Concrete) Airfield Pavements
(FAA 2007). This guidebook provides references to additional technical resources for ESC and
patching materials needed for RSRR. The appendices provide case examples of RSRR programs
at airports across the country along with key takeaways from RSRR construction projects that
illustrate the guidance provided herein.

Key Definitions
The following terms are relevant to describing RSRR and are used throughout this report:
• Rapid construction: Construction conducted under an accelerated schedule because of
high demand and/or limited alternate routes for aircraft operations. Work is generally done
over a short construction window during specified hours (i.e., nighttime, off-peak hours,
weekend). The following definitions of closure are used throughout this report:
– Overnight closure (<8 hours): Intended for critical areas of airfield pavement that are
repaired during a short closure window (e.g., a nighttime closure that must be reopened to
aircraft traffic the following morning),
– Full-day closure (8–24 hours): Intended for critical areas of pavement that have some
flexibility in timing for opening to traffic, and
– Weekend closure (24–54 hours): Intended for critical or noncritical areas of pavement
that can be closed over an entire weekend.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

4   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

• Partial-depth repair (PDR): Removal of small areas of damaged pavement limited to the
upper half of the thickness of the concrete slab and replacement with a cementitious or poly-
meric repair material. PDR is a common practice for maintaining and preserving concrete
pavements. When durable repair materials and proper construction techniques are selected,
PDR can be a cost-effective, long-term solution for concrete airfield pavement needs. Figure 2
shows an example of PDR installation.
• Full-depth repair (FDR): Full-depth removal and replacement of a portion of a slab or an
entire slab by using either cast-in-place concrete or precast concrete. FDRs are predominantly
constructed with cast-in-place ESC. Precast concrete slabs have been used for slab replace-
ment to a limited extent on airfields in the United States and Canada. Figure 3 shows an
example of the more common cast-in-place FDR.
• Emergency work: Immediate PDR or FDR required to repair or replace deteriorated or
damaged concrete that poses an imminent safety hazard to operating aircraft, such as by pro-
ducing foreign object debris (FOD) or by affecting directional control of aircraft, or prevents
use of the affected airfield pavement.
• Nonemergency work: PDR or FDR required for routine pavement maintenance or preser-
vation. The distressed or deteriorated concrete pavement does not pose an imminent safety
hazard to operating aircraft—that is, it does not produce FOD and does not affect directional
control of aircraft—but may or may not prevent the use of the affected airfield pavement.
• Early-strength concrete (ESC): Concrete with early strength gain characteristics, also known
as rapid-strength, rapid-set, or fast-track concrete. ESC can be categorized as follows:
– Very high-early-strength (VHES) concrete: Concrete mixture with an opening-to-traffic
time of 4 hours or less, typically produced with ASTM C1600 cements;
– High-early-strength (HES) concrete: Concrete mixture with an opening-to-traffic time
of 8 to 20 hours; and

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 2.   Example of partial-depth repair on an airfield (damaged electrical conduit; not a dowel bar):
(a) prepared repair area and (b) installed repair material.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Introduction  5

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 3.   Example of cast-in-place full-depth repair on an airfield: (a) repair area ready for concrete placement
and (b) concrete finishing.

– Moderate-early-strength (MES) concrete: Concrete mixture with an opening-to-traffic

time of 20 to 36 hours.
• Design–bid–build: Project delivery method in which design documents are prepared in
advance, competitively bid, and the bidder with the lowest price is typically awarded the
contract to carry out the work.
• Job-order contract: Fixed-price contract with established unit prices for work items listed
in the scope, a specified term (typically multiyear), and a not-to-exceed contract value. This
type of contract is competitively bid and can have multiple contractors.

Current Industry Trends

Survey responses from individuals affiliated with 21 airports revealed the following industry
trends regarding PDR and FDR that helped shape this report:
• Most PDRs and FDRs are performed on aprons, followed by taxiways and runways.
• Nearly all PDRs and FDRs are done under nonemergency conditions and are typically
performed by contractors. Nonemergency work is delivered under a variety of contracting
mechanisms. Traditional design–bid–build, job-order contracting, and solicited quotes are
the most common methods.
• Fewer than half of the respondents use PDR or FDR in emergency conditions. Emergency
work is generally delivered by soliciting quotes or through job-order contracting. Other
delivery methods mentioned include work done by airport personnel, change order to
existing contract, and through annual maintenance contracts.
• Runway PDRs and FDRs are most often constructed during overnight or weekend closures
on airports with multiple runways. Most work at runway intersections is completed over-
night. Aprons have the lowest overnight closure requirements for PDRs or FDRs.
• Prepackaged VHES or HES cementitious materials are the most frequently used material
for PDR.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

6   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

• VHES or HES mixtures are often used for FDR. Two respondents reported using precast
slabs. The opening times for FDRs are commonly determined through flexural or compres-
sive strength testing.
• In general, design plans and specifications are prepared for nonemergency work. For emer-
gency work, some airports provide specifications and standard details, and a few airports
follow contractor recommendations.

Overview
The remainder of this report is organized as follows:
• Chapter 2 discusses RSRR planning, including identifying the need for PDR and FDR,
differences between conventional and rapid construction, the RSRR decision process, stake-
holder coordination, project delivery approach, and project design needs.
• Chapter 3 provides detailed guidance for PDR.
• Chapter 4 provides detailed guidance for FDR.
• Chapter 5 provides conclusions and suggestions for future work.

Profiles of RSRR programs at airports, along with case examples of PDR and FDR construc-
tion, are provided in Appendix A and Appendix B, respectively.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

CHAPTER 2

Planning

Thorough planning is essential for the success of any RSRR project. This process begins
by identifying an individual or team (depending on project size) to oversee the planning
process. There are six key steps in a typical planning sequence for RSRR projects (Figure 4).
The level of effort within each step will vary from airport to airport according to the airport
size, type, function, and available resources; experience with RSRR; and the quantity and
location of RSRR work. For example, Steps 2 and 3 are more applicable to airports that do
not regularly perform or have not performed RSRR, whereas those two steps may be skipped
by airports that have extensive RSRR experience or established programs. While airports
will develop individualized approaches to planning, the general planning sequence remains
the same.

Identify Need for and Extent of Partial-

and Full-Depth Repair Work
Selecting applicable and effective maintenance treatments depends on factors such as exist-
ing distress, facility type, climate conditions, available materials, and access to experienced
personnel to conduct the work. The steps are
1. Conduct a detailed pavement assessment to identify concrete pavement distresses (type,
extent, and severity).
2. Determine whether PDR or FDR is the proper repair strategy for the observed distresses.
3. Document the size and location of proposed PDRs and FDRs.
One or more of the following methods (listed in order of increasing amount of inspection
detail and required resources) may be used to determine whether concrete slabs need repair or
replacement (either PDR or FDR):
• Visual pavement inspections carried out by airport personnel on a regular basis:
– For Part 139 airports, guidance is provided in FAA AC 150/5200-18C, Airport Safety
Self-Inspection (FAA 2004).
– For non–Part 139 airports, pavement-related inspection guidance listed in FAA AC 150/
5200-18C can be useful, albeit on a less frequent inspection schedule.
• Pavement surface evaluation and rating of specific pavement areas per FAA AC 150/
5320-17A, Airfield Pavement Surface Evaluation and Rating Manuals (FAA 2014a). Addi-
tionally, FAA AC 150/5380-6C, Guidelines and Procedures for Maintenance of Airport Pave-
ments (FAA 2014b) provides guidance on the inspection of pavements and identification of
concrete pavement distresses.
• Detailed inspection of pavement condition, carried out according to ASTM D5340,
“Standard Test Method for Airport Pavement Condition Index Surveys.” This method must

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

8   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 4.   Planning sequence.

be expanded to the entire pavement area of interest to determine locations and quantities of
PDRs and FDRs. If data are being collected specifically for an RSRR project, the pavement
condition index (PCI) does not need to be calculated, as the location and extent of distress
are more important. Detailed distress mapping, which can often incorporate geographic
information system data for locating and tracking repairs, is suggested.
• Information extracted from an Airport Pavement Management Program populated with
data collected according to ASTM D5340. These programs, however, are often based on statis-
tical analysis of sample units, which may not accurately identify the actual repair quantities.
Following are examples of approaches for determining the need for PDR and FDR:
• John Glenn Columbus International Airport: A pavement condition assessment is per-
formed on an annual basis and used to determine PDR quantities. The airport operations
group determines whether an emergency repair is warranted.
• Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport: Visual pavement inspections are performed
on a regular basis, and the airport has established thresholds for cracking and spalling dis-
tresses that trigger repair strategies.
• McCarran International Airport (Las Vegas): Weekly inspections are performed to identify
locations that require PDR and FDR. If areas that need PDR are identified, they are pro-
grammed for repair the following week. Locations that warrant FDR or other major repairs are
discussed with FAA on a weekly basis to program the repairs. One highlight of the program
is that the cause of failure is investigated to identify the correct repair strategy and minimize
the chance of repeat failures.
• Raleigh–Durham International Airport: A pavement management system is used to track
distresses, the PCI, and deflection measurements to evaluate structural capacity. Airport
personnel use the pavement management data to track performance and identify areas for
repair. Pavement condition surveys are conducted on one-third of the pavements each year.
• Seattle–Tacoma International Airport: One-third of the airfield pavement assets (e.g., runways,
taxiways, taxilanes, and aprons) are inspected each year. These data are integrated into a
5-year pavement management program that is used to prioritize pavement work.

Consider Conventional Versus Rapid Construction

The selection of the construction technique to be used for PDR and FDR application is
driven mainly by the location of work on the airfield, the impact on airport operations, and the
allowable closure time. Rapid construction is not always necessary and, before deciding on a
construction technique, it is essential to

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Planning  9

1. Develop a basic understanding of the differences between conventional and rapid PDR and
FDR construction and
2. Understand the challenges associated with rapid PDR and FDR construction.
Considerations for selecting conventional or rapid construction techniques include overall
approaches, construction duration, and typical materials, among others.

Construction Approaches
Conventional construction relies on common construction techniques and equipment,
standard work hours, and readily available materials. Equipment and materials (e.g., concrete
mixtures) are widely available because they are used on local and regional construction projects
(nonairport as well as airport projects). In comparison, rapid construction requires accelerated
techniques, constrained work periods, backup equipment, and, often, concrete mixtures or
repair products with early strength gain characteristics. Table 1 summarizes typical features
of conventional and rapid construction approaches.

Duration of Construction
The duration of construction varies for PDR and FDR but is typically governed by the time
required for the conventional portland cement–based materials to achieve the required strength
for opening to traffic (i.e., 5 to 7 days or more).
Rapid construction is generally carried out in a short time window during specified hours
(nighttime, off-peak hours, weekend, or multiday/multiweek closures). Some closures for emer-
gency PDR may be less than 2 hours, depending on the location of the pavement (e.g., runway).
See the definitions provided in Chapter 1.

Table 1.   Typical features of conventional and rapid slab repair and
replacement construction.

Feature Conventional Construction Rapid Construction

Materials, Contractors are familiar with materials and Initial learning curve, as contractors may not be
techniques, techniques. familiar with early-strength concrete materials and
and techniques. Fewer contractors have the necessary
equipment experience.

Materials and equipment are readily Requires specialty or less-common concrete

available. mixtures and repair materials.

Concrete mixtures require several days to Concrete mixtures can gain sufficient strength to
gain required strength for opening. open in less than a day or even within a few hours
(shorter closures).

Operational Larger impact on aircraft operations Reduced impact on aircraft operations (depending
impact (depending on airfield location). on airfield location).

Final Tends to have better workmanship and Workmanship and final product quality can suffer
product final product. as a result of accelerated schedule.

Cost Costs in line with industry standards for Often higher costs (as compared with conventional
similar work. construction).

Service life Service life in line with industry standards Service life is often shorter (as compared with
for similar work. conventional construction).

Source: Peshkin et al. (2006), FAA (2007), Priddy et al. (2013), Priddy (2015), and data collected during this project.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

10   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Typical Materials
Although specific materials are not selected during the planning process, it is important to
have a general understanding of the common material types for airfield PDR and FDR. Table 2
summa­rizes typical materials used for PDR and FDR along with typical timing for opening
to traffic.
For material selection, Smith et al. (2014, p. 115) recommend “to use the least exotic (i.e.,
most conventional) material that will meet the opening [to traffic] requirements.” It is important
to consider the candidate material types used for PDR and FDR when planning the allowable
closure times, especially if there is flexibility in closure times. If closure times for specific airfield
pavements are already established (i.e., not flexible), PDR and FDR materials should be selected
that achieve specified strengths within the allowable time constraints, including the time for
construction.

Considerations
Proper remediation of poor subgrade may not be feasible during rapid construction, depending
on the duration of closure (i.e., overnight, full-day, or weekend closures). The extent of required
subgrade remediation should be considered when the duration of closure and need for rapid
construction are being evaluated.
Other considerations that typically drive the decision to use rapid construction include
• Construction impact: Operational impacts (associated with the work location) almost always
drive the decision to use rapid construction.
• Cost: The costs can be considerably higher than conventional construction costs because
of accelerated schedules and the use of specialty materials.
• Performance: Increased risk of premature failure or shortened service life is inherent in rapid
construction.
Table 3 expands on these points. The order of importance varies depending on the size of the
airport. For example, construction impact is likely the most important factor for airports with

Table 2.   Typical features of conventional and rapid slab repair and
replacement construction.

Timing of Typical
Construction RSRR Return to Service
Approach Type Typical Materials After Installation

Conventional PDR Conventional concrete or mortar materials. ≥3 days

FDR Conventional concrete (e.g., P-501 or local concrete ≥7 days

mixture, if permitted).

Rapid PDR Specialty VHES materials with cementitious or ≤4 hours

noncementitious binders. Typically, proprietary,
prepackaged materials with specific blending processes.

HES or MES portland cement–based concrete mixtures with 6–36 hours

an ASTM C494 accelerating admixture, a higher amount of
portland cement, or a combination of both.

FDR Commercially available ASTM C1600 VHES cements (critical ≤4 hours

pavement areas with very short closure windows).

HES or MES portland cement–based concrete mixtures with 6–36 hours

an ASTM C494 accelerating admixture, a higher amount of
portland cement, or a combination of both.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Planning  11

Table 3.   Considerations for rapid PDR and FDR construction.

Factor Impact

Construction Operational impact almost always drives the need for rapid PDR and FDR construction.
• Conventional construction methods and materials are not an option for hourly, overnight, and full-day
closures as these materials cannot achieve required strength (i.e., needed to support aircraft loads)
in these time frames.
• Weekend closures may permit the use of some aspects of conventional construction methods
(e.g., daytime construction) and materials (e.g., conventional concrete with accelerators).
• With proper planning, some pavement areas (e.g., aprons, taxiways with alternate routes, or runways
at multirunway airports) may be candidates for the use of conventional construction methods and
materials.

Cost Accelerated schedules and use of specialty materials result in higher construction costs.
• Seattle–Tacoma International Airport reports early-strength concrete can be up to 7 times more
expensive than conventional concrete.
• Vancouver International Airport reports the use of precast slab replacement for a pilot project was much
more expensive than conventional cast-in-place but was a feasible alternative due to time restrictions.

FAA AC 150/5370-16 (FAA 2007) lists the following factors related to increased cost:
• Requirement for standby equipment and operators.
• Increased contractor, inspection, and testing labor costs due to standard overtime and premiums
for night and weekend work.
• Lighting for night work.
Additional factors increasing costs include:
• Material costs for prepackaged materials used for PDR.
• Material costs for HES materials used for FDR.
• Added risk to contractor associated with accelerated construction.
• Direct costs to airport (i.e., overtime for operations and construction personnel).
• Larger workforce required.
Performance PDRs and FDRs constructed using conventional techniques and materials inherently have lower risks
of premature failure or shorter service life (Frentress and Harrington 2012, Hammons and Saeed 2010,
Peshkin et al. 2006, FAA 2007). In comparison, accelerated construction comes with increased risk
of premature failure and shorter service life.

Factors that can lead to shortened service life include:

• Poor workmanship.
• Lack of experience with early-strength materials (e.g., improper mixing, handling, installing, and curing
early-strength materials).
• Shrinkage associated with some early-strength materials.
• Nighttime construction.
• Rushed nature of rapid construction.
– Lack of contractor adherence to specifications.
– Relaxed enforcement of project specifications.
– Relaxed construction oversight.

significant commercial service. In comparison, cost may be more important to general aviation
airports with limited budgets.
Table 4 presents examples of service life reported by airports included in this study.

Decide Whether Rapid Slab Repair

and Replacement Is Necessary
Table 5 provides criteria to determine whether RSRR is necessary.
Once a selection has been made from Table 5, the flowchart presented in Figure 5 can be used
to determine how to move forward. Ultimately, the decision to utilize rapid construction for
PDR and FDR lies with each airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

12   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 4.   Reported service life for PDR and FDR.

Airport Performance Life

Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport • PDR: 5 years

McCarran International Airport • PDR: Several years; however, repairs get damaged
during rubber removal
• FDR: 3–5 years

Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport • PDR: 9 months to 3 years

• FDR: Performs well and repair life not a concern

Vancouver International Airport • FDR: >10 years

Table 5.   Criteria for deciding whether rapid slab repair and replacement is necessary.

Evaluation of
Need for RSRR Criteria Examples

Necessary • Emergency PDR at any location. • Main runway or taxiway, aircraft

• Work location (PDR or FDR) will significantly parking location on apron or at a
affect aircraft operations or airport capacity gate.
(alternate routes may or may not exist). • Single-runway airports.

Considered • Nonemergency PDR at noncritical locations. • Runway when multiple parallel

• Work location (PDR or FDR) may inconvenience runways exist.
users with minimal impact on aircraft operations • Secondary parallel taxiway;
or airport capacity (alternate routes exist). aircraft parking location on apron
or at a gate.
• Cargo apron.

Not necessary • Areas that can be closed to aircraft traffic for an • Aprons.
extended period with minimal to no disruption to • Runway when multiple parallel
operations (alternate routes exist). runways exist.
• Other noncritical concrete
pavements.

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 5.   Rapid construction decision flowchart.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Planning  13

Coordinate with Stakeholders

Regardless of the airport size and function, early engagement and continued coordination
with stakeholders is an important planning element. This was identified by numerous airports
surveyed during this project. Stakeholder coordination includes the following tasks:
• Identify stakeholders.
• Discuss project scope.
• Solicit input from stakeholders.
• Establish closure times and construction timing (i.e., preferred time of year or day of the week).

Identify Stakeholders
Stakeholders can be defined as groups or businesses on which the project will have an impact.
Stakeholders may need to provide resources (e.g., airport operations), adjust flight schedules
(e.g., airlines), or plan for impacts to business (e.g., tenants). Examples of stakeholders include,
but are not limited to, the following:
• FAA;
• Control tower and ground control;
• Airport operations, police, and aircraft rescue and fire fighting (ARFF);
• Airlines;
• Air cargo companies;
• Tenants (e.g., fixed-based operators, flight schools, private hangars, charter services);
• Ground services; and
• Air National Guard (or other military operations at a joint-use facility).

Discuss Project Scope

While all details may not be available until later in the planning and design process (if appli-
cable), it is important to inform stakeholders about the general project scope as soon as possible.
Examples of discussion items include
• Scope of work (e.g., PDR, FDR),
• Work areas and closure limits, and
• Duration and timing of work.

Information can be initially conveyed in written format (e.g., letter or memorandum) to

inform stakeholders about the upcoming project. However, as the planning and design process
advances, meetings outlining the proposed plans and approach may be a more effective way to
solicit and receive stakeholder input.

Establish Closure Times and Construction Timing

A key element of the planning process is establishing allowable closure times by RSRR loca-
tion (e.g., runway, taxiway, apron) and construction timing (i.e., preferred days, months, etc.).
Two cases exist:
• Established closure times for different pavements on the airfield (i.e., runway, taxiway, apron)
already exist. In this case, typical closure times should be identified and reviewed with
stakeholders.
• Established closure times for different pavements on the airfield do not exist. In this case,
closure times will need to be established with input from stakeholders. While stakeholder
input is important, the airport must ultimately make the final decision on preferred closure

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

14   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 6.   Examples of stakeholder coordination.

Airport Description

Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport Coordinates extensively with stakeholders to identify

closure times.

Los Angeles International Airport Engages stakeholders early in planning and meets
regularly with FAA and airline representatives.

Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport Coordinates significantly with all stakeholders by
conducting preconstruction meetings and weekly
go/no-go meetings with cargo carriers.

Raleigh–Durham International Airport Coordinates with airline operations and works with
them to determine flexible closure times. Holds monthly
meetings with stakeholders to keep them informed
and updated on the projects.

times given the constraints. Selection of time must also consider weather conditions favorable
for RSRR construction and materials to achieve the intended service life (i.e., short-term or
long-term).
All closure options for conventional slab repair and replacement or RSRR with longer con-
struction time frames (1-day closure or weekend closure) should be fully investigated before
an overnight closure option is considered (as previously discussed, materials and construction
techniques associated with overnight closures are often more costly, and the risk of premature
failure may increase).
Depending on airport size, investigation into permitting longer closure times may require
extensive coordination with stakeholders on such things as
• Timing of scheduled flights and ability to adjust schedules;
• Terminal gate access and aircraft parking positions;
• Airside access to airfield tenants;
• Alternate aircraft taxi routes around construction;
• Alternate arrival and departure runways;
• Loss of revenue to airport and tenants;
• Emergency access routes for ARFF, police, and airport operations; and
• Construction cost and quality.
Factors to consider when discussing overall timing of RSRR construction include
• Time of year with favorable weather conditions for construction;
• Seasons with lower aircraft operations (passenger and cargo);
• Times, days, weeks, or months with lower aircraft operations (passenger and cargo);
• Conflicts with larger airport construction projects (i.e., schedule, location); and
• Ability to simultaneously carry out work under a previously planned closure, which may
require less overall stakeholder coordination.
Table 6 provides examples of stakeholder coordination done by airports included in this study.

Select Project Delivery Method

Project delivery is the process and contract mechanism used to select the individuals or firm
that will design and install the repair. Project delivery options for contractor-delivered projects
include competitive bids, job-order contracting, executing a change order to existing contracts,

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Planning  15

and soliciting quotes. A contract is not required when the work is performed by airport personnel.
The main objectives and outcomes of this portion of the planning process are to
• Decide who will perform the construction work (e.g., airport personnel or outside contractor)
and whether a contract or agreement is required and
• Evaluate options and determine the solicitation and contracting method to deliver the RSRR
project.
Figure 6 is a flowchart of the project delivery decision process.

Decide Who Will Perform Construction Work

An airport should first assess its ability to perform PDR and FDR construction work. The
following factors can influence this decision:
• Experience: Airport staff should have experience with the type of work (PDR or FDR) that is
being proposed. Experience with FDR is rare outside of large hub airports.
• Equipment: The airport must have proper equipment. PDR work requires certain equipment
(e.g., jackhammers, concrete saws), some of which is specific to the selected repair material.
FDR requires specialty heavy equipment (e.g., excavators, dump trucks, concrete screeds).
• Staff availability: The airport must have sufficient staff with PDR or FDR experience available
during the required time frame.
• Project size: The airport must have available staff and equipment with which to complete the
required number of PDRs or FDRs within the specified duration of the construction.
Airports that do not have personnel with RSRR experience or the necessary equipment will
need to hire a contractor for emergency and nonemergency PDRs and FDRs. Airports that do
have both personnel with RSRR experience and the equipment necessary to complete the work
may perform PDR and FDR themselves or choose to hire a contractor to perform the work.
The following factors can influence this decision:
• Urgency of the work: The airport survey responses indicated that most emergency PDRs
and some nonemergency PDRs are performed by airport personnel. FDRs are rarely done in

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 6.   Project delivery flowchart for rapid slab repair and replacement.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

16   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 7.   Types and applications of project delivery approaches.

Type Application Notes

Competitive bid Common method for nonemergency RSRR Part of traditional design–bid–build project
(any size project). delivery.

Change order to Feasible for nonemergency or emergency Pricing may be higher than competitive
existing contract RSRR (smaller projects). bidding. Ensure the contractor or
subcontractor has the proper experience to
perform RSRR work on the airfield.

Job-order Nonemergency RSRR at airports with access Generally available to airports that are owned
contracting to a pool of on-call, prequalified contractors or operated by agencies (e.g., cities,
(medium and larger projects). counties, or state transportation
departments). Unit pricing for typical work
items is commonly established in advance.

Solicit Emergency or nonemergency RSRR (very Reserved for cases when local contractors
quotes small projects). have previously performed RSRR work at the
airport (or similar airport).

emergency situations, but a few large airports have the personnel and equipment to do this
work in house.
• Quantity of work: The surveyed airports tend to hire contractors for larger PDR projects.
However, contractors generally perform all FDRs, even for projects as small as 1 to 2 slabs.
• Availability of personnel: Airport personnel may not be available for RSRR within the required
time frame.
• Availability of equipment: The airport must have sufficient equipment available to complete
the required number of PDRs or FDRs within the specified duration of construction. Materi-
als and equipment may need to be procured well in advance of construction.

Select Contract Type

If the decision is made for a contractor to perform the RSRR work, a contract or agreement is
necessary. Materials and equipment are normally provided by the contractor, but, in rare cases,
the airport may provide the materials for the contractor to install. When a contract or agree-
ment is warranted, four main construction solicitation and delivery approaches are common
for RSRR projects:
• Competitive bids as part of a traditional design–bid–build project delivery approach;
• A change order to an existing contract for work at the airport;
• Job-order contracting from a pool of on-call, prequalified contractors; and
• Soliciting quotes from local contractors who have previously performed RSRR work at the
airport (or at a similar airport).
Table 7 provides more detail on the typical application of project delivery approaches.
Table 8 provides examples of delivery approaches used successfully by airports included in
this study.

Identify Design Requirements

Design requirements vary, depending on who will perform construction (i.e., contractor
or airport personnel), the size of the project, and the type of construction contract. Design
plans and specifications may be required, or a set of standard details may be utilized. The main
objectives and outcomes of this portion of the planning process are to

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Planning  17

Table 8.   Delivery approach.

Airport Delivery Approach

Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport Design–bid–build

Los Angeles International Airport Design–bid–build and competitive bids

Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport Design–bid–build

McCarran International Airport Airport maintenance crew and change order to existing
contracts

Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport Airport maintenance crew for PDR and on-call
contractor for other jobs

Raleigh–Durham International Airport Design and Construction Manager at-Riska

Seattle–Tacoma International Airport Design–bid–build with change order to existing contract

Vancouver International Airport Design–bid–build and construction managera

a Large-scale RSRR projects.

• Decide the level and extent of design needed for the project (such as complete drawing sets or
just standard or generic details) and
• Determine who will perform design services (airport or consultant).

