International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology

Vol-10, Issue-3; May-Jun, 2025

Peer-Reviewed International Journal
Journal Home Page Available: https://ijeab.com/
Journal DOI: 10.22161/ijeab

Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected

Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in Northeastern Nigeria.
Aisha Mustapha1, Umar Aminu Muhammad1, Ahmad Abdul Hameed2
1Department of Biology, Federal University of Health Sciences, Azare, Bauchi State, Nigeria
2Department of Applied Ecology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Bauchi State, Nigeria

Received: 22 May 2025; Received in revised form: 19 Jun 2025; Accepted: 25 Jun 2025; Available online: 30 Jun 2025
©2025 The Author(s). Published by Infogain Publication. This is an open-access article under the CC BY license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract— The increasing adoption of chemical pesticides in sub‑Saharan Africa has raised concerns
among farmers about potential phytotoxic effects on staple crops. This study evaluated the impact of four
commonly used products; Butaforce (butachlor), Glyweli (glyphosate), Kombat (lambda‑cyhalothrin) and
Weed Crusher (paraquat) on seed germination and early seedling growth (plumule and radicle) of cowpea
(Phaseolus vulgaris), maize (Zea mays), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), rice (Oryza sativa) and
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Seeds were exposed to three concentrations (1.25, 2.5 and 5.0 ml L⁻¹) of each
pesticide, with water‑treated seeds serving as control. Data were subjected to one‑way ANOVA at 5%
significance level. Results showed that Kombat caused no significant reduction in germination or seedling
growth; at 2.5 ml L⁻¹ it even enhanced plumule and radicle elongation in cowpea, and at 5.0 ml L⁻¹ further
stimulated radicle growth relative to control. In contrast, Weed Crusher exerted the strongest inhibitory
effect on both germination percentage and plumule/radicle development across all species. Butaforce and
Glyweli also suppressed germination at higher concentrations, though to a lesser extent than Weed
Crusher. These findings demonstrate that pesticide effects are both compound‑specific and
dose‑dependent. Farmers are advised to integrate pesticide application within an integrated pest
management framework to optimize crop productivity and environmental sustainability. Farmers can also
integrate biocontrol agents into their crop protection strategies to reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides
and mitigate phytotoxic risks.
Keywords— Pesticide, Cereal, Legume, Germination

I. INTRODUCTION cultivating diverse grain species supports sustainable

Food grains, often referred to as staple crops, play a agricultural systems by enhancing soil health, reducing
pivotal role in global diets, serving as primary sources of erosion, and minimizing dependence on chemical
carbohydrates, proteins, and other essential nutrients. fertilizers (3).
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization Crop production faces significant threats from a variety of
(FAO), grains contribute more than 50% of the world's biotic stressors, including insect pests, pathogenic fungi,
caloric intake (1). Common examples include rice, wheat, viruses, and weeds. To mitigate these threats, both organic
maize, barley, and oats, each offering distinct nutritional and synthetic pesticides are commonly applied in
benefits; rice as a key energy source and wheat providing agricultural systems. These chemical agents, comprising
significant protein content. Sorghum and millet are high fungicides, herbicides, nematicides, molluscicides,
energy food sources and legumes like cowpea and germicides, and antimicrobial compounds are widely used
Bambara groundnut are essential protein sources (2) to safeguard crops (4). The global intensification of
Beyond their nutritional value, grains are integral to global agricultural practices, particularly in developing countries,
food security due to their storability, enabling sustained has led to a marked increase in pesticide usage. Over the
food supplies during periods of scarcity (1). Additionally, past decade, pesticide usage has risen by an estimated
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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

