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Computer Science And Engineering (CMR Technical Campus)

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SOFTWARE TESTING METHODOLOGIES

Batch: 2021-2022 Year: IV : I

Important Long and Short Answer Questions. [Unit 1 to Unit 5]

Unit-1
SHORT
1. Write short notes on dichotomies.
Testing vs Debugging
Function vs Structure
Designer vs Tester
Modularity vs Efficiecy
Small vs Large
Builder vs Buyer
2. Describe control flow graph and control flow graph elements

The control flow graph is a graphical representation of a program's control structure.The flow graph is similar to
the earlier flowchart, with which it is not to be confused

Flow Graph Elements

1. Process Block:

A. process block is a sequence of program statements uninterrupted by either decisions or junctions.

B. It is a sequence of statements such that if any one of statement of the block is executed, then all statement thereof
are executed.

C. Formally, a process block is a piece of straight line code of one statement or hundreds of statements

D. process has one entry and one exit. It can consists of a single statement or instruction, a sequence of statements or
instructions, a single entry/exit subroutine, a macro or function call, or a sequence of these

2. Decisions:

A. A decision is a program point at which the control flow can diverge. Machine language conditional branch and
conditional skip instructions are examples of decisions. Most of the decisions are two-way but some are three
way branches in control flow.

3. Case Statements:

A. A case statement is a multi-way branch or decisions.

B. From the point of view of test design, there are no differences between Decisions and Case Statements

4. Junctions:

A junction is a point in the program where the control flow can merge. Examples of junctions are: the target of
a jump or skip instruction in ALP, a label that is a target of GOTO.

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3. Write about path testing criteria.

Path Testing is a method that is used to design the test cases. In path testing method, the control flow graph of a
program is designed to find a set of linearly independent paths of execution.
In this method Cyclomatic Complexity is used to determine the number of linearly independent paths and then
test cases are generated for each path.
Path Testing Process:

A. Control Flow Graph:

Draw the corresponding control flow graph of the program in which all the executable paths are to be
discovered.

B. Cyclomatic Complexity:
After the generation of the control flow graph, calculate the cyclomatic complexity of the program using
the following formula.

McCabe's Cyclomatic Complexity = E - N + 2P

Where,
E = Number of edges in control flow graph
N = Number of vertices in control floe graph
P = Program factor
C. Make Set:
Make a set of all the path according to the control floe graph and calculated cyclomatic complexity. The
cardinality of set is equal to the calculated cyclomatic complexity.

D. Create Test Cases:

Create test case for each path of the set obtained in above step.

Path Testing Techniques:

1. Control Flow Graph:
The program is converted into control flow graph by representing the code into nodes and edges

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2. Decision to Decision path:

The control flow graph can be broken into various Decision to Decision paths and then collapsed into individual
nodes

3. Independent paths:
Independent path is a path through a Decision to Decision path graph which cannot be reproduced from other
paths by other methods.

4. Differentiate structural testing and functional testing.

A. Tests can be designed from a functional or a structural point of view. o In Functional testing, the program or
system is treated as a black box. It is subjected to inputs, and its outputs are verified for conformance to
specified behavior. Functional testing takes the user point of view- bother about functionality and features and not
the program's implementation.

B. In Structural testing does look at the implementation details. Things such as programming style, control
method, source language, database design, and coding details dominate structural testing.

C. Both Structural and functional tests are useful, both have limitations, and both target different kinds of
bugs. Functional tests can detect all bugs but would take infinite time to do so. Structural tests are inherently
finite but cannot detect all errors even if completely executed.

5. Write about path predicates and path predicate expression with coverage.

PREDICATE: The logical function evaluated at a decision is called Predicate. The direction taken at a
decision depends on the value of decision variable. Some examples are: A>0, x+y>=90.......

PATH PREDICATE: A predicate associated with a path is called a Path Predicate. For example, "x is
greater than zero", "x+y>=90", "w is either negative or equal to 10 is true" is a sequence of predicates whose
truth values will cause the routine to take a specific path.

