2025…

Chapter-3 Solar Therm

Introduced To: Dr. Abdel Nabi Zaghloul

Introduced by: Eng. Amir Ashraf
Chapter 3: Solar Thermal Collectors

1. Reference: "Principles of Solar Engineering, Third Edition" by D.

Yogi Goswami.

2. Introduction
Solar thermal collectors are the foundation of solar thermal energy
systems, which harness the sun’s radiant energy and convert it into useful
thermal energy for heating applications. As global energy demand increases
and the push for renewable alternatives intensifies, solar collectors play a
crucial role in building a sustainable energy future.

This chapter explores the types, characteristics, and performance metrics of

solar thermal collectors. The fundamental principle behind these collectors is
simple: a surface absorbs solar radiation and transfers the heat to a working
fluid. However, engineering efficient collectors involves complex analysis of
material properties, thermal losses, and environmental factors.

Flat-plate collectors and evacuated-tube collectors are the most common

non-concentrating types, widely used for domestic hot water and space
heating. For higher temperature applications, concentrating collectors such
as parabolic troughs, dishes, and central receivers are utilized. These
systems use reflective surfaces to focus sunlight onto a smaller area,
achieving higher thermal efficiencies.

This chapter also introduces key parameters such as optical efficiency, heat
loss coefficients, and collector performance factors. Students will gain insight
into how to evaluate different collector types, understand their thermal
behaviors, and apply simplified equations to practical scenarios. The solved
examples provided illustrate real-world calculations, reinforcing how collector
performance can be predicted and optimized for a variety of conditions.
3. Key Definitions

Absorptance (α): The fraction of the incident solar radiation absorbed by a

surface.

Reflectance (ρ): The fraction of the incident solar radiation reflected by a

surface.

Transmittance (τ): The fraction of the incident solar radiation transmitted

through a material.

Emittance (ε): The ratio of radiation emitted by a real surface to that

emitted by an ideal blackbody at the same temperature.

Specular Reflection: Reflection where the angle of incidence equals the

angle of reflection (like a mirror).
Diffuse Reflection: Reflection where incident radiation is scattered
uniformly in all directions.

Concentration Ratio (CR): The ratio of the aperture area to the

receiver/absorber area of a solar collector.

Geometric Concentration Ratio: Defined as CR = Aa / Ar, where Aa is

aperture area and Ar is absorber area.

Optical Efficiency (η₀): Efficiency accounting for optical losses in a

collector system, including reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance.

Time Constant: The time it takes for a solar collector to respond to changes
in insolation and reach thermal equilibrium.

Useful Energy Gain (qu): The amount of energy collected and transferred
to the working fluid in a collector.

Flat-Plate Collector: A type of solar thermal collector that typically

operates at low to medium temperatures without concentrating sunlight.

Evacuated-Tube Collector: A collector that uses vacuum tubes to reduce

heat losses and operate at higher efficiencies.

Parabolic Trough Collector: A concentrating collector that uses parabolic

mirrors to focus sunlight onto a linear receiver.

Paraboloidal Dish Collector: A high-temperature solar collector that

focuses sunlight to a single focal point using a parabolic dish.

Central Receiver (Power Tower): A solar collector system using a field of

mirrors (heliostats) to focus sunlight on a receiver at the top of a tower.
Fresnel Lens/Reflector: An optical device composed of segments that
focus sunlight similar to traditional lenses or mirrors but with less material.

4. Classification of Solar Thermal Collectors

4.1. Based on Working Fluid

 Liquid-based collectors

 Air-based collectors

4.2. Based on Concentration

 Non-Concentrating Collectors (1:1)

o Flat-Plate Collectors (FPC)

 Liquid-type

 Air-type

o Evacuated-Tube Collectors

 Concentrating Collectors

o Line-Focus (1D Concentration)

 Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)

 Linear Fresnel Reflector

o Point-Focus (2D Concentration)

 Paraboloidal Dish Collector

 Central Receiver (Power Tower)

o Non-Imaging Concentrators

 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

5. Main Components of a Solar Thermal Collector
 Glazing

o Transparent cover (glass or plastic).

o Allows solar radiation to pass through while reducing convective

and radiative heat losses from the absorber.

o Can be single or multiple layers.

