When air is used while steel-making , nitrogen from air and excess carbon are pinned at already available
dislocations of steel. The pinned
dislocations are like a traffic jam in the steel. Normally, dislocations slide around to let the metal deform smoothly, like cars moving on a
highway. But when they’re pinned, the metal can’t deform easily—it’s like the highway’s blocked. If you keep pushing (applying stress), instead
DAMAGE MECHANISMS AFFECTING FIXED EQUIPMENT IN THE REFINING INDUSTRY
of bending, the steel might just break because it can’t handle the stress smoothly. This is why strain aging increases the risk of brittle303
fracture—the steel shatters instead of stretching. Deformation: When you deform a steel—like bending, hammering, or stretching it—you
3.60 Strain Aging create or move dislocations in the crystal lattice.
Aging (at intermediate Temperatures): The carbon and nitrogen atoms have enough
energy at high temperatures around 300 deg C and move and stick to the dislocations,
3.60.1 Description of Damage pinning them in place.
Strain aging is a form of metallurgical damage found mostly in older (pre-1980) carbon steels and C-½Mo low-
alloy steels that were not fully deoxidized as more modern steels are. It is associated with older steel-making
processes such as the Bessemer and open hearth processes, which use air instead of oxygen to remove carbon.
Strain aging occurs in a susceptible steel under the combined effects of deformation and aging at an intermediate
temperature. This results in an increase in hardness and strength with a reduction in ductility and toughness.
Strain aging is a concern because it increases the chances of brittle fracture.
When dislocations are pinned, there is no regular deformation (strain) of material; therefore high
3.60.2 Affected Materials yield stress (more than normal for that material) is required which will result in brittle fracture.
Mostly older (pre-1980) carbon steels with a large grain size and C-0.5 Mo low-alloy steel.
3.60.3 Critical Factors
a) Steel composition and manufacturing process determine steel susceptibility.
b) Steels manufactured by the Bessemer or open hearth process, both of which use air to remove carbon,
contain a higher level of nitrogen than newer steels manufactured by the basic oxygen furnace process.
c) In general, steels made by the basic oxygen furnace process and fully killed (deoxidized) with aluminum will
not be susceptible. The effect is found in steels with higher levels of nitrogen and carbon, but not in the
modern fully deoxidized carbon steels.
d) Strain aging effects are observed in materials that have been cold worked and placed into service at
intermediate temperatures without stress relieving. makes deformations
causes aging
e) Strain aging is a major concern for equipment that contains cracks. If susceptible materials are plastically
deformed and exposed to intermediate temperatures, the zone of deformed material may become hardened
and less ductile. This phenomenon has been associated with several vessels that have failed by brittle
fracture, typically following repair welds that were not PWHT’d.
f) The pressurization sequence vs temperature is a critical issue to prevent brittle fracture of susceptible
equipment.
g) Strain aging can also occur when welding susceptible materials, especially in areas near stress
concentrations, at closely spaced welds, or in repairs. When strain aging occurs during the welding cycle as
a result of the combined effects of the heat of welding and residual welding stresses, it has been termed
dynamic strain aging. Stresses from welds act like deformation, similar to cold working, because they distort the
crystal lattice and create or move dislocations. And heat from welds promotes aging.
3.60.4 Affected Units or Equipment
Strain aging is most likely to occur in thick wall vessels manufactured from susceptible materials that have not
been stress relieved.
3.60.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
Strain aging can be revealed through detailed metallurgical analyses, but damage most likely will not be identified
as strain aging until fracture has already occurred. In cases where strain aging results from metal forming at
ambient temperature and then aging at an intermediate temperature in service, the effects of stain aging have
been observed by an increase in the hardness.
3.60.6 Prevention/Mitigation
a) Strain aging is not an issue for newer steels that contain low levels of interstitial impurity elements and
sufficient aluminum (>0.015 wt %) to fully deoxidize the steel.
Static Strain Aging: Strain aging where deformation and aging happen in separate steps. Carbon/nitrogen pin dislocations after deformation, over time.
Effects appear later, after aging (hours, days, months).
Dynamic Strain Aging: Strain aging where deformation and aging happen at the same time. Carbon/nitrogen pin dislocations as they form, during the
process. Effects can appear immediately during the process (e.g., welding).
304 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 571
b) For older equipment, extra care should be taken to avoid the potentially damaging effects of strain aging by
avoiding stressing or pressurizing equipment until the metal temperature reaches an acceptable level where
the risk of brittle fracture is low. Refer to curve “A” in UCS 66 of the ASME BPVC Section VIII, Division 1 for
pressurization temperatures of vessels susceptible to strain aging effects.
c) Applying PWHT to weld repairs of susceptible materials will eliminate the effects of strain aging, because
heating in the temperature range of 1100 °F to 1200 °F (595 °C to 650 °C) eliminates the strain that causes
the embrittlement. Where PWHT is not possible, buttering should be considered to minimize welding residual
stresses acting on the old material being welded.
3.60.7 Inspection and Monitoring
a) There are no commercially available online inspection or monitoring techniques to detect strain aging.
b) Hardness testing can be used in cases where strain aging has occurred over a large area of the material.
Hardness testing is not effective in detecting strain aging embrittlement resulting from welding.
3.60.8 Related Mechanisms
When deformation occurs at the intermediate temperature, as is the case of welding, the mechanism is referred
to as dynamic strain aging. Blue brittleness is another form of strain aging.
