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 NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION IN
HUMAN INTERACTION

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 NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION IN
HUMAN INTERACTION

±±
±±
±±
±± Mark L. Knapp
±±
±±
±± The University of Texas at Austin
±±
±±
E I G H T H ±±± Judith A. Hall
±±
E D I T I O N ±±± Northeastern University
±±
±±
±±
±± Terrence G. Horgan
±±
±± University of Michigan, Flint
±±

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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 Nonverbal Communication in Human © 2014, 2010, 2007 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Interaction, Eighth Edition
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 BRIEF CONTENTS

P REFACE xv

A N I NTRODUCTION TO THE S TUDY OF N ONVERBAL

PART I
C OMMUNICATION 1

CHAPTER 1 Nonverbal Communication: Basic Perspectives 3

CHAPTER 2 The Roots of Nonverbal Behavior 29

CHAPTER 3 The Ability to Receive and Send Nonverbal Signals 59

PART II T HE C OMMUNICATION E NVIRONMENT 89

CHAPTER 4 The Effects of the Environment on Human Communication 91

CHAPTER 5 The Effects of Territory and Personal Space on Human

Communication 123

PART III T HE C OMMUNICATORS 151

CHAPTER 6 The Effects of Physical Characteristics on Human Communication 153

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 vi BRIEF CONTENTS

PART IV T HE C OMMUNICATORS ’ B EHAVIOR 197

CHAPTER 7 The Effects of Gesture and Posture on Human Communication 199

CHAPTER 8 The Effects of Touch on Human Communication 231

CHAPTER 9 The Effects of the Face on Human Communication 258

CHAPTER 10 The Effects of Eye Behavior on Human Communication 295

CHAPTER 11 The Effects of Vocal Cues That Accompany Spoken Words 323

PART V C OMMUNICATING I MPORTANT M ESSAGES 357

CHAPTER 12 Using Nonverbal Behavior in Daily Interaction 359

CHAPTER 13 Nonverbal Messages in Special Contexts 395

R EFERENCES 421
N AME I NDEX 493
S UBJECT I NDEX 508

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 CONTENTS

P REFACE xv

A N I NTRODUCTION TO THE S TUDY OF N ONVERBAL

P ART I
C OMMUNICATION 1

CHAPTER 1 Nonverbal Communication: Basic Perspectives 3

Perspective 1: Defining Nonverbal Communication 8

Processing Nonverbal Information 9
Awareness and Control 10
Perspective 2: Classifying Nonverbal Behavior 10
The Communication Environment 11
The Communicators’ Physical Characteristics 11
Body Movement and Position 12
Perspective 3: Nonverbal Communication in the Total
Communication Process 14
Repeating 15
Conflicting 15
Complementing 18
Substituting 19
Accenting/Moderating 19
Regulating 19
Perspective 4: Historical Trends in Nonverbal Research 21
Perspective 5: Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life 25
Summary 27

vii

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 viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 2 The Roots of Nonverbal Behavior 29

The Development of Nonverbal Behavior across Evolutionary Time 31

Evidence from Sensory Deprivation 32
Evidence from Infants 37
Evidence from Twin Studies 40
Evidence from Nonhuman Primates 44
Evidence from Multicultural Studies 52
Summary 57

CHAPTER 3 The Ability to Receive and Send Nonverbal Signals 59

Development and Improvement of Nonverbal Skills 61

Is It Good to Have More Accurate Knowledge of Nonverbal
Communication? 64
Measuring the Accuracy of Decoding and Encoding Nonverbal Cues 65
Standardized Tests of Decoding Ability 68
Personal Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Decoding Nonverbal Cues 71
Self-Appraisals and Explicit Knowledge of Nonverbal Cues 72
Gender 73
Age 73
General Cognitive Ability 74
Other Personal Correlates 75
Substance Abuse 77
Culture 78
Task Factors Affecting Nonverbal Decoding Accuracy 78
Characteristics of Accurate Nonverbal Senders 79
Putting Decoding and Encoding Together 82
On Being an Observer of Nonverbal Communication 83
The Fallibility of Human Perception 85
Summary 86

P ART II T HE C OMMUNICATION E NVIRONMENT 89

CHAPTER 4 The Effects of the Environment on Human Communication 91

Perceptions of Our Surroundings 94

Perceptions of Formality 94
Perceptions of Warmth 95
Perceptions of Privacy 96
Perceptions of Familiarity 96

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 CONTENTS ix

Perceptions of Constraint 96
Perceptions of Distance 96
Reacting to Environments 97
Perceptions of Time 98
The Natural Environment 100
Other People in the Environment 104
Architectural Design and Movable Objects 105
Color 108
Sound 111
Lighting 113
Movable Objects 114
Structure and Design 116
Regulating Environments and Communication 121
Summary 122

CHAPTER 5 The Effects of Territory and Personal Space on Human

Communication 123
The Concept of Territoriality 123
Territoriality: Invasion and Defense 125
Density and Crowding 129
The Effects of High Density on Human Beings 131
Coping with High Density 132
Conversational Distance 133
Sex 137
Age 137
Cultural and Ethnic Background 138
Topic or Subject Matter 139
Setting for the Interaction 140
Physical Characteristics 140
Attitudinal and Emotional Orientation 140
Characteristics of the Interpersonal Relationship 141
Personality Characteristics 141
Seating Behavior and Spatial Arrangements in Small Groups 142
Leadership 143
Dominance 144
Task 144
Sex and Acquaintance 145
Introversion–Extraversion 147
Conclusion 147
Summary 148

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 x CONTENTS

P ART III T HE C OMMUNICATORS 151

CHAPTER 6 The Effects of Physical Characteristics on Human

Communication 153
Our Body: Its General Attractiveness 154
Dating and Marriage 156
On the Job 159
Persuading Others 160
Self-Esteem 161
Antisocial Behavior 161
The Power of Physical Attractiveness: Some Important Qualifications 162
The Effects of Interaction 162
The Effects of Context 163
Stereotypes Are Not Always Valid 164
Attractiveness over Time 164
Our Body: Its Specific Features 165
Attractiveness and the Face 165
Judgments of the Face 167
Body Shape 169
Height 174
Body Image 177
Body Color 178
Body Smell 179
Body Hair 182
Our Body: Clothes and Other Artifacts 186
Functions of Clothing 188
Clothing as Information About the Person 190
Effects of Clothing on the Wearer 190
Clothing and Personality 191
Artifacts and Body Decorations 192
Summary 194

P ART IV T HE C OMMUNICATORS ’ B EHAVIOR 197

CHAPTER 7 The Effects of Gesture and Posture on Human Communication 199

Speech-Independent Gestures 201

Speech-Related Gestures 211
Referent-Related Gestures 212
Gestures Indicating a Speaker’s Relationship to the Referent 212

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 CONTENTS xi

Punctuation Gestures 214

Interactive Gestures 214
Gesture Frequency 216
The Coordination of Gesture, Posture, and Speech 219
Self-Synchrony 219
Interaction Synchrony 222
Summary 229

