International Journal of AI for

Materials and Design

REVIEW ARTICLE

Role of phase change materials and digital twin

technology in thermal energy storage system: A
review
Mohammad Waseem1* , Mumtaz Ahmad1 , G. Sree Lakshmi2† , Areti M.S.V.
Sushma3 , Sanjay Paul4† , and Mohammad Afazal5
Department of Mechanical Engineering Section, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia
1

Millia Islamia, University Polytechnic, New Delhi, Delhi, India

2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRKR Engineering College, West Godavari,
3

Andhra Pradesh, India

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Rajshahi University of
4

Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

5
Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Cooling, Heating, and Thermal Energy Storage Systems:
Harnessing the Power of Digital Twins)

Abstract
†
These authors contributed equally
to this work.
The exponential growth in energy consumption and demand, along with the depletion
of natural resources, is exerting a catastrophic impact on global ecosystems. Recent
*Corresponding author: advances in research and development have focused on the distribution of renewable
Mohammad Waseem
([email protected]) energy sources and the reduction of traditional energy usage as strategies to address
pressing environmental concerns, such as climate change and global warming.
Citation: Waseem M, Ahmad M,
Lakshmi GS, Sushma AMSV, Paul Moreover, there is an urgent need for appropriate technologies that can enhance
S, Afazal M. Role of phase change the thermal performance of buildings, given the rapid increase in global cooling and
materials and digital twin technology heating demands. This study examines the role of phase change materials (PCMs)
in thermal energy storage system:
A review. Int J AI Mater Design. and digital twin (DT) technology in thermal energy storage (TES), drawing on an
2024;1(3):50-65. analysis of 89 research articles sourced from multiple databases and references. The
doi: 10.36922/ijamd.4696 findings demonstrate that TES systems optimized through meticulous selection of
Received: August 29, 2024 PCMs can effectively meet thermal comfort requirements. Integrating DT technology
with building systems allows for the analysis of cooling effects and optimization of
Accepted: October 28, 2024
energy demand through DT models of smart buildings. The present study provides
Published Online: November 27, a comprehensive overview of the different PCMs used in cooling applications and
2024
explores the implementation of DT technologies within building systems. In addition,
Copyright: © 2024 Author(s). practical applications of DT technologies for TES systems are presented, providing
This is an Open-Access article
distributed under the terms of the
insights into their potential for enhancing energy efficiency in building systems.
Creative Commons Attribution
License, permitting distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, Keywords: Phase change material; Thermal energy storage; Digital twin; Intelligent building
provided the original work is
properly cited.

Publisher’s Note: AccScience

Publishing remains neutral with 1. Introduction
regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional Rapid population and economic growth have led to a dramatic rise in global energy
affiliations. consumption, which in turn has had devastating effects on the planet’s ecosystems.1-5 The

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International Journal of AI for
Materials and Design Phase change materials and digital twin technology in thermal energy