PATH PREDICATE EXPRESSIONS:

o A path predicate expression is a set of boolean expressions, all of which must be satisfied to
achieve the selected path.
o Any set of input values that satisfy all of the conditions of the path predicate expression will
force the routine to the path.
o Some times a predicate can have an OR in it.
o Boolean algebra notation to denote the boolean expression:

 PREDICATE COVERAGE:

o Compound Predicate: Predicates of the form A OR B, A AND B and more complicated

boolean expressions are called as compound predicates.
o Some times even a simple predicate becomes compound after interpretation. Example: the
predicate if (x=17) whose opposite branch is if x.NE.17 which is equivalent to x>17 . Or. X<17.
o Predicate coverage is being the achieving of all possible combinations of truth values
corresponding to the selected path have been explored under some test.
o As achieving the desired direction at a given decision could still hide bugs in the associated
predicates.

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LONG
6. Describe about consequences and taxonomy of bugs.
7. Write about control flow graph and show the process with an example.
Same answer as SAQ

8. Explain about path selection with an example.

9. Explain in detail about path sensitizing and heuristic procedure for path sensitizing.

REVIEW: ACHIEVABLE AND UNACHIEVABLE PATHS:

o We want to select and test enough paths to achieve a satisfactory notion of test completeness
such as C1+C2.
o Extract the programs control flowgraph and select a set of tentative covering paths.
o For any path in that set, interpret the predicates along the path as needed to express them in terms
of the input vector. In general individual predicates are compound or may become compound as
a result of interpretation.
o Trace the path through, multiplying the individual compound predicates to achieve a boolean
expression such as

(A+BC) (D+E) (FGH) (IJ) (K) (l) (L).

Multiply out the expression to achieve a sum of products form:

ADFGHIJKL+AEFGHIJKL+BCDFGHIJKL+BCEFGHIJKL

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oEach product term denotes a set of inequalities that if solved will yield an input vector that will
drive the routine along the designated path.
o Solve any one of the inequality sets for the chosen path and you have found a set of input values
for the path.
o If you can find a solution, then the path is achievable.
o If you cant find a solution to any of the sets of inequalities, the path is un achievable.
o The act of finding a set of solutions to the path predicate expression is called PATH
SENSITIZATION.
 HEURISTIC PROCEDURES FOR SENSITIZING PATHS:

o This is a workable approach, instead of selecting the paths without considering how to sensitize,
attempt to choose a covering path set that is easy to sensitize and pick hard to sensitize paths
only as you must to achieve coverage.
o Identify all variables that affect the decision.
o Classify the predicates as dependent or independent.
o Start the path selection with un correlated, independent predicates.
o If coverage has not been achieved using independent uncorrelated predicates, extend the path set
using correlated predicates.
o If coverage has not been achieved extend the cases to those that involve dependent predicates.
o Last, use correlated, dependent predicates.

10. Write about path instrumentation methods.

Path instrumentation is what we have to do to confirm that the outcome was achieved by the intended path.

Co-incidental Correctness: The coincidental correctness stands for achieving the desired outcome for wrong
reason.

The above figure is an example of a routine that, for the (unfortunately) chosen input value (X = 16), yields
the same outcome (Y = 2) no matter which case we select. Therefore, the tests chosen this way will not tell
us whether we have achieved coverage. For example, the five cases could be totally jumbled and still the
outcome would be the same. Path Instrumentation is what we have to do to confirm that the outcome was
achieved by the intended path.

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The types of instrumentation methods include:

1. Interpretive Trace Program:

 An interpretive trace program is one that executes every statement in order and records the intermediate
values of all calculations, the statement labels traversed etc.
 If we run the tested routine under a trace, then we have all the information we need to confirm the outcome
and, furthermore, to confirm that it was achieved by the intended path.
 The trouble with traces is that they give us far more information than we need. In fact, the typical trace
program provides so much information that confirming the path from its massive output dump is more work
than simulating the computer by hand to confirm the path.

2. Traversal Marker or Link Marker:

 A simple and effective form of instrumentation is called a traversal marker or link marker.
 Name every link by a lower case letter.
 Instrument the links so that the link's name is recorded when the link is executed.
 The succession of letters produced in going from the routine's entry to its exit should, if there are no bugs,
exactly correspond to the path name.

Why Single Link Markers aren't enough: Unfortunately, a single link marker may not do the trick because
links can be chewed by open bugs.

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We intended to traverse the ikm path, but because of a rampaging GOTO in the middle of the m link, we go to
process B. If coincidental correctness is against us, the outcomes will be the same and we won't know about the
bug.

3. Two Link Marker Method:

The solution to the problem of single link marker method is to implement two markers per link: one at the
beginning of each link and on at the end.

The two link markers now specify the path name and confirm both the beginning and end of the link.