CHAPTER 8 The Effects of Touch on Human Communication 231

Touching and Human Development 232

Who Touches Whom, Where, When, and How Much? 234
Different Types of Touching Behavior 237
The Meanings and Impact of Interpersonal Touch 241
Touch as Positive Affect 241
Touch as Negative Affect 241
Touch and Discrete Emotions 242
Touch as Play 242
Touch as Influence 243
Touch as Interaction Management 244
Touch as Physiological Stimulus 244
Touch as Interpersonal Responsiveness 244
Touch as Task Related 245
Touch as Healing 245
Touch as Symbolism 247
Contextual Factors in the Meaning of Interpersonal Touch 249
Touch Can Be a Powerful Nonconscious Force in Interaction 250
Self-Touching 253
Summary 256

CHAPTER 9 The Effects of the Face on Human Communication 258

The Face and Personality Judgments 258

The Face and Interaction Management 259
Channel Control 260
Complementing or Qualifying Other Behavior 260
Replacing Spoken Messages 260
The Face and Expressions of Emotion 261
Display Rules and Facial Emotion Expression 262
The Facial Emotion Controversy 266
Measuring the Face 268

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 xii CONTENTS

Measuring Emotion Recognition 274

Emotions Inferred from the Face 278
Physiology and the Face 285
Internalizers and Externalizers 285
Facial Expression and Health 285
Facial Feedback 286
The Social Impact of Facial Expressions 289
Summary 293

CHAPTER 10 The Effects of Eye Behavior on Human Communication 295

Gaze and Mutual Gaze 296

Functions of Gazing 297
Regulating the Flow of Communication 298
Monitoring Feedback 300
Reflecting Cognitive Activity 301
Expressing Emotions 301
Communicating the Nature of the Interpersonal Relationship 306
Conditions Influencing Gazing Patterns 309
Distance 309
Physical Characteristics 310
Personal Characteristics and Personality 310
Psychopathology 313
Topics and Tasks 314
Cultural and Racial Background and Racial Attitudes 317
Pupil Dilation and Constriction 318
Summary 321

CHAPTER 11 The Effects of Vocal Cues That Accompany Spoken Words 323

The Relative Importance of Channels 324

The Ingredients and Methods of Studying Paralanguage 326
Vocal Cues and Speaker Recognition 330
Vocal Cues and Personality 333
Vocal Cues and Group Perceptions 336
Vocal Cues and Judgments of Sociodemographic Characteristics 337
Sex 337
Age 339
Social Class or Status 339
Characteristics of Recipients 339

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 CONTENTS xiii

Vocal Cues and Emotion 341

Vocal Cues, Comprehension, and Persuasion 346
Vocal Cues, Comprehension, and Retention 347
Vocal Cues and Persuasion 348
Vocal Cues and Turn Taking in Conversations 349
Turn Yielding 350
Turn Requesting 350
Turn Maintaining 351
Turn Denying 351
Hesitations, Pauses, Silence, and Speech 351
Location or Placement of Pauses 352
Types of Pauses 352
Reasons Why Pauses Occur 353
Influence and Coordination within the Dyad 354
Silence 354
Summary 355

P ART V C OMMUNICATING I MPORTANT M ESSAGES 357

CHAPTER 12 Using Nonverbal Behavior in Daily Interaction 359

Communicating Intimacy 360

Courtship Behavior 360
Quasi-Courtship Behavior 363
Liking Behavior or Immediacy 364
Being Close in Close Relationships 364
Mutual Influence 367
Communicating Dominance and Status 369
Managing the Interaction 373
Greeting Behavior 373
Turn-Taking Behavior 375
Leave-Taking Behavior 378
Communicating Our Identity 379
Personal Identity 380
Social Identity 382
Deceiving Others 387
A Perspective for Communicators 392
Summary 393

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 xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER 13 Nonverbal Messages in Special Contexts 395

Advertising Messages 396

Political Messages 401
Teacher–Student Messages 405
Cultural Messages 408
High-Contact versus Low-Contact Cultures 408
Individualism versus Collectivism 409
High-Context versus Low-Context Cultures 410
Similarities across Cultures 410
Therapeutic Settings 411
Technology and Nonverbal Messages 414
Summary 419

R EFERENCES 421
N AME I NDEX 493

S UBJECT I NDEX 508

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 PREFACE

Normally, the final thing authors do in a preface is to thank those who have been
instrumental in the development of their book. We’d like to depart from that
tradition by starting with our heartfelt thanks to the thousands of students and
instructors who have used this book and provided feedback to us during the past
40 years. More than anyone else, you are responsible for the longevity of this
book. With this in mind, we undertook this eighth edition by putting what we
believe to be instructor and student needs at the forefront of our writing. As with
previous editions, we encourage you to let us know whether we have succeeded.
The fact that this book is coauthored is worth noting. One of us represents
the field of communication and the other two social psychology. This collabo-
ration, which requires the blending of two distinct perspectives, is symbolic of
the nonverbal literature we report in this volume. The theory and research
addressing nonverbal phenomena comes from scholars with a wide variety of
academic backgrounds and perspectives—communication, counseling, psychology,
psychiatry, linguistics, sociology, management, speech, and others. Understanding
the nature of nonverbal communication is truly an interdisciplinary enterprise.
In revising this book, we retained the features that students and instructors
valued from the previous editions while adding and changing other things that we
believe will improve the book. One change that we hope students like is the inclu-
sion of text boxes in each chapter. These text boxes cover important, interesting,
or current topics relevant to the field of nonverbal communication. We recognize
how important photographs and drawings are in a book like this, so we have con-
tinued to use visual representations to aid comprehension of certain nonverbal
actions. Because an increasing amount of communication is mediated by some
form of technology, we have incorporated new research findings and topics in
that area that are relevant to the lives of students and teachers, such as Facebook,
online dating, and text messaging, to name a few.
In every new edition, we incorporate the most recent theory and research
while retaining definitive studies from the past. Readers will find that some areas