building industry is a major contributor to carbon dioxide conditions,26,27 measurement methodologies, encapsulation
(CO₂) emissions and the largest consumer of energy techniques, and nano-PCMs.28-30
worldwide, accounting for more than 33.33% of total A critical issue in TES and heat insulation within
energy consumption.2,6 In addition, heating, ventilation, buildings remains a major challenge.31 For example,
and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are responsible for Jiang et al.32 developed a novel self-reinforced composite
50 – 60% of a building’s energy usage.7,8 Governments and PCM through hot-melt extrusion, designed for heat
communities aim to reduce energy consumption without storage.32 Wang et al.33 constructed a unique packed-
compromising thermal comfort in buildings, regardless of bed structure for storing heat, capable of withstanding
weather conditions.9,10 One significant challenge in this area medium to high temperatures.33 In the context of
is the development of new technologies to promote energy smart buildings, Antoniadou-Plytaria et al.34 proposed
conservation and efficiency. Thermal energy storage (TES) an energy management system for microgrids based
systems, when installed in buildings, can reduce peak energy on batteries. Their simulations demonstrated that the
demand and enhance heating and cooling efficiency.11 The framework could reliably predict operational costs and
building industry has shown considerable interest in phase enhance battery performance.34 Ren et al.35 compared
change materials (PCMs) due to their high energy storage two solar-powered systems: System P, which used solar
density and the ability to store thermal energy through thermal collectors (to transform sunlight into heat) and
a permanent phase transition.12 Applications of PCMs, a photovoltaic panels (to convert sunlight into electricity),
comprehensive TES technology, have gained significant and System Q, which employed photovoltaic thermal
attention for improving cooling efficiency while reducing collectors to generate both thermal and electrical energy
overall building energy consumption, making them a from solar power.35 In addition, Lin et al.36 introduced a
popular topic among engineers and architects.13 thermoelectrically-powered wireless sensor network for
Heat storage can be achieved through sensible, latent, environmental monitoring in building envelopes. Their
or thermochemical means, which are the three primary design, which features self-powered capabilities, thermally
methods used to store thermal energy.14 Among the optimized components, and milliwatt power control,
various energy storage technologies, TES stands out as could offer significant benefits for low-power, inexpensive
highly environmentally beneficial.15 PCM-based TES environmental monitoring.36
systems show significant potential to absorb or release Yu et al.37 explored a novel approach to harnessing
substantial energy during phase transitions under nearly solar energy by integrating two form-stable PCMs within a
isothermal conditions, making them a promising avenue humid environment containing dissolved CO₂. The distinct
for research.16 There are primarily three types of PCMs, electrical resistivities and phase transition temperatures
classified according to their charging and discharging of these PCMs enable energy harvesting independent of
processes: organic, inorganic, and eutectic. Salt hydrates conventional thermoelectric devices. The process utilizes
are an example of an inorganic PCM, while organic PCMs the Seebeck effect, where the temperature differential
include substances, such as paraffin waxes, fatty acids, between the PCMs generates electricity, offering an
and fatty acid esters. Eutectic PCMs, which are polymeric innovative method for sustainable energy production
compounds, include eutectic salts and solutions.1,17 using PCMs and environmental CO₂.
Another way to categorize PCMs is based on the type of
phase transition they undergo: solid-liquid, solid-solid, and 1.1. Role of digital twin (DT) technology in PCM-TES
solid-gas.18 Among these, solid-liquid PCMs are generally systems
the best choice for energy storage due to their low cost, high
Lv et al.38 discovered that DT technology significantly
latent heat, and other desirable properties.19,20 However,
improves the efficiency and performance of PCM-based
despite these advantages, limitations such as super-cooling
TES systems. By creating a virtual replica of the physical
and low latent heat can restrict their widespread use.21
system, DT enables real-time monitoring, simulation, and
Several reviews have focused on PCMs and their optimization of PCM behavior during energy storage and
potential applications for cooling in buildings. For instance, release. The virtual models are continuously updated to
Oropeza-Perez et al.22 reviewed active and passive cooling accurately reflect changes in the physical system, facilitating
in homes, while Monghasemi et al.23 explored research on precise predictions of temperature distributions, phase
integrating solar chimneys with HVAC systems in buildings. transitions, and energy transfer dynamics. In PCM-TES
Khan et al.24 provided a review of PCM applications in systems, DT technology plays a vital role in enhancing
solar-powered refrigeration systems. Additional PCM system operations by providing accurate forecasts of
research topics include climate control and heating energy demand and storage capacity. For example, DT
(PCM-TES),25 investigations under specific environmental can simulate various environmental conditions, such as

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Materials and Design Phase change materials and digital twin technology in thermal energy

fluctuating temperatures and changing energy demands,

allowing for proactive adjustments that enhance energy
efficiency. Furthermore, DT improves control strategies
for heating and cooling applications, particularly within
building energy management systems. By integrating real-
time data, DT systems enable predictive maintenance,
identify system inefficiencies, and improve overall
operational reliability.