Data collected for this project revealed the following trends related to the level of design for
RSRR projects:
• Construction is performed by airport personnel:
– Design details and construction procedures may or may not be formalized.
– Design details from previous RSRR projects are sometimes used.
• Construction performed by contractors uses a combination of design documents (plans and
specifications) and standard details/specifications; actual practice is a function of the project
delivery approach:
– Design plans and specifications are required when soliciting competitive bids (design–
bid–build approach).
– Change order to existing contract typically uses supplemental design plan sheets and
specifications to detail the work.
– Job-order contracting typically uses standard design details and specifications that were
used to preestablish unit pricing.
– Soliciting quotes typically uses standard design details and specifications. This informa-
tion may be developed in house or may be taken from design plans from previous RSRR
projects.
Figure 7 provides a flowchart of the design decision process. It is important to note that by
their nature, emergency PDR and FDR do not allow time for the preparation of design doc-
uments or details. Standard details or standard operating procedures are typically used and
should be developed in advance. If required, a construction safety and phasing plan (CSPP),
along with FAA Form 7460-1, should be submitted to FAA.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

18   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 7.   Project design flowchart for rapid slab repair and replacement.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

CHAPTER 3

Partial-Depth Repair

As defined in Chapter 1, PDR refers to the removal of small areas of damaged pavement
contained within the top half of a concrete slab and replacement with a cementitious, polymeric,
or other specialty repair material. PDR is a common practice to maintain and preserve concrete
airfield pavements. When correct materials are selected and proper construction techniques are
employed, PDR can be a cost-effective, long-term solution for concrete pavement repair needs.
This chapter discusses the appropriate distresses, materials, design, and construction for a PDR
project and presents an assessment tool to help users evaluate the considerations necessary to
complete a successful PDR.

Introduction to Partial-Depth Repair

At airports, PDR is typically used to address concrete surface defects that can lead to FOD,
which can damage aircraft or inhibit the safe passage of aircraft (Speer 2007, Hammons and
Saeed 2010). However, PDR is also very important for preservation of concrete pavement.
Spalling at joints, cracks, and midslab locations is the most common candidate for PDR
[FAA 2014b, U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) 2018]. Spalling typically occurs when pieces of
concrete are dislodged from a transverse crack or joint (or midslab). Figure 8 shows examples
of spalling at joints and cracks and midpanel.

Candidate Distresses and Conditions

PDR is appropriate for addressing distresses that are confined to the top half of the slab and
to relatively small surface areas. Distresses that have been successfully corrected with PDR
include
• Spalling caused by the intrusion of incompressible materials into the joints;
• Spalling or raveling caused by poor consolidation or improper joint formation;
• Surface delamination or spalling caused by weak concrete, clay balls, or reinforcing steel
located too close to the surface; and
• Spalling caused by lightning strikes and isolated to the top half of the slab.

PDR is not a long-term solution for correcting surface deterioration resulting from the
following causes (Smith et al. 2014, U.S. DOD 2018):
• Improper finishing and curing during construction (e.g., shrinkage, map cracking),
• Environmental deterioration [e.g., freeze–thaw damage, durability cracking (D-cracking),
scaling], and
• Undesirable chemical reaction (e.g., alkali–silica reactivity, alkali–carbonate reaction).

19

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

20   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 8.   Candidate spalling conditions for partial-depth repair: (a) joint spalls, (b) crack spalls, (c) midslab spalls,
and (d) deterioration of previous spall repairs.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   21

There are, however, situations where these distresses present an immediate safety hazard
(e.g., FOD or depression) and temporary PDRs have been effectively used as a stopgap measure
until a long-term treatment can be planned and executed. In these cases, the primary purpose in
addressing these conditions is to quickly restore pavement serviceability and to ensure overall
safety.

Material Selection
Several materials are available for use with PDR, and, in general, PDR material specifications
vary between agencies. FAA AC 150/5380-6C (FAA 2014b) and AC 150/5370-10H (FAA 2018)
provide limited guidance on PDR patching materials. The U.S. Army Engineer Research and
Development Center (ERDC) conducts extensive assessment of various proprietary PDR
repair materials. Recent findings are detailed in Evaluation of Concrete Spall Repair Materials
(Falls 2019) and Evaluation of Rapid-Setting Cementitious Materials and Testing Protocol for
Airfield Spall Repair (Ramsey et al. 2020).
FAA AC 150/5380-6C (FAA 2014b) references use of P-501 cement concrete pavement, as
well as state department of transportation (DOT) specifications for allowable materials. The
U.S. DOD Unified Facilities Criteria for operations and maintenance (O&M), the O&M Manual:
Asphalt and Concrete Pavement Maintenance and Repair (U.S. DOD 2018), classifies materials
in three categories: cementitious, polymeric, and bituminous (generally regarded as a tempo-
rary repair material for concrete pavements). Cementitious materials are commonly based
on ASTM C150 (Standard Specification for Portland Cement) Portland Cement Type I, but
ASTM C150 Portland Cement Type III is allowed when the repair needs to be opened to traffic
within 1 to 3 days after placement. Smith et al. (2014) list the following materials as possible
options for PDR:
• Most repair material is produced with either ASTM C150 Portland Cement Type I (with set-
accelerating admixture) or Portland Cement Type III. In addition to strength, consideration
must be given to the following material properties that affect short- and long-term performance:
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), elastic modulus, shrinkage, and bond strength. Some
agencies have standard HES concrete mixtures for PDR, but there are also several commercially
available proprietary mixtures.
• Modified hydraulic cement concrete includes concrete made with modified cement, gypsum-
based cement, calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement, and other
hydraulic cement–based mixes, most of which meet ASTM C1600 requirements.
• Gypsum-based cements have very quick set times, are resistant to deicing chemicals, and
typically require dry installation conditions.
• CSA cements are a modified derivative of portland cement clinker; they exhibit rapid strength
gain, good durability, low shrinkage, and high sulfate resistance.
• Calcium aluminate cements are similar to CSA, having rapid strength gain, good bonding
properties, and good resistance to freeze–thaw cycles and deicing chemicals and exhibit-
ing low shrinkage. However, concrete made from calcium aluminate cements undergoes
a phenomenon called conversion, during which a portion of the concrete strength is lost.
The mix design should be evaluated with a conversion test to ensure the converted strength
exceeds the specified strength (Adams 2015).
• Polymer-based and resinous concrete are combinations of polymer resins, an initiator, and,
often, aggregate. The aggregate is added as a filler and reduces costs, provides a durable
wearing surface, and makes the thermal characteristics (as assessed by CTE) more consis-
tent with that of concrete. Polymers exhibit faster strength gain than typical cementitious
materials but can be expensive and sensitive to temperature and moisture. Some of these

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

22   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

repair materials are very flexible and can be placed across joints and cracks without the need
to reestablish the joint. Urethane resins and epoxies are common polymers used for pavement
repair applications.
• Polyurethanes are two-component materials that are very flexible and typically exhibit rapid
strength gain. However, these materials are known to have very high CTE values, can be
very sensitive to mixing and moisture, and exhibit large initial shrinkage.
• Epoxy polymer concretes typically have very good adhesive capabilities and are impermeable.
However, these products have a wide range of bonding capabilities, setting times, applica-
tion temperatures, and strengths. They also exhibit high CTE values, and compatibility with
concrete needs to be considered.
• Magnesium-phosphate concrete is a very rapid-setting material with HES gain. Materials
are impermeable but very sensitive to water (in the mix or on the repair surface). Clean,
dry surfaces are needed for bonding. Workability can be a challenge in hot weather due
to short set times, but some of the products are specially formulated for hot-weather
applications.
• Conventional or modified bituminous materials are low-cost, short-term, bituminous-based
materials. They are easily applied and widely available and can be opened to traffic very quickly.
Polymer-modified bituminous materials have shown better performance than unmodified
materials but have a higher cost. These materials are typically considered to be temporary
for PDR of concrete pavement, and the U.S. DOD O&M Manual (2018) does not allow
bituminous materials for concrete airfield pavement PDR. For this reason, bituminous PDR
materials are not considered further in this report.
The selection of repair materials for long-term PDR applications is based on several factors,
including the specific application, environment, performance history, and facility opening-to-
traffic requirements. Opening-to-traffic requirements are often the most important factor;
however, products with very early opening times are more expensive. Factors to consider for
PDR material selection include the following (Smith et al. 2014):
• Time available for construction and strength gain (i.e., closure time),
• Ambient conditions during and after placement,
• Repair material properties (e.g., CTE, shrinkage, bond strength),
• Material and installation costs,
• Handling and workability,
• Compatibility with the existing concrete pavement,
• Repair size and depth,
• Alignment of material performance capabilities and performance requirements (expectations)
of the repair, and
• Project size or number of anticipated repairs.

Other factors not specifically mentioned by Smith et al. (2014) include

• Equipment requirements (and capabilities) for mixing and material application;
• Complexity of mixing and material application;
• Long-term durability, especially in harsh environments;
• Agency maintenance and contractor employee exposure and safety (i.e., hazards associated
with materials); and
• Agency maintenance and contractor employee experience with the material.

Ultimately, three major factors need to be considered when a PDR material is being selected
for airport pavement repairs: (1) closure time (minimizing operational delays), (2) compatibility
with the surrounding concrete, and (3) long-term durability, especially in harsh environments.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   23

As there are numerous commercial (and sometimes proprietary) products available for
constructing PDRs, a material selection screening process that includes the following steps
can be used:
• Assess the products on the basis of project needs and conditions by reviewing product
literature and talking with manufacturer representatives.
• Obtain airport references from the manufacturer and speak with previous users of the
product. It is often best to contact similarly sized airports and inquire about products used,
lessons learned, and recommendations.
• Request that the manufacturer provide a demonstration by installing the materials in non-
critical areas before they are used in operation-critical locations.
One airport agency commented that the materials used for PDR do not necessarily need to
be the most expensive or the newest on the market. Rather, it is important to identify and
use the product that best suits the needs of the airport and the knowledge and skills of the
personnel who will mix, handle, and install the product.
HES materials can be difficult to handle and install. Even if construction crews have experience,
they should demonstrate their ability to properly install the materials off-site or start work on
the least critical areas (e.g., aprons) before moving to critical areas (e.g., runways). These materials
can be very sensitive to weather conditions during installation and curing; manufacturer’s
recommendations should be followed.

Design
PDR projects may or may not use detailed plans and specifications. The design process
differs depending on the extent and nature of the PDR (i.e., emergency versus nonemergency).
Emergency repairs generally rely on standard details and materials on hand. For larger PDR
projects, plans and specifications can be used (particularly for bidding), but the use of stan-
dard details is more common. Following are some considerations, particularly for larger
PDR projects:
• Material requirements: FAA AC 150/5380-6C references the use of P-501 cement concrete
pavement or state DOT materials for PDR (FAA 2014b). Proprietary material specifications are
often provided by the manufacturer. PDR material requirements commonly focus on strength
gain and final strength, bond strength, shrinkage, CTE, and other important properties.
• Provisions for disincentives when repairs affect critical airport operations: Provide incen-
tives for early completion. Penalties for not returning pavement to service are generally much
more severe for runways (e.g., $500/minute) but can be applied to other areas if they are critical
to operations. Small PDRs are likely to be completed within the allotted closure, especially if
an appropriate material is selected.
• Plan details: Design should include plan dimensions and depth details, but requirements can
vary by product. Design efforts also need to consider contingencies in case some of the PDR
locations are determined during construction to be better candidates for FDR.
• Quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA): Because batch sizes are generally quite small,
extensive material testing is not practical. QC/QA for PDR is more often based on observations
of means and methods, such as verifying preparation steps, material mixing and handling,
finishing, and curing methods.
• Opening-to-traffic requirements: Opening to traffic is often based on time. This is because
material testing is commonly less extensive for PDR than FDR or other large concrete place-
ments. Often a prescriptive number of hours or days is used as the opening criterion when

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

24   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

work is being done within certain specified temperature conditions. The required times can
be established during the mix design stage for cementitious products or established by the
manufacturer.
• Provision for a preconstruction conference: It is advisable to hold a preconstruction meet-
ing prior to closing pavement areas and allowing construction work to proceed. Confirming
work methods, personnel responsibilities, site safety, and security are significant factors in
the success of PDR projects.
• Requirement for just-in-time training: This training should cover product specifics and
include a provision for a product installation demonstration on a noncritical pavement area
(or off-site). This is especially important when new repair materials are being used, especially
early-strength materials.

Construction
In general, steps for PDR construction are provided by Hajek et al. (2011), Frentress and
Harrington (2012), Smith et al. (2014), FAA (2014b), the U.S. Air Force (USAF 2017), and the
U.S. DOD (2018) and are as follows:
1. Determine and mark repair boundaries (confirm design plans).
2. Demolish and remove concrete.
3. Clean and prepare repair area.
4. Reestablish joint, as needed.
5. Place and consolidate repair material.
6. Finish and cure repair.
7. Reseal joints, as needed.
8. Open to traffic.
Each step of the PDR construction process is further described in the following sections.

Boundary Selection and Marking

Aside from visual characterization of distress, the limits of deteriorated concrete can be
determined by the sounding method, which consists of striking the concrete with a solid steel
rod or a hammer and listening to the resulting sound. A dull sound is heard if the concrete is
weak or delaminated, whereas a ringing sound is indicative of sound concrete. For larger areas,
a chain drag or delamination detection tool can be used. Figure 9 shows examples of the
sounding method.
Once the distressed area is identified, the repair boundary is established as follows for
conventional cementitious repair materials (Wilson et al. 2001, Frentress and Harrington 2012,
USAF 2017, U.S. DOD 2018):
• The boundary should extend at least 3 inches beyond the unsound concrete on all sides.
• The minimum repair length is 15 inches (the U.S. DOD recommends 6 inches).
• The minimum repair width is 10 inches (the U.S. DOD recommends 6 inches).
• The minimum repair depth is 2 inches and should extend 0.5 inch into visually sound concrete.
• Repair boundaries should be kept square or rectangular; irregular shapes are to be avoided.
Dimensions for PDRs that use a proprietary material should be in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
The proximity of patches to one another should also be considered. FAA guidance suggests
that spall repairs less than 1.5 feet apart should be combined into one repair (FAA 2014b). The

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   25

Source: (a) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd., and (b) Applied Pavement Technology, Inc.

Figure 9.   Sounding method using (a) hammer and (b) steel rod.

U.S. DOD (2018) provides similar guidance but indicates combining repairs if they are within
24 inches.
Repairs that are greater than half the thickness of the pavement are not candidates for
PDR on an airport. If load-transfer devices are observed in the damaged area while marking
boundaries, FDR is the appropriate repair option (see Chapter 4).

Concrete Demolition and Removal

Once the repair area has been identified and marked, the damaged concrete within the repair
boundaries is removed. Figure 10 shows schematic examples of different types of PDRs, and
Table 9 provides basic descriptions and photos of each repair type.

Type 1
Mid Panel and Corner
Type 2 Type 2 Type 2
Crack Transverse Joint Longitudinal Joint

Type 1
Joint

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 10.   Types of partial-depth repairs.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

26   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 9.   Description of distress and appropriate PDR types.

PDR
Type Description Example

1 Spot repairs (less than 6 feet in length).

These are used to repair spalling at joints,
corners, and slab interior. Applicable to
repairs at transverse joints when load-
transfer devices are still functional and
not exposed.

2 Repairs of extended length along a

longitudinal or transverse joint or a crack
longer than 6 feet.

Source: Frentress and Harrington (2012) and Smith et al. (2014). All images provided by Applied Pavement
Technology, Inc.

There are four general PDR removal methods: (1) saw and chip out, (2) chip out, (3) mill out,
and (4) clean out (Smith et al. 2014).
1. Saw and chip out: A diamond-bladed saw is used to outline the repair boundaries (Figure 11).
The depth of the cut usually extends to 2 inches. A light jackhammer (typically 15 pounds
maximum weight, but up to 30 pounds if no damage to sound concrete is observed) is used
to remove the concrete. The jackhammer can be carefully used to slightly chip the vertical
polished saw cut edge to provide a rough surface to promote bonding between the patch
repair material and the sound concrete.

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 11.   Saw and chip out.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   27

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 12.   Chip out.

2. Chip out: A light jackhammer (typically 15 pounds maximum weight, but up to 30 pounds
if no damage is observed) is used to remove the damaged concrete, starting from the center
of the repair area. The boundary edges are then removed at a slight angle with hand tools or
a light jackhammer to avoid damaging sound concrete (Figure 12).
3. Mill out: A milling machine with a 12- to 18-inch-wide head is operated along the spalled
area (Figure 13). The milling depth must be adjusted to remove all the damaged concrete
material. This method is cost-effective, with the highest production rate of any method, and
produces rough, uniform surfaces that promote bonding between the repair material and
the existing concrete. Strong bonds result in good performance.
4. Clean out: Used only for emergency repairs, this method typically consists of removing the
loose concrete with hand tools or a light jackhammer. The repair area is cleaned with stiff
brooms.
FAA AC 150/5380-6C includes the use of saw and chip out (FAA 2014b). The U.S. DOD
O&M Manual (2018) suggests both saw and chip out and mill out. Hammons and Saeed (2010)
assessed expedient removal techniques and found that mill out (i.e., cold planer) achieved rapid
preparation of the repair area.

Source: Frentress and Harrington (2012).

Figure 13.   Mill out.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

28   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

As previously stated, distresses that extend deeper than half the pavement thickness are
not appropriate for PDR, particularly if load-transfer devices are exposed during concrete
demolition and removal. If this occurs during construction, the load-transfer device should be
cut through at the joint and a temporary PDR completed. This repair should be identified for
future replacement with FDR (see Chapter 4).

Cleaning
Prior to placement of the PDR material, clean the exposed faces and bottom of the repair area
to remove all loose particles, oil, dirt, dust, previous patch materials, and other contaminants.
Thoroughly clean the area around the PDR with a power broom, vacuum sweeper, or hand
broom to prevent debris from reentering the repair zone. Any contamination of the surface will
reduce the bond between the PDR material and the existing concrete. FAA AC 150/5380-6C
(FAA 2014b) indicates removing all loose material by hand, vacuuming, and cleaning the
PDR area with high-pressure water. The U.S. DOD O&M Manual states, “as a minimum, air-
blow with compressed air, wash with high-pressure water, and air-blow again” (2018, p. 102).
Ensure the repair area is completely dried if high-pressure water is used to clean the repair
area. Always follow the product manufacturer’s recommendations, as they differ by the type
of repair product.
Once the PDR area has been cleaned, the surface is prepared in accordance with the recom-
mendations of the manufacturer of the repair material. For some cementitious materials, this
may require applying a grout prior to placing the PDR material. If used, the grout must not
set before the repair material is placed; otherwise, the repair will not bond to the substrate.
Prepackaged materials may or may not require application of a liquid bonding agent. If a bond-
ing agent is required, the manufacturer’s recommendations must be followed.

Reestablishing the Joint

PDRs that abut working joints or cracks that extend the full depth of the slab usually require
that the crack or joint be reformed to prevent the repair material from contacting the abut-
ting concrete and to ensure the repair material does not flow into the joint or crack. Failure to
reestablish the joint or crack or allowing repair material to flow into it can cause stress points
that may damage or dislodge the repair. A compressible insert or other bond-breaking medium
is commonly inserted into the joint or crack to reform it and ensure that the repair material
does not enter (Figure 14). As an alternative, the joint or crack can first be caulked to prevent
material from entering and the compressible insert tacked into place to reestablish the joint or
crack. Regardless of approach, the insert needs to be the full depth of the repair to avoid failure.
Although reestablishing the joint or crack may not be required for some flexible proprietary
materials, caulk should still be used to prevent the materials from entering.
Some agencies have established additional preparation requirements. One airport that
participated in this study uses reinforcement in its PDRs. The detail includes tie bars arranged
in a grid pattern that are drilled and grouted into the sound concrete (Figure 15).

Material Placement and Consolidation

Production of PDR materials is different from that of materials produced for larger projects,
such as slab replacements, because the quantity of material required per repair is much smaller
(potentially 0.5 cubic feet or less). Transit mix trucks and other large equipment cannot effi-
ciently produce such small quantities and would decrease the quality and result in waste of

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   29

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 14.   Compressible insert at a joint

(retrofitted electrical conduit shown; not a
dowel bar).

material (U.S. DOD 2018). Because of the small quantity of material needed, it is common to
mix cementitious PDR material on-site with a small drum or paddle mixer. For proprietary
materials, the manufacturer’s material preparation and placement instructions should be
followed, particularly with regard to the size of repair and temperature. Some products are
mixed in the container that they were shipped in. If material packaging is damaged, it should
not be used.

Source: John Rone.

Figure 15.   Reinforcing steel used in partial-depth

repair.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

30   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Following are recommendations for placing repair materials (Frentress and Harrington 2012,
Smith et al. 2014):
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials. Some materials must
be placed in lifts, and some materials may be self-consolidating.
• For small patches, consolidate the material by rodding or tamping by hand.
• Work and float the material from the center of the patch toward the edges for better bonding
with repair edges.
• Monitor air temperature and maintain compliance with material placement requirements
(many materials should be used with air temperatures between 50°F and 90°F).
Material for large patches may be consolidated by using small spud vibrators. Vibrators greater
than 1 inch in diameter are not recommended (U.S. DOD 2018).

Finishing and Curing

The surface of the repaired area must match the profile of the surrounding slabs. Texture should
match that of the existing adjacent pavement; burlap drag and tined surfaces are common.
Over-finishing the repair surface can weaken it and make it susceptible to scaling and durability
problems. One airport that participated in this study installed the repair material slightly higher
than the surrounding concrete and then ground the repair flush after it hardened, finding that
this approach mitigates material settlement.
Curing is very important for PDR, since the ratio of the surface area to volume of the repair is
typically large, and moisture can be rapidly lost through evaporation. Curing recommendations
include the following (Frentress and Harrington 2012, Smith et al. 2014, USAF 2017):
• For cementitious materials, curing is often done by applying an ASTM C309 white-pigmented
curing compound immediately after water from the surface has evaporated. Poly-alpha-
methylstyrene (PAMS) resin curing compounds have been found to be highly effective.
• Curing material application rates are higher for PDRs than for full slabs or larger areas,
usually 1½ to 2 times the normal application rate.
• Other effective curing methods include moist burlap or polyethylene sheeting. Insulating
blankets can be used in cold weather conditions or to accelerate strength gain but should be
used cautiously in warm weather conditions.
Some proprietary materials do not require curing. For these materials, the manufacturer’s
recommendations should be followed.

Joint Resealing
Following curing—if it was necessary to reestablish the joints—remove the joint/crack insert
or reforming material at the surface so that the joint or crack can be properly prepared
(i.e., cleaned). Then create the reservoir and place the appropriate joint/crack sealant.

Opening to Traffic
The new PDR must be protected from traffic until the material has achieved the required
strength. The time to opening can vary considerably and depends on the PDR material used and
other environmental factors. Portland cement–based materials may take days to gain sufficient
strength, while some HES and proprietary materials may reach the required strength in a matter
of minutes or hours. For cementitious materials, mix design testing can help establish strength
gain properties (since field testing is not likely with the small batch quantities). Alternative
methods for estimating strength gain (e.g., maturity meters) for PDRs have not been widely

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   31

Note: See Figure 10 and Table 9 for explanation of the types of partial-depth repair.
Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 16.   Examples of completed partial-depth repairs: (a) Type 1 joint, (b) Type 1 joint that used a flexible
repair material that did not require reestablishing of the joint, (c) Type 1 corner, and (d) Type 2 joint.

used. Manufacturers’ recommendations for opening to traffic should be followed for proprietary
materials. Figure 16 shows examples of completed PDRs.

Partial-Depth Repair Assessment Tool

Figure 17 and the associated tables (Tables 10–12) present a framework for assessing some
of the key variables considered during planning for and constructing PDRs. This tool provides
users with practical guidance on the feasibility of concrete pavement repair techniques for a
variety of facilities and closure times.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

32   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Note: See Table 10, Table 11, and Table 12 for PDR 1, PDR 2, and PDR 3, respectively.
Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 17.   Partial-depth repair decision framework.

Figure 17 presents a decision tree for identifying the location of the planned PDR.
1. Select the facility on which the PDR will be completed (i.e., runway, taxiway, or apron).
2. Identify the relative operational priority of the repair area (e.g., runway intersection, runway
safety area).
3. Determine how much time is available to do the work. Closure time is divided into three
groups:
– Less than 8 hours (equivalent to an overnight closure),
– 8 to 24 hours (equivalent to a 1-day closure), and
– 24 to 60 hours (equivalent to a weekend closure).
In many instances, work can be scaled to fit into the available closure time. That is, if a closure
of less than 8 hours is the only available option for a given material and preparation method,
the number of repairs may be limited in a given closure window to ensure all repair areas have
achieved the required strength at the time of opening. Similarly, with a longer closure time, a more
conventional repair material can be used. Longer closure times also permit a higher production
rate, as more time is available to work under a single mobilization.
Each set of decisions leads to a table that summarizes the planning and construction con-
siderations associated with the resulting box in Figure 17; see Table 10 for PDR 1, Table 11 for
PDR 2, and Table 12 for PDR 3.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   33

Table 10.   Summary of PDR 1 decisions.

PDR 1 (<8 hours)

Preparation

Repair types • Type 1: Spot repairs from 15 inches to 6 feet along the length of a joint.
and location • Type 2: Extended-length repairs along a longitudinal or transverse joint or cracks longer
than 6 feet.
• Consider closure time and placement rate in selecting the quantity of repairs and ensure
the final repair placed during closure will be able to achieve the required strength at the
time of opening.

Material • Allowable closure time: VHES proprietary materials are likely needed, although some
selection highly accelerated portland cement–based mixtures may be acceptable.
considerations • Minimum strength requirements.
• Workability time.
• Necessary batching equipment.
• CTE.
• Ambient temperature and climatic conditions.
• Cost.
• Material performance.
• Size of the repair area.

Repair • Extend at least 3 inches beyond unsound concrete on all sides of the repair.
boundaries • Minimum repair length (along the joint) of 15 inches.
• Minimum width (away from the joint) of 10 inches.
• Minimum depth of 2 inches or according to manufacturer’s recommendation.
• Keep repair boundaries square or rectangular and avoid irregular shapes.

Demolition/Removal

Removal • For Type 1: Saw and chip out.

method • For Type 2: Mill out.
• Mill out will be faster than saw and chip out.

Cleanup • Dry sweeping.

• Light sandblasting.
• Compressed air blasting.
• High-pressure water.

Joint • Insert a polystyrene, polyethylene, or asphalt-impregnated fiberboard strip or other

preparation compressible joint-/crack-reforming material into the joint or working crack. Some
proprietary flexible repair materials can be placed without reestablishment of the joint
(check manufacturer’s recommendations), but the joint or crack must still be taped or
caulked to prevent infiltration.
• Caulk can be used in the joint or crack to prevent infiltration of repair material.

Material Mixing and Placement

Bonding agent • For cementitious materials, a bonding agent is not required, but HES epoxy bonding agents
have been used.
• Follow manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Mixing and • Use a small drum or paddle-type mixer with a capacity of up to 2 cubic feet.
placement • Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.
• Ensure proper consolidation.

Finishing • A stiff board can be used for small repairs.

• Work the material toward the perimeter of the repair.
• For cementitious repair materials, place grout around the circumference of the repair and
into any saw cut overruns.
• Texture to match surrounding slab.

(continued on next page)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

34   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 10.  (Continued).

PDR 1 (<8 hours)

Curing • Apply a white-pigmented curing compound for cementitious materials that meet ASTM
C309. PAMS curing compounds have been found to be highly effective.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Joint sealing • Make sure transverse and longitudinal joints are well formed or sawed.
• Ensure joints are clean and dry.
• Install approved sealant in joint (and in overruns if not previously filled with grout). Note:
Resealing is often performed in a separate closure in compliance with the sealant
manufacturer’s recommendations.

Opening to Traffic

Compressive • Demonstrated as part of mix design, typically 3,100 psi. Note: Some VHES polymeric
strength materials cannot be tested by using compressive strength, and a time-based opening
criterion is used according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Flexural strength • Flexural strength is rarely specified for PDR materials.

Other • Timing per manufacturer’s recommendations.