xv

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 xvi PREFACE

of study have fewer recent references than others. This simply means that there
hasn’t been a lot of recent research in that area or that the recent work, in our
judgment, does not substantially change the conclusions from earlier studies. If
something we know about human behavior today was first revealed in a study
from 1958, we want readers to know that, and we will maintain the 1958 refer-
ence. Research on a particular topic often has an ebb and flow to it. During the
1960s and 1970s, the fear that a worldwide population boom would create terrible
problems spawned a lot of research on space, territory, and crowding. In recent
years, far less research has been done in this area. The study of gestures, on the
other hand, has gone from an area of relatively little research activity during the
1960s and 1970s to an area that is of primary interest to numerous scholars today.
Unlike past editions in which extensive bibliographies followed each chapter,
we have moved all the references to one bibliography in the back of the book.
Similar to previous editions, though, we have tried to retain a writing style that is
scientifically accurate as well as interesting to the reader. We are honored that our
book serves as both a textbook and a reference work. The Instructor’s Manual for
this book provides the information and imagination necessary for effective classroom
learning in nonverbal communication.
The book is divided into five parts. Part I introduces the reader to some funda-
mental ideas and addresses the following questions: What is nonverbal communi-
cation? How do verbal and nonverbal communication interrelate? What difference
does a knowledge of nonverbal communication make to your everyday life? Are
some people more skilled than others at communicating nonverbally? How did
they get that way? With this general perspective in mind, Parts II, III, and IV take
the reader through the nonverbal elements involved in any interaction: the environ-
ment within which the interaction occurs, the physical features of the interactants
themselves, and their behavior—gestures, touching, facial expressions, eye gazing,
and vocal sounds. Part V begins with a chapter focused on how all the separate
parts of an interaction combine as we seek to accomplish very common goals in
daily life—for example, communicating who we are, communicating closeness and
distance, communicating varying degrees of status and power, deceiving others,
and effectively managing the back-and-forth flow of conversation. Chapter 13
examines nonverbal communication in the context of advertising, therapy, the
classroom, politics, culture, and technology. Throughout the book we repeatedly
point out how all interactants involved are likely to play a role in whatever behavior
is displayed by a single individual—even though this perspective is not always
adequately developed in the research we review.
Several helpful online tools are available for use with this text. The online
Instructor’s Resource Manual includes a sample schedule, chapter objectives,
discussion questions, test items, audiovisual resources, exercises, and out-of-class
assignments. The companion Web site features student self-quizzes. In addition,
you can choose to purchase this text with 4 months of free access to InfoTrac®
College Edition, a world-class, online university library that offers the full text of
articles from almost 5,000 scholarly journals and popular publications updated
daily, going back more than 20 years. Students can also gain instant access to
critical-thinking and paper-writing tools through InfoWrite. Your subscription
now includes InfoMarks®—instant access to virtual readers drawing from the vast

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE xvii

InfoTrac College Edition library and hand selected to work with your books. You
can access your online resources at www.cengagebrain.com/. For more information
about these online resources, contact your local Cengage Learning representative.
All of us would like to thank Susanna Tippett for the time, energy, and
accuracy she contributed in preparing the bibliography as well as those (Melissa
Grey and Tom Voss) who reviewed a couple of our text boxes. Mark and Judy are
especially thankful for the high-quality and tireless work that Terry Horgan invested
in this edition. He brought a needed fresh perspective, a dynamic writing style,
and a high level of professionalism to this volume. We are honored that such a
fine scholar agreed to share authorship on this textbook.
Each of us would also like to thank following reviewers for their input
during the development of this edition:
Erika Engstrom, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Peggy Hutcheson, Kennesaw State University
Kevin Hutchinson, St. Norbert College
Rebecca Litke, California State University, Northridge
Christine Moore, Boise State University
Teri Varner, St. Edward’s University
Dennis Wignall, Dixie State College
We would also like to acknowledge the skills exhibited by the publishing staff
who helped us develop this edition including Monica Eckman, publisher, and
Colin Solan, editorial assistant. And a special thanks to Daisuke Yasutake
and Pooja Khurana for great patience and timeliness in all our communications
regarding the revision.

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
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 AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE STUDY OF
NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION

[ PART I]

What is nonverbal communication? How does nonverbal behavior function in rela-

tion to verbal behavior? How does nonverbal communication affect our everyday
lives? Do we learn how to perform body language, or is it instinctive? Are some
people more skilled at communicating with these face, voice, and body signals?
The answers to these fundamental questions are the focus of Part I of this book.

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Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
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 Those of us who keep our eyes open can read volumes into what we see going on
around us.
—E. T. Hall

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:
BASIC PERSPECTIVES

[ C H A P T E R 1]
It may come as no surprise to you that, in everyday life, you are an expert in non-
verbal communication even though you have yet to read a page of this book. Con-
sider the following questions:
• Have you ever looked at another person in such a way as to communicate
your sexual interest in him or her?
• When you enter an elevator full of strangers, do you take a sudden interest in
how those buttons light up as the cage moves from floor to floor?
• Do you know when a baby is hungry as opposed to tired, just from hearing
how it cries?
• If you cut someone off in traffic, would you have a problem understanding the
other driver’s reaction if he or she showed you only an upright middle finger?
• How would you use your right hand when you are introduced to a potential
boss during an interview?
• Can you tell when a loved one might be mad, sad, or happy by looking at his
or her face?
• Imagine entering a dorm room and seeing two men. One is wearing athletic
shorts and a tank top over a heavily muscled body, and he has posters of
football stars on the wall near his bed and his clothes litter his side of the
room. The other man—thin and bespectacled—appears to be neat as a pin,
with stacks of math and engineering books around his desk. Would you
suspect potential conflict between these two?

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 4 PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Chances are you had no problem answering these questions. That is because
everyone possesses a wealth of knowledge, beliefs, and experience regarding non-
verbal communication. These questions bring to mind three aspects of nonverbal
communication that you make use of during your day-to-day interactions with
others. One concerns the sending of nonverbal messages; the second, receiving
them; and the last, the complex interplay between the first two. First, you send (or
encode) nonverbal messages to others—sometimes deliberately, sometimes not. In
the case of the former, your goal is for the other person to understand a particular
message that you have sent to him or her along one or more nonverbal cue chan-
nels, such as your tone of voice, posture, and facial expression (“She could tell
I was mad at her”). Sometimes you succeed. If you do not, it could be because
your message was unclear, contradictory, or ambiguous or because the other
person missed, ignored, or misread your nonverbal message. You also may send
nonverbal messages to others that are not deliberate or even intended by you. For
example, you naturally communicate your biological sex to others via a series of
static nonverbal cues that include your body shape and facial features, and you
can burst into tears when sad. You have sent a powerful nonverbal message to
others in each case, even though your goal was not necessarily to do so. There are
times in which important information about your emotional state, attitudes, and
intentions leaks out of you nonverbally. Your bitterness toward a rival’s remarks
might be revealed in a flash of anger across your face despite your best efforts to
conceal it. Such facial cues are dynamic in nature because they change during an
interaction.
As you might have guessed already, you live in a sea of static and dynamic
nonverbal messages. These messages come to you when you are interacting with
others and even when you are all alone (“I start to shake when I think about my
date tonight”). They come to you from other people, such as strangers, acquain-
tances, neighbors, coworkers, friends, and loved ones. They even come to you
from animals that are part of your world, such as the neighbor’s dog that wags its
tail every time it sees you. They also come to you from the physical structure of,
and objects contained within, the environments that you move in and out of during
your day. These environments are real in a physical sense because you can make
physical contact with them. However, one such environment is not physical in this
sense: cyberspace. While in cyberspace, you can only hear and see nonverbal mes-
sages, such as those delivered by others’ profile “pics” and emoticons. These
computer-generated nonverbal messages are probably becoming increasingly
important to you in a world where online interactions are taking the place of some
face-to-face interactions. Indeed, some of you might be taking this class—of all
things, a class in nonverbal communication—online.
Verbal messages are meaningless unless someone is there to interpret them.
Nonverbal communication is no different. The process of receiving nonverbal mes-
sages, including our own (“Why is my fist clenched when he’s around?”), includes
giving meaning to or interpreting those messages. (This process will be defined later
as decoding a nonverbal message.) As a receiver of nonverbal messages, you may
focus on one particular nonverbal cue or several in an attempt to understand the
message that another person has sent to you. For example, in an effort to under-
stand the emotional state of your friend James, you might focus on his facial