4. Link Counter:

A less disruptive (and less informative) instrumentation method is based on counters. Instead of a unique link
name to be pushed into a string when the link is traversed, we simply increment a link counter. We now confirm
that the path length is as expected. The same problem that led us to double link markers also leads us to double
link counters.

Unit-2
SHORT
11. Define domain and range of a function with its closure compatibility.

a. The set of output values produced by a function is called the range of the function, in contrast with
the domain, which is the set of input values over which the function is defined.

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b. For most testing, our aim has been to specify input values and to predict and/or confirm output values that
result from those inputs.

caller domain --> caller range (caller unit test)

caller range --> called domain (integration test)
called domain --> called range (called unit test)

CLOSURE COMPATIBILITY:

Assume that the caller's range and the called domain spans the same numbers - for example, 0 to 17.

Figure shows the four ways in which the caller's range closure and the called's domain closure can agree.

The thick line means closed and the thin line means open.

12. Illustrate the restrictions for domain testing

RESTRICTIONS TO DOMAIN TESTING:Domain testing has restrictions, as do other testing techniques.

Some of them include:

Co-incidental Correctness:Domain testing isn't good at finding bugs for which the outcome is correct for the
wrong reasons. Note that this implies weakness for domain testing when dealing with routines that have binary
outcomes (i.e., TRUE/FALSE)

Representative Outcome:Domain testing is an example of partition testing. Partition-testing strategies divide

the program's input space into domains such that all inputs within a domain are equivalent (not equal, but
equivalent) in the sense that any input represents all inputs in that domain.

Simple Domain Boundaries and Compound Predicates:Compound predicates in which each part of the
predicate specifies a different boundary are not a problem: for example, x >= 0 AND x < 17, just specifies two
domain boundaries by one compound predicate. As an example of a compound predicate that specifies one
boundary, consider: x = 0 AND y >= 7 AND y <= 14. .

Functional Homogeneity of Bugs:Whatever the bug is, it will not change the functional form of the boundary
predicate. For example, if the predicate is ax >= b, the bug will be in the value of a or b but it will not change
the predicate to ax >= b, say.

Linear Vector Space:Most papers on domain testing, assume linear boundaries - not a bad assumption because
in practice most boundary predicates are linear.

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Loop Free Software:Loops are problematic for domain testing. The trouble with loops is that each iteration can
result in a different predicate expression (after interpretation), which means a possible domain boundary change.

13. Design two dimensional domains?

A and B are adjacent domains and the boundary is closed with respect to A, which means that it is open with respect to B.

14. Define Domain and Path testing.

Domain testing is a software testing technique in which selecting a small number of test cases from a nearly
infinite group of test cases. For testing few applications, Domain specific knowledge plays a very crucial role.
Domain testing is a type of functional testing and tests the application by feeding interesting inputs and evaluating
its outputs.
Path Testing is a method that is used to design the test cases. In path testing method, the control flow graph of a
program is designed to find a set of linearly independent paths of execution. In this method Cyclomatic

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Complexity is used to determine the number of linearly independent paths and then test cases are generated for
each path.

15. Discuss inspection, review and walk through.

Walkthrough :
Walkthrough is a method of conducting informal group/individual review. In a walkthrough, author describes
and explain work product in a informal meeting to his peers or supervisor to get feedback. Here, validity of the
proposed solution for work product is checked.
It is cheaper to make changes when design is on the paper rather than at time of conversion. Walkthrough is a
static method of quality assurance. Walkthrough are informal meetings but with purpose
2. Inspection :
An inspection is defined as formal, rigorous, in depth group review designed to identify problems as close to
their point of origin as possible. Inspections improve reliability, availability, and maintainability of software
product.
Anything readable that is produced during the software developent can be inspected. Inspections can be
combined with structured, systematic testing to provide a powerful tool for creating defect-free programs.
Inspection activity follows a specified process and participants play well-defined roles.
An inspection team consists of three to eight members who plays roles of moderator, author, reader, recorder and
inspector.
For example, designer can acts as inspector during code inspections while a quality assurance representative can
act as standard enforcer.
Stages in the inspections process :
 Planning : Inspection is planned by moderator.
 Overview meeting : Author describes background of work product.
 Preparation : Each inspector examines work product to identify possible defects.
 Inspection meeting : During this meeting, reader reads through work product, part by part and inspectors
points out the defects for every part.
 Rework : Author makes changes to work product according to action plans from the inspection meeting.
 Follow-up : Changes made by author are checked to make sure that everything is correct.