• Maturity monitoring.
• Consider whether direct traffic loadings will be likely (i.e., only require strength for an
emergency loading as opposed to continuous traffic).

Note: psi = pounds per square inch.

Table 11.   Summary of PDR 2 decisions.

PDR 2 (8–24 hours)

Preparation

Repair types • Type 1: Spot repairs from 15 inches to 6 feet along the length of a joint.
and location • Type 2: Extended-length repairs along a longitudinal or transverse joint or cracks longer
than 6 feet.
• Consider closure time and placement rate in selecting the quantity of repairs and ensure
that the final repair placed during the closure will be able to achieve the required strength
at the time of opening.

Material • Allowable closure time: accelerated portland cement–based mixtures may work, but
selection consider proprietary materials.
considerations • Minimum strength requirements.
• Workability time.
• Necessary batching equipment.
• CTE.
• Ambient temperature and climatic conditions.
• Cost.
• Material performance.
• Size of the repair area.

Repair • Extend 3 inches beyond unsound concrete on all sides of the repair.
boundaries • Minimum repair length (along the joint) of 15 inches.
• Minimum width (away from the joint) of 10 inches.
• Minimum depth of 2 inches (or according to the manufacturer’s recommendation).
• Keep repair boundaries square or rectangular and avoid irregular shapes.
• Avoid saw cut overrun.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   35

Table 11.  (Continued).

PDR 2 (8–24 hours)

Demolition/Removal

Removal • Type 1: Saw and chip out.

method • Type 2: Mill out.
• Mill out will be faster than saw and chip out.

Cleanup • Dry sweeping.

• Light sandblasting.
• Compressed air blasting.
• High-pressure water.

Joint • Insert a polystyrene, polyethylene, or asphalt-impregnated fiberboard strip or other

preparation compressible joint-/crack-reforming material into the joint or working crack. Some
proprietary flexible repair materials can be placed without reestablishment of the joint
(check manufacturer’s recommendations), but the joint or crack must still be taped or
caulked to prevent infiltration.
• Caulk can be used in the joint or crack to prevent infiltration of repair material.

Material Mixing and Placement

Bonding agent • For portland cement concrete materials, a bonding agent is not required. A grout made
with cement and water (and at times sand) has been used.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Mixing and • Use a small drum or paddle-type mixer with a capacity of up to 2 cubic feet.
placement • Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.
• Ensure proper consolidation.

Finishing • A stiff board can be used for small repairs.

• Work the material toward the perimeter of the repair.
• Place grout around the circumference of the repair and into any saw cut overruns.
• Texture to match surrounding slab.

Curing • Apply a white-pigmented curing compound for cementitious materials that meet ASTM
C309. PAMS curing compounds have been found to be highly effective.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Joint sealing • Make sure transverse and longitudinal joints are well formed or sawed.
• Ensure joints are clean and dry.
• Install approved sealant in joint (and in overruns if not previously filled with grout). Note:
Resealing is often performed in a separate closure in compliance with the sealant
manufacturer’s recommendations.

Opening to Traffic

Compressive • Demonstrated as part of mix design, typically 3,100 psi. Note: Some HES polymeric
strength materials cannot be tested by using compressive strength, and a time-based opening
criterion is used according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Flexural strength • Flexural strength is rarely specified for PDR materials.

Other • Timing per manufacturer’s recommendations.

• Maturity monitoring.
• Consider whether direct traffic loadings will be likely (i.e., only require strength for an
emergency loading as opposed to continuous traffic).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

36   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 12.   Summary of PDR 3 decisions.

PDR 3 (24–60 hours)

Preparation

Repair types • Type 1: Spot repairs from 15 inches to 6 feet along the length of a joint.
and location • Type 2: Extended-length repairs along a longitudinal or transverse joint or cracks longer
than 6 feet.
• Consider closure time and placement rate in selecting the quantity of repairs and ensure
that the final repair placed during the closure will be able to achieve the required strength
at the time of opening.

Material • Allowable closure time: Lightly accelerated portland cement–based concrete mixtures are
selection suitable.
considerations • Minimum strength requirements.
• Workability time.
• Necessary batching equipment.
• CTE.
• Ambient temperature and climatic conditions.
• Cost.
• Material performance.
• Size of the repair area.

Repair • Extend 3 inches beyond unsound concrete on all sides of the repair.
boundaries • Minimum repair length (along the joint) of 15 inches.
• Minimum width (away from the joint) of 10 inches.
• Minimum depth of 2 inches, or according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Keep repair boundaries square or rectangular and avoid any irregular shapes.
• Avoid saw cut overrun.

Demolition/Removal

Removal • Type 1: Saw and chip out.

method • Type 2: Mill out.
• Mill out will be faster than saw and chip out.

Cleanup • Dry sweeping.

• Light sandblasting.
• Compressed air blasting.
• High-pressure water.

Joint • Insert a polystyrene, polyethylene, or asphalt-impregnated fiberboard strip or other

preparation compressible joint-/crack-reforming material into the joint or working crack. Some
proprietary flexible repair materials can be placed without reestablishing the joint (check
manufacturer’s recommendations), but the joint or crack must still be taped or caulked to
prevent infiltration.
• Some proprietary flexible repair materials can be placed across a joint (check
manufacturer’s recommendations).

Material Mixing and Placement

Bonding agent • For portland cement concrete materials, a bonding agent is not required. A grout made
with cement and water (and at times sand) has been used by some.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Mixing and • Use a small drum or paddle-type mixer with a capacity of up to 2 cubic feet.
placement • Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.
• Ensure proper consolidation.

Finishing • A stiff board can be used for small repairs.

• Work the material toward the perimeter of the repair.
• Place grout around the circumference of the repair and into any saw cut overruns.
• Texture to match surrounding slab.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Partial-Depth Repair   37

Table 12.  (Continued).

PDR 3 (24–60 hours)

Curing • Apply a white-pigmented curing compound for cementitious materials that meet ASTM
C309. PAMS curing compounds have been found to be highly effective.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Joint sealing • Make sure transverse and longitudinal joints are well formed or sawed.
• Ensure joints are clean and dry.
• Install approved sealant in the joint (and in overruns if not previously filled with grout).
Note: Resealing is often performed in a separate closure in compliance with the sealant
manufacturer’s recommendations.

Opening to Traffic

Compressive • Typically 3,100 psi.

strength

Flexural strength • Flexural strength is rarely specified for PDR materials.

Other • Timing per manufacturer’s recommendations.

• Maturity monitoring.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

CHAPTER 4

Full-Depth Repair

As defined in Chapter 1, FDR refers to full-depth removal and replacement of a portion of

a slab or an entire slab by using either cast-in-place concrete or precast concrete. This chapter
discusses the appropriate distresses, materials, design, and construction for an FDR project and
presents an assessment tool to help users evaluate the considerations necessary to complete a
successful FDR.

Introduction to Full-Depth Repair

FAA AC 150/5380-6C (FAA 2014b) identifies the following FDR types, which are based on
how much of the slab is being repaired:
• Partial-width, partial-slab repair (e.g., a corner break),
• Full-width, partial-slab replacement (e.g., a deteriorated joint), and
• Full-slab replacement (e.g., high-severity midslab cracking or shattered slab condition).

For discussion, partial- and full-slab FDRs are grouped together. FDRs are typically either
cast-in-place concrete or precast concrete slabs with deterioration extending through more than
one-half the thickness of the existing concrete pavement. Precast slabs are generally used for
full-slab replacements on airfields, either as an intermediate step when cast-in-place repairs are
being made or as the final pavement. Figure 18 provides examples of installations of cast-in-place
and precast FDRs.
Cast-in-place FDR is the most common method reported by the airports that participated in
this study. Table 13 lists advantages and disadvantages of this technique.
Precast slab FDR is an alternative repair method that was used as early as the 1930s on high-
ways and airfields for partial- or full-slab replacement, although widespread implementation of
this method at that time was limited (Priddy et al. 2013). Interest in the use of precast concrete
has increased at airports, especially in areas where very short closures are necessary (e.g., runway
intersections). According to Tayabji et al. (2009), the main justifications for the use of precast
concrete slabs are time savings or reduced closure times; otherwise, precast concrete pavement
is typically not economically competitive. Table 14 lists advantages and disadvantages of
precast slabs.
Following are key considerations for determining the feasibility of precast slabs as an FDR
option:
• Extent and location of the damaged pavement;
• Temporary or permanent repair;
• Expected performance and life of the repair;

38

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   39

Source: (a) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd., and (b) Shiraz Tayabji.

Figure 18.   Examples of cast-in-place and precast full-depth repairs: (a) cast-in-place and (b) precast.

Table 13.   Advantages and disadvantages of using cast-in-place concrete

for full-depth repair.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Familiarity of contractors with the • Difficulty in placement during certain

equipment and process. adverse weather conditions.
• Proven technique for a range of distresses. • Durability issues with some materials.
• Curing time.

Source: Williams et al. (2012), Priddy et al. (2013).

Table 14.   Advantages and disadvantages of precast slab concrete

for full-depth repair.

Advantages Disadvantages

• No on-site concrete curing time. • Cost is much higher.

• Conventional concrete can be used. • Moving and placing large panels may be
• Quality of concrete is higher. difficult.
• Can be prefabricated and stored. • Slab edges and dowel bars may get damaged.
• Fabricated under controlled conditions. • Experienced crews are required.
• Weather window for installation is broad. • Crane height may penetrate FAA Federal
Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 77 surfaces
and require closure of adjacent runways.

Source: Buch et al. (2003), Olidis et al. (2010), Ashtiani et al. (2010), Priddy et al. (2013), Tayabji et al. (2012),
and Chao (2018).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

40   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 15.   Examples of precast slab installations for airfields.

Panel Type Description Imagea

Bottom dowel Precast slabs with bottom slots in the transverse joint
slots faces of the slab to give room for the load-transfer
dowel bars. Screws are used to adjust the final slab
elevation, and grout is injected underneath the slab.
This method can be used for single or multiple
connected panel repairs.

Top dowel Precast slabs with top slots in the transverse joint
slots faces of the slab to give room for the load-transfer
dowel bars. Screw-type leveling pads are used to
adjust final slab elevation, and grout is injected
underneath the slab. This method can be used for
single or multiple connected panel repairs.

ERDCb Consists of a standard panel with dowel bars at the

standard middepth along both transverse edges and a second,
panel or “terminal,” panel that has dowels in only one of the
edges, while the other transverse edge has dowel
receptacles for connecting it to a standard panel. The
system uses a flowable fill or foam injection as a
leveling course and to provide uniform support.

a Row 1: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.; Row 2: Shiraz Tayabji; Row 3: Ashtiani et al. 2010.
b Priddy et al. (2013).

• Existing pavement structure;

• Feasibility of transporting and placing large, heavy panels or ability to manufacture panels on
or near site and place them; and
• Local availability of experienced contractors and precast yards.

A more detailed description of precast slab repair methods is found elsewhere (Olidis et al.
2010, Ashtiani et al. 2010, Priddy et al. 2013, Smith and Snyder 2019). Given the complexity
of these systems, they require independent engineering analysis and design for each project.
Table 15 presents a few examples of precast installations that have been used for airfield
pavements.

Candidate Distresses and Conditions

FDR is warranted when other methods (e.g., PDR, diamond grinding) can no longer be
used to repair distresses effectively. In most cases, the distresses have severely diminished the
structural integrity (i.e., load-carrying capacity) of the slab. The following pavement distresses
are considered candidates for FDR [American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA) 1995,
Smith et al. 2014, FAA 2014b, and U.S. DOD 2018]:
• Corner breaks (low, medium, and high severity);
• Blowups;

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   41

• Transverse and longitudinal cracking (medium to high severity) or shattered slabs;

• High-severity spalling or exposure of dowel bars;
• Severe joint deterioration that is not a candidate for PDR;
• Deterioration of existing repairs or adjacent to existing repairs (medium to high severity);
• Deteriorated utility cuts or can lights; and
• Materials-related distresses, such as alkali–silica reactivity, or medium- and high-severity
D-cracking (as a stopgap measure).
Figure 19 illustrates some of the common distresses that are candidates for FDR. Note that
FDR may only provide a temporary solution when severe materials-related distresses (e.g.,
alkali–silica reactivity) or freeze–thaw distresses (e.g., D-cracking) are widespread. In these
cases, FDR can be used to replace slab areas that pose a safety or operational hazard to aircraft
in anticipation of a future, larger rehabilitation project. Concrete pavements exhibiting severe
structural deterioration over an entire project or facility may be better suited for structural
overlay or reconstruction.

Material Selection
Material selection requirements vary somewhat between cast-in-place and precast FDRs,
as described below.

Cast-in-Place Repairs
Following are some of the factors to consider for cast-in-place materials:
• Material strength gain required to complete work during the closure window after completion
of other required FDR work items (e.g., demolition and removal of concrete, grade preparation,
placing concrete).
• Material costs, which generally increase with increased rate of strength gain.
• Effect on unit repair costs of FDR repair size and project size (number of slabs to be replaced),
larger repairs and larger projects typically being more cost-effective. Repair size can also
affect the time required to complete each repair, in turn affecting productivity during short
work windows.
• Effect of the temperature and weather conditions anticipated during placement and curing on
the selection of the repair material. General climate conditions, such as freeze–thaw cycling,
can rule out the use of some aggregates and other materials.
• Trade-offs between physical and mechanical properties of different repair materials (e.g.,
increases in early strength may correspond with increased shrinkage and reduced durability).
• Experience working with the material.
• Material performance (historical or as reported by other users).
FAA AC 150/5380-6C (FAA 2014b) discusses the use of P-501 cement concrete pavement
or state DOT materials for FDR. The P-501 specification states that state DOT materials
are allowable for use on pavements for aircraft weighting less than 60,000 pounds. The U.S.
DOD O&M Manual (2018) also indicates conventional concrete (ASTM C150 Portland
Cement Type I–based mixes) are typically used but also discusses the use of ASTM C150
Portland Cement Type III–based mixes and proprietary materials for early opening to traffic
requirements.
The allowable closure time is often a driving factor in the selection of materials for cast-
in-place repairs. In general, it is better to use the least exotic material that meets opening-to-
traffic requirements. A conventional ASTM C150 Type I cement mix could take several days to

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 19.   Candidate distresses for full-depth repair: (a) corner breaks, (b) cracking (transverse or
longitudinal), (c) shattered slab, (d) damage from alkali–silica reactivity (stopgap repair), and (e) widespread
D-cracking (stopgap repair).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   43

achieve adequate strength for opening to traffic. Concrete featuring either ASTM C150 Portland
Cement Type I or Portland Cement Type III is commonly used with other mix design modifica-
tions and can produce mixtures that are suitable for opening to traffic in as little as 6 to 8 hours.
For earlier opening times, ESC mixtures using calcium aluminate or CSA cements can be used
to meet strength requirements in as little as 2 to 4 hours (Priddy 2015).
To achieve early strength gain in conventional concrete mixtures, the use of chemical admix-
tures is common. These include accelerators and normal-range and high-range water-reducing
admixtures. Note that calcium chloride or admixtures containing calcium chloride, as well as
high-range water-reducing admixtures, are not permitted under Item P-501 “Cement Concrete
Pavement,” in FAA AC 150/5370-10H, Standard Specifications for Construction of Airports
(FAA 2018).
Examples of the range in mixture proportions for different time-to-opening requirements are
summarized in Table 16.
Because ESC mixes typically contain higher cement contents and multiple admixtures, it is not
uncommon for them to experience increased shrinkage, altered microstructure, and unexpected
interactions (Van Dam et al. 2005). As a result, the long-term durability of these mixtures is
potentially at risk.
Several proprietary VHES cements (ASTM C1600) are commercially available. These specialty
cements (e.g., CSA) can provide VHES to meet short time-to-opening time frames (<4 hours).
Rapid-strength cements are typically more costly and can pose a challenge in handling and
placing. These materials can be very sensitive to the weather conditions during installation and
curing. For a new project—even if the construction crews have experience working with these
materials—personnel should demonstrate their ability to properly install the materials off-site
or should start work on the least-critical areas (e.g., aprons) before moving to critical areas
(e.g., runways).

Precast Slabs
The most common material for precast slabs is conventional or accelerated portland
cement concrete. Usually, the design strength requirements are the same as those for the
existing concrete pavement, although early strength is often accelerated to facilitate stripping
of forms. Conventional concrete is typically used because the slabs are produced before being
hauled to the installation site. Precast slabs are also typically reinforced with deformed bars
to control cracking that may occur during transport and handling and can be prestressed to
reduce load-related stresses and associated cracking.

Table 16.   Typical constituent materials proportions for portland

cement–based early-strength concrete mixtures.

Proportion, by Time to Opening

Mixture Parameter 4–6 h 6–8 h 20–24 h
Cement type I or III I or III I or III
Cement content (lb/yd3) 650–895 715–885 675–800
w/cm ratio 0.38–0.40 0.36–0.40 0.40–0.43
Accelerator Yes Yes Yes or No

Note: w/cm = water to cement.

Source: Smith et al. (2014).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

44   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Design
The design process for FDR can vary in terms of the extent and nature of the repair (i.e., one
slab versus multiple slabs, emergency versus nonemergency use). In some cases, standard details
may be sufficient (e.g., emergency replacement of one slab) whereas specific plans and speci-
fications may be necessary for larger projects. With FDR, alternative designs should also be
considered and evaluated with respect to the need for accelerated construction (i.e., repairs to an
apron pavement may be performed over a longer closure than repairs to a taxiway or runway).
It is important to understand the existing pavement conditions as well as the extent of repairs
to appropriately plan FDR.

Cast-in-Place Repairs
Design considerations, particularly for larger cast-in-place FDR projects, include the following:
• Material requirements: Conventional materials can be used [FAA AC 150/5380-6C (FAA
2014b) references P-501 cement concrete pavement or state DOT materials], with the time
allowed for strength gain being the major consideration. High-cement-content accelerated
conventional mixes with a low w/cm ratio can achieve strengths relatively quickly but may
exhibit shrinkage and early-age cracking. Proprietary materials can achieve strengths very
quickly with use based on the manufacturer’s recommendations. Contractor experience is
very important when unconventional materials are being used.
• Provisions for incentives/disincentives when repairs have an impact on critical airport
operations: Provide monetary incentives for early completion. Penalties for not returning
pavement to service are generally much more severe for runways (e.g., $500/minute) but can
be applied to other areas if they are critical to airport operations.
• QC/QA: QC/QA for FDR procedures often follows standard specifications [such as P-501
cement concrete pavement (FAA 2018)] because quantities are greater (and, therefore, more
controllable) than for typical PDR projects. Onsite inspectors and material testing technicians
must be trained or have experience preparing beam specimens with VHES, if used. Additional
test specimens or alternative strength measurement tests (such as maturity meters) need to be
considered if short closure time frames are involved.
• Opening-to-traffic requirements: Opening to traffic should be based on strength gain.
The time allowed to achieve the required strength will depend on the allowable closure (e.g.,
strength needs to be achieved in less than 4 hours or in 24 hours or more). Some materials
may set so quickly that time can be an indicator, but strength should ultimately be veri-
fied. Environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity) may affect or alter the rate of
strength gain.
• Provision for a preconstruction conference: It is advisable to hold a preconstruction meeting
prior to closing pavement areas and allowing construction work to proceed. Establishing
work methods and personnel responsibilities is significant to the success of FDR projects,
and just-in-time training is extremely useful, especially when proprietary materials are being
used. Construction of a repair demonstration (or test strip) on a noncritical pavement area
(or off-site) is also suggested, particularly when new concrete materials or ESC are being used.
Contractor experience (beyond experience with the materials) is also important when trying
to coordinate and carry out rapid FDR projects in an area of aircraft operations.
• Slab size requirements: For corner breaks and partial-slab repairs, FAA AC 150/5380-6C
(FAA 2014b) indicates saw cuts be made at least 2 feet beyond the observed limits of damage.
The U.S. DOD O&M Manual (2018) indicates that saw cuts should be a minimum of 3 feet
from a joint. If the slab width is less than 20 feet, or if there are full-depth cracks within the
interior area of the slab, full-width slab repair is required. The manual also indicates 10 feet

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   45

as the minimum repair dimension for airfield applications, to avoid rocking and pumping of
the repair.
• Joint considerations (doweling and tying): Load transfer needs to be provided at joints
within large FDR areas and to reestablish joints with adjacent pavement. Load-transfer type
(typically dowel or tie bar), size, and location need to be included. Details for installation—
particularly drilling, alignment, and grouting—also need to be included.
The planning and design process needs to consider what-ifs and develop appropriate contin-
gencies. While not an exhaustive list, the following things should be considered:
• Backup equipment and alternative sources of material production: All airports inter-
viewed indicated the need for backup equipment and materials so that production facilities
can avoid potential delays (or even not finishing the work within the required closure) due to
equipment breakdown. Having backup supplies (e.g., dowel bars, PDR material) is also useful
in the case of damage to adjacent concrete slabs or if the need to address unknown conditions
(i.e., extend repair into an adjacent slab) arises.
• Weather monitoring and mitigation: Ideally, FDR work should be scheduled during periods
with historically acceptable weather for concrete placement. One agency interviewed had
sufficient canopies to erect over the repair so work could continue during rain, if necessary.
This is less of an issue for precast FDRs.
• Alternate methods of reestablishing pavement surface: Some airports use precast slabs
as temporary (or emergency) pavement if repair cannot be completed during a single shift.
Alternate materials (such as asphalt) may also be considered.
In addition:
• Determine how utilities will be addressed: One survey respondent kept its in-pavement
lights by coring around them. The concrete was then chipped off the cans and new concrete
placed around the existing cans. Backup supplies can also be useful in case of damage to
utilities or unknown conditions.
• Plan site access and movement across the airfield well in advance: Haul time can become a
significant factor, especially with ESC.

Precast Slabs
Many of the design items discussed for cast-in-place FDR also apply to precast slab FDR.
Following are some of the differences:
• Precast slab FDR is mainly used for full-slab replacement on airfields, but joint replacements
are possible as well. Slabs are typically fabricated to produce approximately half-inch gaps
around the entire panel to facilitate installation. Slab thickness is typically 0.5 to 1 inch less
than the pavement being replaced; this allows for minor variations in slab thickness and
base elevation while providing a gap for installing fine aggregate, grout, or urethane bedding
material. Before fabrication and installation, the existing pavement thickness should be
verified by coring or nondestructive means [e.g., ground-penetrating radar (GPR)] to avoid
construction surprises.
• Typically, specially proportioned mixtures that use ordinary portland cement are used
for precast slabs. Early strength requirements are driven by the need to remove and reuse
forms for the next cast, typically in less than 24 hours. Precast concrete strength at installa-
tion is typically 5,000–6,000 pounds per square inch (psi)—far above typical design strength
requirements.
• Load-transfer is typically provided by dowels and tie bars, as required for the specific installa-
tion. For connections with existing adjacent panels, the dowels and tie bars are typically drilled

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

46   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

and anchored in the existing slabs, and the precast slabs (fabricated with bottom slots or full-
depth slots) are “dropped in” over the bars. Connections between multiple new precast slabs
can involve slots in one panel and embedded dowels in the other. Alternatively, plain panels
can be installed and dowels can be retrofit into slots cut across the joints with adjacent panels.
Smith and Snyder (2019) provide details concerning precast dowel load-transfer systems. Panel
reinforcement and embedment (e.g., lift-pins) needs to be designed appropriately.
• Precast slab reinforcement and embedment (e.g., lift-pins, embedded jacks, grout ports, slot
formers, etc.) needs to be designed appropriately.
• Addressing in-pavement lighting (or other utilities) requires additional planning to ensure
proper lighting alignment after installation. Note that lighting alignment will depend on
both the installation of the can in the panel and on the proper elevation and rotation of the
panel at installation. One project included in this study used two-piece cans and developed
a solution for connecting the two pieces after panel placement. Another used adjustable
light cans.
• Establishment of haul routes and site access must consider the ability to transport slabs from
the fabrication area to the repair site, including the maximum width permitted along the
transport route. Full-sized airfield panels typically cannot be transported over roads, so other
transport and/or fabrication options must be considered.
• Backup equipment should include lifting cranes (or other equipment) needed to place the
precast slabs. The impact of crane height to adjacent runway operation must be considered.

Construction
The generalized FDR construction procedure for cast-in-place includes (Hajek et al. 2011,
Smith et al. 2014, FAA 2014b, U.S. DOD 2018):
1. Select repair location and mark boundaries.
2. Saw the repair boundaries and remove the damaged concrete without damaging the adjacent
slabs to remain. Typically, 2 closely spaced parallel saw cuts are used at each boundary to
minimize the chance of damaging the remaining concrete.
3. Restore the base, subgrade, and subdrains.
4. Restore the load-transfer system across the joints.
5. Replace any reinforcement.
6. Restore any expansion joints.
7. Place the new concrete.
8. Finish and texture to match the existing concrete.
9. Cure the concrete using the appropriate method.
10. Optional: perform diamond grinding.
11. Seal joints.
12. Open to traffic after proper curing.
Preparation for precast FDR is quite similar through the removal steps. The following
are general guidelines for precast concrete slab construction (Tayabji et al. 2009, Smith and
Snyder 2019):
1. Determine the dimensions of the repaired area; this dictates the necessary panel size. This
might not be possible for some larger repair areas (such as 25-foot by 25-foot slabs) due to
limitations in transporting and placing such large, heavy precast slabs. Use of large cranes
to place large precast slabs may also have limitations due to FAR Part 77 requirements.
2. Verify the existing concrete pavement thickness. It is suggested that the precast slab be 0.5 to
1.0 inch thinner than existing concrete to allow for variations in the thickness of the existing
pavement/elevation of the base and to allow room for leveling.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   47

3. Install saw cuts parallel and perpendicular to the center line; care must be taken to ensure
panel fit. Typically, 2 closely spaced parallel cuts are made per boundary.
4. Place bedding materials according to precast system requirements.
5. Install load-transfer mechanisms as designed for the project.
6. Provide an expansion cap at one end of each dowel. This step is not done if slab gaps are
filled with structural grout as is done in many applications.
7. Control dowel alignment with proper installation and cages. The use of narrow slots makes
panel installation more difficult.
8. If possible, multitask during the installation process to reduce construction time.
9. If necessary, after installation, grind the surface to ensure a smooth ride. Seal transverse and
longitudinal joints.

Boundary Selection and Marking

Selection of repair boundaries for airfield FDR typically includes the following considerations
(Hajek et al. 2011, Smith et al. 2014, U.S. DOD 2018):
• Full-width slab replacement is required if the original slab width is less than 20 feet.
• Boundaries should encompass all deteriorated concrete and deteriorated subsurface layers.
• It is not unusual for deterioration at the bottom of the slab to extend beyond what is visible on
the surface, especially near the joints (Figure 20). The limits of deterioration can be determined
by representative coring or nondestructive testing (e.g., ground-penetrating radar).
Repair boundaries should be marked in advance in highly visible marking paint, as shown in
Figure 21.

Concrete Demolition and Removal

Removal of the existing pavement can be very time-consuming. There are basically two
methods for removal: the lift-out method and breakup-and-clean-out method.
• Lift-out method: The lift-out method is usually faster and less damaging to the subbase,
and is advisable whenever possible. Slabs are cut into manageably sized pieces to facilitate
removal. Holes are drilled into the slab pieces and lift-pins inserted. Then the slab pieces are
lifted out and placed on a truck by means of a crane or other construction equipment with
steel chains connected to the lift-pins. An alternate lifting method is to use a vacuum-based
slab lifter. To minimize damage to the adjacent slabs during lift-out operations, additional
saw cuts can be made a few inches from and parallel to the repair boundaries and the wedges

Source: Smith et al. (2014).