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 CHAPTER 1 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: BASIC PERSPECTIVES 5

expression or his posture, facial expression, and tone of voice. Whether you are
successful at interpreting that emotional message is another matter altogether. If
you succeed, what you think he feels and how he actually feels will be the same.
However, as mentioned earlier, you might have missed or ignored that nonverbal
message. Or, depending on your skill level at reading others’ emotion states, you
might have misinterpreted his nonverbal message. Finally, you might have correctly
interpreted his message but still do not understand how he truly feels because he
used nonverbal behavior to feign a feeling or conceal a particular emotion state
from you.
It is obvious that words can be combined in an infinite number of ways, and
that the meaning of a sentence may depend upon contextual information, word
choice, and the arrangement of the selected words. For example, take the following
sentence fragment: “Mia learned about … She drove to … Charity … with a … in
her hand.” It is unclear what is going on in this situation. Let us see what happens
when we add different contextual information and words to these sentences.
(1) Mia learned about the plight of the children. She drove to the Charity with a
checkbook in her hand. (2) Mia learned about her husband’s infidelity. She drove
to the house where Charity lives with a gun in her hand. In a similar fashion, the
meaning of nonverbal communication is not as simple as knowing what specific
nonverbal behavior, say touching, is seen by you. It depends upon contextual infor-
mation, the sender (encoder) of the nonverbal behavior, the receiver (decoder) of
that behavior, the relationship between the sender and receiver, the arrangement
of other nonverbal cues, as well as any words being exchanged by the two.
Let us consider an example to illustrate the complexity of nonverbal communi-
cation. You see two people hug. What does that hug mean? Now what comes to
your mind when additional information is added?
• There are other people around dressed in black standing near an open casket
at a funeral, or the two people are at a high school reunion.
• What if the setting is a nightclub and the two people are a man and woman in
the early stages of a romantic relationship as opposed to two men who are
there to celebrate their baseball team’s victory earlier that evening?
• Would your perception of the hug change if you learned that the setting was a
work party and the person initiating the hugging was known to be very warm
and outgoing versus of high status and a domineering disposition?
• How might the inclusion and placement of other nonverbal cues, such as pos-
ture, affect your perception of the hug? What if the two people are leaning
toward each other from a distance, touching shoulders only briefly as opposed
to pressing their bodies together and resting their heads on each other’s
shoulders? Would it matter to you if the person being hugged stiffened his or her
body before receiving the hug? Historical and cultural factors are likely to play a
role in your perception of that simple hug as well. If you had lived around the
turn of the 20th century, you would have looked askance at the two people if
you knew that they had just ended their first date, whereas nowadays such
behavior would not even raise one of your eyebrows. If the two were Eastern
European men, you might not be surprised if they began cheek kissing as well,
whereas you would be surprised if they were from the United States.

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Random documents with unrelated
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 GENUS I. TROCHILUS, Linn.
HUMMINGBIRD.
Bill long, subulate, depressed at the base, cylindrical, straight, or
slightly arched, flexible; upper mandible with the ridge narrow at the
base, convex in the rest of its extent, the sides sloping, the edges
soft; lower mandible with the angle extremely acute and elongated,
the sides erect, the tip acute. Nostrils linear, with a membranous flap
above. Head small; neck short; body moderately stout. Feet very
short; middle toe scarcely longer than the rest. Plumage rather
blended and glossy above. Wings very long, extremely narrow; tail
rather long, broad, nearly even. The other characters as above.

251. 1. Trochilus Mango, Linn. Mango

Hummingbird.
Plate CLXXXIV. Male and Female.

Male with the head, hind neck, and back green, splendent with
bronze and golden reflections; wings dusky, changing to purplish-
brown; middle tail-feathers black, glossed with green and blue, the
rest deep crimson-purple, tipped and partially margined with steel-
blue; fore part of neck, and middle of breast velvet-black, margined
on each side with emerald-green, the sides yellowish-green, with a
tuft of white downy feathers; lower tail-coverts dark purple. Female
with the upper parts similar, the tail-feathers more broadly and
extensively margined with blue, and tipped with white; fore neck
and centre of the breast white, with a central longitudinal band of
black, and an emerald-green margin along the sides of the neck and
body; lower tail-coverts green.

Male, 43/4, 8.

Florida Keys. Rare. Migratory.

 Trochilus Mango, Linn. Syst. Nat. v. i. p. 191.
Mango Humming Bird, Trochilus Mango, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. ii.
p. 480.

252. 2. Trochilus Anna, Less. Anna

Hummingbird.
Plate CCCCXXV. Male and Female.

Bill almost straight, acuminate; tail of moderate length,

emarginate and rounded. Head, cheeks, and throat blood-red,
changing to gold, and having a tinge of blue; upper parts light gold-
green; quills and tail-feathers dusky brown; lower parts brownish-
white. Female with merely a patch of red on the throat, upper part
of head and cheeks greenish-grey; upper parts glossy green as in
the male; wings dusky, middle tail-feathers green, the rest greenish-
grey at the base, black toward the end, with the tips white; lower
parts dull grey, sides tinged with brown.

Male, 310/12, wing, 21/12.

Rocky Mountains towards California. Common. Migratory.

Oiseau-mouche Anna, Ornismya Anna, Less. Traite d'Ornith.

p. 281.
Anna Humming Bird, Trochilus Anna, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v. p.
238.

253. 3. Trochilus Colubris, Linn. Ruby-throated

Hummingbird.
Plate XLVII. Male, Female, and Young.
 Bill straight, acute; tail of moderate length, even. Upper parts
light green with golden reflections; quills and tail purplish-brown, the
two middle feathers like the back; throat, sides of the head, and fore
neck carmine-purple, spotted with black, varying to crimson, orange,
and deep black; sides light green, the rest of the lower parts
greyish-white mixed with green. Female differs in wanting the
brilliant patch on the throat, which is white, as are the lower parts
generally, and having the three lateral tail-feathers tipped with the
same colour. Young with the lower parts brownish-white, the tail
tipped with white, the upper parts light green.

Male, 31/4, 41/2.

In summer, from Texas to Lat. 57°, and in all intermediate

districts, east of the Rocky Mountains. Common. Migratory.

Humming Bird, Trochilus Colubris, Wils. Amer. Orn. v. ii. p.

26.
Trochilus Colubris, Bonap. Syn. p. 98.
Trochilus Colubris, Northern Humming Bird, Swains. & Rich. F.
Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 323.
Ruby-throated Humming Bird, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 588.
Ruby-throated Humming Bird, Trochilus colubris, Aud. Orn.
Biog. v. i. p. 248; v. v. p. 544.