1.2. Contributions
The main contributions of this article are outlined below:
• A total of 89 research articles, including case studies,
review papers, experimental analyses, and letters,
were reviewed in the current study, sourced from
databases such as Science Direct, IEEE, MDPI, Wiley,
and Springer, among others.
• The present study describes TES as a versatile form
of renewable energy, utilizing materials that absorb
heat when heated and release it when cooled through
Figure 1. Structural flow diagram of the review
sensible heat, latent heat, and thermochemical energy. Abbreviation: PCM: Phase change material.
• A review of different PCMs is provided, focusing on
their classifications and selection criteria for regulating
temperatures within a narrow range by releasing latent
2. TES
heat during phase transitions. Energy storage systems work by transforming energy into
• Practical applications of various PCMs for cooling in a form that can be stored and made available when needed.
TES buildings are identified and discussed. One type of renewable energy storage system is the TES
• The role of DT technology in smart buildings is system, which uses materials that absorb heat when heated
explored, along with real-world examples of how DT and release it when cooled. The three primary forms of
is integrated into thermal storage systems to enhance TES are depicted in Figure 2.
the intelligence and functionality of buildings.
TES is widely used in buildings and modern energy
1.3. Scope and organization of the present article cycles, where it involves storing excess energy – typically
surplus energy from renewable sources or waste heat – to
The reviewed studies highlight the potential of PCM-TES
be used later for heating, cooling, or power generation
systems as an innovative building technology capable
purposes.39 To store thermal energy, TES systems use
of significantly enhancing thermal efficiency and
heat- or cold-storage media. The stored energy can then be
sustainability in the future. It is evident that further
utilized to generate electricity for temperature regulation
research is needed to identify the optimal PCMs for
systems. Heat can be stored through three main mechanisms:
different climate zones. The aim of this article is to provide
sensible heat, latent heat (heat released or absorbed during
a concise overview of the role of PCMs and DT technology,
phase transitions), and thermochemical energy (heat
their properties, and integration techniques, as well as to
released or absorbed during chemical reactions).40
examine their cooling applications in buildings through
appropriate classification. The article is structured as Lin et al.41 emphasized that PCMs are essential for
follows: Section 1 offers a brief description of TES systems, improving the efficiency of TES systems due to their ability
PCMs, and DT technology; Section 2 outlines the methods to absorb and release large amounts of latent heat during
of TES, including sensible heat storage (SHS), latent phase transitions, typically between the solid and liquid
heat storage (LHS), and thermochemical energy storage states. In TES systems, PCMs are utilized to store thermal
systems; Section 3 describes the classification, selection energy during charging cycles, where heat is absorbed, and
criteria, and practical applications of PCMs in buildings; the material transitions to a liquid state, and to release this
Section 4 summarizes the integration of DT technology in stored energy during discharging cycles, when the material
smart buildings, along with real-world applications. A flow returns to its solid state. This process helps stabilize
diagram summarizing the structure of the current study is temperature fluctuations and promotes efficient energy
presented in Figure 1. storage over extended periods, making PCMs particularly

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Figure 2. Three distinct classifications of thermal energy storage systems

suitable for applications in buildings, renewable energy can be increased by radiation, convection, or conduction.44
systems, and industrial heat recovery. This method involves freezing or heating a solid or liquid
Bland et al.42 found that the primary advantage of storage medium to store heat.45 The temperature of an
PCMs in TES systems is their high energy density, which energy storage substance can be altered using the SHS
allows for substantial energy storage in a compact volume. approach, which can involve both solid and liquid storage
Furthermore, PCMs offer an almost iso TES process, which materials.46 A commonly used medium for SHS is water due
is particularly beneficial for maintaining stable temperatures to its low cost. The SHS process is based on the heat capacity
in applications such as HVAC systems in buildings or solar of the storage material, which is related to the temperature
thermal power plants. The selection of efficient materials differential during the charge and discharge phases.45
for PCM is critical to enhancing the performance of TES The sensible heat of a system can be determined by its
systems, as factors such as the material’s melting point, mass (m), specific heat (C), and temperature differential
thermal conductivity, and energy storage capacity directly (ΔT), all of which are key components of the thermodynamic
influence the system’s effectiveness. In renewable energy system affecting temperature. Mathematically, the sensible
applications, such as solar thermal plants, PCMs are vital heat (Qsensible) of a thermodynamic system is given by
in addressing the intermittent nature of energy supply, as Equation I:
noted by Masood et al.43 They store excess heat during peak
Qsensible=mC∆T(I)
production times and release it when energy generation
is low. The role of PCMs in enhancing the flexibility Water is the most common medium used for this type
and reliability of TES systems is crucial for advancing of heat storage and release. However, various other solid
sustainable energy solutions. TES systems can be classified materials, such as sandy soil, pebbles, rock, stone, brick,
into three categories, as discussed below. aluminum, and cast iron, can also be used for SHS.