Figure 20.   Visual pavement deterioration

at top and potential damage to the bottom.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

48   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 21.   Example of marked full-depth repair

boundaries.

of concrete removed to provide additional clearance during slab removal. This method is
suggested when damage to adjacent slabs and subbase must be avoided. Wood shims can be
wedged into saw cuts to minimize any rocking and potential spalling of adjacent pavement
during removal.
• Breakup-and-clean-out method: The breakup-and-clean-out method uses concrete breaking
equipment (typically jackhammers) to completely break the concrete into smaller, manage-
able pieces. This method should be avoided for slab replacements because it can damage
adjacent slabs and results in disturbance to the base. However, this method must often be
used when joints or slabs are so severely deteriorated that the lift-out method cannot be used.
Furthermore, this method is used when damage to the base is not a critical concern or if only
a few slabs are being repaired.
Most of the airports contacted for this study have used the lift-out method with established
sawing procedures (Figure 22). Sawing is often performed by using a set pattern that provides
a narrower band around the perimeter to minimize the risk of damaging the adjacent pave-
ment. Some agencies specify the use of angled interior cuts to facilitate removal. Most feel that
overruns during sawing should also be avoided. One agency requires that a piece of steel plate
be placed along the joint to prevent oversawing. Concrete chainsaws are a possible option in
corners to avoid overruns (Figure 22).
To expedite construction, many airports allow concrete sawing to be performed during a
separate closure ahead of the closure for the pavement removal and replacement. The saw cut
pattern is adjusted to avoid saw cuts near cracks, so as to avoid the creation of potential generators
of FOD. An important step in allowing saw cutting to occur during an earlier closure is to have
the pavement cleaned of sawing slurry prior to reopening. One airport turns to both in-house
maintenance and ARFF personnel to help with saw slurry cleanup when needed, as they can
quickly mobilize equipment when there is an urgent need.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   49

Source: (a) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd., and (b) Applied Pavement Technology, Inc.

Figure 22.   Concrete demolition and removal: (a) lift-out method (wood shims are installed at slab edges
to minimize damage to adjacent slabs) and (b) concrete chainsaw used to minimize saw cut overrun.

With the lift-out method, stabilized base material may be bound to the bottom of the pavement
slab. One airport found that applying a dynamic load (not sufficient to break the pavement)
could break the bond during removal.
All demolition debris needs to be removed prior to continuation of grade preparation.

Site Preparation
Cast-in-Place Repairs
If removal of the distressed pavement damages the base, it may be necessary to add new
material that must be graded and compacted (Van Dam et al. 2005). As determined by the
project engineer, if the repair area is too wet, it should be properly dried (ACPA 1995, Smith
at al. 2014, U.S. DOD 2018). In some cases, extremely weak subgrade may need to be reme-
diated. Loose base material must be removed prior to placement of the repair material, as
long-term performance is dependent on the soundness or stability of the existing base or
subgrade material.
An alternative to using conventional backfill material is the use of flowable fill material
(Smith et al. 2014). Flowable fill materials are easily placed; can be readily removed later, if needed;
do not need to be compacted; and have sufficient compressive strength to provide acceptable
support to prevent settlement. Flowable fill material is typically composed of portland cement,
fly ash, 0.5-inch coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and water.
Means to trim the base (or subgrade) need to be available in the event the base is found to be
too high (>1 inch). Different equipment, including a small milling machine or excavator, can
be utilized, depending on the geometry of the repair and type of base material. Layer thickness
tolerances in the FAA P-501 specification (FAA 2018) should be considered for assessing the
need to trim the base prior to placing concrete.
In the case of drainable bases, minor damage (e.g., <10% of the area) could be repaired with
nondrainable material. If there is significant damage to a drainable base, similar material should
be used for the repair.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

50   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Precast Slabs
For precast FDR, base preparation is generally dependent on the system or supplier being
used. The same care for base repair and trimming necessary for cast-in-place repairs should
be applied to the base for precast slabs. The thickness of the precast slab is often designed
to be thinner than that of the existing slab (unless the slab will be ground flush following
installation), and the gap between the base and the slab bottom must be filled with bedding
material. Common bedding materials used to fill the gap between the leveled base and flat slab
bottom include a thin layer of sand, flowable fill, grout, or polyurethane foam. Base preparation
for precast slab FDR is much more critical than for cast-in-place FDR, because the base will
determine the resulting grade of the slab surface. In some cases, extremely weak subgrade
may need to be remediated.
If the base is found to be too high, part of it can be removed. A small milling machine or
excavator can be utilized for this purpose, depending on the geometry of the repair and the type
of base material.

Load-Transfer Restoration
Cast-in-Place Repairs
FDR typically requires restoration of load transfer to avoid differential movement that can
cause spalling, rocking, pumping, faulting, and breakup of the FDR or adjacent slabs. Following
are some key suggestions:
• Use smooth dowel bars along all edges with existing pavement (full-slab replacement).
• An exception to the previous suggestion is given in FAA AC 150/5380-6C (2014b) and
in the U.S. DOD O&M Manual (2018). These guidelines allow use of tie bars at appropriate
locations, such as nonworking joints (e.g., an inner panel joint for a partial-slab replacement)
and crack locations. On aprons, dowels are often used at all joints because aircraft loadings
may occur in multiple directions.
• Dowels and tie bars are installed into the existing pavement as follows:
– Verify slab faces are vertical and in sound condition.
– Drill holes (avoiding existing embedded steel) with gang-mounted pneumatic drills,
maintaining proper horizontal and vertical alignment.
– Clean out drilled holes and ensure proper anchoring of the dowels (Figure 23) or tie bars.
Either cement grout or two-component epoxy material can be used to anchor the dowels,
and it is important that the material be effectively distributed around the circumference
of the dowel.

Source: Smith et al. (2014).

Figure 23.   Schematic of properly anchored dowel.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   51

Source: (a) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd., and (b) C&S Engineers, Inc.

Figure 24.   Load-transfer restoration: (a) full-slab replacement using smooth,

anchored dowel bars at all joint faces and (b) partial-slab replacement using smooth
dowel bars at existing joints and tie bars at the inner panel joint interface.

Figure 24 provides an example of load-transfer restoration using smooth, anchored dowel

bars and tie bars.

Precast Slabs
Load-transfer restoration for precast FDR is based on the system being used. Load-transfer
design and installation needs to be coordinated with the supplier or producer but will typically
involve either cutting slots or drilling and anchoring dowels in the adjacent pavement for the
load-transfer system.

Placement and Finishing

Cast-in-Place Repairs
Preparation of conventional concrete for use in FDR is similar to that used for conventional
paving operations. However, if VHES or HES concrete is used, the batching and placement time
must be significantly shorter and may require the use of automated volumetric mixers that batch
and mix the concrete on-site. Proprietary materials should be produced and placed according
to the manufacturer’s recommendations. For VHES and HES concrete, the producer’s and
contractor’s experience with the material is critical to successful placement.
Placement of FDR materials often uses the edges of the existing pavement as forms, and the
concrete is placed, consolidated, and finished by hand. The workability of the mixture needs to
be appropriate for manual operations (i.e., more workable than a machine-placed mixture). The
contractor should ensure the concrete is well-consolidated around the edges, load-transfer devices,
and light cans by using spud vibrators without overvibration or overfinishing (Smith et al. 2014).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

52   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

It is important to finish concrete to a smooth, textured surface free of unevenness from the
paving process. A general guide for finishing includes the following guidance (U.S. DOD 2018):
• Use a straight edge to strike off repairs less than 10 feet (perpendicular to the pavement center-
line). Use a vibratory screed to strike off repairs longer than 10 feet (longitudinal direction).
• To avoid surface scaling and other durability problems, do not overfinish the concrete.
• Match the surface texture with that of the adjacent slabs.

Figure 25 shows a schematic of typical finishing techniques for repairs shorter and longer
than 10 feet.

Precast Slabs
Precast slabs for airport applications are often fabricated at an on-site location in advance
of construction to ensure that an adequate inventory of slabs exists before work proceeds.
Full three-dimensional surveys are often obtained to accurately establish panel dimensions and
surface geometry/warping before fabrication begins. Placement and finishing are performed
in casting beds, usually with conventional placement techniques. Fabrication of the precast
slabs needs to consider reinforcing steel; load-transfer devices; lifting lugs; embedded jacks;
grout injection ports; grout distribution channels (if any); slot formers; and in-pavement light-
ing, if included. The contractor will need to ensure that an adequate number of precast slabs is
backlogged before construction begins. Repair area dimensions must be accurately addressed
during the fabrication of precast slabs.

Curing
As with PDR, curing is important to FDR to ensure concrete strength gain. Following are key
suggestions for proper curing practices (Smith et al. 2014, U.S. DOD 2018):
• The approved curing procedure should be started as soon as the bleed water has dissipated
from the surface of the concrete.
• Curing methods to retain water include impervious paper, pigmented curing membrane,
wet burlap, or polyethylene sheeting. The use of a white-pigmented curing compound
(ASTM C309 Type 2) is most common, with typical application rates between 100 and

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 25.   Finishing schematics for patches less

than and greater than 10 feet long.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   53

200 square feet per gallon to retain moisture. PAMS curing compounds (ASTM C309 Type 2,
Class B) are typically more expensive than wax- and water-based compounds but are more
effective at retaining water and should be considered.
• For concrete with an early opening to traffic and concrete placed under low temperatures,
insulation blankets can be used to keep the internal temperature of the concrete high. This
accelerates the rate of hydration, which results in a rapid strength gain. For conventional
concrete, insulation blankets can be used when the ambient temperature is low (<48°F), the
winds are high, or both (American Concrete Institute 2016).
Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary products if curing methods
differ from traditional methods.
After curing, joints are prepared and sealed. Joint sealing operations can typically be
performed during a subsequent closure following the sealant manufacturer’s recommendations
if minimum curing requirements exist.
Conventional curing methods are generally used for precast FDR at the place of fabrication.
In some cases, external heat is applied to accelerate strength gain.

Pavement Grinding and Grooving

The finished concrete surface should be level with the surface profile of adjacent slabs. However,
these repairs may result in increased roughness, and diamond grinding is often performed to
restore rideability and create a smooth pavement (Smith et al. 2014). The FAA’s P-501 cement
concrete pavement specification indicates that variances greater than 0.25 inch in 12 feet should
be diamond ground, as this difference may allow water to pond and thereby increase the risk of
aircraft hydroplaning (FAA 2018).
For existing grooved surfaces (primarily runways), grooving should be reestablished in
accordance with FAA AC 150/5320-12C, Measurement, Construction, and Maintenance of Skid-
Resistant Airport Pavement Surfaces (FAA 1997). Care should be taken to match adjacent grooves
and to not extend new grooving into adjacent slabs. Grooving can typically be performed during
a separate closure after completion of the primary FDR work. Proper cleanup after grooving is
an important step before reopening to traffic.

Joint Resealing and Marking

Following grooving, joints should be sawed to the proper width and cleaned, and a backer rod
should be inserted to the correct depth to create the sealant reservoir. Joint sealant is placed in
accordance with specifications and the manufacturer’s recommendations.
FDR of large pavement areas can create the need to replace pavement markings and/or
provide temporary pavement markings. FAA AC 150/5370-10H (FAA 2018) provides compre-
hensive guidance on temporary and permanent pavement markings.

Opening to Traffic
Cast-in-Place Repairs
There are two methods for determining when FDRs can be opened to traffic:
• Specified minimum strength (typically 550 psi flexural strength for aircraft loading) or
• Specified minimum time after completion of the repair (varies depending on material type).

The logistics of measuring strength is difficult, especially for VHES materials. An alterna-
tive method of assessing strength gain, such as ASTM C1074, Standard Practice for Estimating
Strength by the Maturity Method, could be considered.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

54   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

FAA AC 150/5370-16 (FAA 2007) states that a thorough inspection [by the (airport’s) project
manager] should be done prior to reopening pavement to aircraft operations. The project
manager must ensure all items meet the following requirements:
• Construction materials have been secured.
• Concrete has met the required opening strength.
• All pavement surfaces have been cleaned and construction debris removed.
• All surfaces have been marked for safe aircraft operation.
Good communications must be established by airport operations to maintain good coordi-
nation for closures and reopening. Also refer to FAA AC 150/5370-2G, Operational Safety on
Airports During Construction (FAA 2017).
Figure 26 shows examples of completed cast-in-place FDRs at airfield facilities.

Source: (a–c) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd., and (d) Rummel Construction.

Figure 26.   Examples of completed cast-in-place full-depth repairs: (a) full slabs, (b) partial slabs, (c) full slabs,
and (d) replacement of in-pavement light.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   55

Precast Slabs
Precast FDRs do not have the concern of concrete curing. While the grout for the load-transfer
system needs to achieve the required strength, it is typically a VHES material. Otherwise, the
general cleanup items are as noted above.

Full-Depth Repair Assessment Tool

Figure 27 and the associated tables (Tables 17–19) present a framework for assessing some
of the key variables considered during planning for and completing FDRs. This tool provides
users with practical guidance on feasible techniques for repair of concrete pavement for a
variety of facilities and closure times.
Figure 27 presents a decision tree for identifying the location of the planned FDR.
1. Select the facility on which the FDR will be completed (i.e., runway, taxiway, or apron).
2. Identify the relative operational priority of the repair area (e.g., runway intersection, runway
safety area).
3. Determine how much time is available to do the work. Closure time is divided into three
groups:
– Less than 8 hours (equivalent to an overnight closure),
– 8 to 24 hours (equivalent to a 1-day closure), and
– 24 to 60 hours (equivalent to a weekend closure).
In many instances, work can be scaled to fit into the available closure time. That is, if a closure
of less than 8 hours is the only available option for a given material and preparation method,
the number of repairs may be limited in a given closure window to ensure all repair areas have
achieved the required strength at the time of opening. Similarly, with longer closure time, a more
conventional repair material can be used. Longer closure times also permit a higher production
rate, as more time is available to work under a single mobilization.
Each set of decisions leads to a table that summarizes the planning and construction considera­
tions associated with the resulting box in Figure 27 (see Table 17 for FDR 1, Table 18 for FDR 2,
and Table 19 for FDR 3).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

 Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Note: See Table 17, Table 18, and Table 19 for FDR 1, FDR 2, and FDR 3, respectively.
1Some taxiway connectors could remain closed to allow for longer curing times as long as work is completed within the allowable closure window.

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure 27.   Full-depth repair decision framework.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   57

Table 17.   Summary of FDR 1 decisions.

FDR 1 (<8 hours)

Preparation

Repair types • Partial slab: Encompass all deteriorated concrete and underlying layers (deterioration at
and location the bottom of the slab can extend as much as 3 feet from visible surface distress).
• Full slab: Extend repair to slab edges or include adjacent slabs if sound concrete is not
present.
• Consider closure time and placement rate in selecting quantity of repairs and ensure the
final repair placed during the closure will be able to achieve the required strength at the
time of opening.

Material • Allowable closure time can dictate whether VHES materials are needed. Use the most
selection conventional material that meets opening-to-traffic requirements.
• Consider climatic conditions and temperature during placement and curing.
• Precast slabs are a candidate.
• Planning and coordination with precast supplier (panel sizes, locations, characteristics) is
required.
• Preproject fabrication and stockpiling of panels are required.

Repair • Partial-slab repairs allowed.

boundaries • Minimum width of 3 feet from joint.
• Minimum length of 10 feet.
• If repair extends over half the length of the panel, full-slab replacement is advised.

Demolition/Removal

Removal • Before removal, saw cut boundaries.

method • Saw cut in advance to allow earlier closure (but no more than 1 or 2 days in advance).
• Avoid saw cut overruns.
• Consider shims to minimize slab rocking between closures, if needed.
• Adjust saw cut pattern for existing cracks.
• An additional saw cut at a specified offset (e.g., 4 inches) into the slab is done to avoid
damaging adjacent slabs during removal.
• Angle interior saw cuts to ease removal of center piece.
• Lift-out method usually minimizes risk of damage to adjacent pavement.

Sublayer repair • Compact with a plate compactor.

• If excess moisture is present, remove or dry it before grading and compaction.
• Option to replace some or all disturbed material with rapid strength flowable fill or lean
concrete (with bond breaker).
• Use geogrid if poor-quality layers are encountered.
• Have means to trim stabilized materials, if needed.

Load-transfer • Dowel bar or tie bar size and spacing vary.

restoration and • Dowel bars or tie bars along joints and edges tying into the existing pavement (except
reinforcement when an isolation joint is warranted).
• Maintain proper horizontal and vertical alignment of dowels.
• Ensure proper anchoring of dowels.
• Provide reinforcement for odd-shaped slabs.

Material Mixing and Placement

Mixing and • May require the use of automated volumetric mixers that batch and mix concrete on-site.
placement • If conventional concrete mixes are being used, follow standard mixing and placement
practice, including consolidation with internal spud vibration.
• Make sure the concrete is well-consolidated around the edges without over-finishing.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

(continued on next page)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

58   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 17.  (Continued).

FDR 1 (<8 hours)

Finishing • Use a vibratory screed if replacement slab is more than 10 feet long.
• Use a straight edge if replacement slab is less than 10 feet long.
• Do not over-finish concrete.
• Match texture with adjacent slabs.

Curing • Start curing as soon as the bleed water has dissipated from the surface of the concrete.
• Use the approved curing method, such as a white-pigmented curing compound.
• When warranted, use insulation blankets to maintain strength gain and protect concrete
during cold weather.

Joint sealing • Saw the transverse and longitudinal joint sealant reservoirs of the repair area (do not form
reservoirs with insert).
• Seal transverse and longitudinal joints around the perimeter of the patched area. Note:
Joint sealing performed during separate closure.

Opening to Traffic

Compressive • 3,500 psi for aircraft loading.

strength

Flexural strength • 550 psi for aircraft loading.

Other • Maturity testing as alternative for opening criteria.

• Consider whether direct traffic loadings will be likely (i.e., only require strength for an
emergency loading as opposed to continuous traffic).

Table 18.   Summary of FDR 2 decisions.

FDR 2 (8–24 hours)

Preparation

Repair types and • Partial slab: Encompass all deteriorated concrete and underlying layers (deterioration at
location the bottom of the slab can extend as much as 3 feet from visible surface distress).
• Full slab: extend repair to slab edges or include adjacent slabs if sound concrete is not
present.
• Consider closure time and placement rate in selecting quantity of repairs and ensure that
final repair placed during the closure will be able to achieve the required strength at the
time of opening.

Material selection • Allowable closure time, high-early or moderate-early materials may be needed. Use the
most conventional material that meets opening-to-traffic requirements; accelerated
conventional concrete is most widely used material.
• Consider climatic conditions and temperature during placement and curing.

Repair • Partial-slab repairs allowed.

boundaries • Minimum width of 3 feet from joint.
• Minimum length of 10 feet.
• If repair extends over half length of the panel, full-slab replacement is advised.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   59

Table 18.  (Continued).

FDR 2 (8–24 hours)

Demolition/Removal

Removal method • Before removal, saw cut boundaries.

• Saw cut in advance to allow earlier closure (but no more than 1 or 2 days in advance).
• Avoid saw cut overruns.
• Consider shims to minimize slab rocking between closures, if needed.
• Adjust saw cut pattern for existing cracks.
• Consider an additional saw cut at a specified offset (e.g., 4 inches) into the slab to avoid
damaging adjacent slabs during removal.
• Angle interior saw cuts to ease center piece removal.
• Lift-out method usually minimizes risk of damage to adjacent pavement.

Sublayer repair • Compact with a plate compactor.

• If excess moisture is present, remove or dry it before grading and compaction.
• Option to replace some or all disturbed material with rapid strength flowable fill or lean
concrete (with bond breaker).
• Use geogrid if poor-quality layers are encountered.
• Have means to trim stabilized materials, if needed.

Load-transfer • Dowel bar or tie bar size and spacing varies.

restoration and • Dowel bars or tie bars along joints and edges tying into the existing pavement (except
reinforcement when an isolation joint is warranted).
• Maintain proper horizontal and vertical alignment of dowels.
• Ensure proper anchoring of dowels.
• Provide reinforcement for odd-shaped slabs.

Material Mixing and Placement

Mix and • Follow standard mixing and placement practice for conventional concrete mixes,
placement including consolidation with internal spud vibration.
• Make sure the concrete is well-consolidated around the edges without over-finishing.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Finishing • Use a vibratory screed if replacement slab is more than 10 feet long.
• Use a straight edge if replacement slab is less than 10 feet long.
• Do not over-finish concrete.
• Match texture with adjacent slabs.

Curing • Start curing as soon as the bleed water has dissipated from the surface of the concrete.
• Use the approved curing method, such as a white-pigmented curing compound.
• When warranted, use insulation blankets to maintain strength gain and protect concrete
during cold weather.

Joint sealing • Saw the transverse and longitudinal joint sealant reservoirs of the repair area (do not
form reservoirs with insert).
• Seal transverse and longitudinal joints around the perimeter of the patched area. Note:
Joint sealing performed during separate closure.

Opening to Traffic

Compressive • 3,500 psi for aircraft loading.

strength

Flexural strength • 550 psi for aircraft loading.

Other • Maturity testing as alternative for opening criteria.

• Consider whether direct traffic loadings will be likely (i.e., only require strength for an
emergency loading opposed to continuous traffic).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

60   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table 19.   Summary of FDR 3 decisions.

FDR 3 (24–60 hours)

Preparation

Repair types • Partial slab: encompass all deteriorated concrete and underlying layers (deterioration at
and location the bottom of the slab can extend as much as 3 feet from visible surface distress).
• Full slab: extend repair to slab edges or include adjacent slabs if sound concrete is not
present.
• Consider closure time and placement rate in selecting quantity of repairs and ensure that
final repair placed during the closure will be able to achieve the required strength at the
time of opening.

Material • For allowable closure time, slightly accelerated conventional concrete mix will likely meet
selection the opening requirements.
• Consider climatic conditions and temperature during placement and curing.

Repair • Partial-slab repairs allowed.

boundaries • Minimum width of 3 feet from joint.
• Minimum length of 10 feet.
• If repair extends over half length of the panel, full-slab replacement is advised.

Demolition/Removal

Removal • Before removal, saw cut boundaries.

method • Saw cut in advance to allow earlier closure (but no more than 1 or 2 days in advance).
• Avoid saw cut overruns.
• Consider shims to minimize slab rocking between closures, if needed.
• Adjust saw cut pattern for existing cracks.
• Consider an additional saw cut at a specified offset (e.g., 4 inches) into the slab to avoid
damaging adjacent slabs during removal.
• Angle interior saw cuts to ease removal of center piece.
• Lift-out method usually minimizes risk of damage to adjacent pavement.

Sublayer repair • Compact with a plate compactor.

• If excess moisture is present, remove or dry it before grading and compaction.
• Option to replace some or all disturbed material with rapid strength flowable fill or lean
concrete (with bond breaker).
• Use geogrid if poor-quality layers are encountered.
• Have means to trim stabilized materials, if needed.

Load-transfer • Dowel bar or tie bar size and spacing vary.

restoration and • Dowel bars or tie bars along joints and edges tying into the existing pavement (except
reinforcement when an isolation joint is warranted).
• Maintain proper horizontal and vertical alignment of dowels.
• Ensure proper anchoring of dowels.
• Provide reinforcement for odd-shaped slabs.

Material Mixing and Placement

Mix and • If conventional concrete mixes are being used, follow standard mixing and placement
placement practice, including consolidation.
• Make sure the concrete is well consolidated around the edges without over-finishing.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for proprietary materials.

Finishing • Use a vibratory screed if replacement slab is more than 10 feet long.
• Use a straight edge if replacement slab is less than 10 feet long.
• Do not over-finish concrete.
• Match texture with adjacent slabs.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Full-Depth Repair   61

Table 19.  (Continued).

FDR 3 (24–60 hours)

Curing • Start curing as soon as the bleed water has dissipated from the surface of the concrete.
• Use the approved curing method, such as a white-pigmented curing compound.
• When warranted, use insulation blankets to maintain strength gain and protect concrete
during cold weather.

Joint sealing • Saw the transverse and longitudinal joint sealant reservoirs of the repair area (do not form
reservoirs with insert).
• Seal transverse and longitudinal joints around the perimeter of the patched area. Note: Joint
sealing performed during separate closure.

Opening to Traffic

Compressive • 3,500 psi for aircraft loading.

strength

Flexural strength • 550 psi for aircraft loading.

Other • Maturity monitoring as alternative for opening criteria.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

CHAPTER 5

Conclusions

Proper maintenance and repair of concrete airfield pavements are critical to their longevity
and ability to safely support airport operations over their design life. However, these activities
can be costly and operationally disruptive, as they require closure of the pavement facility.
To minimize the construction impacts, airports of all sizes are relying on RSRR activities that
include PDR and FDR. FAA AC 150/5370-16, Rapid Construction of Rigid (Portland Cement
Concrete) Airfield Pavements (FAA 2007), addresses many key components and considerations
for accelerated concrete construction, but stops short of providing sufficient details or specific
methods to aid airport personnel or consulting engineers in making informed decisions.
Furthermore, AC 150/5370-16 focuses on larger areas of concrete replacement and provides
only limited information on individual slab replacement or smaller repairs. In addition, FAA
Item P-501, “Portland Cement Concrete Pavement” in AC 150/5370-10H, Standard Specifications
for Construction of Airports (FAA 2018), does not provide specifications for construction featur-
ing ESC or prepackaged repair materials used in RSRR projects.
This guidebook was developed to assist airport personnel and engineering consultants
in selecting and executing RSRR projects. A successful RSRR project requires attention to
all phases of the project, beginning with planning and ending with reopening the pavement to
aircraft after the construction is completed.
Stakeholder coordination, airfield facility closures, high construction costs, and lack of
experience with ESC repair materials are major challenges in RSRR. While the level of stake-
holder coordination and challenges with airfield facility closures vary across airports (by size
and function), high costs and lack of experience with these types of evolving materials are a
universal challenge. In general, large hub airports have good experience with RSRR, and some have
advanced, well-developed programs in place. Importantly, elements of their RSRR programs and
practices can easily be applied by smaller airports (e.g., nonhub primary and general aviation),
which are less likely to have RSRR experience.
The following lessons were learned from this study:
• The airports surveyed possess a wide range of experience, from planning to construction.
Respondents who reported no previous RSRR experience represented either nonhub primary
or general aviation airports.
• Stakeholder coordination and lack of skilled contractors and workforce are primary challenges.
While the level of stakeholder coordination varies across airports (by size and function), the
lack of skilled contractors and workforce is a universal challenge.
• Airports can minimize the need for emergency repairs by maintaining a good internal pave-
ment inspection program and utilizing the results of their pavement management system to
track deterioration and identify repair needs.