GENUS II. SELASPHORUS,

Swains. RUFFED-HUMMINGBIRD.
Bill long, straight, subulate, extremely slender, somewhat
depressed at the base, acute; upper mandible with the dorsal line
straight, the ridge narrow at the base, broad and convex toward the
end, the sides convex, the edges overlapping, the tip acuminate;
lower mandible with the angle very long and extremely narrow, the
dorsal line straightish, the edges erect, the tip acuminate. Nostrils
basal, linear. Head of ordinary size, oblong; neck short; body short
and ovate. Feet very small; tarsus very short, feathered more than
half-way; toes small, the lateral equal, the third not much longer, the
first a little shorter than the lateral; claws rather long, arched,
compressed, very acute. Plumage soft and blended; elongated
feathers on the sides of the neck in the males. Wings rather short,
falcate, pointed, the second primary longest. Tail rather long, broad,
graduated.

254. 1. Selasphorus rufus, Gmel. Rufous

Ruffed-Hummingbird.—Nootka Hummingbird.
Plate CCCLXXIX. Male and Female.

Male with the upper parts bright cinnamon or reddish-orange, the

head bronzed green, the wings dusky purple, their coverts glossed
with green; each of the tail-feathers with a narrow, longitudinal,
lanceolate, median streak toward the end; loral space, a narrow
band over the eye, another beneath it, and auricular, orange-red;
scale-like feathers of the throat and sides of the neck splendent, fire-
red, changing to purplish-red, yellowish-red, greenish-yellow, or
yellowish-green; behind them on the fore neck a broad band of
reddish-white; the rest of the lower parts like the upper, the
abdomen inclining to white. Female with the upper parts gold-green,
the head inclining to brown; wings as in the male; tail-feathers
orange-red at the base, brownish-black toward the end, the tip
white; lower parts white, tinged with rufous, especially the sides;
throat with roundish spots of metallic greenish-red.

Male, 37/12, wing, 17¼/12.

From California along the north-west coast to Nootka Sound.

Abundant. Migratory.
 Trochilus rufus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. v. i. p. 497.
Trochilus (Selasphorus) rufus, Cinnamon or Nootka Humming
Bird, Swains. & Rich. F. Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 324.
Ruffed-necked Humming Bird, Trochilus rufus, Aud. Orn.
Biog. v. iv. p. 555.

FAMILY XXV. ALCEDINÆ.

KINGFISHERS.
Bill long, straight, stout, broader than high at the base, much
compressed, tapering to a rather acute point, and gape-line
commencing beneath the middle of the eyes. Head large, ovato-
oblong; neck short; body stout. Tarsus extremely short; anteriorly
scaly; anterior toes united for more than half their length, outer
longer than inner, hind toe small. Claws stout, compressed, arched,
very acute. Plumage rather compact. Wings rather long, pointed. Tail
various, of twelve feathers. Tongue very short, fleshy, with the sides
parallel, the tip tapering to a bluntish point. Roof of upper mandible
moderately concave, with a median ridge and oblique lateral
grooves. Œsophagus very wide, without crop; stomach very large,
round, with its muscular coat very thin; the epithelium dense, very
thin, with tortuous rugæ; intestine very long, extremely slender; no
cœca; cloaca very large, globular. Trachea with three pairs of inferior
laryngeal muscles.

GENUS I. ALCEDO, Linn.

KINGFISHER.
 Bill long, straight, rather stout, broader than high at the base,
but suddenly much compressed, and tapering to an acute point;
upper mandible with the dorsal line almost straight, the ridge
distinct, but somewhat flattened, the edges nearly straight, without
notch, the tip acute; lower mandible with the angle of moderate
length and narrow, the dorsal line ascending and nearly straight;
gape-line commencing beneath the middle of the eye; nostrils basal,
near the ridge, linear, obliquely ascending, half closed by a bare
membrane. Head large, oblong; neck short; body robust. Feet very
short; tarsus extremely short, roundish, anteriorly faintly scaly;
anterior toes cohered for a great part of the length, outer longer
than inner, first small. Claws rather short, stout, arched, acute.
Plumage rather compact, more blended above. Wings long, pointed,
with the second and third quills longest. Tail short, even, of twelve
rounded feathers.

255. 1. Alcedo Alcyon, Linn. Belted Kingfisher.

Plate LXXVII. Male and Female.

Crested, with the upper parts, cheeks, and a broad belt across
the fore part of the breast, light blue, the shaft of each feather
darker; lower parts, with a small spot before the eye, and another
on the lower eyelid, white; many of the feathers on the sides light
blue, banded with white; quills black; the primaries barred with
white at the base, and having the inner web of that colour for half
its length; the secondaries broadly edged with light blue, dotted and
tipped with white, and having the inner web barred with the same;
tail-feathers dusky, edged with blue, barred and tipped with white.
Female similar to the male, with the tints duller, and the sides with a
band across the middle of the breast light red.

Male, 121/2, 20.

Breeds from Texas all over the United States, to the Fur
Countries, Missouri, Rocky Mountains, and Columbia River. Common.
Resident.

Belted Kingfisher, Alcedo Alcyon, Wils. Amer. Orn. v. iii. p.

59.
Alcedo Alcyon, Bonap. Syn. p. 48.
Alcedo Alcyon, Belted Kingfisher, Swains. & Rich. F. Bor. Amer.
v. ii. p. 339.
Belted Kingfisher, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 594.
Belted Kingfisher, Alcedo Alcyon, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. i. p. 394;
v. v. p. 548.

FAMILY XXVI. PICINÆ.

WOODPECKERS.
Bill long or of moderate length, straight, stout, angulate,
tapering, compressed toward the tip, which is generally wedge-
shaped and abrupt; mandibles nearly equal, outline of the upper
slightly convex, the ridge narrow, sides sloping, with a lateral ridge,
edges straight; lower with the angle short and narrow, the dorsal
line nearly straight, the ridge narrow, the sides with a faint ridge.
Nostrils basal, elliptical or oblong, concealed by reversed bristly
feathers. Head of moderate size, oblong; neck of moderate length;
body stout. Legs short; tarsus short, moderately stout, anteriorly
scutellate, scaly behind; toes usually four, first short, rudimentary, or
sometimes wanting, fourth very long and reversed, equalling or
exceeding the third. Claws large, strong, much curved, much
compressed, very acute. Plumage soft, blended, rather compact on
the back; wings of moderate length or long; with the first quill very
small, the third, fourth, and fifth longest. Tail of moderate length,
much rounded or cuneate, of twelve feathers, of which the lateral
are extremely small, and placed above the next, the rest, but
especially the three middle pairs, with the shafts exceedingly large
and strong, the webs narrowed toward the end, with their filaments
deflected and stiff, the tip pointed or emarginate from being worn.
Tongue slender, with the tip horny and furnished with reversed
prickles or bristles, capable of being protruded to a great length by
the elongation of the hyoid bones, which curve over the head to
between the right eye and nostril, or even extend round a great part
of that eye. Œsophagus of uniform width; proventriculus extremely
large; stomach of moderate size, or rather small, broadly elliptical or
roundish, moderately muscular; epithelium thin, dense, and
longitudinally rugous; intestine of moderate length, rather wide; no
cœca; cloaca very large, globular, or elliptical. Trachea simple, with a
single pair of inferior laryngeal muscles. Nest a cavity dug in a tree;
eggs from four to six, elliptical, white.
The groups present characters which are so undecided, and
exhibit such gradual approximations, that I think it better here to
consider all our Woodpeckers as of one genus.