153% increase in low-income countries (5). While many pesticides on key agricultural crops, particularly during
developed nations have banned the use of certain toxic and early developmental stages such as germination. This
environmentally persistent pesticides, such substances study investigates the effects of selected pesticides on the
remain in circulation in countries like Nigeria, where germination of cowpea and cereals widely cultivated in
regulatory enforcement is less stringent (6). In Northern Northeastern Nigeria, with the aim of informing safer and
Nigeria, the influx of newly introduced pesticides, often more sustainable pest management practices.
lacking clear labeling and chemical composition disclosure II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
especially concerning heavy metal content raises
Study Area
substantial concerns (7). Investigations have revealed that
many pesticides in the region, although not officially This study was conducted at Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
banned by Nigeria’s National Agency for Food and Drug University, Bauchi, Nigeria (Latitude: 10.2791° N,
Administration and Control (NAFDAC), contain Longitude: 9.7939° E). The university is located within the
hazardous elements such as Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Cr (8, 9). Bauchi metropolis, which serves as the administrative
capital of Bauchi State in northeastern Nigeria. Bauchi lies
Synthetic pesticides are now deeply embedded in modern
on the northern edge of the Jos Plateau at an elevation of
agricultural systems, particularly for the protection of
approximately 616 meters above sea level. The city covers
vegetables and other high-value crops. While effective
an area of 3,687 km² and had a population of 493,810
against pests and diseases, their widespread application
according to the 2006 census.
has raised significant environmental and health concerns.
These chemicals are associated with the development of Sample Collection
pest resistance, biodiversity loss, pollution, and potential Five crop species; Phaseolus vulgaris (black-eyed
harm to human and animal health (10). Importantly, their cowpea), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Oryza sativa
toxic effects are not limited to target organisms. Emerging (Faro 44 rice), Zea mays (maize), and Sorghum bicolor
evidence suggests that synthetic pesticides can adversely (red sorghum) were procured from Muda Lawal Market in
affect non-target species, including crops, by disrupting Bauchi metropolis. Samples were randomly collected from
growth, reproduction, and physiological functions (11). various vendors to ensure representativeness. The seeds
Studies have reported that pesticide exposure can impair were sorted by species, stored in polythene bags, and
pollen viability (12), interfere with plant reproductive transported to the Ecology Laboratory at Abubakar Tafawa
processes (13), hinder plant growth and yield (14), reduce Balewa University for subsequent preparation and
germination rates (15) and alter morphological and treatment.
physiological traits (15, 16, 17). In particular, excessive
Pesticide Treatments
use of fungicides has been linked to physiological
disorders in plants (16), underscoring the potential for Four commonly used pesticides were selected for the
pesticides to negatively influence early plant development experiment; one insecticide (Kombat, containing Lambda-
stages, such as germination. cyhalothrin) and three herbicides (Butaforce [Butachlor],
Glyweli [Glyphosate], and Weed Crusher [Paraquat]).
The accumulation of pesticide residues and heavy metals
Each pesticide was prepared in three different
in agricultural ecosystems presents a growing threat to
concentrations: one at the manufacturer’s recommended
food safety and environmental health. These contaminants
dose (medium concentration), one below, and one above
are known to persist in food products and can enter the
the recommended dose.
food chain through biomagnification, posing risks to both
consumers and farmers (17). Heavy metals, in particular, The concentrations were prepared as follows:
are recognized as potent abiotic stressors, toxic to plants, • Butaforce (Butachlor)
animals, and humans alike (18, 19). Alarmingly, it is
o Low: 4.69 mL/L (4.7 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
estimated that only about 1% of applied pesticides reach
their intended targets, with the remaining 99% dispersing o Medium: 9.38 mL/L (9.4 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
into the environment, contributing to environmental o High: 18.75 mL/L (18.8 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
degradation (20). This inefficiency results in widespread • Glyweli (Glyphosate)
contamination of soil and water resources, disruption of
beneficial soil microbiota, and long-term ecological o Low: 9.38 mL/L (9.4 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
consequences (21, 22). o Medium: 18.75 mL/L (18.8 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
In light of these challenges, there is a pressing need to o High: 25.00 mL/L (25.0 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
evaluate the unintended effects of commonly used
ISSN: 2456-1878 (Int. J. Environ. Agric. Biotech.)
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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

• Kombat (Lambda-cyhalothrin) rising concentrations. The control group recorded the