62

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Conclusions  63

• Stakeholder coordination throughout the process is essential. This includes all affected
parties, such as airport operations, airlines and cargo carriers, contractors, producers, and
testing firms. Communication should start from the earliest stages of planning and continue
daily through construction. Contingency planning to address unexpected circumstances is
important.
• The supplier should be included in the planning and construction processes. This is especially
critical if proprietary materials are being used. Material suppliers should provide training
to ensure crews are knowledgeable about specific requirements for material handling and
installation. Manufacturer’s recommendations should always be followed when working
with prepackaged PDR materials.
• Many airports reported that a design–bid–build process is the most effective way to deliver
RSRR projects.
• Using an existing design team or on-site contractor or both can accelerate the overall RSRR
process.
• Nearly all PDRs and FDRs are placed under nonemergency conditions and are typically
performed by contractors. When emergency PDRs are required, it is common to perform
temporary repairs in critical aircraft traffic areas (e.g., runways, taxiways). These repairs are
performed during short closures and replaced with permanent repairs when aircraft oper-
ations permit longer closure times.
• Permanent PDRs and FDRs should be constructed at the opportune time. Factors used to
determine construction timing include periods with lower aircraft traffic and more favorable
weather conditions for construction (i.e., not during hot summer months or seasonal times
of high precipitation). Coordination with stakeholders is required to minimize disruption to
airline operations.
• If possible, the construction time required for proper PDR and FDR installation should
govern the closure time. Although this is not always possible, airports should try to establish
the longest possible closure windows to provide the greatest amount of time to execute
quality repairs.
• Regardless of experience, contractors should be required to construct repair mock-ups off-site
prior to starting work on the airfield. Contractors should initiate on-site work on the least
critical areas of the airfield (i.e., apron and taxiway, then runway slabs) to gain experience
(or refamiliarize their crews) with accelerated airfield construction.
• In some cases, protecting existing concrete from damage during demolition is a challenge.
This should be carefully considered and methods developed to minimize damage prior to
full-scale construction.
• Attention to detail during construction is essential to obtaining quality repairs. This includes
monitoring the weather to ensure construction does not occur during adverse conditions.
• Prepackaged VHES or HES cementitious materials are the most frequently used materials for
PDR. Opening to traffic for PDRs is commonly based on time after placement, in accordance
with manufacturer recommendations.
• VHES or HES mixtures are often used for FDR. The opening times for FDRs are commonly
determined through flexural or compressive strength testing.
• For larger FDR projects, dedicated concrete batch plants should be located on-site or close
by with a dedicated gate provided for airfield access.
• The initial volume of concrete produced by some mobile equipment (e.g., volumetric mixer)
can have poor moisture control, which has a negative impact on workability. If possible,
modern mobile mixers with electronic control should be specified to address this problem.
• Providing the contractor with a secured area facilitates timely completion of the work.
• Maintaining safety and security during construction requires a significant commitment of
airport personnel.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

64   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

• Some airports rely heavily on local airport and contractor experience with repair materials
and methods, this knowledge having been developed over many years.
• Building on past experiences helps airports eliminate some of the risk associated with RSRR
projects. This includes both material selection and methods. New materials and methods
should be introduced cautiously, with localized experimentation before full-scale adoption.
• Airport satisfaction with RSRR performance is mixed, with shorter-than-expected service life
cited as the main reason for dissatisfaction.
When airports are carrying out initial RSRR projects, it is important that they set realistic
expectations and plan for issues to arise during the initial phases of construction. This guide-
book, the case examples in Appendix A, and the project examples in Appendix B can be used as
a starting point to develop RSRR strategies that meet the needs of individual airports.
This guidebook can be used in its entirety by airports that do not regularly carry out RSRR
projects, or specific sections can be used as needed. Either way, this volume provides a compre-
hensive tool for carrying out RSRR projects.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Abbreviations

AC Advisory Circular
ACPA American Concrete Pavement Association
ARFF aircraft rescue and fire fighting
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATL Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
CMH John Glenn Columbus International Airport
CSA calcium sulfoaluminate
CSPP construction safety and phasing plan
CTE coefficient of thermal expansion
CVG Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport
cwt hundredweight
DOT Department of Transportation
ERDC U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center
ESC early-strength concrete
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAR Federal Aviation Regulations
FDR full-depth repair
FOD foreign object debris
GPR ground-penetrating radar
GRR Gerald R. Ford International Airport
HES high-early-strength
LAS McCarran International Airport
LAX Los Angeles International Airport
LTPP Long-Term Pavement Performance
MES moderate-early-strength
NCE Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.
NOTAM notice to airmen
O&M operations and maintenance
PAMS poly(alpha-methylstyrene)
PCI pavement condition index
PDR partial-depth repair
PHX Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
PPE personal protection equipment
psi pounds per square inch
QC/QA quality control/quality assurance
RDU Raleigh–Durham International Airport
RSRR rapid slab repair and replacement

65

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

66   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

SEA Seattle–Tacoma International Airport

SDF Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport
SFO San Francisco International Airport
USAF U.S. Air Force
VHES very high-early-strength
w/cm water to cement (ratio)
YVR Vancouver International Airport

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

References

Adams, M. P. 2015. Factors Influencing Conversion and Volume Stability in Calcium Aluminate Cement Systems.
PhD dissertation. Oregon State University, Corvallis.
American Concrete Institute. 2016. Guide to Cold Weather Concreting. ACI 306R-16. Farmington Hills, MI.
American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA). 1995. Guidelines for Full-Depth Repair. TB002.02P.
Skokie, IL.
Ashtiani, R. S., C. J. Jackson, and A. Saeed. 2010. Precast Concrete Panels for Rapid Repair of Airfield Rigid
Pavements. AFRL-RX-TY-TR-2010-0095. U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Tyndall Air Force Base, FL.
Buch, N., V. Barnhart, and R. Kowli. 2003. Precast Concrete Slabs as Full-Depth Repairs: Michigan Experience.
Transportation Research Record, No. 1823, pp. 55–63. https://doi.org/10.3141/1823-07.
Chao, S.-H. 2018. Use of Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHP-FRC) for Fast and Sustainable
Repair of Pavements. Tran-SET Project No. 17STUTA03, Publication 23. Transportation Consortium of
South-Central States. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/transet_pubs/23.
Falls, A. J. 2019. Evaluation of Concrete Spall Repair Materials. No. ERDC/GSL-TR-19-29. U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 1997. Measurement, Construction, and Maintenance of Skid-Resistant
Airport Pavement Surfaces. Advisory Circular. AC 150/5320-12C. U.S. Department of Transportation,
Washington, DC. https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/advisory_circular/150-5320-12C/50_
5320_12c.PDF.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 2004. Airport Safety Self-Inspection. Advisory Circular. AC 150/
5200-18C. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/
media/Advisory_Circular/AC_150_5200-18C.pdf.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 2007. Rapid Construction of Rigid (Portland Cement Concrete) Airfield
Pavements. Advisory Circular. AC 150/5370-16. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_150_5370-16.pdf.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 2014a. Airfield Pavement Surface Evaluation and Rating Manuals.
Advisory Circular. AC 150/5320-17A. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. https://www.
faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5320-17a.pdf.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 2014b. Guidelines and Procedures for Maintenance of Airport Pavements.
Advisory Circular. AC 150/5380-6C. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. https://www.faa.
gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5380-6C.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 2017. Operational Safety on Airports During Construction. Advisory
Circular. AC 150/5370-2G. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. https://www.faa.gov/
documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5370-2G.pdf.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 2018. Standard Specifications for Construction of Airports. Advisory
Circular. AC 150/5370-10H. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. https://www.faa.gov/
documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5370-10H.pdf.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2016. Highway Performance Monitoring System, Field Manual. U.S.
Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/hpms/fieldmanual/
hpms_field_manual_dec2016.pdf.
Frentress, D., and D. Harrington. 2012. Partial-Depth Repairs for Concrete Pavements. MAP Brief 7-2. Federal
Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Hajek, J., J. W. Hall, and D. K. Hein. 2011. ACRP Synthesis 22: Common Airport Pavement Maintenance Practices.
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.17226/14500.
Hammons, M. I., and A. Saeed. 2010. Expedient Spall Repair Methods and Equipment for Airfield Pavements.
Transportation Research Record, No. 2155, pp. 63–70. https://doi.org/10.3141/2155-07.

67

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

68   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Olidis, C., D. J. Swan, A. Saeed, R. C. Mellerski, and M. I. Hammons. 2010. Precast Slab Literature Review
Report: Repair of Rigid Airfield Pavements Using Precast Concrete Panels—A State-of-the-Art Review.
No. FA4819-07-D-0001. U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Tyndall Air Force Base, FL.
Peshkin, D. G., J. E. Bruinsma, M. J. Wade, and N. Delatte. 2006. Accelerated Practices for Airfield Concrete
Pavement Construction. Volume I: Planning Guide. IPRF-01-G-002-02-3. Innovative Pavement Research
Foundation, Washington, DC.
Priddy, L. P., P. G. Bly, and G. W. Flintsch. 2013. Review of Precast Portland Cement Concrete Panel Technologies
for Use in Expedient Portland Cement Concrete Airfield Pavement Repairs. Presented at 92nd Annual
Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Priddy, L. P. 2015. Evaluation of Precast Portland Cement Concrete Panels for Airfield Pavement Repairs.
No. ERDC/GSL-TR-15-10. Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Ramsey, M. A., J. S. Tingle, and C. S. Rutland. 2020. Evaluation of Rapid-Setting Cementitious Materials and Testing
Protocol for Airfield Spall Repair. U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Smith, K., D. Harrington, L. Pierce, P. Ram, and K. Smith. 2014. Concrete Pavement Preservation Guide,
Second Edition. FHWA-HIF-14-014. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Washington DC.
Smith, P., and M. B. Snyder. 2019. Manual for Jointed Precast Concrete Pavement, 3rd Edition. National Precast
Concrete Association. Carmel, IN. https://precast.org/jprcp-manual/.
Speer, B. G. 2007. A Value-Focused Thinking Model for the Selection of the Best Rigid Pavement, Partial-Depth
Spall Repair Material. Report No. AFIT/GEM/ENS/07-04. Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, OH.
Tayabji, S., N. Buch, and E. Kohler. 2009. Precast Concrete Pavement for Intermittent Concrete Pavement Repair
Applications. In Conference Proceedings: National Conference on Preservation, Repair, and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Pavements (S. Tayabji, ed.), St. Louis, MO, pp. 317–334.
Tayabji, S., D. Ye, and N. Buch. 2012. SHRP 2 Report S2-R05-RR-1: Precast Concrete Pavement Technology.
Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, DC. http://dx.doi.org/10.17226/
22710.
U.S. Department of the Air Force (USAF). 2017. Sustaining Airfield Pavement at Enduring Contingency
Locations. Air Force Tactics, Techniques and Procedures 3-32.16. https://www.wbdg.org/FFC/AF/AFTTP/
afttp_3_32.16.pdf.
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). 2018. O&M Manual: Asphalt and Concrete Pavement Maintenance and
Repair. UFC 3-270-01. Unified Facilities Criteria. https://www.wbdg.org/ffc/dod/unified-facilities-criteria-
ufc/ufc-3-270-01.
Van Dam, T. J., K. R. Peterson, L. L. Sutter, A. Panguluri, J. Sytsma, N. Buch, R. Kowli, and P. Desaraju. 2005.
NCHRP Report 540: Guidelines for Early-Opening-to-Traffic Portland Cement Concrete for Pavement Reha-
bilitation. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.17226/13543.
Williams, B. A., L. P. Priddy, J. S. Tingle, and P. G. Bly. 2012. Developing Mixture Proportions Guidance for
Field-Prepared Rapid-Setting Materials for Emergency Airfield Repairs. Presented at 91st Annual Meeting
of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Wilson, T. P., K. L. Smith, and A. R. Romine. 2001. Materials and Procedures for Rapid Repair of Partial-Depth
Spalls in Concrete Pavements: Manual of Practice. No. FHWA-RD-99-152. Federal Highway Administration,
U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

APPENDIX A

Airport Case Examples

This appendix provides case examples of rapid slab repair and replacement (RSRR) practices
and programs at several airports. In addition to completing the online surveys, airport engineer(s)
or the airport’s consultant, or both, participated in a detailed interview; the information pre-
sented here summarizes the information from the surveys and interviews.
Table A-1 lists the airports that are featured in these case examples. The case examples are
presented in order from west to east and according to FAA region and associated Long-Term
Pavement Performance (LTPP) program climatic region (FHWA 2016).
While these examples represent mainly large hub airports, most information presented can
be applied to airports of any size. Each case example provides the following information:
• Overview of the airport and general information about RSRR practice,
• RSRR program highlights,
• Challenges, and
• Key takeaways.

RSRR Practice at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport

Overview
Seattle–Tacoma International Airport (SEA) is a large hub airport located in Seattle,
Washington. Nearly all aircraft-bearing pavements are concrete. SEA initiated an RSRR program
around 1994, and it has evolved through trial and error, capitalizing on lessons learned from
numerous projects. Table A-2 provides an overview of SEA’s RSRR practice.
The airport does not monitor PDR performance. FDR performance is monitored as part of
SEA’s annual pavement inspection program. Before SEA started its RSRR program, a typical
service life for an FDR was 10 years. Since then, FDRs have lasted 15 to 20 years. Minimal to no
cracking has been reported in recent PDRs. The airport identified quick setting time, which has
a negative impact on concrete finishing, and low strength, which can lead to cracking, as key
factors that can lead to poor performance.

RSRR Program Highlights

• Regardless of experience, the contractor is required to construct a mock-up panel off-site
prior to starting work on the airfield. This provides the opportunity for the contractor’s
crews to familiarize themselves with the behavior of the concrete mixture. SEA found that
the behavior of VHES CSA cement concrete changes frequently, even during the same job.

69

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table A-1.   Airports with highlighted RSRR practice.

Airport FAA Region LTPP Climate Region

Seattle–Tacoma International Northwest Mountain Wet, nonfreeze

Vancouver International naa Wet, nonfreeze
Los Angeles International Western Pacific Dry, nonfreeze
McCarran International Western Pacific Dry, nonfreeze
Phoenix Sky Harbor International Western Pacific Dry, nonfreeze
John Glenn Columbus International Great Lakes Wet, freeze
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Southern Wet, nonfreeze
Louisville Muhammad Ali International Southern Wet, nonfreeze
Raleigh–Durham International Southern Wet, nonfreeze

Note: na = not applicable.

a Similar to Northwest Mountain.

Table A-2.   Overview of RSRR practice at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Seattle, Washington

information
Owner Port of Seattle
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Northwest Mountain
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Number of runways Three parallel
Planning Stakeholder FAA control tower and airport-operated ramp tower (for apron repairs)
communications Airlines
Airport operations and fire department
Allowable closures All facilities: 6-hour night closure (11:00 p.m. to 5:00 a.m. typical)
Aprons: Some exceptions for day closures with airline approval
Funding Airport
Emergency work Rarely done, as concrete pavements in aircraft movement areas are
kept in good condition
Project delivery Design–bid–build
On-call contractors? No
Design Designer Port of Seattle
Design documents FDR: Plans and specifications
Specification elements Liquidated damages for exceeding closure windows
Requires backup equipment
In-pavement lights Single light: Steel reinforcement around the light can
Multiple lights: Steel reinforcement throughout slab
Construction Construction PDR: Airport maintenance crews
FDR: Contractors
PDR materials Epoxy concrete (prepackaged)
FDR materials Specialty cement (CSA)
Material testing Port of Seattle personnel
Inspection Port of Seattle personnel
QC/QA elements Onsite inspectors
Nuclear gauge to monitor sublayer compaction
Concrete testing: Air content, flexural strength, and temperature
Contingency planning Airport has its own precast slabs that can be temporarily installed
Work is postponed if rain or fog is forecast
Material acceptance PDR: None
FDR: Flexural testing [550 psi at return to service, 650 psi at 28 days
(acceptance)]

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   71

• The contractor must start work on the least-critical areas of the airfield (i.e., apron and
taxiway, then runway slabs). This allows the contractor to gain experience (or refamiliarize its
crews) with working on the airfield and with accelerated construction, which slightly lowers
the risk of an impact on airport operations if work extends past the return-to-service deadline.
• The airport conducts a very good internal pavement inspection program. Sections of the
airfield are inspected on an annual (rotating) basis. As a result, SEA can plan for slab repair
and replacement activities well in advance.
• A design–bid–build process with a change order option is used to deliver RSRR projects.
Design is done in house, and each project includes a specific number of slabs for replacement.
If the contractor is doing good work, SEA can add 25% additional quantities to the contractor’s
work without needing the approval of the Port of Seattle Board. Additional work depends on
slab location (i.e., runway, taxiway, apron) and whether additional planning or stakeholder
coordination is needed.
• SEA collaborates with a university. Researchers collect data on the CSA cement mixtures
and provide feedback to enhance SEA’s RSRR program.
• SEA permits concrete batch plants on-site for larger projects. Batch plants can produce
a more uniform concrete mixture than mobile volumetric mixing trucks. Oftentimes, these
batch plants are already on-site to produce FAA P-501 concrete mixture for conventional
construction on the airfield.

Challenges
• Lack of technical knowledge,
• Lack of skilled contractors and workforce, and
• Very high cost of RSRR with VHES concrete (approximately four times greater than P-501
concrete).

Key Takeaways
• Conduct upfront and contingency planning (stated as one of the most important elements
for RSRR project success).
• Set realistic expectations when carrying out initial RSRR projects and plan for issues during
construction.
• Use VHES concrete only when necessary (i.e., very short closure windows).
• Quick set time of VHES concrete can negatively affect concrete finishing, and low strength
can lead to cracking; both are key factors that can lead to poor performance.
• Select an experienced contractor (also important to RSRR project success).
• Establish a backup plan (mainly for repairs in aircraft parking areas) in the event construction
extends beyond the closure time frame.
• Monitor the weather forecast and delay FDR if conditions (e.g., rain, fog, high wind) may
potentially affect the construction schedule and quality.
• Provide on-site inspectors and material testing. Material testing technicians must be trained
or have experience preparing beam specimens with VHES concrete.

RSRR (Cast-in-Place) Practice at

Vancouver International Airport
Overview
Vancouver International Airport (YVR) is a large hub airport located in Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada. YVR is Canada’s second busiest airport and has two main (parallel) runways.
Runway 8L-26R (north runway) is 9,940 feet and was originally built 1996, and Runway 8R-26L

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

72   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

(south runway) is 11,500 feet and originally constructed in 1953 (it currently has a partial asphalt
concrete overlay). A third, crosswind runway, is 7,300 feet long.
YVR initiated an RSRR project in 2010 to replace deteriorated slabs on the north runway.
Eleven slabs, approximately 20 feet by 25 feet and 15 inches thick, were identified for replace-
ment. Existing slabs contained in-pavement lighting that had to be maintained in the replace-
ment slabs. The replacement slabs were reinforced to control potential cracking. Table A-3
provides an overview of this RSRR project. While formal condition monitoring has not been
conducted, the replaced slabs have been performing satisfactorily for 10 years.

RSRR Cast-in-Place Program Highlights

Following are key features of YVR’s RSRR cast-in-place program:
• The contractor was required to construct multiple mock-up panels off-site prior to starting
a construction project on the airfield. This provided the opportunity for the contractor’s
crews to familiarize themselves with the concrete mixture. For this project, the material was
very stiff and required a lot of work for proper placement. The material supplier was part of
the team to ensure proper placement.

Table A-3.   Overview of a RSRR project at Vancouver International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Richmond, British Columbia, Canada
information
Owner Vancouver Airport Authority
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region na (similar to Northwest Mountain)
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Number of runways Two parallel and one crosswind
Planning Stakeholder Air control tower
communications Airlines
Airport operations
Allowable closures 59 hours
Funding Airport
Project delivery Design–bid–build
Design Designer Consultant
Design documents Plans and specifications
Specification elements Liquidated damages for exceeding closure windows
Requires backup equipment, backup batch plant, weather
contingency plans, and so forth
In-pavement lights Yes
Construction Construction Contractor
PDR materials Consultant
FDR materials Proprietary, HES cement
Contractor QC Testing firm
Construction inspection Consultant and airport personnel
QC/QA elements Onsite inspectors
Concrete testing: Air content, slump, and flexural strength
Contingency planning Redundant equipment; weather canopies
Material acceptance Flexural testing (500 psi at 24 hours, 700 psi at 46 hours)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   73

• Construction was planned during a time of year and over weekends with lower operations.
Coordination with stakeholders is required to minimize disruption to airline operations.
• A design–bid–build process was used. Traditional design in this case allowed time for
thorough planning prior to bid and construction. Security access, haul route planning, tower
coordination, and what-ifs (i.e., poor weather, material supply issues) were all planned out.
• The supplier was included in the planning and construction processes. This helped ensure
that a suitable material that met the allowable time restrictions for the FDRs was used.

Challenges
From the perspective of the engineer on this project, the biggest challenges were as follows:
• Short allowable closure times because operations were severely restricted when one runway
was closed,
• Lack of a skilled workforce with experience in using accelerated setting materials, and
• The high cost of RSRR with VHES concrete (approximately $50,000 per panel).

Key Takeaways
• Conduct upfront and contingency planning (stated as one of the most important elements
for RSRR project success). Acquire security access and identify haul routes in advance due to
the nature of material.
• Require the selected contractor to conduct trials with the planned materials. At YVR, this
has ensured complete understanding of methods and materials. Airport work only moved
forward once all parties were comfortable with the process.
• Require the contractor to prepare a contingency plan for inclement weather conditions. Once
work started, it had to be completed (contractor had large canopies to cover work areas in
case of rain).
• Provide on-site inspectors and material testing. Material testing technicians must be trained
or have experience preparing beam specimens with VHES concrete. Early trials helped all
involved parties become more familiar with the material and construction methods.

RSRR (Precast) Practice at Vancouver

International Airport
Overview
YVR is a large hub airport located in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It is Canada’s
second busiest airport and has two main (parallel) runways: Runway 8L-26R (north runway) is
9,940 feet and was originally built 1996, and Runway 8R-26L (south runway) is 11,500 feet and
originally constructed in 1953 (it currently has a partial asphalt concrete overlay). A third, cross-
wind runway, is 7,300 feet long.
As part of the planning process for an FDR project on the north runway, several design
alternatives were assessed. Precast panel replacements were selected as the best alternative on
the basis of the allowable 8-hour nightly closure window and life-cycle costs. The controlling
factor in the decision was stakeholder needs to minimize runway shutdowns. This factor alone
justified the additional cost of precast slabs as compared with the cast-in-place alternatives.
However, the precast panel technology did not appear to have extensive history for typical
large panel sizes (and weight) for airside pavements. Therefore, YVR conducted a pilot con-
struction project in 2019 to confirm that the precast slabs would work as anticipated. Table A-4
provides an overview of YVR’s precast panel replacement pilot study.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

74   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table A-4.   Overview of precast panel pilot study at Vancouver

International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Richmond, British Columbia
information
Owner Vancouver Airport Authority
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region na (similar to Northwest Mountain)
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Number of runways Two parallel, one crosswind
Planning Stakeholder Air control tower
communications Airlines
Airport operations and security
Allowable closures 8-hour night closure
Funding Airport
Project delivery Construction manager
Design Designer Consultant/contractor/fabricator
Design documents Plans and specifications
Specification elements Liquidated damages for exceeding closure
windows
Requires backup equipment, weather
contingency plan, and so forth
In-pavement lights Yes, in some panels
Construction Construction Established methods
FDR materials Portland cement–based mixture
Contractor QC Testing firm
Construction inspection Consultant
QC/QA elements Concrete testing: Air content, slump,
flexural strength
Contingency planning Redundant equipment, weather plan
Material acceptance Flexural testing

For the pilot project, a preliminary design document and engineering drawings were
developed to illustrate the engineering concepts. These were distributed as an expression of
interest, and then a request for proposal was distributed to local contractors. While the precast
panel system was not specified, all the submitting teams selected a proprietary panel design. The
contractor selected for the project had experience using precast slabs during off-peak hours
on a highway project.
Taxiway V was selected for the pilot project, and 12 precast slabs were installed for the study.
Conventional cast-in-place techniques were used to repair adjacent pavement. The first eight
precast slabs were installed over a period of 4 weeks to refine the installation procedure. Replace-
ment of the last four precast slabs was required to be completed during 8-hour closures to
simulate work on the runway, although there was no impending need to reopen the taxiway at
the end of the closure.
The contractor was able to set up a precast facility next to the airport and mastered the logistics
of fabricating the panels and moving them to the site for installation. Panels were 19.7 feet by
24.6 feet and 14.2 inches thick. The panels were designed as heavily reinforced ductile slabs
because conventional design thicknesses would have been much thicker. With fabrication

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   75

adjacent to the airport, there were no challenges with transporting the panels from the adjacent
site to the taxiway site. If fabricated off-site, the panels would have been difficult to transport
on local roads, over bridges, and so forth. The contractor used a conventional large-aggregate
mix with low shrinkage. The large aggregate was a concern in areas with a lot of reinforcement
or corners. In the future, the contractor would try to have a smaller top-size mix approved for
such instances.
The pilot project established a variety of conditions for which unique precast slabs would need
to be fabricated; for example, some of the panels included light cans and some did not, and some
panels were surrounded by cast-in-place panels and some were adjacent to other precast slabs.
These conditions required different reinforcement and load-transfer details.

RSRR Program Highlights

YVR does not have an established RSRR program using precast slabs. This pilot project
provided information for additional precast RSRR work at the airport.

Challenges
From the perspective of the consulting engineer, the biggest challenges to carrying out the
precast panel pilot project at YVR were as follows:
• There were challenges with the cement-treated base. In some cases, it was high, and part
of the base needed to be removed prior to panel installation. The contractor used different
techniques to trim the base in high areas, including a small milling machine and excavation
equipment, depending on the geometry of the repair. The presence of a lot of base irregulari-
ties and associated requirements for base repair would likely eliminate the feasibility of using
precast slabs, especially during a short construction window. There were also cases where the
cement-treated base was bonded to the existing concrete pavement. The contractor used the
lift-out method, and when pieces were bonded, they could break the bond during removal
with a dynamic load.
• Five of the precast slab repairs included light cans. Two-piece cans with the upper portion
cast in the precast panel were used. One issue with removal and replacement was that the
new upper section could not be bolted with the lower section in the cement-treated base. The
location of the inset can (in the new slab) was the one that could be controlled, but the lower
section could not be connected to the upper section Therefore, tight placement tolerances
were required.
• Wind/weather restrictions could come into play for the types of cranes used to lift the panels.
This could affect the ability to complete work within an 8-hour shift for a runway. Weather
scenarios might require more equipment and different types of equipment during a limited
construction window.

Key Takeaways
• Check grades and slab thickness for precast projects.
• Fabricate precast slabs on or near the site to eliminate problems with moving large slabs over
public roadways.
• Require previous experience with installation of precast panels; there are many important
details that cannot be overlooked. For example, the contractor must be prepared to trim or
repair the base material (after panel removal) to accommodate the panel thickness.
• Perform sawing of existing pavement in advance of the 8-hour closure so that the closure
begins with lift-out rather than sawing. For the pilot project, sawing around the perimeter

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

76   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

needed to be done on a rail to make sure it was precise enough for the replacement panels
and the light can locations. Sawing information was then shown on the shop drawings. To
facilitate panel construction, the precision sawing of the perimeter was done several shifts in
advance of the actual installation. The internal saw cuts for lift-out were also done in advance.
• Conduct deflection testing on in-place precast slabs after completion of the project work to
evaluate load transfer, corner support, and presence of voids or other defects. These results
are compared with those obtained from the cast-in-place approach.
Overall, the pilot project illustrated the feasibility of using precast slabs while also illustrating
that it is more expensive than conventional, cast-in-place FDR. In this case, the necessity to
minimize runway closure times for future repair work made the additional cost acceptable.