GENUS I. PICUS, Linn.

WOODPECKER.
Character as above.

* Bill straight, with the angles prominent.

256. 1. Picus imperialis, Gould. Imperial

Woodpecker.
Not figured.

Glossy greenish-black; the elongated occipital crest scarlet; a

triangular spot on the fore part of the back; the secondary quills,
and the inner webs of most of the primaries, white; bill yellowish-
white. Female similar, but without red on the head. Gould.
Male, 24, wing 12.
Rocky Mountains and North California.

Picus imperialis, Gould. Proceed. of Com. Sc. and Corresp. of

Zool. Soc. of Lond. part ii. p. 140.
Imperial Woodpecker, Picus Imperialis, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v.
p. 313.

257. 2. Picus principalis, Linn. Ivory-billed

Woodpecker.
Plate LXVI. Male and Female.

Toes very long, fourth longer than third. An occipital crest of

elongated linear feathers; general colour glossy black, with blue
reflections on the upper, green on the lower parts; crest rich
carmine; bristly feathers covering the nostrils, and a short band at
the base of the upper mandible, a band on each side of the neck,
from the cheek to the end of the scapulars, secondary quills, their
bases excepted, and terminal portion of four inner secondaries, with
the axillars and lower wing-coverts, white; bill yellowish-white.
Female similar, but with the crest black, and the lateral tail-feathers,
with two patches of white at the tip.

Male, 21, 30. Female, 191/2, wing 10.

Common in Texas, Louisiana, and along the Mississippi, to the

Ohio. Rare on the latter, to Henderson. From Florida to North
Carolina. Resident.

Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Picus principalis, Wils. Amer. Orn. v.

iv. p. 20.
 Picus principalis, Bonap. Syn. p. 44.
Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Picus principalis, Nutt. Man. v. i. p.
564.
Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Picus principalis, Aud. Orn. Biog. v.
i. p. 341; v. v. p. 525.

258. 3. Picus pileatus, Linn. Pileated

Woodpecker.—Log-cock.
Plate XIII. Male and Female.

Fourth toe longer, considerably shorter than third; an occipital

crest of elongated linear feathers; general colour black glossed with
blue, upper part of head, and a band from the lower mandible, deep
carmine; loral space and a broad band from the eye to the occiput,
greyish-black; a narrow band from the eye margining the red of the
crest, a band from the base of the upper mandible, down to the side
of the neck, the throat, axillars, lower wing-coverts, and bases of the
quills, white. Female similar, with the fore part of the head dusky,
and the red on the cheek substituted by blackish-brown.
Male, 18, 28.
From Texas to the Columbia River, and along the Atlantic coast,
as well as in the interior, to the Fur Countries. More abundant in the
south. Resident everywhere.

Pileated Woodpecker, Picus pileatus, Wils. Amer. Orn. v. iv. p.

27.
Picus pileatus, Bonap. Syn. p. 44.
Picus (Dryotomus) pileatus, Pileated Woodpecker, Swains. &
Rich. F. Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 304.
Pileated Woodpecker or Log-cock, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 567.
 Pileated Woodpecker, Picus pileatus, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. ii. p.
74; v. v. p. 533.

259. 4. Picus lineatus, Linn. Lineated

Woodpecker.
Not figured.

Third and fourth toes about equal, hind toe very small; an
occipital crest of elongated near feathers; upper part of the head
carmine, inclining to scarlet; a narrow dusky line from the nostril to
the eye; a patch, including the eyelids and ear-coverts, leaden-grey;
a narrow band down the hind part of the neck, gradually enlarging,
the back, wings, and tail, deep black; a band from the nostrils
descending obliquely over the side of the head, passing backwards
and behind the ear, then much enlarged, and running down the side
of the neck to the shoulders, a large oblique patch at the
commencement of the wing, including the outer scapulars, the small
feathers on the edge of the wing under the alula, the lower wing-
coverts, and the inner webs of the quills for about half the length,
pure white; an elongated crimson patch at the base of the lower
jaw; chin yellowish-white, longitudinally streaked with dusky; the
rest of the fore neck and part of the breast black; the lower parts
and sides brownish-white, transversely barred with black.

Male, 15, wing, 72/12.

Columbia River.

Picus lineatus, Linn. Syst. Nat v. i. p. 174.

Lineated Woodpecker, Picus lineatus, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v. p.
315.
260. 5. Picus Canadensis, Gmel. Canadian
Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXVII. Fig. 7. Male.

Fourth toe considerably longer than third; fourth quill longest,

fifth longer than second; bristly feathers over the nostrils dull yellow;
upper part of head and hind neck glossy black; over the eye a band
of white, continuous with a transverse band of scarlet on the
occiput, usually interrupted in the middle; a black band from near
the bill to the eye, continued behind it over the auriculars, and
joining the back of the hind neck; beneath this a white band from
the angle of the mouth, curving backwards below the middle of the
neck, so as to meet the other behind; then a narrow band of black
from the base of the lower mandible and continuous with the black
of the shoulders; upper part of the body, wings, and tail, black,
feathers along the middle of the back tipped with white; wing-
coverts, the anterior excepted, and quills spotted with the same,
there being on the four longest primaries seven spots on the outer,
and five on the inner webs, on most of the secondaries five on each
web, but on the outer quill only one patch on each web, and on the
second three spots on the outer, and four on the inner web; four
middle tail-feathers glossy black, the rest black towards the base,
that colour gradually diminishing, so that the outermost is almost
entirely white; lower parts white.
Extremely similar to Picus villosus, but always much larger.

Male, 101/2, 173/4.

From the northern parts of New York to the Fur Countries.

Common. Migratory in winter to New York.

Picus canadensis, Gmel. Syst. Nat. v. i. p. 437.

Picus (Dendrocopus) villosus, Hairy Woodpecker, Swains. &
Rich. F. Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 305.
 Canadian Woodpecker, Picus canadensis, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v.
p. 188.

261. 6. Picus Phillipsii, Aud. Phillips's

Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXVII. Figs. 5, 6. Male.

Fourth toe a little longer than third; fourth quill longest; bristly
feathers over the nostrils yellowish-white; fore part of the head, to a
little beyond the top, orange-yellow; occiput and hind neck glossy
black; over the eye a band of white passing to behind the auriculars;
a black band from above the angle of the mouth to the eye, and
behind it, including the auriculars; below this a white band from the
angle of the mouth joining that over the eye; then a narrower black
band from the lower mandible; upper parts black, tinged with brown
behind; feathers along the middle of the back tipped with white;
some of the wing-coverts also tipped with white, and the quills
spotted with the same, there being on the four largest primaries
seven spots on the outer, and five on the inner web; the four middle
tail-feathers glossy black, the rest black at the base, that colour
gradually diminishing, so that the outermost is entirely white; lower
parts white.