o Low: 1.25 mL/L (1.3 × 10⁻³ mL/mL) highest germination percentage and the longest plumule
and radicle lengths across all treatments. At the lowest
o Medium: 2.50 mL/L (2.5 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
concentration of Butaforce (4.69 mL/L), Z. mays achieved
o High: 5.00 mL/L (5.0 × 10⁻³ mL/mL) 20% germination with a plumule length of 5.70 cm and a
• Weed Crusher (Paraquat) radicle length of 9.20 cm. At the intermediate
concentration (9.38 mL/L), germination increased to 76%,
o Low: 4.69 mL/L (4.7 × 10⁻³ mL/mL)
but both plumule and radicle lengths decreased to 3.40 cm
o Medium: 9.38 mL/L (9.4 × 10⁻³ mL/mL) and 2.56 cm, respectively. No germination was observed at
o High: 18.75 mL/L (18.8 × 10⁻³ mL/mL) the highest concentration (18.75 mL/L). Glyweli-treated
seeds showed 58% germination at 9.38 mL/L with 0.82 cm
Each of the five crop species was treated with all three
plumule and 0.46 cm radicle. Increasing the concentration
concentrations of the four pesticides in a completely
to 18.75 mL/L and 25.00 mL/L reduced germination to
randomized block design (RCBD). Treatments were
56% and 44%, respectively, with further reductions in
replicated five times (pentaplicates), with each replicate
plumule and radicle lengths. For Kombat treatments, the
consisting of five seeds, resulting in a total of 600 Petri
lowest concentration (1.25 mL/L) resulted in 60%
dishes and 3,000 seeds.
germination, with plumule and radicle lengths of 4.22 cm
Germination Assay and 7.62 cm, respectively. Germination increased to 72%
Seeds were surface-sterilized in 5% sodium hypochlorite at both 2.50 mL/L and 5.00 mL/L, with corresponding
(NaOCl) for 10 minutes and subsequently rinsed five times plumule lengths of 4.74 cm and 5.06 cm and radicle
with sterile distilled water. Five uniform seeds were placed lengths of 5.54 cm and 5.80 cm. In Weed Crusher
in each 110 × 20 mm Petri dish lined with Whatman No. 3 treatments, 4.69 mL/L yielded 24% germination, with 0.62
filter paper. For treatment dishes, 10 mL of the prepared cm plumule and 0.82 cm radicle. At 9.38 mL/L,
pesticide solution was added, while control dishes received germination dropped to 20%, with further stunting of
10 mL of distilled water. All Petri dishes were sealed with growth (0.36 cm plumule and 0.24 cm radicle). Complete
parafilm to prevent moisture loss and incubated in the dark inhibition of growth was observed at 18.75 mL/L.
at room temperature for five days. Similarly, Phaseolus vulgaris demonstrated declining
Data Collection and Analysis germination rates and stunted plumule and radicle growth
At the end of the incubation period, germination with increasing concentrations of Butaforce, Glyweli, and
percentage, mean germination time (MGT), mean Weed Crusher (TABLE 2). The control group consistently
germination rate (MGR), plumule length, and radicle exhibited the highest values across all parameters, except
length were measured. One-way Analysis of Variance in the Kombat treatment seeds. When treated with 4.69
(ANOVA) was conducted using Minitab software to assess mL/L of Butaforce, P. vulgaris showed a germination rate
the statistical significance of differences between of 20%, no plumule development, and a radicle length of
treatment groups and controls for each measured 1.82 cm. No germination occurred at higher concentrations
parameter. (9.38 and 18.75 mL/L). In Glyweli treatments, the lowest
concentration (9.38 mL/L) resulted in 40% germination
with no plumule growth and 1.66 cm radicle. The higher
III. RESULTS concentrations yielded no plumule growth, with radicle
The effect of four different pesticides treatments on lengths of 1.70 cm (18.75 mL/L) and 1.26 cm (25.00
germination and seedling growth of Zea mays, Phaseolus mL/L). Kombat treatment had a contrasting trend. The
vulgaris, Pennisetum glaucum, Oryza Sativa and Sorghum highest concentration (5.00 mL/L) recorded the highest
bicolor were evaluated. germination rate (40%), along with 2.04 cm plumule and
3.76 cm radicle lengths. The lower concentrations (1.25
The germination rate of Zea mays exhibited a general
and 2.50 mL/L) yielded lower germination but showed
decline with increasing concentrations of the tested agro-
varying plumule and radicle lengths. Notably, the middle
pesticides (TABLE 1). Treatments with Butaforce
concentration (2.50 mL/L) produced the longest plumule
(butachlor), Glyweli (glyphosate), and Weed Crusher
(2.50 cm) but had the lowest germination rate among the
(paraquat) resulted in a concentration-dependent reduction
Kombat-treated groups. Treatments with Weed Crusher
in germination percentage, plumule, and radicle lengths.
completely inhibited germination in P. vulgaris, with no
Conversely, seeds treated with Kombat (lambda-
observable plumule or radicle development. Overall,
cyhalothrin) showed an increase in plumule length with