RSRR Practice at Los Angeles International Airport

Overview
Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) is a large hub airport located in Los Angeles,
California. LAX initiated an RSRR program between 1999 and 2000 that used a VHES mix
to repair taxiway pavement between runways. Everything within the runway safety area was
constructed with a mixture that achieved a 4-hour flexural strength of 350 psi. LAX does not
perform individual slab repairs but has carried out many accelerated construction repairs under
tight time constraints. Table A-5 provides an overview of LAX’s RSRR practice.

Table A-5.   Overview of RSRR practice at Los Angeles International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Los Angeles, California
information
Owner Los Angeles World Airports
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Western Pacific
LTPP climate region Dry, nonfreeze
Number of runways Four parallel
Planning Stakeholder Air control tower
communications Airlines
Airport operations and security
Allowable closures Runways have 6- to 7-hour night closures
Taxiways and aprons may have longer closures,
depending on location
Longer (weekend) closures can be planned with
stakeholder coordination
Funding Federal
Project delivery Design–bid–build
Design Design documents Plans and specifications
Specification elements Liquidated damages for exceeding closure windows
Requires backup equipment, weather contingency plan
Construction Construction Contractor
FDR materials Portland cement–based HES
QC/QA elements Concrete testing: Air content, slump, and flexural strength
Contingency planning Redundant equipment
Material acceptance Flexural testing (350 psi at 4 hours)

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   77

In general, LAX’s rapid slab repairs have experienced shorter service lives than conventional
FDR, primarily due to shrinkage-induced map cracking and surface scaling. Map cracking was
related to challenges getting the material to cure properly without cracking. In the airport’s
experience, the performance of the material being used was highly dependent on temperature.
Cooler nighttime temperatures had a large impact on the initial set of the concrete and led to
more map cracking. Approximately 40 repaired slabs were subsequently replaced because of the
map cracking. Most of the slabs from the project have been removed over the years because of
reconstruction of the adjacent runway.

RSRR Program Highlights

• The contractor is required to construct test sections in noncritical areas (such as aprons)
prior to starting construction on a critical area of the airfield. This provides the opportunity
for the contractor’s crews to familiarize themselves with the behavior of the concrete mixture.
It also allows all the parties involved to become comfortable with the overall accelerated con-
struction process prior to moving into a critical area.
• A design–bid–build process is used to deliver RSRR projects. The design process allows
working through security access, establishing the haul route, coordinating with the tower, and
planning for potential contingencies. Working through the anticipated process and identifying
all contingencies during the design stage reduces the likelihood of changes during construc-
tion that can cause increases in costs and potentially lead to delays.
A few years ago, LAX employed a City of Los Angeles ordinance allowing the use of a com-
petitive contractor selection process that considers the quality of the team and its experience.
This has been included on one project and is being considered for use on future projects. As part
of the request for proposal process, LAX requires proposers to submit experience, references, and
key personnel (e.g., construction manager, concrete superintendent, quality control manager,
safety manager, scheduler, lead engineer). LAX also requires proposed bidders to identify antici-
pated project challenges and proposed solutions. A hard bid is also required, but the pricing
information is sealed and not opened in the initial proposal evaluation. After the responses are
ranked, key contractor personnel participate in an interview and are scored on the basis of their
responses. The overall scoring includes 50 points for experience and personnel and 50 points
based on costs. The cost scoring includes the low bidder receiving 50 points, while the remaining
proposers receive scores lower than 50 points. Liquidated damages are enforced for the removal
of any key personnel after contract award.

Challenges
From the perspective of the airport engineer, the biggest challenges included
• Access to the site and working among heavy aircraft operations,
• Contractor experience with expedited methods and materials, and
• Closure coordination with stakeholders.

Key Takeaways
• Engage stakeholders early. As part of the work coordination, send notices in a timely manner
and submit Form FAA 7460-1 for federally funded projects. It is also essential to involve the
FAA Airports District Office early on, as part of the planning process.
• Develop a preliminary phasing plan and work through it with internal operations and the
air traffic control tower. Conduct regular meetings with the FAA control tower and terminal
radar approach control facilities as well as airline representatives. Plan for monthly meetings,
which may become more frequent as the work nears or is underway.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

78   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

• Plan site access and potential complications when work is being conducted amid active
operations. One of the biggest challenges at LAX is getting material to the site, and while
the airport does have dedicated construction gates, there is also a vehicle inspection process
that must be administered, which requires an additional 5 to 10 minutes. Planning must also
consider and coordinate access locations through the airfield and work with airport opera-
tions and the air traffic control tower to make sure the materials can get to the job site within
specified time limits. These challenges can lead to increased costs (e.g., planning, coordina-
tion, extra security, and flaggers). As part of the process, alternative access routes should
be considered. For example, a longer service road drive may be faster than waiting to cross
busy taxiways.
• Construct a test strip prior to work in critical areas. LAX typically uses parking ramps as test
strips. Test strips are not constructed in critical areas, so they provide an opportunity for the
contractor to gain familiarity with the materials and the process before it enters the critical
areas. Once in critical areas, the construction team has a rough timeline and milestones that
must be hit by certain times within the duration of the closure.
• Consider overall project constructability during the planning and design phase. The project
may call for a change in design to create subsurface layers that can be placed more rapidly.
For example, substituting granular or asphalt materials for econocrete may make the project
more constructible in a short closure window.

RSRR Practice at McCarran International Airport

Overview
McCarran International Airport (LAS) is a large hub airport located in Las Vegas, Nevada.
While LAS does not have a formalized RSRR program, it has more than 20 years of experience
with RSRR and has developed a very detailed approach to planning, engineering, and construc-
tion oversight that yields well-performing PDR and FDR. PDR is performed more regularly
than FDR. The traffic levels and airport configuration allow construction timing to dictate the
closure time rather than the opposite. This unique combination allows most PDRs and FDRs
to be constructed with conventional materials in lieu of early-strength materials. Table A-6
provides an overview of LAS’s RSRR practice.
Overall, LAS is satisfied with the performance of its PDRs and FDRs. PDRs last several
years, with performance dependent on location relative to traffic. If not properly constructed,
PDRs are easily damaged or dislodged during runway rubber removal operations. Factors that
negatively affect performance include placing PDRs in hot weather, poor surface preparation,
use of concrete mixtures that do not meet the coarseness and workability factors described in
FAA’s P-501 specification, and lack of construction oversight.

RSRR Program Highlights

• The airport conducts weekly inspections to identify locations requiring PDR and FDR.
Work is scheduled for the following week. Any future larger-scale work is discussed with
FAA on a weekly basis. This approach minimizes surprises and allows work and closures to
be planned and scheduled well in advance, which results in better-quality PDRs and FDRs.
• Construction time required for proper PDR and FDR installation almost always governs
the closure time. This approach results in longer service life and works for LAS because it has
several aircraft traffic configurations that permit longer closures on runways and taxiways.
• Temporary PDRs are done to address emergency repair needs in critical aircraft traffic
areas (e.g., runways, taxiways). These repairs are performed during short closures and replaced
with permanent repairs when aircraft traffic configuration permits longer closure times

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   79

Table A-6.   Overview of RSRR practice at McCarran International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport Location Las Vegas, Nevada
information
Owner Clark County
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Western Pacific
LTPP climate region Dry, nonfreeze
Number of runways Two sets parallel, open V configuration
Planning Stakeholder Air control tower
communication Airport operations
Traffic management unit
Airlines and tenants
Allowable closures PDR and FDR: Construction time governs closure time
Funding Airport
Project delivery Design–bid–build
Change order to existing contract
Solicit quotes from local contractors
Design Design documents Plans and specifications
Typical details from past projects
Specification elements Project-specific QC/QA requirements
Liquidated damages
Construction Construction PDR: Airport maintenance crews or contractors
FDR: Contractors with concrete experience on the airfield
PDR materials Prepackaged: Cementitious and noncementitious
FDR materials Portland-cement based, HES
QC/QA elements Concrete testing: Unit weight and compressive strength
Contingency planning Preconstruction meeting
Backup construction dates included in planning

necessary for proper construction. Weekly meetings provide opportunity for stakeholder input
on upcoming closures.
• Permanent PDRs and FDRs are constructed at the opportune time. Factors that are used
to determine construction timing include periods with lower aircraft traffic and favorable
weather conditions for construction (i.e., not during hot summer months when longer takeoff
distances are required).
• For nonemergency work, detailed presentations are provided to stakeholders (e.g., control
tower, airlines, tenants) during the planning stage. This includes information on the planned
closures, work areas, haul routes, site visits, and so forth. Stakeholders have an opportunity
to provide input regarding impacts on their operations.
• Closures for permanent PDRs and FDRs are planned well in advance. This allows proper
time to coordinate work with stakeholders and the use of more conventional construction
techniques and materials.
• LAS has an established procedure when design plans are not prepared. This procedure
includes
– Use of applicable design details from previous projects;
– A preconstruction safety briefing with the engineer, contractor, and airport operations;
– Exhibits showing project site and barricade locations; and
– Full escort from the airport operations group during construction.
• The cause of failure is investigated prior to determining permanent treatment. This infor-
mation helps LAS improve its RSRR practice and may result in an FDR rather than PDR
to avoid returning for subsequent repairs.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

80   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

• Suppliers of PDR material are required to provide regular training to airport maintenance
personnel. This ensures crews are knowledgeable about specific material handling and
installation requirements.
• Concrete mixtures used for FDRs are required to meet P-501 specifications for coarseness
and workability factors. This has led to a significant reduction in spalling distress.
• Construction oversight and attention to details result in better-quality PDRs and FDRs.
Examples include performing work during optimal weather (on the basis of material type),
thorough cleaning of the repair area, and monitoring of material conditions (e.g., discarding
material that starts to set before installation).

Challenges
From the perspective of the airport, the biggest challenges to carrying out successful RSRR
projects at LAS include planning closures to avoid peak aircraft traffic times and less optimal
seasons. Summer temperatures can be very high in Las Vegas, which complicates PDR and
runway closures (large aircraft operations need to use the longest runway).

Key Takeaways
• Conduct weekly pavement inspections and meetings with FAA to coordinate RSRR work.
Engage with other stakeholders (e.g., airlines, tenants) once the work locations are identified
and the initial planning is completed.
• Use detailed meetings, presentations, visual exhibits, and site visits to engage stakeholders
and plan RSRR work on the airfield.
• Schedule work during periods with lower aircraft operations and when climatic conditions
are more favorable to construction. This permits longer closure times (sometimes more than
a week) to properly construct PDRs and FDRs.
• Use caution when considering PDR materials that require blending three or more components.
There is increased risk of improper mixing of these materials during construction. Also, these
products tend to produce a fixed volume of material per batch, which may be more than is
needed for the planned PDRs or may set before the batch is fully used.
• Install PDR material higher than the surrounding concrete and then grind flush once it
sets to create a level surface. This approach results in a better-performing PDR.
• Store and install PDR materials per the manufacturer’s recommendations. (This is very
important!) Only mix the amount needed for the repairs and discard any material that starts
to set. Do not install PDRs when pavement surface temperatures are very high or when the
temperature differential between the pavement and PDR material is great. Store materials
in a cool place; consider using chilled water to reduce pavement surface temperatures.
• At LAS, the minimum size of FDRs in noncritical areas (e.g., apron or outside aircraft main
gear paths) is one-half of a slab. Only full-slab replacement is used in critical areas that are
expected to experience aircraft loading.
• LAS uses conventional concrete paving mixtures for FDR but includes a relatively high
total cementitious content (compressive strength requirement of 6,000 psi at 28 days) and a
retarding admixture. Compressive strength tests provide more consistent results than tests
of flexural strength, and the FDR can be returned to service once a compressive strength of
between 4,000 and 4,500 psi is achieved (typically 2 to 3 days).
• Design and construct PDRs and FDRs for long-term performance. FDRs that have been
completed since LAS began adhering to the coarseness and workability factors described
in FAA’s P-501 specification and using 45-degree beveled joint edges have exhibited much
better performance (minimal to no spalling) than those constructed in the past.
• Emphasize attention to detail during construction to improve service life. This includes
adequate construction oversight, attention to concrete mixture proportioning, and accep-
tance testing.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   81

• Provide airport maintenance personnel with annual training from suppliers of PDR repair
material, including a site visit and demonstrations on handling and installing materials.
• Select a contractor that has good experience with early-strength materials and working in the
airfield environment.

RSRR Practice at Phoenix Sky Harbor

International Airport
Overview
Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport (PHX) is a large hub airport located in Phoenix,
Arizona. The airport has concrete pavements for runways, all main taxiways but one, and most
aprons. PHX has been performing RSRR for many years but recently began to formalize the
process by documenting practice and preparing standard procedures. PHX’s maintenance crews
can perform PDRs (and some FDRs) and the airport has engineering, laboratory testing, and
construction inspection support from the City of Phoenix. Table A-7 provides an overview
of PHX’s RSRR practice.
The airport does not have a formalized process for monitoring specific PDR and FDR perfor-
mance. In general, PDRs last between 9 months and 3 years, depending on the repair conditions
(i.e., size, depth, condition during placement). The airport does not have concerns related to
FDR performance, as these repairs typically perform well until they are replaced during the next
large construction project (FAA funded).

RSRR Program Highlights

Following are highlights of some of the key features of PHX’s RSRR program:
• PDR work is performed almost daily at the airport. Airport maintenance crews use a
single product (noncementitious material) for all repairs. This helps the crews understand
how to mix, handle, and install the repair material as well as how the material behaves during
different climatic conditions.
• Advance coordination is crucial to the success of RSRR work. Airport operations plays a
key role in coordinating work and is involved during all planning stages.
• Airport operations handles safety and phasing if design plans are not prepared. This is
done as part of the preconstruction meeting and includes site access requirements, badging,
haul route planning, and so forth.
• The City of Phoenix (airport owner) provides design and construction support. This
includes preparation of design plans and specifications, construction inspection, and material
testing. The city designers determine whether repair or replacement of sublayers is necessary
during FDR.
• The City of Phoenix materials group provides technical input to the airport. This includes
recommendations on material selection, specifically, selection of HES concrete mixtures.
The group is aware of available (and city-approved) mixtures at local concrete plants.

Challenges
Following are the biggest challenges to carrying out successful RSRR projects:
• Material selection, as a result of constantly evolving concrete mixtures using different con-
stituent materials (e.g., fly ash, admixtures);
• Lack of a process for reviewing and considering new types of proprietary repair materials;
• Lack of technical knowledge within the maintenance group;
• Poor long-term performance of PDR repairs;

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

82   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table A-7.   Overview of RSRR practice at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Phoenix, Arizona
information
Owner City of Phoenix
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Western Pacific
LTPP climate region Dry, nonfreeze
Number of runways Three parallel
Planning Stakeholder Emergency PDR only: Airport operations coordinates closures
communications Nonemergency (nonmovement area): Airport operations coordinates
closures
Nonemergency (movement area): City of Phoenix project manager or
a consultant handles stakeholder coordination (airlines, airport, and
so forth)
Allowable closures Runways: 8-hour night closure (typically 10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.)
Taxiways: Nighttime closure preferred
Aprons: Nighttime closure preferred; weekend closure possible
Funding Airport: PDR and FDR (two panels or fewer)
FAA: FDR (more than two panels)
Emergency work PDR only
Project delivery Job-order contract for large projects
On-call contract for smaller, noncritical PDR and FDR
On-call contractors? Yes (job-order contract)
Design Designer City of Phoenix
Design documents FDR: Plans and specifications
In-pavement lights Steel reinforcement around the light can
Form FAA 7460-1 Only submitted if work affects FAA systems or is FAA funded
Construction Construction PDR: Airport maintenance crews
FDR: contractors, airport crews starting to do some FDR
PDR materials Noncementitious repair material
FDR materials Portland cement–based concrete with accelerators, sometimes
specialty cement
Material testing City of Phoenix personnel
Construction City of Phoenix personnel
inspection
QC/QA elements City of Phoenix standard procedures
Contingency planning Airport crews can back up contractors if necessary, as they have
experience and on-site equipment
Common to have multiple concrete contractors doing work at the airport
Material acceptance PDR: None
FDR (movement area): Compressive strength (4,000 psi at return to
service)
FDR (nonmovement area): No testing, requires 72-hour cure time

• Difficulty of closing runways at a large hub airport with only three runways;
• Need for mobilizing maintenance crews, which are not on-site, before nighttime emergency
PDR can be started;
• Need for determining the location and extent of damage and for identifying the preferred
repair method and material for nonemergency PDR; and
• Estimating concrete strength gain: PHX experimented with concrete maturity meter testing
but discontinued its use because of cost concerns.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   83

Key Takeaways
• Upfront planning is one of the most important elements for RSRR project success.
• Establish standard operating procedures for emergency PDRs, to include criteria for repair, and
provide guidance on material selection based on repair depth, type of repair, and conditions.
(PHX is working on this task. Similar procedures are being developed for nonemergency
repair work.)
• Confirm existing conditions prior to slab removal. Concrete core samples can be taken for FDR
to confirm concrete thickness and to understand the condition of sublayers (i.e., deteriorated
or intact).
• Update as-constructed records when PDRs and FDRs are performed. This can be useful in
tracking performance.
• Increase technical knowledge. PHX maintenance believes additional technical knowledge
will help lead to the installation of longer-lasting PDRs and ensure the life of FDRs. This
includes examples of other airport practices, case examples of projects, and even a national
database that highlights what other airports do.
• Obtain local input. If available, technical input from a local agency (i.e., local city, county, state)
can provide much-needed technical support related to the construction aspect of RSRR.

RSRR Practice at John Glenn Columbus

International Airport
Overview
John Glenn Columbus International Airport (CMH) is a medium hub airport located in
Columbus, Ohio. The airport has two parallel runways (Runway 10R-28L at 10,114 feet and
Runway 10L-28R at 8,000 feet) with multiple parallel taxiways. CMH’s PDRs are primarily
performed by airport maintenance personnel. Table A-8 provides an overview of CMH’s RSRR
practice.
For rapid PDRs, CMH uses a proprietary, two-part polyurethane repair material on the basis
of experience working with a local contractor. CMH has been using the material for several
years, and it has worked well; the airport says the material is like other proprietary materials but
seems to be more forgiving when the repair surface is being prepared under constrained time
frames. The material is self-leveling, which helps with finishing, and can be extended with sand
for deeper patch areas. Since the material sets very rapidly, crews can patch a spall and return
the pavement to operation within 30 minutes. The airport has tried other materials but experi-
enced some failures related to shrinkage. The airport operations department decides whether
an emergency repair is needed (i.e., whether the area needs to be repaired in less than 8 hours) or
whether the repair can be performed in a nonemergency manner. However, the same material
is used for both. The maintenance personnel carry out planned (nonemergency) repairs as well
as emergencies that arise.

RSRR Program Highlights

• CMH uses site-specific material. The airport has performed PDR for many years using
different materials, repair details, and methods. The current patching material is not the
most expensive material available, but airport personnel find it to be more forgiving in terms
of preparation and ease of use, and it performs as well as the more expensive materials for
the conditions at CMH. PDRs set quickly, allowing the facility to return to service in as little
as 30 minutes, if needed. CMH has been using the material for 3 to 4 years and has had very
few patches fail during this time.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

84   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table A-8.   Overview of RSRR practice at John Glenn Columbus International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Columbus, Ohio
information
Owner Columbus Regional Airport Authority
FAA classification Medium hub
FAA region Great Lakes
LTPP climate region Wet, freeze
Number of runways Two parallel
Planning Stakeholder Airport operations
communications Weekly notices to airmen (NOTAMs) (routine PDR projects)
Air traffic control tower and tenants (large PDR projects)
Allowable closures Variable, depending on facility and extent
Funding Airport
Emergency work PDR
Project delivery No information provided
On-call contractors? No information provided
Design Designer No information provided
Design documents No information provided
Specification elements Preparation and placement per manufacturer guidelines
Construction Construction PDR: Airport personnel
FDR: Contractors
PDR materials Proprietary two-part polyurethane repair material
FDR materials No information provided
Material testing No information provided
Construction inspection No information provided
QC/QA elements No information provided
Contingency planning Weather monitoring, alternate operation routes
Material acceptance No information provided

• CMH ensures that adequate resources are available. The airport has maintenance personnel
available 20 hours per day, with personnel on-call for the 4 hours without active employees.
CMH can also draw personnel from Rickenbacker International Airport (part of the Columbus
Regional Airport Authority’s oversite), if needed. Creating a maintenance plan in the spring
allows CMH to ensure adequate patching supplies are available.

Challenges
From the perspective of the maintenance personnel, the biggest challenges to carrying out
successful PDR projects are as follows:
• Minimizing operational disruption: Although CMH has two parallel runways, one runway
is longer than the other, and the airport works with the air carriers to do as much work as
possible during daylight hours. The work on the longer runway can typically be performed
from 8:00 a.m. to about 11:00 a.m. or noon, because a greater number of cargo operations
are at night. Parallel taxiways and connectors typically allow alternate routes to maintain
aircraft movements when work is required in areas of taxiways.
• Lack of maintenance personnel with FDR expertise: Airport staff do not perform larger
repairs (slab replacement). Also, the material used for PDR is too costly to use for large FDRs.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   85

However, maintenance crews have temporarily patched slabs needing replacement with this
material. Contractors are then brought in to perform the FDR. Ongoing work has generally
meant contractors are already on-site and available to be called on to place large repairs.

Key Takeaways
• Find the best material for airport conditions and needs. While CMH has tried more expensive
proprietary materials for PDR, it is currently having success with a lower-cost proprietary
material that maintenance personnel have found to be more forgiving for rapid repair. The
material is easy to mix and place and sets quickly, which allows the facility to return to service
in as little as 30 minutes.
• Take a proactive approach to internal maintenance work by conducting annual PDR assess-
ments to plan work quantities.

RSRR Practice at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta

International Airport
Overview
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL) is a large hub airport located in
Atlanta, Georgia. ATL has built an effective and successful RSRR program over many years. PDR
is the primary work performed, but FDRs are also periodically installed. Over the years, ATL has
successfully used a portland cement–based mix. Repair details have been refined to help ensure
success within limited closure times. Table A-9 provides an overview of ATL’s RSRR practice.

Table A-9.   Overview of RSRR practice at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Atlanta, Georgia
information
Owner City of Atlanta, Department of Aviation
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Southern
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Number of runways Five parallel
Planning Stakeholder Air control tower
communications Airlines
Airport operations and security
Allowable closures PDR: 6- to 7-hour night closure
FDR: 72-hour weekend closure
Funding Airport
Project delivery Design–bid–build
Design Designer Consultant
Design documents Plans and specifications
Specification elements Liquidated damages for exceeding closure windows
Requires backup equipment and weather contingency plan
Construction Construction Prequalified contractors
PDR and FDR materials Portland cement–based, HES, some earlier trials of proprietary rapid-
set materials
QC/QA elements Concrete testing: Air content, slump, flexural strength, and maturity
Contingency planning Redundant equipment, weather plan

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

86   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

RSRRs at ATL are often performed on pavements that are nearing planned major rehabilita-
tion; therefore, a complete record of repair performance is not maintained. However, the PDRs
generally last at least 5 years. Failures that have occurred are often the result of poor construc-
tion practices, such as materials placed when the ambient temperatures are too high or excessive
paste has worked to the surface. ATL does monitor repair work through its 3-year pavement
management updates.

RSRR Program Highlights

• Building on past experiences helps ATL ensure success. RSRR has been performed for
many years at ATL with different materials, repair details, and methods. As a result, there
is a knowledge base of what can and cannot be accomplished. Current materials and details
have proven successful. While ATL has tried proprietary materials in the past, it is currently
having success with a portland cement–based material (high cement content). ATL also has a
reinforced PDR detail that has proven successful. The detail includes a horizontal reinforcing
steel mat that is anchored to the adjacent sound concrete by tie bars. This repair detail has given
ATL an effective means of addressing slab spalling.
• The design–bid–build process is used to deliver RSRR projects. During the design process,
extensive coordination with stakeholders is conducted to identify closure times and access
routes.
• A dedicated gate is provided for construction. The contractor covers the cost of additional
security personnel.
• The batch plant is located directly outside of the gate to shorten haul times. Haul routes
are planned with input from the airport operations group and air traffic control tower. The
haul routes are driven prior to the work to make sure materials can get to the job site within
the time constraints.

Challenges
From the perspective of the consulting engineer, the biggest challenges at ATL include the
following:
• Very heavy airport operations that necessitate a significant effort to coordinate closures and
haul routes and
• Lack of contractor experience with expedited methods and materials.

Key Takeaways
• Develop airport-specific material specifications and PDR details that work.
• Plan site access and movement across the airfield well in advance. ATL dedicates a construc-
tion gate for this work, and the contractor provides additional security personnel for the gate
as part of the contract.
• Schedule work during periods with historically better weather. ATL generally tries to have
this work performed from September through November on the basis of historical weather
trends. Weather days are built into the construction schedule, particularly if construction
occurs during other times of the year.
• Select contractors that have good experience with early-strength materials and working in
a congested airfield environment. At ATL, test areas are used to ensure the contractor is
familiar with the materials.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   87

RSRR Practice at Louisville Muhammad Ali

International Airport
Overview
Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport (SDF) is a small hub airport located in
Louisville, Kentucky. SDF’s airside pavements are primarily concrete. There are three concrete
runways, two of which are parallel and one a crosswind. Runway 17R-35L is the longest of the
three, at 11,890 feet long, and Runway 17L-35R is 8,580 feet long. In addition to commercial
and Air National Guard operations, the airport serves as a United Parcel Service Worldport.
With the heavy volume of cargo operations, maintaining operational pavement is essential.

FDR needs are determined by regular visual inspection. Cracking and spalling are major
drivers triggering the need for slab replacement, and FDRs are identified and grouped into the
next rehabilitation project. Table A-10 provides an overview of SDF’s RSRR practice.

Replacement of the large slabs (25 by 25 feet by 17 inches thick) on Runway 17R-35L started in
2009 and is conducted at least annually (in some years there have been two projects). When the
airport started these projects, there were some pretty bad conditions, including shattered slabs.
SDF also experienced the “zipper effect,” in which a cracked slab, if left unrepaired, would affect

Table A-10.   Overview of RSRR practice at Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Louisville, Kentucky
information
Owner Louisville Regional Airport Authority
FAA classification Small hub
FAA region Southern
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Number of runways Two parallel, one crosswind
Planning Stakeholder Air control tower
communications Airlines
Airport operations and security
Allowable closures 56.5-hour (weekend) closure for runways
Funding FAA and entitlements
Project delivery Design–bid–build
Design Designer Consultant
Design documents Plans and specifications
Specification elements Liquidated damages for exceeding closure windows
Requires backup equipment, weather contingency plan, and so forth
In-pavement lights Some slabs
Construction Construction Prequalified contractors
FDR materials Portland cement–based, conventional and MES
Contractor QC Testing firm
Construction inspection Consultant
QC/QA elements Concrete testing: Air content, slump, flexural strength, and maturity
Contingency planning Redundant equipment, weather plan
Material acceptance Flexural strength and thickness

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

88   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

adjacent slabs within a short time. The airport considered alternatives, including cross-stitching,
but has primarily performed FDRs.
FDR work is done with a portland cement–based MES mixture, but only where early strength
gain is needed, which is primarily on the runway or in critical areas such as intersections where
cargo carriers need access. In SDF’s experience, the MES achieves 550 psi compressive strength
in 30 hours. However, the mix is difficult to work with (“sticky”) and is very volatile. For example,
during the summer, mixes arrive at or near 90°F, which is close to a temperature at which the
mix will flash set. During placement, several technicians are on-site for mix acceptance testing.
When trucks arrive on-site, they have about 20 minutes for placement, with a total period of
typically 60 minutes from time of batching to time of placement. On the taxiways, which allow
14-day closures, the use of MES is not required, and 550 psi is achieved in 7 days with a standard
portland cement–based concrete mix.
FDR projects are generally carried out during short closure windows, as there is little
availability for long-term closures because of significant cargo operations. A typical schedule
includes a 7.5-hour Friday closure for preparation (sawing), followed by the primary runway
closure from Saturday to Monday afternoon. Taxiway slab repairs are performed under longer
closures.
Contracts for rapid repairs include liquidated damages, which vary in amount, depending
on the location of the repair: $500 per day for areas with minimal impact, $1,000 per day for
taxiways, and $5,000 per hour or portion thereof for runways.