Male, 101/2; wing, 5.

Massachusetts. Very rare.

Phillips's Woodpecker, Picus Phillipsii, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v. p.

186.

262. 7. Picus Martinæ, Aud. Maria's

Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXVII. Fig. 1. Male. Fig. 2. Female.
 Fourth toe slightly longer than third; fourth quill longest, third
longer than fifth; tufts of bristly feathers over the nostrils dull
yellow; upper part of head scarlet; forehead and occiput black; a
band of white over the eye; a black band from the bill to the eye,
continued behind it over the auriculars, and joining the black of the
hind neck; beneath this a band of white from the angle of the
mouth, curving backwards below the middle of the neck, so as
almost to meet its fellow behind; then a band of black from the base
of the lower mandible, and continuous with the black of the
shoulders; upper parts black; feathers along the middle of the back
tipped with white; wing-coverts and quills spotted with the same,
there being on the four longest primaries seven spots on the outer,
and four on the inner web, on most of the secondaries five on each
web, but on the outer quill only one patch on each web, and on the
second four spots on the outer, and three on the inner web; four
middle tail-feathers glossy black, the next black on the inner web,
and on the greater part of the outer toward the base, the rest black
only at the base, the two outer being almost entirely white; lower
parts white, tinged with grey, and a little red, the sides faintly
mottled with dusky grey.

Male, 92/12; wing, 410½/12.

A pair found at Toronto, Upper Canada.

Maria's Woodpecker, Picus Martinæ, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v. p.

181.

263. 8. Picus Harrisii, Aud. Harris's

Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXVII. Fig. 8. Male. Fig. 9. Female.

Fourth toe considerably longer than third; fourth quill longest,

fifth longer than second; bristly feathers over the nostrils dull yellow,
with the tips black; upper part of the head and hind neck glossy
black; over the eye a band of white, continuous with a transverse
scarlet band on the occiput; a black band in the loral space
continued behind the eye over the auriculars, and joining the black
of the hind neck; beneath is a band of white, from the angle of the
mouth, curving backward below the middle of the neck, but without
meeting the other; then a band of black from the base of the lower
mandible, and continuous with the black of the hind neck and
shoulders; upper parts black, the quills tinged with brown; feather
along the middle of the back largely tipped with white; quills,
excepting the inner three, marked with small roundish spots, of
which there are five on the outer and four on the inner web of the
four longest quills, while on the outer there is only an elongated spot
on the inner web, and on the next one spot on the outer and three
on the inner; four middle tail-feathers black, the next black, with a
small part of the inner web, and a large portion of the outer toward
the end, white; the rest white, with the base black; the outermost
small feathers almost entirely white; lower parts brownish-white.
Female wants the red occipital band. This species is distinguishable
from all the other spotted species, by having no white spots on the
wing-coverts.

Male, 9; wing, 52/12.

Columbia River. Rare.

Harris's Woodpecker, Picus Harrisii, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v. p.

191.

264. 9. Picus villosus, Linn. Hairy Woodpecker.

Plate CCCCXVI. Fig. 1. Male. Fig. 2. Female.

Bill as long as the head; fourth toe considerably longer than

third; fourth and fifth quills longest and equal; bristly feathers over
the nostrils dull yellow, tipped with black; upper part of head and
hind neck glossy black; over the eye a band of white, continuous
with a transverse band of scarlet on the occiput, usually divided in
the middle; a black band from the bill to the eye, continued behind it
over the auriculars, and joining the black of the hind neck; beneath
this, a band of white from the angle of the mouth, curving
backwards below the middle of the neck, so as to meet its fellow
behind; then a black band from the base of the lower mandible;
upper parts black, tinged with brown behind; feathers along the
middle of the back, tipped with white; wing-coverts, the anterior
excepted, and quills spotted with white, there being on the four
longest primaries seven on the outer and five on the inner web, on
most of the secondaries five on each web, but on the outer quill only
one patch on each web, and on the second, two spots on the outer
and three on the inner; four middle tail-feathers glossy black, the
rest black only towards the base; lower parts white, tinged with dull
green on the fore neck and breast, the sides with blackish-grey.
Female without red on the head.

Male, 83/4, 141/2. Female, 81/2, 15.

Breeds from Texas to New Hampshire, Kentucky, and Valley of

the Mississippi. Common. Resident.

Hairy Woodpecker, Picus villosus, Wils. Amer. Orn. v. i. p.

150.
Picus villosus, Bonap. Syn. p. 46.
Hairy Woodpecker, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 575.
Hairy Woodpecker, Picus villosus, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v. p. 164.

265. 10. Picus pubescens, Linn. Downy

Woodpecker.
Plate CXII. Male and Female.
 Bill much shorter than the head, slender; fourth toe considerably
longer than third; fourth quill longest; upper bristles over the nostrils
yellowish, tipped with black; upper part of the head glossy black; a
band of white over the eye ending in a scarlet occipital band; then a
band of black from the eye to the hind neck, succeeded by one of
white from the angle of the mouth, curving so as nearly to meet its
fellow on the hind neck, and a black band from the lower mandible
down the side of the neck. Upper parts black; feathers along the
middle of the back tipped with white; coverts and quills spotted with
white, there being six spots on the outer, and five on the inner webs
of the four longest primaries, the outermost quill with one patch of
white on the inner web, and the next with four spots on each web;
outer small tail-feathers white, with a single black spot, next two
white, with two terminal black bands, the rest variegated, except the
two middle, which are black. Female without red.

Male, 63/4, 12.

Breeds from Texas to Labrador, and northward to Lat. 58°.

Common throughout the interior to the eastern bases of the Rocky
Mountains. In every district, a constant resident.

Downy Woodpecker, Picus pubescens, Wils. Amer. Orn. v. i.

p. 153.
Picus pubescens, Bonap. Syn. p. 46.
Picus (Dendrocopus) pubescens, Downy Woodpecker, Swains.
& Rich. F. Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 307.
Downy Woodpecker, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 576.
Downy Woodpecker, Picus pubescens, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. ii. p.
81; v. v. p. 539.

266. 11. Picus Gairdnerii, Aud. Gairdner's

Woodpecker.
 Not figured.

Bill shorter than the head, slender; fourth toe considerably longer
than third, fifth quill longest; black above, with a scarlet occipital
band, brownish-white beneath; spotted with white, and in all
respects as to colour like the last species, only the spots on the
wings are much smaller, and the patch of red brocade; the toes and
bill larger.

Length, 68/12; wing, 310/12.

Columbia River.

Gairdner's Woodpecker, Picus Gairdnerii, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v.

p. 317.

267. 12. Picus querulus, Wils. Red-cockaded

Woodpecker.
Plate CCCLXXXIX.