2.1. SHS 2.2. LHS

In SHS systems, energy storage is achieved by utilizing LHS systems are based on a material’s ability to absorb or
the heat capacity that a material gains as its temperature release heat during a phase transition – such as from solid
increases. The energy storage capacity of an SHS system is to liquid, liquid to gas, or vice-versa. The appeal of this
determined by three factors: the specific heat capacity of the quasi-static process lies in the high energy density stored
material, the quantity of the material, and the temperature per unit mass. The LHS capacity of the system, when using
change gradient. The temperature of the storage material a PCM, is given by the following equation:

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Materials and Design Phase change materials and digital twin technology in thermal energy

Tpc T2

Q= ∫C
T1
solid + ∆h + ∫C
Tpc
liquid (II)

where Tpc is the temperature of the phase change, Δh is

the latent heat of fusion, and Csolid and Cliquid are the specific
heat capacities of the PCM in the solid and liquid phases,
respectively.
A PCM is utilized in LHS systems, with the temperature
at which the phase transition occurs referred to as the phase- Figure 3. Sensible and latent heat behavior of phase change materials with
change temperature.45,47 In addition to offering high energy respect to temperature
density, LHS systems also face challenges related to low Abbreviation: PCM: Phase change material.
thermal conductivity and material degradation over time.
PCMs are commonly employed in LHS systems because of
3.1. Classification of PCMs
their ability to absorb and release large amounts of energy
as they change phase, which alters their physical state.48 In PCMs can be primarily classified into three types based
the LHS process, heat is stored as the PCM undergoes a on their charging and discharging processes within the
phase transition at a nearly constant temperature, with the solid-liquid transition category: organic, inorganic,
amount of heat being proportional to the material’s latent and eutectic PCMs.50 Each of these categories contains
heat of fusion. Due to their high energy capacity and ability additional sub-categories. Organic PCMs include both
to maintain a stable temperature throughout the phase paraffin and non-paraffin materials. Non-paraffin
transition, PCMs are widely considered ideal materials for materials are further subdivided into lipids, sugar esters,
LHS systems.49 and carbohydrates. Inorganic PCMs, which undergo
phase transitions without requiring super-cooling, retain
2.3. Thermochemical energy storage their heat of fusion throughout cycling.53 Depending
Thermochemical energy storage systems absorb and on their composition, inorganic PCMs can be metals,
release energy during reversible reactions, which molten salts, or salt-hydrates. Eutectic PCMs, in turn,
involve the breaking and reforming of chemical bonds. can be synthesized by combining organic and inorganic
Chemical reactions that release heat form the basis components.54 Figure 4 provides a concise overview of
of thermochemical energy storage systems. The heat the different PCM classes.
involved in the calcium hydroxide cycle is given by Organic PCMs are primarily composed of carbon-
Equation III as follows: hydrogen bonds. These materials are non-corrosive,
CaO + H2O ⇌ Ca(OH)2 + Heat (III) self-nucleating, and typically have consistent melting
points. While organic PCMs offer numerous advantages,
3. PCMs they also have several limitations that can reduce their
effectiveness.55 They do not experience phase separation
PCMs are substances that can regulate temperatures
or degradation, meaning they can undergo continuous
within a narrow range by releasing latent heat during
melting and freezing cycles. Key advantages of organic
phase transitions.50 As the surrounding temperature
PCMs include their chemical stability, lack of super-
increases to the point where the PCM melts, an
cooling, non-corrosiveness, and recyclability. However,
endothermic process begins, breaking the chemical
they are combustible and generally have low conductivity.56
bonds and transforming the PCM from a solid to a liquid
One widely used organic heat exchange material is paraffin
while absorbing energy. This process is referred to as the
wax,57 which is composed primarily of alkanes. The formula
PCM charging phenomenon. The next step involves the
of paraffin is CnH2n+2, where “n” indicates the number of
temperature decreasing until the PCM solidifies, at which
carbon atoms in the alkane chain.
point the bonds regenerate, and the PCM returns to its
solid state by releasing heat in an exothermic process. In contrast, inorganic PCMs are non-combustible,
Therefore, PCMs are defined as thermal reservoirs.51 have a higher LHS capacity, and exhibit more distinct
When charged and discharged, the volume of PCMs phase transitions. However, their main drawbacks
changes by a negligible amount – approximately 10% include inherent corrosiveness, phase segregation, and
of their original volume.52 Figure 3 provides a visual super-cooling.58 Among organic PCMs, salt hydrates are
representation of this process. particularly promising due to their higher LHS capacity