RSRR Program Highlights

• Building on past experiences has helped SDF refine its program. Achieving the required
strength was a big concern during the first year of the airport’s FDR program. However, the
project specifications did not have an upper limit on strength, and during that first year, the
concrete gained strength too rapidly and developed microcracking. For the next year’s FDR
contract, SDF implemented an upper strength limit (1,200 psi at 28 days), which improved
results. While contractors first resisted this upper limit, it has since become standard proce-
dure, and local suppliers have learned how to use their additives to achieve the requirements.
ATL has also changed how it handles light cans. Initially, the contractor had the option of
putting in light cans during FDR or using a two-stage process in which the contractor would
come back the next week to perform coring and replacement. Use of the two-stage process
resulted in cracking, and, consequently, that process is no longer allowed.
• The design team uses contingency planning to manage risk during construction. In case
of the need for an emergency reopening, temporary precast slabs are constructed that can be
placed in the FDRs.
• Each project includes substantial stakeholder coordination. Early project meetings involve
coordination with a variety of stakeholders, from the escorts to the material testing to the
go/no-go meeting with airlines. A preconstruction meeting is held with contractors, producers,
truckers, and others. This meeting gets everyone to agree on the means and methods asso­
ciated with the production and placement of the materials. Weekly go/no-go meetings are
conducted with the cargo carrier, which has access to excellent weather-forecasting tools;
even if conditions look good on Friday and Saturday, scheduled construction is usually
called off if there is a chance of rain on Sunday. A daily pour agreement meeting is also con-
ducted. The operations department is responsible for communication and coordination with
the commercial and cargo airlines. The contractor is always included, and the companies that
do these projects have experience with coordination. SDF operations puts out barricades
and sends out a notice to airmen (NOTAM) showing barricade locations.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   89

Challenges
From the perspective of the consulting engineer, the biggest challenges at SDF are as follows:
• Closure decisions based on cargo carrier input,
• Significant coordination of closures and haul routes, and
• Need for contractors and materials suppliers familiar with VHES concrete.

Key Takeaways
• Protect the surrounding slabs during saw cutting. SDF has used a steel plate along the adjacent
slab as one method of preventing oversawing. Because friction during removal can cause
spalling in the adjacent remaining pavement, a piece of laminate is placed in the saw cut to
reduce friction. A sawing pattern is used in which a cut is made 1 foot in from the joint to
facilitate removal and minimize the risk of damage to adjacent pavement. Sawing near cracks
is avoided (the pattern being adjusted on each slab) to minimize the risk of FOD between
closures. Finally, interior cuts are angled so that pieces can be more easily lifted out. Sawing
is typically performed in a shorter closure (1 to 2 days) prior to removal. On one occasion,
sawing was allowed a week in advance, and the ensuing traffic significantly damaged the
saw cut slab.
• Remove saw slurry to keep the facility in service. SDF has turned to both maintenance and ARFF
personnel to help clean up. These departments can mobilize equipment that the contractor
cannot when there is an urgent need.
• Conduct green sawing at the proper time to control cracking. There have also been past issues
with the ability to saw in a straight line, which can cause thousands of dollars of rework.

RSRR Practice at Raleigh–Durham

International Airport
Overview
Raleigh–Durham International Airport (RDU) is a medium hub airport located in Morrisville,
North Carolina. RDU has three runways: two parallel runways and a crosswind. Runway
5L-23R is a 10,000-foot concrete facility that serves as RDU’s primary runway. Runway 5R-23L
is 7,500 feet and is currently overlaid with asphalt.
Runway 5L-23R was originally constructed in 1986 as a jointed concrete pavement, and
much of the original pavement is still in place. However, alkali–silica reaction began appearing
around 2002 and has caused ongoing deterioration and the need for repairs. Some patching and
joint sealing were performed in 2003 and 2004, and those patches have performed relatively
well. However, after a few wet winters, deterioration on the runway accelerated. As a result, the
airport undertook a multiyear pavement repair project beginning in 2019. During 2019, the
airport replaced 117 slabs (25 by 25 feet by 16 inches thick) between the spring and fall during
day-long runway closures. While it was planning to do the same in 2020, it instead had a 40-day
COVID-19-related closure and was able to replace another 108 slabs. Table A-11 provides an
overview of RDU’s RSRR practice.
For this project, the contractor fabricated some precast slabs for emergency use. The airport
viewed these as a last resort and did not want the contractor to feel it could depend on them.
The precast slabs were not needed, as no disruptions occurred, although the contractor had to
demonstrate that it could place the precast slabs by practicing on an apron.
The contract for the 2019 project incorporated liquidated damages of $100 per minute. This
was intended to focus attention on the need for immediate opening at the specified time rather

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

90   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table A-11.   Overview of RSRR practice at Raleigh–Durham International Airport.

Category Item Detail

Airport Airport location Morrisville, North Carolina
information
Owner Raleigh–Durham Airport Authority
FAA classification Medium hub
FAA region Southern
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Number of runways Two parallel, one crosswind
Planning Stakeholder Air control tower
communications Airlines
Airport operations and security
Allowable closures 18- to 22-hour closures for runways
Funding Airport
Project delivery Design–bid–build, construction manager at-risk
Design Designer Consultant
Design documents Plans and specifications
Specification elements Liquidated damages for exceeding closure windows
Requires backup equipment, weather contingency plan, and so forth
In-pavement lights Some slabs
Construction Construction Prequalified contractors
FDR materials Portland cement–based, HES; some earlier trials of proprietary
rapid-set materials
Contractor QC Testing firm
Construction inspection Consultant
QC/QA elements Concrete testing: Air content, slump, flexural strength, and maturity
Contingency planning Redundant equipment, weather plan
Material acceptance Flexural strength and thickness

than in larger increments of quarter or full hours past the opening time. Damages were capped
at $36,000 to allay contractor concerns and increase the number that bid on the project. In the
end, the runway repair work was bundled with an apron project to ensure contractors would
bid on the work.

RSRR Program Highlights

• RDU utilizes pavement management to track deterioration and identify repair needs.
RDU has been monitoring and mapping distresses and collecting PCI and deflection data,
which it has incorporated in computer-aided drafting software maps to track conditions and
make decisions. RDU determined the pavement was losing about 4 PCI points per year, which
is a high rate for the airport. It also observed an increasing rate of full-depth cracking in recent
years, and the 23R end of the runway seemed to have saturated subgrade, which was associ-
ated with poorer performance than the 5L end.
• It can be beneficial to have a construction manager at risk onboard (for a large-scale RSRR
project) to answer questions during planning. An experienced construction manager can
make decisions about RSRR materials, accepting or rejecting concrete loads, weather condi-
tions, and project coordination, among other things. The importance of effective communica-
tion cannot be overemphasized.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Airport Case Examples   91

Challenges
• Coordination of airline operations: Coordinating closures is a significant effort. The team
obtained airline input early and offered either one extended closure or multiple daily closures
to complete the work. The airlines chose the daily closures (on the basis of accommodating
flight schedules) and were engaged stakeholders from the beginning. Personnel also kept
stakeholders informed with monthly meetings. The determination of the allowable closure
time frame is a balance between construction efficiency and operational efficiency.
• Dealing with in-pavement lights in FDR projects: The lights are hard to replace within the
18- to 22-hour closure. RDU’s solution is to keep the lights in place by coring or saw cutting
around them, chipping concrete off the cans, and then placing new concrete around the
existing cans. It was also planned to have no more than three lights out at a time. This process
worked well for slabs with light cans, and no lights were out during the repairs. Additional
cans were available on-site in case they were needed for replacement.

Key Takeaways
• Develop repair material specifications that meet, but do not significantly exceed, strength-
gain requirements. The concrete mix (developed by contractor) was specific to this project,
but RDU had previously used similar materials. It wanted to avoid ASTM C150 Type III
cement due to concerns about early cracking. The contractor needed to be convinced time
constraints could be met with the use of a mix with a cement content of less than 800 pounds
per square yard, which was achieved. The contractor did a lot of on-site practice under a range
of simulated real-world conditions to gain confidence it could meet project requirements. The
process of finding a concrete mix that would work took 3 to 4 months. The airport anticipates
8 to 10 years of performance before total reconstruction but has no reason to believe the
FDRs could not last much longer. None of the 2019 slabs has failed; there were also no failures
among the 2020 slabs, but the work was not performed with the same closure constraints.
• Perform sawing the night before beginning the project; use wood shims in the cracks to keep
the slabs from moving and causing spalls that create FOD.
• Use maturity meters to better target break times for determining the time for opening to traffic.
• Postpone work if poor weather is forecast. Include a line item in the contract to cover the situ-
ation in which a contractor mobilizes but then cannot not perform the work.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

APPENDIX B

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair

and Replacement Projects

This appendix provides examples of RSRR projects and lessons learned from visiting con-
struction sites and discussions with contractor personnel, construction inspectors, and airport
personnel. Each case example provides the following with respect to RSRR practice at each
featured airport:
• Project overview,
• Construction observations, and
• Discussion.

Table B-1 lists the examples of RSRR projects. The examples are arranged from west to east
and according to FAA region and associated LTPP climate region (FHWA 2016).

Full-Depth Repair at San Francisco

International Airport
Project Overview
The project at San Francisco International Airport (SFO) project consisted of replacing
nine 25- by 25-foot concrete slabs (5,625 square feet) that were exhibiting midpanel and
corner cracking. The slabs serve as an engine startup pad for wide-body aircraft and are located
on a taxilane that serves Concourses A and B. The startup pad was originally constructed in
August 2017, and cracking was observed in some of the slabs a few weeks after construction.
Airfield operations had discussed replacing these slabs, but the work was postponed until 2020
because of construction on the adjacent Concourse B. Since 2017, the airport has monitored the
panels and performed small slab repairs as needed. In 2020, the airport was able to conduct
the FDRs as a change order to an existing FDR project on an adjacent concourse. This allowed
the project to be quickly executed, and the on-site contractor and design team were able to
produce plan sheets and details. It also allowed the use of a concrete mixture from the adjacent
construction project, with minor modifications.
The construction process included removal of the damaged concrete and base reconstruction.
Stakeholder coordination began 2 months before construction and involved weekly meetings
with approximately 30 people. Effective stakeholder communication and coordination allowed
the engine startup pad to be closed to aircraft operations for a continuous 30-day period, which
was accomplished by using temporary taxilanes and vehicle service roads to steer traffic around
the closure. This allowed the contractor to replace multiple slabs in the same construction
sequence with an HES, fiber-modified P-501 concrete mixture, which was deemed a more
practical mixture than the VHES mixtures typically used for overnight closures. Figure B-1
shows the project location on the airfield.

92

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    93

Table B-1.   Examples of RSRR projects.

LTPP Climate
Airport FAA Region Region RSRR Type

San Francisco International Northwest Mountain Wet, nonfreeze FDR

Seattle–Tacoma International Northwest Mountain Wet, nonfreeze FDR

Phoenix Sky Harbor International Western Pacific Dry, nonfreeze PDR/FDR

Gerald R. Ford International Great Lakes Wet, freeze PDR

Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Southern Wet, freeze PDR/FDR

Figure B-2 shows the concrete finishing operation and a finished slab ready for curing
compound.
Table B-2 provides general information about this project.

Construction Observations
Demolition
The slab perimeter was saw cut at least 1 day prior to slab removal. The construction time
frame permitted the use of the breakup and removal method. The contractor used two exca-
vators with jackhammer attachments to break the slabs into pieces, which were removed by
another excavator. The on-site engineer reported no damage to adjacent slabs. The existing
base and subbase layers were also removed in preparation for the new pavement section.
During demolition, the exposed subgrade surface was saturated with rainwater, which required
the removal of an additional 6 inches of subgrade material prior to the rebuilding of the
pavement structure.

Preparation
The exposed subgrade material was recompacted to 95% compaction (a nuclear gauge was
used to verify density). According to project drawings, a Class II, nonwoven, medium-weight
fabric was placed on the existing subgrade followed by a geogrid. A 12-inch-thick P-219 recycled
concrete aggregate base course was installed, followed by a 5-inch P-306 lean concrete base
layer (see Figure B-3). The surface layer was a 21-inch HES P-501 portland cement concrete

Work Area

Source: Google, n.d.

Figure B-1.   Project location at San Francisco

International Airport.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

94   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-2.   Example of cast-in-place full-depth repair at SFO: (a) finishing after placement
and (b) finished texture.

Table B-2.   General information: Project at San Francisco

International Airport.

Category Detail
Airport location San Francisco, California
Owner City and County of San Francisco
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Western Pacific
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Facility and location of work Taxilane between Concourses A and B
Closure Time 30 days
Type of work FDR
Dates of construction January 7–30, 2020
Site visit weather conditions Temperature: 50°F to 55°F
Humidity: 80%
Wind: <5 mph
Sunny, rained before paving and contractor had to drain site
Work performed by Contractor
Construction drawings and Yes
specifications?
Emergency work? No, but the airport wanted to get the work done expeditiously

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    95

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-3.   Preparation at SFO: (a) placement of lean concrete base course and (b) rainwater removal.

with synthetic macrofibers and microfibers and steel reinforcement. FDRs were not performed
during a single overnight or daytime closure and, consequently, the contractor needed a contin-
gency plan to remove rainwater from the construction site. This was done by using pumps with
installed sedimentation control measures; an example from an adjacent work area is shown
in Figure B-3.

Load-Transfer Restoration
Dowel bars were placed at transverse joints and at slab edges abutting existing concrete. The
1.5-inch-diameter epoxy-coated dowels were 20 inches long and spaced 18 inches on center.
Dowel bar baskets were used for transverse contraction joints. For construction joints, a gang
drill was used to simultaneously drill two or three dowel bar holes at a diameter of 1⁄8 inch
greater than the diameter of the dowels. Dowels at the corners of slabs were hand drilled, which
resulted in misaligned dowel bars in some instances. Plans called for drilled dowels to be a
minimum of 3 inches from the old dowel bars, which were cut off and remained in the existing
concrete. The drilled holes were cleaned by means of compressed air, and the dowels were
anchored into the holes with two-part paste epoxy (but without retention disks). Figure B-4
shows installed dowel bars.

Concrete Mixture
The contractor used a 6,000 psi (compressive) HES P-501 concrete with an added blend
of synthetic macrofibers and microfibers (combined dosage of 5 pounds per cubic yard) for
shrinkage and secondary reinforcement. The design properties and mix proportions of the
concrete mixture are summarized in Table B-3 and Table B-4, respectively.

Concrete Placement
The concrete was mixed and delivered to the site in ready-mix trucks. The concrete mix was very
flowable, with slump measurements ranging from 6.5 to 7.0 inches. To ensure proper placement,
concrete was pumped into place at a rate of 1 to 2 cubic yards per minute. Consolidation was
done with a stinger vibrator and by hand using shovels. Ready-mix trucks fed the concrete pump

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

96   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-4.   Installed dowel bars at SFO: (a) dowel bar assembly for contraction joints, (b) dowel bars as
a construction joint, (c) dowel bars offset from cut dowel bars, and (d) misaligned dowel bar.

Table B-3.   Design properties of SFO

concrete mixture.

Property Typical Value

Compressive strength (psi) at 28 days 6,000
Specified slump (in.) 6 to 7
Design air (%) 2.0
w/cm ratio 0.33

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    97

Table B-4.   Proportions of concrete mixture used

in SFO project.

Proportion per yd3

Materials ASTM Weight (lb) Volume (ft3)
Fine Aggregate 1 C33 895 5.47
Fine Aggregate 2 C33 407 2.35
Coarse Aggregate #57 C33 1,375 7.65
Coarse Aggregate #7 C33 500 2.78
Type II/V cement C150 799 4.06
Class F fly ash — — —
Potable water C1602 267 4.28
Air content 0.54
Total 27.13

Note: Admixtures (optional—to be added upon request):

• ASTM C494 Type B and D 2 to 6
• ASTM C494 Type C 10 to 45

truck, which placed concrete to half the slab depth. Concrete was consolidated, and then the
reinforcing steel mesh was placed. The remainder of the concrete was placed and consolidated,
and a power screed was used to level the slab surface and establish the final grade.
Figure B-5 illustrates the concrete placement procedure.

Finishing and Curing.   A roller tamper was used to depress coarse aggregate and to achieve
a more uniform surface finish. The finishing process continued with the use of bull floats and
a broom finish. A water-and-wax-based, white-pigmented curing compound was applied after
finishing. Figure B-6 shows the steps for finishing, texturing, and curing.

Joints.  A lightweight saw was used to create 0.25-inch-wide by 4-inch-deep contraction

joints as soon as the slabs were deemed solid enough to minimize spalling. Joints were later cut
to a final depth of 7 inches, equivalent to 1⁄3 of the slab depth (Figure B-7).

Material Testing
The HES concrete was required to have a flexural strength of at least 650 psi at the time it was
returned to service. This was not a concern given the 7-day cure time and total 30-day closure
time allotted to complete the FDRs.

Discussion
Observation of the construction of the FDRs provided the following insights. These obser-
vations were supplemented by on-site discussions with contractor and airport personnel,
along with follow-up correspondence.
• Advanced coordination with all stakeholders was paramount to successful delivery of the
airfield slab replacement. Stakeholder coordination began 2 months before construction
and involved weekly meetings with approximately 30 people. Some of the critical components
that made this project a success were good communication and coordination with stake-
holders to schedule and carry out the taxilane closure. The longer closure time allowed the
contractor to maximize efficiency in slab placement and not be burdened with having to cut,

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

98   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-5.   Concrete placement sequence in SFO project: (a) placing concrete, (b) placing and consolidating
concrete at dowel bar assemblies, (c) installing reinforcing steel, and (d) screeding concrete.

remove, and replace one or two slabs per night, which would have been the case if the work
had been completed in multiple nighttime closures. The continuous placement of multiple
rows of slabs also improved construction quality and will likely contribute to a longer-lasting
product.
• Use of an existing design team and on-site contractor accelerated the overall slab replace-
ment process. A design team and contractor were already on-site replacing concrete slabs at
the adjacent boarding areas. The airport executed a change order to the existing contract that
significantly shortened project delivery. The design team was able to prepare a single plan
sheet modification to the boarding area construction plans, and the contractor was able to

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    99

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-6.   Concrete surface finishing, texturing, and curing in SFO project: (a) roller tamping, (b) surface
finishing and edging, (c) broom finishing, and (d) surface with curing compound (macrofibers are present in
the finished surface).

quickly schedule and execute construction. The crews were familiar with the existing site
conditions, had the necessary security badges, were familiar with the slab replacement pro-
cess, and had experience working with the HES concrete mixtures.
• Safety and security required a significant commitment of airport personnel. Barricades
surrounded the working areas—both portland cement concrete and asphalt replacement—
and on the closed portion of the taxilane. Airport operations vehicles continuously secured
all work areas. The contractor and airport coordinated in advance so that plenty of airport
operations personnel were on-site to provide escort for construction activities.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

100   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-7.   Contraction joint saw cuts in SFO project.

• Proper use of personal protection equipment (PPE) was essential for both contractor and
airport employees. This was most evident when the contractor was air-blasting holes for
dowel cleaning and for mixing two-part epoxy for dowel anchoring.
• The concrete mixture was reviewed by the airport’s pavement consultant, who advised the
contractor to add synthetic microfibers and macrofibers. The concrete mix was delivered
on time and met the specifications for consistency and compressive strength. Since the air
temperature was in the low 50s (°F), a nonchloride accelerator admixture was used in the
concrete mixture.
• Providing the contractor with a secured area in which to work enabled the paving to
be completed well ahead of schedule. The contractor was able to mobilize the sawing and
slab removal operations on a large scale. This also allowed sufficient staging of concrete
trucks, which successfully delivered up to 120 cubic yards of concrete to place three slabs
per day.

Full-Depth Repair at Seattle–Tacoma

International Airport
Project Overview
This nonemergency project was carried out to replace three concrete apron slabs at commercial
gate D11, where the existing slabs were demolished and replaced with VHES concrete. Originally,
a single 9-hour daytime closure (8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.) was allotted for FDR. However, during
slab removal, an unexpected pipe was uncovered, which required an additional 9-hour closure
the following day for removal. Figure B-8 provides an overview of the project location, and
Table B-5 provides general information for this project.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    101

Work Area

Source: Google, n.d.

Figure B-8.   Project location at Seattle–Tacoma

International Airport.

Construction Observations
Demolition
SEA inspectors had previously identified three slabs for replacement under an accelerated
construction schedule. The slabs were cut into approximately 20 pieces with a concrete saw the
day before scheduled construction. Two expanding lift anchors were pounded into holes drilled
into each piece, followed by lift-out with an excavator. Figure B-9 provides images of the slab
removal process. The slab was saw cut into smaller pieces, and holes were drilled for lifting pins.
Next, wood wedges were driven into the saw cut joint around the slab to be removed to help
prevent damage to adjacent concrete during the lift-out process. Finally, the pieces were lifted.
During demolition, a portion of the slab being removed was found to be heavily reinforced.
The contractor tried several methods to remove these pieces but ultimately used a hydraulic

Table B-5.   General information: Project at Seattle–Tacoma

International Airport.

Category Detail
Airport location Seattle, Washington
Owner Port of Seattle
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Northwest Mountain
LTPP climate region Wet, nonfreeze
Facility and location of work Apron area at commercial gate D11
Closure time Daytime (8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.)
Type of work FDR
Dates of construction September 25–26, 2019
Site visit weather conditions Temperature: 60°F to 68°F
Humidity: 60% to 75%
Wind: 5–8 mph
Cloudy sky
Work performed by Contractor
Construction drawings and specifications? No
Emergency work? No

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

102   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-9.   Sequence of removal of existing cracked slab at SEA: (a) slab saw cut into pieces and holes drilled
for lifting pins, (b) wooden wedges driven into joints to prevent damage to adjacent slabs, and (c) slabs lifted
with an excavator and loaded onto a trailer.

breaker. The reinforced concrete was found to be a cap for an existing vertical steel tube. SEA
inspectors were unable to determine the purpose of the abandoned pipe. The hydraulic breaker
worked well, but demolition of this highly reinforced concrete turned out to be a time-consuming
effort that took several hours. As a result, concrete placement was delayed until the next day,
and the contractor backfilled the repair area with aggregate base and placed a steel plate over the
aggregate. The removal process is shown in Figure B-10.

Preparation
After the pipe and surrounding concrete were removed, the base material was tested for
chemical contaminants with a handheld electronic odor detector device. Contaminated base
material would have been removed and replaced with new base material; however, contaminants

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    103

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-10.   Removal of reinforced concrete portion and top of abandoned pipe at SEA: (a) existing condition,
(b) demolition of concrete, (c) cutting of metal pipe, and (d) pipe removal completed.

were not detected. The existing base was leveled with the excavator bucket and compacted
with a vibratory plate. Density testing with a nuclear gauge was performed, with a target of
100% compaction.
Dowel bars were installed along all four sides of each repair area. Holes were drilled into
the existing slabs with a truck-mounted four-barrel drill. Several tubes of epoxy were squeezed
into a bucket and mixed by using a drill with mixer attachment. Dowel bars were dipped into
the mixed epoxy and slid into the drilled holes. Grout retention discs were installed over each
dowel bar (against the slab) to prevent the epoxy from seeping out. A steel reinforcement mat
was installed at slab middepth in all the repair areas. Sequential preparation of a repair area for
concrete placement is shown in Figure B-11.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

104   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-11.   Preparation of repair area prior to concrete placement at SEA: (a) checking density, (b) drilling
dowel bar holes, (c) dowel bar installation (note proper use of epoxy retention discs), and (d) reinforcement
installed and ready for concrete.

Concrete Mixture
The contractor used a VHES concrete containing a proprietary CSA-based cement binder
and locally available aggregates. The mix was proportioned to achieve the minimum required
opening-to-traffic flexural strength of 650 psi at opening. Concrete was mixed on-site using
mobile (volumetric) mixers with electronic controls. The exact concrete mixture design proper-
ties and proportions were not available, but typical values for VHES mixture design properties
and mixture proportions are summarized in Table B-6 and Table B-7, respectively.

Concrete Placement
Two mobile mixers simultaneously discharged concrete along one side of the repair area.
Mobile mixer trucks slowly pulled forward and placed concrete to a height just above the
adjacent slabs. Once both mobile mixers had discharged their concrete loads, a third mobile

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    105

Table B-6.   Typical design properties of VHES concrete

mixtures at SEA.

Property Typical Value

Flexural strength (psi) at return-to-service for 100% payment 650
Slump (in.) 4.25
Air (%) 5.9
Unit weight (lb/ft )
3
142.8
w/cm ratio 0.45
Maximum aggregate size (in.) 1.5

mixer was used to fill the rest of the repair area, which required about ½ to 2⁄3 of its load. The
first few cubic feet of concrete out of the mobile mixer were typically dry (lacked proper water
proportion), which prompted the operators to make a judgment-based adjustment to the mix
water. After slight adjustments, the concrete material became more fluid and consistent.
A roller screed was used to level and partially consolidate the concrete while a concrete vibra-
tor was used to consolidate the concrete near the slab edges. The contractor ensured that the
concrete was properly consolidated.

Finishing and Curing

A hand-tooled edge was formed adjacent to the existing portland cement concrete slabs.
Afterward, a hand float was used to smooth and densify the concrete surface, and a broom finish
was applied to provide surface texture. Approximately 10 to 15 minutes after finishing was
completed and the surface had begun to set, water was manually sprayed on the concrete surface.
This was followed by placement of a garden sprinkler to continuously apply water to the slab
surface for an additional 30 minutes. An overview of the VHES concrete placement, finishing,
and curing is shown in Figure B-12.

Material Testing
Several concrete beams were cast from the middle of the load from the second mobile mixer
truck for each repair area. Beams were left to field-cure until approximately 30 minutes prior to

Table B-7.   Typical proportions of VHES concrete mixtures at SEA.

Proportion per yd3

Materials ASTM Weight (lb) Volume (ft3)
CSA cement C1600 705 3.83
Coarse Aggregate No. 467 C33 1,799 10.80
Washed coarse sand C33 1,092 6.62
Water 275 4.41
Air 1.35
Total 27.00

Note: Admixtures:
• Air entrainer at 2 ounces/hundredweight (oz/cwt)
• Water reducer at 4 oz/cwt
• Citric acid in solution at 1.4 oz/cwt
• Stabilizer at 0.3 oz/cwt
• Lithium nitrate solution at 9 oz/cwt

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

106   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-12.   Overview of VHES concrete placement at SEA: (a) initial concrete placement, (b) screeding of
concrete, (c) finishing of concrete, and (d) initial (moisture) curing. The finishing process began immediately
following the screeding.

the first strength test. Two beams were tested on the first repair slab at 3.5 hours with an average
flexural strength of 850 psi, which greatly exceeded the flexural strength requirement of 650 psi
at time of opening. The average 3.5-hour flexural strength for the second slab was 685 psi. The
contractor was allowed some freedom in how quickly the VHES mixture reached opening
strength. A contractor that can perform the demolition work quickly may opt for a slower-curing
VHES concrete mixture; alternatively, a contractor that struggles with the demolition work may
desire a faster-curing VHES concrete mixture to allow for more time for demolition.