3.60.9 References
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
The Big Picture: What's Happening in Metals?
New York, NY.
Metals like steel are made of tiny crystals (called grains), and inside those crystals, atoms are
lined up in a neat grid, kinda like a 3D Lego structure. When you push or pull on a metal (apply
Step 3: Revisiting Strain Aging
stress), you're trying to make it deform (bend, stretch, or squish). How the metal reacts depends
on what's going on with its atoms and these things called dislocations. Let's unpack it step by Now that dislocations and pinning are clear, let's connect this to strain aging, which is what you
step. asked about originally-the thing caused by the combined effect of deformation and aging at
intermediate temperatures. This is where those pinned dislocations play a starring role, and it's
What Are Dislocations? gonna tie everything together.
Think of a dislocation as a defect in the crystal grid. Imagine a perfect stack of Lego bricks, but Strain aging is a process that happens in certain steels (mostly older ones from before 1980)
one row is slightly out of place—like half a brick is missing or shifted. That's a dislocation. It's a line where the metal gets harder, stronger, but also less ductile (less bendy) and less tough (more
of messed-up atoms that runs through the crystal. likely to crack). It's a problem because it increases the risk of brittle fracture, where the steel
• Dislocations are super important because they let the metal deform without needing a ton of snaps like glass instead of bending.
force. Without them, you'd need crazy high stress to slide one layer of atoms over another, like Here’s how it happens, step by step, in simple terms:
trying to slide a whole stack of perfectly glued Legos.
• When you apply stress, dislocations can move or multiply, letting the metal bend or stretch 1. Deformation (Squishing or Bending the Steel):
more easily. This movement is called slip. • When you deform a steel—like bending, hammering, or stretching it—you create or move
dislocations in the crystal lattice. This is the same stuff we talked about with yielding.
Yielding: When the Metal Starts to Give • Deformation makes a ton of new dislocations, like adding more "kinks" to the Lego grid. These
Yielding is the point where a metal stops just flexing (like a spring) and starts permanently dislocations are fresh and ready to cause trouble later.
deforming—it doesn't snap back to its original shape. This happens when dislocations start
moving or new ones get created. 2. Aging (Sitting at Intermediate Temperatures):
Here's how it goes: • After deformation, if the steel sits at a warm temperature (not super hot, but like 200-300°C,
or 400-600°F), something sneaky happens.
• In a perfect crystal (no dislocations), you'd need a huge amount of stress to make the atoms
• Those carbon and nitrogen atoms we talked about start moving inside the steel. At these
slide past each other. This stress is called the theoretical yield stress. It's like trying to push a
whole bookshelf at once—super hard. temperatures, they're just energetic enough to wiggle around and find the dislocations.
• But real metals aren't perfect. They already have some dislocations (or can make them easily). • The carbon and nitrogen atoms stick to the dislocations, pinning them in place. This is the
These dislocations act like weak spots, so you need way less stress to get the metal to yield. same pinning we just covered, but now it's happening after the steel's been deformed, and it's
Annealed Mild Steel and Pinned Dislocations locking up all those new dislocations you created.
The text says: *In annealed mild steel, most of the dislocations are pinned by segregated carbon
3. Combined Effect:
and nitrogen atoms (if present). These pinned dislocations are usually not freed by the applied
stress and thus new dislocations are generated." • The combo of deformation (which makes new dislocations) and aging (which lets carbon/
• Annealed mild steel is steel that's been heated and cooled slowly to make it soft and less nitrogen pin those dislocations) is what causes strain aging.
stressed. It's got a clean slate, but it still has some quirks.
• In this steel, carbon and nitrogen atoms (which are always in steel to some degree) like to
hang out near dislocations. They "pin” the dislocations in place, like sticking glue on a zipper
so it won't move.
• When you apply stress, these pinned dislocations are stuck. They don't slide easily because
the carbon and nitrogen atoms are holding them tight
• Instead of freeing the stuck dislocations, the stress causes new dislocations to form (like from
Frank-Read sources). These new dislocations can move, letting the metal deform.
• This pinning is why mild steel can show a sharp upper yield point-you need extra stress to
break through the pinning or make new dislocations. Once you do, the stress drops (to the
lower yield point), and deformation keeps going.
This pinning is also tied to strain aging (from your earlier question). Those carbon and nitrogen
atoms locking dislocations are what make old steels brittle over time.
STRAIN AGAING
Description Appearance
Loss of material toughness Brittle cracks on the micro/
due to stresses over time macro scale
n
k- '
I I nil
Inspection: Metallographic replica testing to reveal micro-
cracking in the metal structure.
Surface hardness testing.
Critical factors: • Mainly affects older, impure, un-deoxidised
low-carbon and C-0.5Mo steels.
* Worse in cold-worked material that has had
no PWHT.
FFP/Severity: Strain ageing is limited to older steels. Time/
stress cycle exposure will be difficult to
determine so damage severity is almost
impossible to assess.
References: API 571 (4.2.4)
FIG B12
Strain Ageing
Expansion/Contraction Thick-walled component
under pressure cycles Intermediate temperature
10-250°C
Multiple pressure
cycles over long
lifetime
Old C or C-Mo steel
1930... 1940...1950.,. 1960
Material developes micro
cracking
• Increased hardness
• Reduced ductility
• Reduced toughness
• Increased brittleness