LONG
16. Discuss about nice domains with an Example.
17. Discuss about Ugly domains with an Example.
18. Differentiate Domain and Interface Testing.
19. Mention the advantages and uses of Domain and Testability.
20. Explain Interface testing with an example.

Unit-3
SHORT
21. Explain about data flow testing.
Data flow testing
It is the name given to a family of test strategies based on selecting paths through the program's control flow in
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order to explore sequences of events related to the status of data objects.

For example, pick enough paths to assure that every data object has been initialized prior to use or that all defined
objects have been used for something.

22. Write about data flow anomalies.

Data Flow Anomalies are identified while performing while box testing or Static Testing.
Data flow anomalies are represented using two characters based on the sequence of actions.
They are defined (d), killed (k), and used (u).
There are nine possible combinations based on these 3 sequence of actions which are dd, dk, du, kd, kk, ku, ud, uk,
uu.
The below table clearly shows which one of these combinations are accepted and which one of these are suspected
to be an anomaly.

23. Write about data flow model. (Assignment)

The data flow model is based on the program's control flow graph - Don't confuse that with the program's data
flowgraph..
Here we annotate each link with symbols (for example, d, k, u, c, p) or sequences of symbols (for example, dd,
du, ddd) that denote the sequence of data operations on that link with respect to the variable of interest. Such
annotations are called link weights.
The control flow graph structure is same for every variable: it is the weights that change.
24. Describe complications in transaction flow testing.

In simple cases, the transactions have a unique identity from the time they're created to the time they're
completed.

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In many systems the transactions can give birth to others, and transactions can also merge.

Births:There are three different possible interpretations of the decision symbol, or nodes with two or more
out links. It can be a Decision, Biosis or a Mitosis

1. Decision:Here the transaction will take one alternative or the other alternative but not both. (See Figure 3.2
(a))
2. Biosis:Here the incoming transaction gives birth to a new transaction, and both transaction continue on
their separate paths, and the parent retains it identity. (See Figure 3.2 (b))
3. Mitosis:Here the parent transaction is destroyed and two new transactions are created.(See Figure 3.2 (c))

Figure 3.2: Nodes with multiple outlinks

 Mergers:Transaction flow junction points are potentially as troublesome as transaction flow splits. There
are three types of junctions: (1) Ordinary Junction (2) Absorption (3) Conjugation

1. Ordinary Junction: An ordinary junction which is similar to the junction in a control flow graph. A
transaction can arrive either on one link or the other. (See Figure 3.3 (a))
2. Absorption: In absorption case, the predator transaction absorbs prey transaction. The prey gone but the
predator retains its identity. (See Figure 3.3 (b))
3. Conjugation: In conjugation case, the two parent transactions merge to form a new daughter. In keeping
with the biological flavor this case is called as conjugation.(See Figure 3.3 (c))

25. Define domain and range of a function with its closure compatibility
Refer unit 2 saq
LONG
26. What are the strategies in data-flow testing?

STRATEGIES: The structural test strategies discussed below are based on the program's control flowgraph.
They differ in the extent to which predicate uses and/or computational uses of variables are included in the test
set. Various types of data flow testing strategies in decreasing order of their effectiveness are:

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All - du Paths (ADUP): The all-du-paths (ADUP) strategy is the strongest data-flow testing strategy discussed
here. It requires that every du path from every definition of every variable to every use of that definition be
exercised under some test.

The all-du-paths strategy is a strong criterion, but it does not take as many tests as it might seem at first because
any one test simultaneously satisfies the criterion for several definitions and uses of several different variables.

All Uses Startegy (AU):The all uses strategy is that at least one definition clear path from every definition of
every variable to every use of that definition be exercised under some test. Just as we reduced our ambitions by
stepping down from all paths (P) to branch coverage (C2), say, we can reduce the number of test cases by
asking that the test set should include at least one path segment from every definition to every use that can be
reached by that definition.

All p-uses/some c-uses strategy (APU+C) : For every variable and every definition of that variable, include at
least one definition free path from the definition to every predicate use; if there are definitions of the variables
that are not covered by the above prescription, then add computational use test cases as required to cover every
definition.

All c-uses/some p-uses strategy (ACU+P) : The all c-uses/some p-uses strategy (ACU+P) is to first ensure
coverage by computational use cases and if any definition is not covered by the previously selected paths, add
such predicate use cases as are needed to assure that every definition is included in some test.
All Definitions Strategy (AD) : The all definitions strategy asks only every definition of every variable be
covered by atleast one use of that variable, be that use a computational use or a predicate use.