 Absorber Plate

o A dark-colored metal or coated plate (usually copper, aluminum,

or stainless steel).

o Absorbs solar radiation and transfers heat to the working fluid.

o Often painted with selective coatings to enhance absorptivity

and reduce emissivity.

 Tubes or Flow Passages

o Attached to the absorber plate for carrying the heat-transfer fluid

(liquid or air).

o Ensure efficient heat extraction from the absorber.

 Headers (Manifolds)
 o Collect or distribute fluid into the tubes uniformly.

o Facilitate fluid flow in and out of the collector.

 Insulation

o Located behind and on the sides of the absorber.

o Minimizes conductive heat losses to the surroundings.

 Container (Casing or Housing)

o Outer box structure that encloses and supports all internal

components.

o Provides structural protection and weather resistance.

6. Radiative Properties and Characteristics of Materials

Radiative properties are essential in evaluating the performance of
materials used in solar thermal collectors. These properties determine how a
surface interacts with solar radiation — specifically how much is absorbed,
reflected, or transmitted. For effective energy collection, materials with high
absorptance and low emittance are ideal, especially at the absorber plate
where heat gain must be maximized while minimizing losses.

Selective surfaces are specially engineered materials applied to

absorber plates. They are designed to absorb a large portion of solar
radiation (high absorptance) while emitting very little thermal radiation (low
emittance). This selective behavior improves collector efficiency, especially
at higher operating temperatures. These coatings are stable, durable, and
usually consist of layers that manipulate optical behavior at different
wavelengths.

Reflecting surfaces are used in concentrating collectors to direct

sunlight toward a smaller absorber area. They are made from materials like
polished aluminum or silver-coated glass and must have high specular
reflectance to minimize scattering.

Transparent materials, such as glass covers (glazing), protect the

absorber from environmental effects while allowing most of the solar
radiation to enter. These materials are chosen based on their high
transmittance in the solar spectrum and low emittance in the infrared,
helping retain heat within the collector.
7. Flat-Plate Collectors – Overview
Flat-plate collectors are the most common type of solar thermal
collectors. They are generally used for applications requiring temperatures
up to about 75°C, such as domestic water heating and space heating. They
absorb solar radiation and transfer the heat to a working fluid, either liquid or
air, without using mirrors or tracking systems.

7.1. Types of Flat-Plate Collectors

7.1.1. Liquid-Type Collectors

These collectors circulate a liquid (commonly water or a water-glycol mix)

through tubes attached to a metal absorber plate. Main components include:

 Glazing: Transparent cover (glass/plastic) to reduce heat losses.

 Absorber Plate: Usually painted black or coated with selective

surface.

 Headers/Manifolds: Distribute and collect the fluid.

 Insulation & Container: Reduce back and edge losses.

7.1.2. Air-Type Collectors

These use air as the heat-transfer fluid and are mostly used for space
heating or agricultural drying. Their advantages:

 No risk of freezing or leakage.

 No heat exchanger needed. But they require large heat-transfer areas

due to air’s low heat capacity.
7.2. Flat-Plate Collectors Key Definitions

 Collector Efficiency (ηc): Ratio of useful energy output to incident

solar energy.

 Absorber Plate: Surface that absorbs solar radiation and transfers

heat to the fluid.

 Fin Efficiency (ηf): Describes how effectively heat is transferred

through the absorber plate to the fluid.

 Collector Efficiency Factor (F′): Measures the efficiency of energy

transfer from the absorber plate to the fluid relative to the collector
design.

 Heat Removal Factor (FR): Ratio of actual heat gain to heat gain if
the entire collector were at the fluid inlet temperature.

7.3. Main Flat-Plate Collectors Equations

Total Radiation on Collector Surface

Where:
- Ic: Insolation on the collector surface
- Ih: Total horizontal insolation
- Rb: Tilt factor (accounts for angle of incidence)
- 0.25 × Ih: Assumed diffuse component

Diffuse component on a tilted surface (from isotropic model):

Where β is the collector tilt angle.