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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

pesticide exposure led to significant inhibition of respectively. At the highest concentration (5.00 mL/L),
germination and early seedling growth in both Zea mays germination peaked at 84%, with a plumule length of
and Phaseolus vulgaris, with the exception of Kombat, 10.68 cm, although radicle length declined to 0.76 cm. All
which had comparatively less phytotoxic effects, concentrations of Weed Crusher completely inhibited seed
particularly on P. vulgaris. germination. Overall, plumule and radicle development in
A general trend of decreasing germination was observed O. sativa were markedly reduced across most treatments,
with increasing pesticide concentration in Pennisetum with partial exception for radicles in the lower
glaucum (TABLE 3). Treatments with Butaforce, Glyweli, concentrations of Kombat.
and Weed Crusher showed a steady reduction in In Sorghum bicolor (TABLE 5), the effects of pesticide
germination percentage, plumule, and radicle lengths. concentration on germination and seedling growth are
Conversely, Kombat treated seeds exhibited an increase in detailed in TABLE 5. A concentration-dependent decrease
growth metrics with rising concentrations. The control in germination was evident across all treatments except
group displayed 100% germination and the greatest Kombat. The control consistently exhibited the highest
plumule and radicle development. At 4.69 mL/L of values for all parameters. At 4.69 mL/L of Butaforce, S.
Butaforce, 92% germination was recorded, accompanied bicolor achieved 72% germination with 0.62 cm plumule
by 0.40 cm plumule and radicle lengths. This dropped to and 0.52 cm radicle lengths. These values declined to 48%
22% germination at 9.38 mL/L, with both plumule and (0.48 cm plumule, 0.30 cm radicle) at 9.38 mL/L and
radicle reduced to 0.10 cm. Complete inhibition of further to 20% at 18.75 mL/L, with only 0.04 cm growth
germination was observed at 18.75 mL/L. in both parameters. In Glyweli treatments, a germination
Glyweli treatments showed a gradual decline: at 9.38 rate of 92% was observed at 9.38 mL/L with 0.20 cm
mL/L, germination was 40%, with 0.32 cm plumule and plumule and radicle, dropping to 76% at 18.75 mL/L and
0.24 cm radicle. At 18.75 mL/L, germination fell to 36% 64% at 25.00 mL/L, both with constant growth values of
(0.24 cm plumule, 0.20 cm radicle), and further declined to 0.20 cm. Interestingly, the 25.00 mL/L treatment recorded
32% at 25.00 mL/L with reduced growth (0.12 cm higher germination than 18.75 mL/L. Kombat-treated
plumule, 0.14 cm radicle). In contrast, Kombat-treated seeds consistently maintained high germination rates: 92%
seeds showed relatively improved responses. At 1.25 at both 1.25 and 5.00 mL/L and 88% at 2.50 mL/L.
mL/L, germination was 68%, with 0.66 cm plumule and Plumule and radicle lengths were 3.46 cm and 6.24 cm
3.20 cm radicle. This increased to 80% at 2.50 mL/L, with (1.25 mL/L), 2.98 cm and 5.36 cm (2.50 mL/L), and 2.72
0.92 cm plumule and 5.00 cm radicle. Although cm and 4.82 cm (5.00 mL/L), respectively.
germination dropped to 52% at 5.00 mL/L, plumule length Weed Crusher treatments significantly suppressed growth.
reached 1.18 cm, while radicle measured 2.92 cm. At 4.69 mL/L, germination was 60% with 0.22 cm
Notably, 2.50 mL/L produced the highest germination and plumule and 0.16 cm radicle. Germination declined
longest radicle growth. Weed Crusher completely inhibited sharply to 20% at 9.38 mL/L (0.08 cm plumule and
germination at all tested concentrations. Overall, both radicle), with no growth observed at 18.75 mL/L. Overall,
plumule and radicle development were significantly plumule and radicle growth were markedly reduced in all
stunted across treatments, except for radicles treated with treatments, except for the radicles of S. bicolor exposed to
Kombat. Kombat, which retained considerable growth across
For Oryza sativa (TABLE 4), germination rates declined concentrations.
with increasing concentrations of all pesticides tested. The
highest values across all growth parameters were recorded IV. DISCUSSION
in the control group. Exposure to 4.69 mL/L of Butaforce
Pesticides, including herbicides, insecticides, and
resulted in 20% germination, with 0.10 cm plumule and
fungicides, are extensively utilized in agricultural systems
radicle lengths. No germination occurred at higher
to manage pests and enhance crop productivity. However,
concentrations (9.38 and 18.75 mL/L). Glyweli treatments
improper application or excessive concentrations can
yielded 48% germination at 9.38 mL/L (0.18 cm for both
adversely affect seed germination and early seedling
plumule and radicle), decreasing to 36% at 18.75 mL/L
development. Several studies have demonstrated that
(0.10 cm plumule and radicle) and 24% at 25.00 mL/L
certain pesticides disrupt enzymatic activity, alter
with no further reduction in growth. Kombat exposure
hormonal signaling, and negatively impact soil microbial
showed a positive trend: both 1.25 mL/L and 2.50 mL/L
communities, collectively impairing germination and
resulted in 76% germination, with plumule and radicle
seedling vigor.
lengths of 0.62 cm/1.90 cm and 0.60 cm/1.50 cm,
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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