All Predicate Uses (APU), All Computational Uses (ACU) Strategies : The all predicate uses strategy is
derived from APU+C strategy by dropping the requirement that we include a c-use for the variable if there are
no p-uses for the variable. The all computational uses strategy is derived from ACU+P strategy by dropping the
requirement that we include a p-use for the variable if there are no c-uses for the variable.

27. Discuss transaction flow testing techniques.

 GET THE TRANSACTIONS FLOWS:

o Complicated systems that process a lot of different, complicated transactions should have explicit
representations of the transactions flows, or the equivalent.
o Transaction flows are like control flow graphs, and consequently we should expect to have them
in increasing levels of detail.
o The system's design documentation should contain an overview section that details the main
transaction flows.
o Detailed transaction flows are a mandatory pre requisite to the rational design of a system's
functional test.
 INSPECTIONS, REVIEWS AND WALKTHROUGHS:

o Transaction flows are natural agenda for system reviews or inspections.

o In conducting the walkthroughs, you should:

 Discuss enough transaction types to account for 98%-99% of the transaction the system is
expected to process.
 Discuss paths through flows in functional rather than technical terms.
 Ask the designers to relate every flow to the specification and to show how that
transaction, directly or indirectly, follows from the requirements.

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o Make transaction flow testing the corner stone of system functional testing just as path testing is
the corner stone of unit testing.
o Select additional flow paths for loops, extreme values, and domain boundaries.
o Design more test cases to validate all births and deaths.
o Publish and distribute the selected test paths through the transaction flows as early as possible so
that they will exert the maximum beneficial effect on the project.

 PATH SELECTION:

o Select a set of covering paths (c1+c2) using the analogous criteria you used for structural path
testing.
o Select a covering set of paths based on functionally sensible transactions as you would for
control flow graphs.
o Try to find the most tortuous, longest, strangest path from the entry to the exit of the transaction
flow.

 PATH SENSITIZATION:

o Most of the normal paths are very easy to sensitize-80% - 95% transaction flow coverage (c1+c2)
is usually easy to achieve.
o The remaining small percentage is often very difficult.
o Sensitization is the act of defining the transaction. If there are sensitization problems on the easy
paths, then bet on either a bug in transaction flows or a design bug.

 PATH INSTRUMENTATION:

o Instrumentation plays a bigger role in transaction flow testing than in unit path testing.
o The information of the path taken for a given transaction must be kept with that transaction and
can be recorded by a central transaction dispatcher or by the individual processing modules.
o In some systems, such traces are provided by the operating systems or a running log.

28. Describe transaction flow model with an example.

TRANSACTION FLOW GRAPHS:

 Transaction flows are introduced as a representation of a system's processing.

 The methods that were applied to control flow graphs are then used for functional testing.
 Transaction flows and transaction flow testing are to the independent system tester what control flows
are path testing are to the programmer.
 The transaction flow graph is to create a behavioral model of the program that leads to functional testing.
 The transaction flowgraph is a model of the structure of the system's behavior (functionality).
 An example of a Transaction Flow is as follows:

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29. How do you implement transaction based system

30. Write the applications of data-flow testing.
As per studies defects identified by executing 90% “data coverage” is twice as compared to bugs detected
by 90% branch coverage.
The process flow testing is found effective, even when it is not supported by automation.
It requires extra record keeping; tracking the variables status. The computers help easy tracking of these variables
and hence reducing the testing efforts considerably. Data flow testing tools can also be integrated into compilers.

Unit 4:
SHORT
31. Explain in detail about path products and path expression. (Assignment)
Path Products

 Normally flow graphs used to denote only control flow connectivity.

 The simplest weight we can give to a link is a name.
 Using link names as weights, we then convert the graphical flow graph into an equivalent algebraic like
expressions which denotes the set of all possible paths from entry to exit for the flow graph.
 Every link of a graph can be given a name.
 The link name will be denoted by lower case italic letters.
 In tracing a path or path segment through a flow graph, you traverse a succession of link names.
 The name of the path or path segment that corresponds to those links is expressed naturally by
concatenating those link names.

Consider a pair of nodes in a graph and the set of paths between those node.

Denote that set of paths by Upper case letter such as X,Y. From Figure 5.1c, the members of the path set can be
listed as follows:

ac, abc, abbc, abbbc, abbbbc.............