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Figure 4. Different categories of phase change materials

– approximately twice that of organic compounds with the PCM must have a high latent heat of fusion relative
a high fusion temperature.59 Salt hydrates also have a to its volume to achieve adequate energy storage density.64
thermal conductivity of about 0.5 W/m-K, are non- Finally, the phase transition must occur uniformly to
combustible, readily available, inexpensive, and have ensure that the process is repeatable, stable, and durable
minimal environmental impact.60 Most importantly, they over time.15 The selection criteria and key properties of
can be recycled. PCM materials are illustrated in Figure 5.
A newer type of PCM, called eutectic, consists of a In terms of physical properties, the vapor pressure
combination of elements that form crystals as they melt and at operating temperatures must be limited, and the
freeze. Eutectic alloys contain both organic and inorganic material should undergo minimal volume change during
elements, with the most common being inorganic salt the phase transition. The material’s density is also an
hydrates. These materials exhibit homogeneous melting important factor to consider.64 Given that different
and freezing properties, avoiding phase segregation.61 The temperatures are required for melting and solidifying,
advantages and disadvantages of organic and inorganic an insufficient nucleation rate can lead to super-cooling
PCMs are summarized in Table 1. in the liquid state, which significantly alters the kinetics
of the charging and discharging cycles. Therefore, both
3.2. Selection criteria of PCM high nucleation rates and enhanced crystal formation
Materials can only be used as PCMs if they meet specific are necessary for optimal performance.65 In addition,
requirements related to thermal, physical, chemical, the material must be able to withstand repeated freezing
and mechanical properties. Ecological and economic and melting cycles without deterioration. It must also
considerations also play a crucial role in the selection be environmentally safe when used.66 From a financial
process for thermal storage applications. From a thermal perspective, PCMs should be inexpensive, abundant, and
perspective, the phase transition temperature of a PCM readily available.
must fall within the target operating temperature range
3.3. Practical applications of PCMs in TES for
to ensure efficient heat absorption and release during
buildings
operation.63 Another essential property for effective TES
is high thermal conductivity, which facilitates the efficient PCMs have a wide range of potential applications, including
absorption and release of thermal energy. In addition, heating, cooling, and hybrid systems. The principle behind

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Table 1. Pros and cons of organic and inorganic PCMs

PCM Pros Cons References

Organic • Wide temperature range for phase transitions. • Combustible. 62
• Withstands heat without deterioration. • Low density.
• Does not react chemically. • Poor thermal conductivity.
• Safe for use around metals.
• No phase segregation during homogeneous melting.
• High latent heat.
• Strong nucleation ability.
• Minimal volume variation.
• Recyclable plastic.
Inorganic • Excellent heat conduction. • Phase separation during incongruent 62
• Efficient use of enthalpy. melting.
• Minimal volume change during phase transition. • Poor nucleation.
• Non‑flammable. • Prone to degradation.
• Potentially hazardous.
• Not all building materials are compatible.
• Higher cost.
Abbreviation: PCM: Phase change material.

Figure 5. Selection criteria and properties of PCMs

Abbreviation: PCM: Phase change material.

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PCM-based cooling applications is as follows: when the 4. DT technology

