Table 3-1.
Flow Classification by Various Researchers (adapted from Bradley & McCutcheon, 1986)
Concentration percent by weight (100% by WT = 1,000,000 ppm)
23 40 52 63 72 80 87 93 97 100
Concentration percent by volume (G. = 2.65)
Source 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Beverage and
Culbertson (1964) High Extreme Hyperconcentrated Mud Flow
Costa (1984) Water Flood Hyperconcentrated Debris Flow
O’Brien and Julien
(1985) using
National Research
Council (1982) Water Flood Mud Flood Mud Flow Landslide
Takahashi (1981) Fluid Flow Debris or Grain Flow Fall, Landslide, Creep, Sturzstrom,
Pyroclastic Flow
Chinese -------------------Debris or Mud Flow---------------------------------
Investigators (Fan ---------------------Hyperconcentrated Flow----------------------
And Dou, 1980) Sediment Laden
Pierson and Costa STREAMFLOW SLURRY FLOW GRANULAR FLOW
(1984) Normal: Hyperconcentrated (Debris Torrent), Sturzstrom, Debris Avalanche,
Debris Mud Flow, Earthflow, Soil Creep
Solifluction
Table 3-2. Classifications of Flows by Sediment Concentration (modified from O’Brien, 1986)
Bulking Factor
0 1.11 1.25 1.43 1.67 2.00 2.50 > 3.33
6
Sediment Concentration, % by Weight (100% by WT = 1 x 10 ppm)
0 23 40 52 63 72 80 87 to 100
Sediment Concentration, % by Volume (specific gravity = 2.65)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 to 100
Normal Hyperconcentrated Debris Flow/
Landslide
Streamflow Flow Mud Flow
A 20-percent sediment concentration by volume is considered by most researchers as the upper limit
for normal streamflow (Bradley, 1986). This sediment concentration corresponds to a BF of 1.25;
however, a bulking factor is generally not used for streams or washes experiencing normal
streamflow and sediment transport.
Although sediment concentrations up to 20 percent by volume are possible for normal streamflow,
according to the USGS, normal streamflow typically has less than 5 to 10 percent sediment
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concentration (USGS, 2005a). O’Brien (2006) states that river flood sediment bulking rarely exceeds
5 percent by volume, and smaller watersheds and alluvial fans would typically see bulking in the 10
to 15 percent range. Normal streamflow at approximately 5 percent sediment is shown in Figure
3-2.
Figure 3-2. Normal Streamflow with Sediment Transport (USGS, 2005a)
3.2.2 Hyperconcentrated Flow
Hyperconcentrated flow typically has a sediment concentration between 20 and 40 percent by
volume. The amount of suspended sediment is large enough to affect the properties of the fluid as
well as sediment transport behavior. Large amounts of sand are transported in suspension
throughout the water column, although maintaining the sediment loads depends on the velocity and
turbulence of the flow (USGS, 2005a). Hyperconcentrated flow occurs in limited conditions,
typically within steep channels (O’Brien, 2006). An example hyperconcentrated flow is shown in
Figure 3-3.
Hyperconcentrated flow is turbulent with flow resistance dependent on boundary roughness, just
like normal streamflow, and it exhibits little or no yield stress (Garcia et al., 2008). The National
Research Council (1982) argued that channel resistance for turbulent hyperconcentrated flows can
be predicted using normal clear-water methods.
It is important to note that classification by sediment concentration becomes less adequate at higher
concentrations because particle size, shape, and interaction become increasingly important (Bradley,
1986). As a result, the transition between hyperconcentrated flow and debris flow varies by
researcher, depending on what factors are considered (Garcia et al., 2008).
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