Alternatively, the same set of paths can be denoted by :

ac+abc+abbc+abbbc+abbbbc+...........
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The + sign is understood to mean "or" between the two nodes of interest, paths ac, or abc, or abbc, and so on
can be taken.

Any expression that consists of path names and "OR"s and which denotes a set of paths between two nodes is
called a "Path Expression.".

32. What is regular expression? Explain its role in flow anomalydetection.

Flow-Anomaly:
The generic flow-anomaly detection problem is that of looking for a specific sequence of options considering all
possible paths through a routine are some more application examples
1. A file can be opened (o), closed (c), read (r), or written (w). If the file is read or written to after it’s been
closed, the sequence is nonsensical. Therefore, cr and cw are anomalous. Similarly, if the file is read before it’s
been written, just after opening, we may have a bug. Therefore, or is also anomalous. Furthermore, oo and cc,
though not actual bugs, are a waste of time and therefore should also be examined.

2. A tape transport can do a rewind (d), fast-forward (f), read (r), write (w), stop (p), and skip (k). There are
rules concerning the use of the transport; for example, you cannot go from rewind to fast-forward without an
intervening stop or from rewind or fast-forward to read or write without an intervening stop. The following
sequences are anomalous: df, dr, dw, fd, and fr. Does the flowgraph lead to anomalous sequences on any path? If
so, what sequences and under what circumstances?

33. Discuss about logic based testing.

Logic-based testers design tests from logical expressions that appear in software artifacts such as source code,
design models, and requirements specifications. This paper presents three improvements to logic-based test design.
34. Explain about KV charts and describe function of single variable.

INTRODUCTION:

If you had to deal with expressions in four, five, or six variables, you could get bogged down in the algebra and
make as many errors in designing test cases as there are bugs in the routine you're testing.

Karnaugh-Veitch chart reduces boolean algebraic manipulations to graphical trivia.

Beyond six variables these diagrams get cumbersome and may not be effective.

SINGLE VARIABLE:

The charts show all possible truth values that the variable A can have.

A "1" means the variable’s value is "1" or TRUE. A "0" means that the variable's value is 0 or FALSE.

The entry in the box (0 or 1) specifies whether the function that the chart represents is true or false for that value
of the variable.

We usually do not explicitly put in 0 entries but specify only the conditions under which the function is true.

35. Write the applications of path expressions.

The purpose of the node removal algorithm is to present one very generalized concept- the path expression and
way of getting it.

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Every application follows this common pattern:

 Convert the program or graph into a path expression.

 Identify a property of interest and derive an appropriate set of "arithmetic" rules that characterizes the
property.
 Replace the link names by the link weights for the property of interest. The path expression has now been
converted to an expression in some algebra, such as ordinary algebra, regular expressions, or boolean
algebra. This algebraic expression summarizes the property of interest over the set of all paths.
 Simplify or evaluate the resulting "algebraic" expression to answer the question you asked

LONG
36. Describe reduction procedure algorithm with an example. (Assignment)

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37. Explain about maximum path count algorithm. (Assignment)

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38. What are decision tables? Explain with an example.

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39. Write Short Note on: i) Distributive Laws ii)Absorption Rule

40. Describe KV charts for two variables and three variables. (Assignment)

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Unit 5:
SHORT
41. What is state graph? And give an example.

42. What is state testing? Write the principles of state testing.

State Transition Testing is a black box testing technique in which changes made in input conditions cause state
changes or output changes in the Application under Test(AUT). State transition testing helps to analyze behaviour
of an application for different input conditions. Testers can provide positive and negative input test values and
record the system behavior.
It is the model on which the system and the tests are based. Any system where you get a different output for the
same input, depending on what has happened before, is a finite state system.

State Transition Testing Technique is helpful where you need to test different system transitions.

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43. Write the matrix of a graph with an example.

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44. Explain in detail about powers of matrix.

45. Write a Short note on testing building tools.

https://www.javatpoint.com/software-testing-tools

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LONG
46. Explain about good and bad state graphs in detail.

47. Discuss Path Sums and Path Product.

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48. Describe node reduction algorithm with example.

49. Discuss J Meter Testing Tool.

https://www.guru99.com/introduction-to-jmeter.html

50. Write short Case Study on Win Runner testing tool.

https://www.wisdomjobs.com/e-university/testing-tools-tutorial-239/testing-an-application-
using-winrunner-14435.html

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