temperature outside the designated thermal zone exceeds
DT technology, which creates a digital model of a real-
the pre-determined comfort level, PCMs activate to absorb
and store the excess heat. Table 2 provides examples of world process, person, location, system, or device, enables
practical PCM cooling applications in buildings across intelligent buildings to establish a data bridge and facilitate
different countries.67-73 communication between the physical and digital realms.
Using highly realistic, interactive virtual models, DT
An investigation was conducted by Ning et al.67 in technology can simulate the physical world, including
the coastal area of Yantai, China, focused on a bedroom the states and behaviors of its inhabitants.74 It can even
enclosure equipped with PCM boards. The study predict or recreate the actions of these inhabitants, either
aimed to understand how the thickness and transition in advance or in real-time.74
temperature of the PCM affect thermal performance. It
was demonstrated that raising the PCM melting point In TES systems, the design and data processing
helped decrease the variance in return air temperature. procedure, with a focus on DT technology, follows a
In another study, Wang et al.68 monitored the thermal systematic methodology. This process incorporates real-
performance of a 30 × 30 × 3 cm micro PCM honeycomb time monitoring, simulations, and data-driven optimization
wallboard on a daily basis. Their findings showed that to enhance the efficiency and reliability of TES. Figure 6
the thermal insulation of the micro PCM honeycomb illustrates the step-by-step design process procedure,
wallboard was 4 h in case 1, 4.7 h in case 2, and 4.7 h in case highlighting the role of DT in TES.
3. These results indicate that the thermal performance of
4.1. Integrating DT technology into smart buildings
the wallboard is influenced by the interior environment.
In field experiments, Lee et al.69 exposed two similar To integrate DT technology into real-world building
model exhibit spaces to varying meteorological applications, the first step is to create a DT model of the
conditions. They found that incorporating cellulose building. By adding two additional dimensions – data and
insulation into a paraffin-based PCM mixture did connection – to the traditional three-dimensional model,
not negatively affect the PCM’s latent heat. The results this study develops DT models with five dimensions.75
demonstrated a peak heat flow reduction of 26.6% when Figure 7 illustrates the DT intelligent building model,
all four walls were together. derived from the DT system in five dimensions. In this

Table 2. Practical applications of PCMs in thermal energy storage systems for buildings

PCM category Type of analysis Applied country Remarks References

External bedroom envelope Numerical China (for cooling) PCM effectively reduces the impact of Ning et al.67
equipped with PCM external thermal environment changes
Microencapsulated PCM based on Experimental Taiwan (for cooling) Protection from heat in cases 1, 2, and 3: 4 Wang et al.68
paraffin h, 4.7 h, and 4.7 h, respectively
Filling wall voids with a mixture Experimental USA (for cooling) Average cost savings: 3 cents/m2. Peak Lee et al.69
of paraffin PCM and cellulose heat flux reduction: 26.6% per hour
insulation
Shape‑stabilized PCM wallboards Numerical and China (for cooling) PCMW enhances thermal comfort, Yao et al.70
(PCMW) experimental reduces indoor temperature fluctuations,
and increases energy efficiency
Composite wallboard made of Numerical and USA (for cooling) No decrease in heat gains when set points Biswas et al.71
gypsum with shape‑stabilized experimental are 22°C and 23.3°C
nano‑PCM
PCM‑based bio‑composite wall Numerical France (for cooling) Heavy walls with PCM perform best in Kharbouch et al. 72
reducing stratification effects compared to
lightweight walls
Enhanced PCM container Experimental Lab environment Three solar heat fluxes were tested: Li et al.73
modified for use as a solar 700, 600, and 500 W/m2. The lowest
chimney output temperature was at 700 W/m2,
and the thermal efficiency was highest at
500 W/m2
Abbreviations: PCM: Phase change material; USA: United States of America.

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Figure 6. Design or data processing procedure of DT technology roles in the overall TES unit
Abbreviations: DT: Digital twin; IoT: Internet of Things; PCM: Phase change material; TES: Thermal energy storage.

setup, the wall functions as an energy storage device identifying the data to be collected when the smart building
in combination with wind turbines, solar panels, and is operational and determining the tools required for this
battery backup systems. The latter two devices are utilized purpose.78 Next, a link should be established between
exclusively for backup purposes.76 the real world and the building’s digital representation,
ensuring that the protocol is understood by all stakeholders.
The development of the DT smart building concept is
Finally, it is essential to verify that the smart building is
shown in Figure 5. Before proceeding, the virtual entity
functioning correctly and meets all necessary standards.79
component must be defined, and the corresponding
physical entity must be clearly identified.77 The next step An intelligent building model is created and then tested
is to create a digital representation of the virtual entity, by the user, who provides detailed recommendations for
decouple its physical layout, and use this model to assess improvement. In addition, the user can input further
the performance of simulations. The third step involves criteria into the system, including models for visual
gathering design-related information – specifically, and physical elements, and suggest improvements to