Discussion
Observing the construction of three FDRs to replace cracked slabs in a commercial gate area
provided several insights. Observations were supplemented by on-site discussions with the con-
tractor and SEA personnel.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    107

• Advanced coordination with all stakeholders was paramount to successful delivery of

rapid airfield slab repairs. With this project occurring directly outside a gate, coordination
with the airline was critical in securing a daytime closure that would not significantly impact
the airline’s operations. SEA inspectors were in constant communication with airline repre-
sentatives once it was apparent the concrete would not be placed and cured before the end of
the closure. The airline was able to secure a second daytime closure on the following day for
FDR completion.
• Safety and security required a significant commitment of airport personnel. SEA operations
vehicles continuously monitored and secured the work site. The work site was in a corner
of the airport that received low traffic and SEA personnel made sure no nonconstruction
vehicles or personnel entered the construction area.
• Proper use of PPE was essential for both contractor and airport employees. Excellent use
of PPE, including vests, hard hats, gloves, eye and ear protection, boots, and respirators (when
warranted), was noted on this project.
• Protection of existing concrete during demolition was a challenge. Slabs were saw cut into
manageably sized pieces to minimize damage to adjacent concrete. Adjacent slabs were fur-
ther protected by wood wedges installed into the saw cut joint to act as buffers from swaying
concrete pieces as they were removed. Some minor damage still occurred to adjacent concrete.
• Overall work-site cleanliness was important to minimize FOD. The contractor laid plastic
sheeting around the area to be replaced to keep the adjacent work area clean; this not only
made cleanup easier but also minimized tracking of construction debris to locations outside
the work area.
• An initial volume of concrete produced by a mobile volumetric mixer should be discharged
and disposed of off-site. The first few cubic feet of concrete produced by the mobile mixing
trucks was consistently dry and required judgment-based adjustment of mix water to obtain
a workable concrete. After this adjustment, the concrete was consistent for the remainder of
the discharge for that truck.
• Upfront planning and preparation were important for placement of ESC. Three mobile
mixing trucks were required to produce enough concrete for each FDR: two mobile mixers
working simultaneously produced most of the material required, while a third mobile mixer
produced the remainder of the concrete necessary to fill the repair area. Continuous placement
was necessary because of set times.
• Being prepared for unexpected circumstances was an essential element of rapid FDR.
Removal of an unexpected reinforced concrete pipe cap delayed concrete placement until
the following day. The contractor was able to backfill the repair areas with aggregate base and
cover them with steel plates to allow the airline to use the gate between construction closures.
• Awareness of the construction schedule (during construction itself) was very important.
Site-specific conditions (known or unknown) may slow the production rate and ultimately
affect a contractor’s ability to complete construction within the allotted time frame.
• Attention to detail during construction was essential. The contractor paid attention to
many construction details, such as use of grout retention discs on dowel bars, wetting the
base material prior to concrete placement, and verifying steel reinforcement depth.

In-Pavement Light Can Replacement,

Full-Depth Repair, and Partial-Depth Repairs
at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
Project Overview
This project replaced in-pavement light can fixtures on the centerline of Runway 7R-25L that
were settling below the pavement surface (considered to be an FDR). Additional work inside
the runway safety area included preventive electrical maintenance, conversion to LED runway

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

108   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Work Area

Source: Google, n.d.

Figure B-13.   Project location at Phoenix Sky Harbor

International Airport.

lighting, and repair and replacement of some runway electrical circuits. After many months of
stakeholder communication and coordination, the runway was closed over a single weekend
(from Friday 10:00 p.m. to Monday 7:00 a.m.). During the closure, the airport’s maintenance
crew took the opportunity to perform other maintenance activities, including removing tire
rubber, striping, and completing PDRs on the runway pavement. Figure B-13 provides an over-
view of the project location, while Figure B-14 shows replacement of the light can and a PDR.
Table B-8 provides general information for this project.

Construction Observations for In-Pavement Light

Replacement and Full-Depth Repair
Demolition
A 54-inch-diameter core bit was used to drill around the defective light can through the
24-inch-thick concrete pavement in advance of core removal. The core was removed by bolting

Source: (a) Rummel Construction and (b) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-14.   In-pavement light can replacement at PHX: (a) FDR and (b) PDR.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    109

Table B-8.   General information: Project at Phoenix Sky Harbor

International Airport.

Category Detail
Airport location Phoenix, Arizona
Owner City of Phoenix
FAA classification Large hub
FAA region Western Pacific
LTPP climate region Dry, nonfreeze
Facility and location of work Runway 7R-25L
Closure time Weekend (Friday 10:00 p.m. to Monday 7:00 a.m.)
Type of work In-pavement light replacement, FDR, and PDRs
Dates of construction November 1–4, 2019
Site visit weather conditions Temperature: 54°F to 60°F
Humidity: 20% to 30%
Wind: 0–2 mph
Clear sky
Work performed by In-pavement light replacement and FDR: Contractor
PDR: Airport personnel
Construction drawings and In-pavement light replacement: Yes
specifications? PDR: No
Emergency work? No

four steel plates with rings to the concrete. Chains were hooked to the steel plate rings and to the
arm of the backhoe, and the pavement core (with light can) was lifted out. Figure B-15 shows the
removal sequence of the concrete core that contained the in-pavement light can.
According to the contractor, the main challenge was lifting out the core vertically to avoid
causing damage to the adjacent concrete. A crane was used first but was not able to vertically
remove the core. The contractor decided to use a backhoe and subsequently was able to remove
the large core without damaging the existing concrete.

Source: (a) Rummel Construction and (b–d) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-15.   Removal sequence of in-pavement light can at PHX: (a) coring, (b) lift-pins installed, (c) lift-out,
and (d) removal complete.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

110   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Table B-9.   Design properties of PHX

concrete mixture.

Property Typical Value

Compressive strength (psi) 6,500
Specified slump (in.) 3–8
Design air (%) 1.5
Unit weight (lb/ft 3) 147.5
w/cm ratio 0.32

Preparation
After core removal, concrete pieces that had broken off the core were removed from the
repair area. Electricians cleaned the electrical conduits that were filled with water and mud, and
all excess water was removed from the repair area prior to installation of the new in-pavement
light can fixture. An isolation joint was created with preformed joint compression material, and
a reinforcing cage was installed around the light can. The light can was suspended from a beam
flush on the pavement surface to set final elevation.

Concrete Mixture
The contractor used a 6,500 psi HES concrete with a nonchloride accelerator. The design
properties and mix proportions of the concrete mixture are summarized in Table B-9 and
Table B-10, respectively. The concrete mixture proportions were not adjusted for the volume of
chemical admixtures.

Concrete Placement
A ready-mix truck delivered 4 cubic yards of concrete; only 2 cubic yards were placed in
the FDR surrounding the new light can. The temperature of the concrete at the time of place-
ment was 75°F with a slump of 6.75 inches. The concrete was consolidated with a mechanical
vibrator.

Table B-10.   Typical proportions of VHES concrete mixture at PHX.

Proportion per yd3

Materials ASTM Weight (lb) Volume (ft3)
Fine aggregate C33 1,093 6.69
Coarse aggregate C33 1,750 10.61
Type II/V cement C150 650 3.31
Class F fly ash C618 215 1.58
Potable water C1602 275 4.41
Air 0.41
Total 27.0

Note: Admixtures:
• ASTM C494 Type F High-Range Water Reducer at 66 oz/yd3
• ASTM C494 Type A Water Reducer at 26 oz/yd3
• ASTM C494 Type C Accelerator as requested

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    111

Finishing and Curing

Finishing was done by hand with a trowel. A spray-applied, wax-based curing compound was
used for this work. After application of the curing compound, a wet burlap covering was placed
on top to help cure the concrete surrounding the in-pavement light (Figure B-16).

Material Testing
The HES concrete was required to have a compressive strength of at least 6,000 psi at the time
it was returned to service. This was not a concern, given the use of an HES concrete along with
approximately 50 hours for curing before reopening the runway. The 24-hour, 48-hour, and
7-day average compressive strengths were 6,020, 7,440, and 8,140 psi, respectively.

Construction Observations for Partial-Depth Repairs

Demolition
The observed PDRs for this project were performed by using the chip-out method to expose
and repair retrofitted electrical conduits that had collapsed and caused a short circuit. Figure B-17
shows an example of a marked area slated for PDR (over retrofitted electrical conduit) and
the demolition and preparation process. First, the repair area was demolished by jackhammer
to expose solid concrete. After concrete pieces were removed, a dry saw was used to saw cut a
smooth edge around the repair boundary about 1.5 to 2 inches from the damaged area. A vacuum
was used to remove dust and small pieces of concrete.

Preparation
The airport maintenance crew thoroughly cleaned the area of dust and debris and removed
any moisture. Previous experience with this repair material indicated that the presence of dust,
small aggregates, or moisture could cause early failure of the PDR. Prior to placement of the

Source: (a) Rummel Construction; (b) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-16.   FDR finishing and curing in-pavement light at PHX: (a) trowel finishing and (b) final curing
with use of wet burlap. A wax-based curing compound was applied prior to the installation of the wet
burlap covering.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

112   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Note: Cleaning repair area with a vacuum is not shown.

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-17.   PDR demolition sequence at PHX: (a) area marked for PDR, (b) chip-out demolition method,
(c) sawing a clean face, and (d) prepared area (exposed electrical conduit).

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    113

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-18.   Preformed joint compression material used at PHX to reestablish transverse joints.

repair material, the existing transverse joint was reestablished with preformed joint compression
material (Figure B-18).

Materials and Installation

The PDR repair material used for this project was a proprietary, two-component polymer
concrete that uses fine aggregate as an extender. During cold weather, the airport adds an accel-
erator by the same manufacturer. The airport also adds a small portion of aggregate, as it believes
the aggregate improves durability.
Mixing was done according to the product manufacturer’s instructions with a rotating bucket
mixer with a paddle inserted to blend the material. The process began with a 5-gallon bucket of
fine aggregate and ended after the addition of both parts of the binder material and mixing for
a specified amount of time. Figure B-19 depicts the polymer concrete mixing process for the
selected product.
The PDR material appeared to be consistent and flowable when poured from the 5-gallon
buckets into the clean repair area (Figure B-20). The material remained workable while it was
hand troweled to finished grade and did not set up too quickly. Consolidation was not required
for this type of self-leveling PDR material, nor was curing required for this polymer concrete
material; the set time was approximately 15 minutes after mixing.

Discussion
Observing PDR and FDR construction for replacement of in-pavement light provided the
following insights. These observations were supplemented by on-site discussions with the con-
tractor and airport personnel and by follow-up correspondence.
• Advanced coordination with all stakeholders was paramount to successful delivery of
rapid airfield slab repairs. The stakeholder planning for this project started in April 2019,

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

114   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-19.   Mixing process for polymer concrete used at PHX for PDR: (a) electric mixer, (b) binder (Part 1)
added to aggregate, (c) binder (Part 2) added, and (d) mixing.

approximately 7 months prior to the start of construction. Some of the critical components
that made this project a success were good communication and coordination with stakehold-
ers to schedule and carry out the runway closure. This allowed project work to be carried out
prior to the busy holiday season.
• Safety and security required a significant commitment of airport personnel. Barricades
were placed in all working areas and on the closed taxiway intersections. To improve safety
and security, airport operations vehicles continuously secured all work areas. The contractor
and airport coordinated in advance so that plenty of airport operations personnel were on-site
to provide escort for construction activities.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    115

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-20.   Material installation at PHX for PDR: (a) placement, (b) spreading, and (c) leveling.

• Proper use of PPE was essential for both contractor and airport employees. Use of respirator
equipment was especially important during drilling and cleaning of holes for dowel bars.
• A major challenge during the planning phase was approval of the concrete and additives
to be used for the concrete mix. The FDR concrete mix was delivered on time and met the
specifications for consistency and compressive strength. Since the air temperature was in
the low 50s (°F), a nonchloride accelerator admixture was used in the concrete mixture.
• The local experience of airport maintenance crews played an important role in the
longevity of PDRs. Airport maintenance crews understood that the presence of any moisture,
dust, or debris on the concrete surface that was prepared for repair could cause premature
failure of the repair. The crews paid close attention to cleaning and drying the repair area prior
to placement of the repair material.
• Being prepared for unexpected circumstances was an essential element of rapid slab
repair. A crane was not able to vertically lift the concrete core (containing the in-pavement
light can) without risking damage to the adjacent concrete. The contractor quickly adjusted
its approach and used a backhoe to successfully remove the concrete core.
• Awareness of the actual PDR completion rate compared with closure time was very
important. Demolition for the PDRs took longer than anticipated, since the previously
placed repair material was in sound condition. The crews had to be careful not to demolish
more repair areas than could be completed (repair material placed and cured) prior to the
end of the scheduled closure.

Partial-Depth Repair at Gerald R. Ford

International Airport
Project Overview
As part of a larger apron expansion project at Gerald R. Ford International Airport (GRR),
PDRs were performed on the passenger terminal apron to repair spalls. The spalls resulted
from winter snowplowing operations and improper edge finishing during concrete placement.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

116   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Work Area

Source: Google, n.d.

Figure B-21.   Project locations at Gerald R. Ford

International Airport.

PDR work was carried out during multiple daytime work shifts. Partial or full apron closures were
not utilized, mainly because of the reduction in aircraft traffic resulting from the COVID-19
pandemic. Stakeholder coordination allowed daytime construction in specified areas during
periods with no (or minimal) aircraft operations on the terminal apron. Figure B-21 provides
an overview of the project location, and Table B-11 provides general project information.

Construction Observations
Demolition and Preparation
The contractor and project engineer walked every concrete joint within the project limits and
marked locations for PDRs. If a spall was less than 1 inch from the face of joint, loose concrete
material was removed for joint resealing. If the spalled area exceeded the 1-inch criterion, it was
treated as a PDR. In this case, the contractor saw cut a rectangular area that extended 1 inch
past the limits of the spalled (or potential spall) area. The material inside the boundaries was
removed by making several overlapping saw cuts with a wide-blade concrete saw to a depth of
2 to 3 inches. The repair area was thoroughly cleaned and dried with compressed air prior to

Table B-11.   General information: Project at Gerald R. Ford

International Airport.

Category Detail
Airport location Grand Rapids, Michigan
Owner Gerald R. Ford International Airport
FAA classification Small hub
FAA region Great Lakes
LTPP climate region Wet, freeze
Facility and location of work Terminal apron
Closure time Daytime (hours varied)
Type of work PDR
Dates of construction Various (site visit on July 21, 2020)
Site visit weather conditions Temperature: 72°F
Humidity: 56%
Wind: 5 mph
Partly cloudy
Work performed by PDR: contractor
Construction drawings and
PDR: Yes
specifications?
Emergency work? No

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    117

placement of the PDR material. Previous experience indicated that cleaning and preparation
were important to the quality of PDR. Figure B-22 shows the demolition sequence.
The contractor watched the daily flight schedule via the GRR airport mobile app and coordi-
nated PDR work with airport operations staff. PDRs were completed between peak flight times,
and the contractor had a spotter watching for aircraft operating on the apron.

Materials and Installation

The PDR repair material used for this project was a two-component, epoxy-based elastomeric
concrete that uses fine aggregate as an extender. Mixing was done according to manufacturer
instructions with a paddle attachment affixed to an electric drill. Two binder components were
measured, added to a 5-gallon bucket, and blended. Fine aggregate was added to the blended
binder and mixed again. Figure B-23 shows the elastomeric concrete mixing process for the
selected product.
The PDR material was manually poured from the 5-gallon buckets into the clean repair area
(Figure B-24). According to the contractor, the material remained workable while it was hand-
troweled to a finish grade and did not set up too quickly. Consolidation was not required for this
type of self-leveling PDR material, nor was curing required for this elastomeric material. The
joint was reestablished by dry sawing (hand grinder) the hardened repair material, followed by
cleaning and resealing of the joint. The PDR was returned to service within 2 hours. Figure B-25
shows a completed PDR with sealed joints.

Discussion
Visiting a PDR construction site at GRR provided the following insights. These observations
were supplemented by on-site discussions with the contractor, project engineer, and airport
personnel, along with follow-up correspondence.
• This airport has an aggressive approach to maintaining airfield concrete pavements. Approxi-
mately $500,000 is spent annually for PDR and FDR.

Source: (a) Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd. and (b and c) Ajax.

Figure B-22.   PDR demolition sequence at GRR: (a) marked location of PDR, (b) sawing, and (c) area prepared
for PDR.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

118   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: Ajax.

Figure B-23.   Mixing process for elastomeric concrete used at GRR for PDR: (a) add binder components,
(b) mix binder, and (c) add aggregate and mix.

• Coordination with all stakeholders was paramount to successful delivery of rapid airfield
PDRs. The contractor monitored the daily flight schedules and coordinated work locations
and timing with airport operations. This allowed daytime PDRs during periods with no
(or minimal) aircraft traffic.
• Closures were not needed, owing to proper planning and coordination with stakeholders.
The contractor worked when aircraft were not at the gates or using the apron, and repairs were
opened to traffic within 2 hours of material placement.
• The contractor’s attitude toward quality work and implementation of quality control was
very important. The contractor believed that attention to detail during construction results
in longer-lasting PDRs. The contractor performed follow-up inspections of concrete slabs
in the work areas and re-marked spalls that were missed during construction and PDRs that
needed to be corrected.
• Monitoring weather was important because the area is in a rainy climate. The contractor
monitored the weather forecast and did not start PDRs if rain was imminent.

Note: The joint was reestablished and resealed following the specified material curing time.
Source: Ajax.

Figure B-24.   Installation sequence at GRR for PDR material: (a) place material, (b) level material, and
(c) self-consolidation.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    119

Source: Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd.

Figure B-25.   Example of completed PDR with sealed

joint at GRR.

Full-Depth and Partial-Depth Repairs at

Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport
Project Overview
As part of a multiyear repair project at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport
(CVG), deteriorated concrete slabs associated with Runway 9/27 and Taxiways K and J were
identified for repairs. Cracking and spalling were the major drivers triggering the need for
PDR and FDR. Typical slabs are 25 by 25 feet by 18 inches thick.
The first portion of work was performed on the taxilane along the Concourse B apron
(Ramp 3). The Ramp 3 taxilane work was originally planned for nighttime closures, but with
reduced operations as a result of the impact of COVID-19, the airline using the apron was able
to relocate gate operations, and the work was completed over an extended closure. Future phases
of repair work are anticipated to be on an accelerated schedule. Although this phase was not
accelerated, there are still lessons to be learned. Figure B-26 provides an overview of the project
location, while Table B-12 provides general information for this project.

Construction Observations for Full-Depth Repair

Demolition
First, the slab perimeter was cut, and then the slabs were further cut into approximately 16 pieces
prior to slab removal. The contractor indicated that interior saw cuts are often performed at a
slight angle to facilitate removal of the first piece. Removal was done by installing lift anchors
into holes drilled into one piece that was then lifted out with an excavator. Subsequent pieces
were removed with an excavator. Figure B-27 provides images of the slab removal process. Wood
wedges were driven into the saw cut joint around the slab to help prevent damage to adjacent
concrete during the removal process.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

120   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Work Area

Source: Google, n.d.

Figure B-26.   Taxilane project location at Cincinnati/

Northern Kentucky International Airport.

Preparation
During slab removal, some of the stabilized base was bonded to the underside of the slab and
left a portion of the base damaged. Any areas of base damage were replaced with concrete after
slab removal (the existing base was lean concrete or asphalt).
Dowel bars were installed along the entire perimeter of the repair areas. Holes were drilled
into the existing slabs with a 4-gang pneumatic dowel drill. Epoxy was injected into the
drilled holes and dowel bars were inserted. Retention discs were installed over each dowel bar
(and against the slab) to prevent the epoxy from seeping out. Dowel bar baskets were anchored
at interior transverse joint locations for consecutive slab replacements. A double application of
curing compound was applied to the stabilized base as a bond breaker. Sequential preparation
of a repair area for concrete placement is shown in Figure B-28.

Concrete Mixture
The contractor used a conventional concrete and locally available aggregates. The mix was
proportioned to achieve the minimum required opening-to-traffic flexural strength of 650 psi at

Table B-12.   General information: Project at Cincinnati/

Northern Kentucky International Airport.

Category Detail
Airport location Hebron, Kentucky
Owner Kenton County Airport Board
FAA classification Medium hub
FAA region Southern
LTPP climate region Wet, freeze
Facility and location of work Apron taxilane at commercial gates
Closure time Daytime
Type of work PDR and FDR
Dates of construction September 22 through December 10, 2020
(Ramp 3); observed on October 26, 2020
Site visit weather conditions Temperature: 47°F to 51°F
Humidity: 77% to 93%
Wind: 0–12 mph
Cloudy sky
Work performed by Contractor
Construction drawings and specifications? Yes
Emergency work? No

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    121

Note: Shims installed at slab edges to prevent damage to adjacent slabs.

Source: C&S Engineers, Inc.

Figure B-27.   Removal sequence of existing cracked slab at CVG: (a) sawing slabs into smaller pieces, (b) lift-pin
holes drilled into slab pieces, (c) lift-pins installed, and (d) slab pieces removed.

28 days. Concrete was mixed adjacent to the airfield with the use of a batch plant and delivered
to the work site by nonagitated dump trucks. Typical values for mixture design properties and
mixture proportions are summarized in Table B-13 and Table B-14, respectively.
Air content and slump tests were conducted from random loads in determined sublots.
Flexural strength beams were also produced for later testing.

Concrete Placement
As mentioned previously, the concrete mixture was mixed at an adjacent batch plant and
delivered to the work site in nonagitated dump trucks. To facilitate placement, a material
transfer vehicle was used to place the concrete. Consolidation was performed with internal
(or spud) vibrators. A roller screed was used to level the concrete surface and establish final grade.
Figure B-29 illustrates the procedure for FDR concrete placement.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

122   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: (a) C&S Engineers, Inc., and (b) Applied Pavement Technology, Inc.

Figure B-28.   Preparation of repair area at CVG prior to concrete placement: (a) drilling of holes for dowel bars
and (b) curing compound applied as bond breaker and dowel bars installed.

Table B-13.   Typical design properties of CVG concrete mixture.

Property Typical Value

Flexural strength (psi) at 28 days for 100% payment 650
Slump (in.) 4 max.a
Air (%) 5.5
w/cm ratio 0.38–0.45
Maximum aggregate size (in.) 1.5
aFor hand placement.

Table B-14.   Typical proportions of CVG concrete mixture.

Proportion per yd3

Materials ASTM Weight (lb) Volume (ft3)
Type I/II cement C150 282 1.43
Slag cement C989 282 1.59
Coarse Aggregate No. 57 C33 1,552 9.29
Coarse Aggregate No. 8 C33 221 1.34
Natural sand C33 1,380 8.34
Water 220 3.53
Air content 1.49
Total 27.0

Note: Admixtures:
• ASTM C260 Air-Entraining Admixture at 1.3 oz/cwt
• ASTM C494 Water Reducer at 3 oz/cwt

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    123

Source: Applied Pavement Technology, Inc.

Figure B-29.   Overview of FDR concrete placement at CVG: (a) loading concrete into a belt placer, (b) placing
concrete, (c) consolidating concrete, and (d) screeding concrete.

Finishing and Curing

A bull float and edging tools followed the roller screed. Surface texture was applied by a
broom finish. A white-pigmented curing compound was applied after finishing was completed.

Joints
Interior transverse joints were saw cut to a depth of 1⁄3 the slab thickness. Joints were then
widened to 0.5 inch at the surface to create the joint sealant reservoir and beveled.

Construction Observations for Partial-Depth Repair

Demolition and Preparation
Figure B-30 shows an example of a marked area slated for PDR and the demolition and
preparation process. The perimeter of the repair area was saw cut (minimum depth of

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

124   Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Source: C&S Engineers, Inc.

Figure B-30.   Demolition and preparation at CVG for PDR: (a) location marked for demolition and PDR
and (b) area ready for repair material.

2.5 inches) approximately 2 inches beyond the edge of damaged concrete. The deteriorated
material was removed with a jackhammer to expose sound concrete, and the repair area was
thoroughly cleaned to remove dust and small pieces of concrete after removal of the larger pieces.

Materials and Installation

The PDR repair material used for this project was a three-component (A + B + C), epoxy-based
elastomeric concrete consisting of elastomeric activator and patch (A + B) and aggregate (C).
Mixing was done manually and in accordance with product manufacturer instructions. The two
binder components were added to the 5-gallon bucket of aggregate and blended.
A two-component (A + B) bonding agent was applied to the surface of the repair area
immediately prior to placement of PDR material. The PDR material was manually poured from
the 5-gallon buckets into the clean repair area (Figure B-31). The surface of the repair was
then trowel finished. Consolidation was not required for this type of self-leveling PDR material,
nor was curing required for this elastomeric material. The joint reservoir and sealant were
reestablished after the material hardened.

Discussion
The following observations were made, supplemented by on-site discussions with the
contractor and project engineer:
• Coordination with all stakeholders was paramount to successful delivery of rapid air-
field PDRs. Although this project was initially planned as nighttime work, coordination with
stakeholders (regarding COVID-19 reduction in aircraft operations) allowed the first phase
of work to be performed during an extended daytime closure. An extended closure allowed
for a less time-sensitive environment in which to demonstrate techniques and materials that
will be used in future phases.
• Safety and security required a significant commitment of airport and contractor personnel.
Barricades were placed in all working areas to prevent airfield traffic from entering work

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Examples of Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement Projects    125

Source: C&S Engineers, Inc.

Figure B-31.   Installation of PDR material at CVG: (a) area prepared for repair material, (b) placement of repair
material, and (c) finished PDR.

zones and construction traffic from entering active airfield facilities. As part of the project
requirements for safety and security, the contractor hired airport staff (off-duty police, fire,
and maintenance personnel familiar with the airfield) to continuously monitor all work areas.
The contractor also staffed a dedicated security gate and provided escort for construction
activities.
• Local experience with repair materials played an important role in the longevity of PDRs.
The airport and contractor both had experience with the PDR material and understood the
requirements for preparation, placement, and curing.
• Repair plans needed to be well-defined. As work progressed, the quantity of PDR increased
significantly from initial plan quantities, which required assessing the available budget and
repair types.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Abbreviations and acronyms used without definitions in TRB publications:

A4A Airlines for America
AAAE American Association of Airport Executives
AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America
ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program
ADA Americans with Disabilities Act
APTA American Public Transportation Association
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATA American Trucking Associations
CTAA Community Transportation Association of America
CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program
DHS Department of Homeland Security
DOE Department of Energy
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAST Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (2015)
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FTA Federal Transit Administration
GHSA Governors Highway Safety Association
HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (2012)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials
NCFRP National Cooperative Freight Research Program
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
RITA Research and Innovative Technology Administration
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act:
A Legacy for Users (2005)
TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program
TDC Transit Development Corporation
TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998)
TRB Transportation Research Board
TSA Transportation Security Administration
U.S. DOT United States Department of Transportation

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Rapid Slab Repair and Replacement of Airfield Concrete Pavement

Transportation Research Board

500 Fifth Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001

ADDRESS SERVICE REQUESTED

ISBN 978-0-309-67417-1
90000

9 780309 674171

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.