Tilt factor Rb (accounts for angle of incidence)

Rb: Tilt factor — ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to that on a
horizontal surface.

i: Angle of incidence — the angle between the sun’s rays and the normal to
the collector surface.

α: Solar altitude angle — the angle between the sun and the horizontal
plane.

L: Latitude — the geographic latitude of the location (positive in the Northern

Hemisphere, negative in the Southern).

β: Tilt angle — the angle between the collector surface and the horizontal.

δs: Solar declination — the angle between the sun’s rays and the plane of
the Earth’s equator (varies daily).

hs: Hour angle — angular measure of time before/after solar noon; 15° per
hour.

Fin Efficiency (ηₓ)

 lc: Half the distance between tubes

 t: Fin thickness

 k: Thermal conductivity of plate

 Uc: Overall heat loss coefficient

Collector Efficiency Factor (F′)

 hf: Internal convective heat transfer coefficient

 Di,Do: Inner and outer diameters of tube

 ηf: Fin efficiency

 F′: Accounts for thermal resistances from plate to fluid

Useful Energy Gain

 Tf,in: Inlet fluid temperature

 Ta: Ambient temperature

 Τs, αs: Effective transmittance-absorptance

Collector Efficiency (Hourly) [Overall efficiency per time segment]

Solution
The total radiation received by the collector is calculated from Equation 2.46
and neglecting the ground reflected radiation:
The tilt factor Rb is obtained from its definition in Chapter 2 (see Equation
2.60)

where L = 40°, δs = −21.1 on January 15, and β = 60°. The hour angle hs
equals 15° for each hour away from noon. The fin efficiency is obtained from
Equation 3.34:

where

The collector efficiency factor F′ is calculated

Then, we obtain the heat-removal factor from Equation 3.45:

the useful heat delivery rate is

The efficiency of the collector is ηc = qu /Ac Ic and the hourly averages are
calculated in the table above. Thus

The daily average effi ciency is obtained by summing the useful energy for
those hours dur ing which the collector delivers heat and dividing by the total
insolation between sunrise and sunset. This yields
7.4. Air-cooled flat-plate collector

An air-cooled flat-plate collector is a type of solar thermal collector

that uses air as the working fluid instead of liquid. These systems are
generally simpler in design, as they do not require piping or pumps, and are
immune to freezing or leakage issues. The absorber plate heats the air as it
passes over or through the collector channels, and the heated air is then
used for space heating, ventilation preheating, or drying applications. Whi le
air has a lower heat capacity compared to liquids, making the system less
efficient in heat transfer, air collectors are cost-effective and suitable for
moderate-temperature uses where simplicity and low maintenance are
important.
8. Tubular Solar Energy Collectors
Tubular solar collectors are designed to reduce heat loss and
improve the thermal efficiency of solar collection compared to conventional
flat-plate collectors. Their cylindrical structure provides superior resistance to
atmospheric pressure, making it feasible to surround the absorber with a
vacuum. This vacuum significantly reduces convective and conductive heat
losses, allowing operation at higher temperatures. These collectors are
especially important in applications such as solar air conditioning, process
heating, and moderate-concentration systems.

8.1. Evacuated-Tube Collectors

These collectors consist of an absorber placed within a sealed glass tube

from which air has been evacuated to create a vacuum. This design
minimizes thermal losses:

 Simple Flat-Plate in Tube: Small flat-plate absorber placed inside a

cylindrical vacuum.

 Concentric Tubular Design: Coaxial tubes where the inner one

serves as the absorber.

 Concentrating Tube: Includes an internal reflective surface to mildly

focus sunlight on the absorber.