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conventional scheduling techniques. Developers will framework, the PCM is integrated into the building
incorporate customer feedback into iterative software structure. Figure 8 depicts the intelligent building’s
updates until the software reaches a satisfactory level. Only PCW material and thermal network modeled using DT
then will it be ready for full-scale implementation, testing, technology.
and maintenance.
4.2. Real-world applications of DT technology in TES
The phase change wall (PCW) structure serves as
the foundation for TES within the building. In response The growing global demand for energy is a major concern,
to temperature fluctuations, a PCM undergoes a particularly with the increasing number of people living
transformation in its physical properties, which either in urban areas. The depletion of energy resources is
increases or decreases its heat absorption capacity.80 Most contributing significantly to environmental issues, such
PCMs used in construction materials today are stored in as climate change, the expansion of the ozone hole, and
solid-liquid mixtures. Liu et al.81 developed form-stabilized global warming. In a study by South Korean researchers
PCMs with appropriate latent heat enthalpies.81 These Seo et al.,82 the energy consumption of a university
materials demonstrated excellent heat control and shape classroom building was reduced by 60% after switching
retention properties.81 Within this indoor construction to LED lighting, using a turn-off technique. However,
they also found that LED lights tend to consume more
energy than expected and require adjustments. The
study did not address the potential financial costs of
LED bulbs, or the level of satisfaction occupants might
have with the lighting’s performance. DT technology has
been the subject of several studies aimed at improving
building energy management, with the goal of enhancing
thermal comfort and energy efficiency.83 Table 3 provides
real-world applications of DT technology in intelligent
buildings.
Qian et al.84 conducted a year-long study of thermal
sensation votes using a DT platform to learn about indoor
and semi-open space environmental conditions. Their
findings revealed that occupants felt hot and uncomfortable
throughout the day and night during the summer. In
another study focused on human-centered monitoring in
intelligent buildings, Deng et al.85 utilized digital identity
technology to gain insights into indoor thermal comfort.
The study classified two types of identification – digital
Figure 7. Energy conversion through DT technology and non-digital –into two sets. According to the responses,
Abbreviation: DT: Digital twin. participants with digital identities reported improved

Figure 8. Energy conversion through digital twin technology

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Table 3. Real‑world applications of DT technology in smart buildings

Applications Techniques employed Key findings References

Case study Cloud‑based IoT platform and DT Humidity and temperature tracking within a structure Nurumova et al.86
Case study DT and BIM Energy‑saving technologies and strategies for existing building Seo et al.82
Experimental DT and BIM Remote visual management for reduced energy consumption Tan et al.83
Case study DT platform Monitoring environmental factors and understanding how Qian et al.84
consumers’ comfort and pain levels change throughout the year
Experimental DT and NN Centralized database for building occupant data and Gnecco et al.87
environmental monitoring
Case study Human‑centric monitoring using Accurate depiction of relative humidity and temperature Deng et al.85
DT and BIM
Experimental NN and DT Estimating occupiers’ individual thermal comfort Abdelrahman et al.88
Case study DT and Graph Neural Network Improve subjective data on thermal comfort by considering Abdelrahman et al.89
spatial proximity
Abbreviations: BIM: Building Information Modeling; DT: Digital twin; IoT: Internet of Things; NN: Neural network.

thermal comfort. However, the research was limited to Conflict of interest

just two aspects of thermal comfort: relative humidity and
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
room temperature.

5. Conclusion and future perspectives Author contributions

This study highlights TES systems, including sensible Conceptualization: Mohammad Waseem, Mumtaz Ahmad,
heat, latent heat, and thermochemical energy, as essential Mohammad Afazal
solutions for promoting environmental sustainability. Supervision: Mohammad Waseem, Mumtaz Ahmad
These systems are crucial for addressing the depletion Writing – original draft: Mohammad Waseem, G. Sree
of energy resources, mitigating climate change, and Lakshmi, Areti M. S. V. Sushma
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. A concise overview of Writing – review & editing: Mohammad Waseem, Mumtaz
PCMs and DT technology, including their properties and Ahmad, Sanajay Pual
selection criteria, is provided to support efforts aimed at
reducing energy consumption in buildings. Various case Ethics approval and consent to participate
studies, along with numerical and experimental analyses, Not applicable.
are examined to explore practical cooling applications and
the integration of PCM-DT technology in the development Consent for publication
of intelligent buildings. Not applicable.
One important area that requires further investigation
is the economic analysis of PCM systems. Despite its Availability of data
significance in commercializing and improving these Not applicable.
systems, these aspects remain under-discussed in some
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