Quantum Mechanics

Quarks

What is a Quark?
A quark is a fundamental particle that makes up protons, neutrons, and other
hadrons. Quarks are elementary particles, meaning they are not composed of
smaller sub-particles. They are one of the two basic types of particles in the
Standard Model of particle physics (the other being leptons).

1. Types (Flavors): There are six types, or flavors, of quarks:

o Up (u)

o Down (d)

o Charm (c)

o Strange (s)

o Top (t)

o Bottom (b)

2. Charge:

o Quarks have fractional electric charges:

 Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3.

 Down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

3. Color Charge:

Quarks also possess a property called color charge, related to the

strong nuclear force, which binds quarks together in protons,
o

neutrons, and other hadrons.

This "color" is not related to actual color but a type of charge that
can be red, green, or blue. Antiquarks have anticolor (anti-red,
o

anti-green, anti-blue).

4. Combinations:

Quarks combine to form composite particles known as hadrons, the

two types of which are:
o
  Baryons: Composed of three quarks (e.g., protons, neutrons).

 Mesons: Composed of one quark and one antiquark.

5. Quark Confinement:

Quarks are never found in isolation; they are always bound

together by the strong force, which is mediated by particles called
o

gluons. This phenomenon is known as quark confinement.

6. Generations:

o Quarks come in three generations based on mass:

 1st Generation (lightest): Up (u), Down (d)

 2nd Generation: Charm (c), Strange (s)

 3rd Generation (heaviest): Top (t), Bottom (b)

Quarks in Matter:

 Protons are made up of two up quarks and one down quark (uud).

Neutrons are made up of one up quark and two down quarks (udd). These
particles form the core (nucleus) of atoms.


Interactions:

Quarks interact through the strong nuclear force, which is one of the four
fundamental forces of nature, along with gravity, electromagnetism, and


the weak nuclear force.

Quarks and Antiquarks: Properties Overview

Quark Symb Char Antiquar Symb Antiquar Mass Generatio

ol ge k ol k Charge (approx.) ns

Up u +⅔ Anti-Up ū -⅔ Light (≈ 1st

2.3 Generatio
MeV/c²) n

Down d -⅓ Anti- d̅ +⅓ Light (≈ 1st

Down 4.8 Generatio
MeV/c²) n

Char c +⅔ Anti- c̅ -⅔ Moderate 2nd

m Charm (≈ 1.27 Generatio
GeV/c²) n

Stran s -⅓ Anti- s̅ +⅓ Moderate 2nd

ge Strange (≈ 95 Generatio
MeV/c²) n

Top t +⅔ Anti-Top t̅ -⅔ Heavy (≈ 3rd

 173 Generatio
GeV/c²) n

Botto b -⅓ Anti- b̅ +⅓ Heavy (≈ 3rd

m Bottom 4.18 Generatio
GeV/c²) n

(WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY IS IN WAVES CHAPTER)

The Standard Model

https://youtu.be/Unl1jXFnzgo
 Sub-Atomic
Basic Structure

In Summary before starting everything is made of Quarks and there are 2

Families Hadrons and Leptons and their inverses (Anti-Hadron and Anti-
Leptons). The most famous Hadrons include Protons and Neutrons while the
most Leptons include Electrons.

Hadrons, Leptons, and Particles & Anti-Particles: A Detailed Discussion

In particle physics, subatomic particles are broadly categorized into hadrons,

leptons, and their corresponding antiparticles. These groups form the core of
the Standard Model, which describes how particles interact through
fundamental forces.

1. Hadrons

Hadrons are composite particles made up of quarks held together by the strong
nuclear force. They are divided into two main categories: baryons and mesons.

a. Baryons

 Definition: Baryons are hadrons consisting of three quarks.

 Examples:

Proton (p): Composed of two up (u) quarks and one down (d) quark
(uud).
o

Neutron (n): Composed of one up (u) quark and two down (d)
quarks (udd).
o

 Properties:

o Protons are positively charged.

o Neutrons are neutral (no charge).