 Vacuum Bottle with Heat Exchanger: A sealed vacuum vessel with

a metal slip-in heat exchanger; this design can suffer thermal stresses
due to intermittent point contact between glass and metal.
These evacuated tubes often include selective surfaces to increase
absorptance while reducing emissivity and are built to be modular and easily
replaceable.
A
8.2. Ray Tracing Diagrams

They are visual tools used to analyze how sunlight reflects off the
surface of solar concentrators and focuses on the receiver. In parabolic
concentrators, rays are reflected to a single focal point, while in circular
concentrators, the focus is broader. These diagrams help determine the
optimal shape and positioning of receivers to maximize energy capture. They
also illustrate how factors like rim angle and tracking accuracy affect
performance. Vector-based equations can be used for precise optical
modeling of the reflected rays.

The rim angle is the angle between the axis of a solar concentrator (such as
a parabolic reflector) and a line drawn from the edge of the reflector to its
focal point. It effectively describes how “deep” or “wide” the reflector is.

 A larger rim angle means the dish is deeper and captures more
sunlight but may be harder to manufacture or align.

 A smaller rim angle results in a shallower dish with easier tracking

but captures less solar radiation.

Parabolic trough concentrators are line-focus systems that use parabolic-

shaped mirrors to reflect sunlight onto a linear receiver pipe positioned along
the focal line. The receiver contains a heat-transfer fluid, such as synthetic
oil or molten salt, which is heated as it flows through. These systems
typically track the sun along one axis to maintain focus and are widely used
in large-scale thermal power plants. Their moderate to high concentration
ratios (10–50) allow operation at temperatures of 150°C to 400°C, making
them suitable for electricity generation and industrial heat applications.
9. Compound-Curvature Solar Concentrators
Compound-curvature concentrators are designed for high-
temperature solar thermal applications. These concentrators focus
sunlight to a single point or small area, achieving high concentration
ratios (CR). Depending on their geometry, they can reach CRs from 50 to
over 3000. The main types discussed in this section include paraboloidal,
spherical, and compound parabolic (CPC) concentrators.

9.1. Paraboloidal Concentrators

 Made by rotating a parabola about its optical axis, creating a dish

shape.

 Focuses sunlight to a single point (ideal for high-temp applications).

 Optical efficiency depends on mirror reflectance, transmittance,

intercept factor, and tracking accuracy.

 Very high concentration ratios (CR = 500–3000).

  Small absorber area reduces heat loss; mostly radiative losses
dominate.

9.2. Spherical Concentrators

 Use spherical geometry, easier to manufacture but less optically

efficient due to spherical aberration.

 Focus is not a perfect point; reflected rays spread out along a line.

 Lower CRs (50–150), and higher sensitivity to incidence angles.

 Often used in stationary reflector, tracking absorber (SRTA)

configurations to reduce cost.

 Cosine losses and flux spreading reduce optical efficiency compared to

paraboloids.

9.3. Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)

 A nonimaging concentrator, developed to accept a wide range of

solar angles without tracking.

 Built from two parabolic segments, shaped to direct all incoming

rays within an acceptance angle to the receiver.

 Ideal for low to moderate concentration ratios (CR = 2–10).

 Can use planar or tubular receivers, often evacuated for thermal

insulation.

 Truncation (cutting off top parts) reduces size/cost with some efficiency
trade-off.
 FIGURE 3.7 Spherical concentrator with direct sun
rays

Central receiver systems, also known as power towers, consist of a

field of heliostats (flat mirrors) that track the sun and focus its rays onto a
central receiver mounted atop a tower. The intense solar flux at the receiver
heats a fluid—often molten salt or water/steam—which is then used to drive
turbines for electricity production. These systems operate at very high
temperatures (up to 1000°C) and offer high efficiency, especially in utility-
scale applications with integrated thermal storage.
Fresnel reflectors and lenses

They are cost-effective alternatives to traditional parabolic

concentrators. Fresnel reflectors use segmented flat or slightly curved
mirrors arranged to approximate a parabolic shape, reflecting sunlight onto a
fixed receiver. Fresnel lenses, on the other hand, are thin optical lenses made
of concentric segments that focus light in a similar way but are lightweight
and less expensive. Both technologies offer simplified design, lower material
use, and are suitable for medium- to high-temperature applications like
steam generation and industrial processing.

FIGURE 3.8 Fresnel reflectors and

lenses