Upper part of the head, hind neck, and a band on each side of
the neck, glossy black; a large patch on the side of the head and
neck white; back black, barred with white; wings brownish-black,
spotted with white, there being eight spots on the outer, and six on
the inner webs of the longest quills; middle tail-feathers black, outer
four on each side white, with black bars; lower parts white, sides of
the neck and body with oblong black spots. Male with a small
carmine line behind the eye.

Male, 81/2, 141/2. Female, 73/8, 131/4.

From Texas to New Jersey, along the Atlantic districts. Common.

In the interior to Lower Mississippi. Resident.
 Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Picus querulus, Wils. Amer. Orn.
v. ii. p. 103.
Picus querulus, Bonap. Syn. p. 46.
Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 577.
Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Picus querulus, Aud. Orn. Biog. v.
v. p. 12.

268. 13. Picus Auduboni, Trudeau. Audubon's

Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXVII. Adult.

Bill about the length of the head, with the outlines considerably
arched, the tips acute, and not laterally worn; upper parts black,
lower white, with a tinge of brown, the sides very faintly barred with
dusky; tufts covering the nostrils white; on the anterior part of the
top of the head some feathers largely tipped with yellow; a band of
white over the eye; loral space and a broad band behind the eye
black; feathers along the middle of the back tipped with white;
wings spotted with white; six spots on the outer, and four on the
inner webs of the longer primaries; four middle tail-feathers black,
the next with the tip obliquely white, that colour enlarging on the
rest, so as to include almost the whole of the outer feathers.

Adult, 7, 131/2.

Louisiana.

Picus Auduboni, Audubon's Woodpecker, Trudeau, Journ.

Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, v. vii. p. 404.
Audubon's Woodpecker, Picus Auduboni, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v.
p. 194.
269. 14. Picus ruber. Gmel. Red-breasted
Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXVI. Fig. 9. Male. Fig. 10. Female.

Head, neck, and fore part of breast, deep carmine; upper parts
black, variegated with white, lower pale yellow, with the sides
undulated with dusky; middle tail-feathers with the inner web white,
obliquely banded with black.

Male, 8, 14. Female, 8; wing, 52/12.

Upper California. Columbia River. Nootka. Common. Migratory.

Red-breasted Woodpecker, Picus ruber, Aud. Orn. Biog. v. v.

p. 179.

270. 15. Picus varius, Linn. Yellow-bellied

Woodpecker.
Male with the crown of the head and throat bright carmine; a
semicircular patch of black on the lower fore neck, and a semilunar
band on the occiput; upper parts bluish-black, variegated with white
and yellow, lower yellow, with the sides undulated with dusky;
middle tail-feathers with the inner web white, obliquely banded with
black. Female similar, but with the throat white, and the yellow of
the lower parts less pure. Young without red on the head or throat,
the former dusky, streaked with faint brown, the latter greyish-white,
the upper parts as in the adult, but duller, the tail variegated with
white, the lower parts dull yellowish-grey, undulated with dusky, the
abdomen dull yellowish.

Male, 81/2, 15.

Breeds from Maryland northward to the Saskatchewan. Rather

rare in the interior in summer. Many spend the winter in the
Southern and Western Districts.

Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, Picus varius, Wils. Amer. Orn. v.

i. p. 147.
Picus varius, Bonap. Syn. p. 45.
Picus (Dendrocopus) varius, Yellow-bellied Woodpecker,
Swains. & Rich. F. Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 309.
Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 574.
Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, Picus varius. Aud. Amer. Orn. v. i.
p. 519; v. v. p. 537.

** Hind toe wanting. Genus Apternus of authors.

271. 16. Picus arcticus, Swains. Arctic Three-

toed Woodpecker.
Plate CXXXII. Male and Female.

Three-toed, with the upper parts glossy bluish-black, the lower

white, the sides and lower wing-coverts transversely barred with
black; tufts of bristly feathers black; crown of the head saffron-
yellow; a white line from behind the eye, a band of the same from
the base of the upper mandible to beneath the ear-coverts,
succeeded by a black band; inner webs of all the quills and outer
webs of the primaries spotted with white, there being seven spots
on the outer, and five on the inner webs of the three longest; four
middle tail-feathers black, the next with an oblique band of white,
the rest black only at the base, except the outermost, of which
nearly all the inner web is of that colour. Female without yellow on
the head.

Male, 101/2, 16.

 From the northern parts of New York to the Fur Countries, as
well as along the eastern declivities of the Rocky Mountains. Rather
common. Partially migratory.

Picus tridactylus, Bonap. Syn. p. 46.

Northern Three-toed Woodpecker, Picus tridactylus, Bonap.
Amer. Orn. v. ii. p. 14.

Picus (apternus) arcticus, Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker,

Swains. & Rich. F. Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 313.
Northern Three-toed Woodpecker, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 578.
Three-toed Woodpecker, Picus tridactylus, Aud. Orn. Biog. v.
ii. p. 198.

272. 17. Picus hirsutus, Vieill. Banded Three-

toed Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXVII. Fig. 3. Male. Fig. 4. Female.

Three-toed, with the upper parts deep glossy-black, the head

with blue reflections, the back and wings tinged with brown; tufts
over nostrils dull yellow; anterior part of head pale yellow, spotted
with white; a band of white, with small dusky lines, from the angle
of the mouth to the occiput; the back transversely banded with
white; inner webs of all the quills and outer webs of the primaries
spotted with white, there being seven spots on the outer, and five on
the inner, webs of the three longest quills; four middle tail-feathers
black, the next white at the end, the rest white, unless at the base,
but the outermost banded with black. Female with the head black,
streaked with white.

Male, 9; wing, 45/12.

From Lake Superior to the Arctic Sea. Abundant. Resident.

 Picus hirsutus, Vieill. Ois. de l'Amer. v. ii. p. 124.
Picus (Apternus) tridactylus, Common Three-toed
Woodpecker, Swains. & Rich. F. Bor. Amer. v. ii. p. 311.
Common Three-toed Woodpecker, Picus hirsutus, Aud. Orn.
Biog. v. v. p. 184.

*** Bill straight, with the angles obsolete, and the upper
outline somewhat arched.

273. 18. Picus Carolinus, Linn. Red-bellied

Woodpecker.
Plate CCCCXV. Fig. 3. Male. Fig. 4. Female.

Male with the upper part of the head and hind neck bright
carmine; the back and scapulars transversely banded with black and
white; the rump and tail-coverts with the white predominating;
primaries black, with a band of white; tail black, with the inner webs
of the middle, and both webs of the outer barred with white; lower
parts yellowish-white, abdomen red; lower wing and tail-coverts
white, spotted with dusky. Female similar, but with the top of the
head ash-grey and with less red on the abdomen.

Male, 73/4, 153/4. Female, 8, 141/2.

Breeds from Kentucky in the West, and from Maryland to Nova

Scotia and Canada. Abundant in winter in all the Southern States,
from Carolina to Texas, and especially in the Floridas.

Red-bellied Woodpecker, Picus carolinus, Wils. Amer. Orn. v.

i. p. 113.
Picus carolinus, Bonap. Syn. p. 45.
Red-bellied Woodpecker, Nutt. Man. v. i. p. 572.
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