Both are stable hadrons, with the proton being one of the most
stable particles known.
o

These particles are the fundamental building blocks of atomic

nuclei.
o

b. Mesons

 Definition: Mesons consist of one quark and one antiquark.

 Examples:
 Pions (π⁺, π⁰, π⁻): Light mesons important in mediating the strong
force between nucleons (protons and neutrons).
o

o Kaons (K⁺, K⁰, K⁻): Heavier mesons involved in weak interactions.

 Properties:

o Mesons are unstable and decay into other particles.

They mediate the strong force between baryons (specifically in the

context of nuclear force).
o

Table of Hadrons:

Type of Quark Char Examples

Hadron Composition ge

Baryons 3 Quarks Varie Proton,

s Neutron

Mesons 1 Quark + 1 Varie Pions, Kaons

Antiquark s

2. Leptons

Leptons are fundamental particles (i.e., not made up of smaller particles) that
do not experience the strong nuclear force. They are divided into two main
classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons (neutrinos).

a. Charged Leptons

 Examples:

o Electron (e⁻): The most well-known lepton, with a negative charge.

Muon (μ⁻): A heavier cousin of the electron, also negatively

charged.
o

o Tau (τ⁻): An even heavier charged lepton.

 Properties:

These leptons interact via the electromagnetic force and weak

nuclear force.
o

Electrons are stable, while muons and taus are unstable and decay
into lighter particles.
o

b. Neutral Leptons (Neutrinos)

 Examples:

o Electron Neutrino (νₑ)

o Muon Neutrino (ν_μ)

 o Tau Neutrino (ν_τ)

 Properties:

Neutrinos are electrically neutral and interact only via the weak
nuclear force.
o

They have very small masses and are difficult to detect, as they
rarely interact with other matter.
o

Table of Leptons:

Lepton Char Generati

ge on

Electron (e⁻) -1 1st

Electron Neutrino 0 1st

(νₑ)

Muon (μ⁻) -1 2nd

Muon Neutrino 0 2nd

(ν_μ)

Tau (τ⁻) -1 3rd

Tau Neutrino 0 3rd

(ν_τ)

3. Particles and Anti-Particles

For every particle in the universe, there exists a corresponding anti-particle

with the same mass but opposite charge and quantum numbers. When particles
and anti-particles meet, they can annihilate each other, releasing energy in the
process.

a. Anti-Particles

Anti-particles are mirror versions of normal particles, with opposite

electric charges and other properties.


 Examples:

Positron (e⁺): The anti-particle of the electron, with a positive

charge.
o

Anti-Proton (p̄): The anti-particle of the proton, with a negative

charge.
o

Anti-Neutron (n̄): The anti-particle of the neutron (neutral, but with

opposite baryon number).
o

b. Particle-Antiparticle Annihilation
 When a particle and its corresponding anti-particle meet, they annihilate,
producing energy (usually in the form of photons).


Example: An electron and positron can annihilate to produce two gamma

rays (photons).


c. Table of Particles and Anti-Particles:

Charg
Particle Anti-Particle Interaction
e

Electron -1 / Electromagnetic,
Positron (e⁺)
(e⁻) +1 Weak

+1 / - Strong,
Proton (p) Anti-Proton (p̄)
1 Electromagnetic

Neutron Anti-Neutron
0 Strong, Weak
(n) (n̄)

Neutrino Anti-Neutrino
0 Weak
(νₑ) (ν̄ₑ)

Importance of Anti-Particles:

Anti-particles play a crucial role in processes like pair production (when a

photon converts into a particle-antiparticle pair) and particle annihilation


(when particles and anti-particles annihilate to produce energy).

Matter-antimatter asymmetry is a significant mystery in cosmology, as

the universe contains much more matter than antimatter, despite theories


suggesting they should have been produced in equal quantities after the
Big Bang.