The findings of this study indicate that pesticide exposure due to interference with cell division and elongation
significantly influences the germination and early growth processes. This is consistent with previous studies in
of Zea mays, with the extent of phytotoxicity varying by Triticum aestivum, where butachlor exposure resulted in
pesticide type and concentration. Among the tested chromosomal aberrations and a reduced mitotic index (30).
agrochemicals, Butaforce (butachlor) and Weed Crusher While Glyweli exhibited moderate toxicity, Kombat
(paraquat) exhibited the highest toxicity, completely treatment led to better germination and growth
inhibiting germination at their maximum concentrations. performance, even at elevated concentrations, suggesting
In contrast, Kombat (lambda-cyhalothrin) had that lambda- cyhalothrin may be less phytotoxic to P.
comparatively milder effects, resulting in only moderate glaucum. Weed Crusher, however, demonstrated complete
reductions in germination and seedling growth. Notably, inhibition of seedling development.
reductions in both plumule and radicle length across Oryza sativa showed substantial susceptibility to
treatments underscore the detrimental effects of pesticide Butaforce and Weed Crusher, with both herbicides
stress on seedling vigor, with radicle inhibition particularly markedly suppressing germination at all concentrations.
severe in treatments with Glyweli (glyphosate) and Weed Butaforce completely inhibited germination at higher
Crusher. These results are consistent with previous concentrations, indicative of disruption to key cellular
findings where pesticides such as chlorantraniliprole mechanisms such as mitosis and elongation. Glyweli
significantly reduced coleoptile and radicle length in maize exerted less severe effects, with partial reductions in
seedlings in Turkey (23). Similarly, fungicide exposure germination and growth, while Kombat exhibited minimal
has been associated with impaired germination and phytotoxicity. Notably, the highest Kombat concentration
biomass accumulation in Cicer arietinum and Zea mays in was associated with the greatest germination rate and
India (24). plumule length, further supporting potential growth-
In Phaseolus vulgaris, herbicidal stress led to pronounced promoting effects of lambda-cyhalothrin at sublethal
inhibition of both germination and seedling growth, doses. In contrast, Weed Crusher caused complete
especially under exposure to Butaforce and Weed Crusher. inhibition at all tested concentrations. Paraquat is known to
Complete inhibition at higher concentrations suggests induce reductions in chlorophyll content and early seedling
interference with critical physiological processes such as mortality in rice according to a research conducted in
enzymatic activity and hormonal regulation during Mississippi (31).
germination. This inhibition of germination observed in Pennisetum glaucum responded variably to pesticide
this study aligns with reports of oxidative stress and exposure, with Butaforce and Weed Crusher causing the
reduced chlorophyll content in P. vulgaris following most significant suppression of germination and growth.
herbicide application (25). Interestingly, selective Butaforce exhibited concentration dependent toxicity,
inhibition of plumule elongation, even when radicle markedly reducing both plumule and radicle elongation.
growth persisted (as observed with low concentrations of This result aligns with previous reports linking herbicidal
Butaforce and Glyweli), indicates differential tissue phytotoxicity to the disruption of metabolic pathways
sensitivity to chemical stressors. Kombat treatments essential for seedling development (30). Although Glyweli
resulted in minimal adverse effects, with some had less pronounced effects on germination, it inhibited
concentrations even promoting radicle elongation growth of plumule and radicle particularly at higher
compared to the control. This aligns with earlier studies concentrations. Kombat (lambda-cyhalothrin) had little
indicating stimulatory effects of lambda-cyhalothrin on toxicity even at higher concentrations. While specific
plant growth, including enhanced root development in rice studies on lambda-cyhalothrin’s phytotoxicity on
(26) and cowpea (27). Contrastingly, other studies in Pennisetum glaucum are limited, its comparatively lower
Pakistan have shown that lambda-cyhalothrin can affect impact suggests its possibility to be less toxic to plants or
seed germination and seedling growth in tomato plants, more suited to the crop’s physiology. Weed Crusher
especially at higher concentrations (28). Another study (paraquat) exhibited complete inhibition of seedling
conducted in Nigeria have also shown that at low development, indicating strong phytotoxic effects.
concentrations, cypermethrin can stimulate radicle growth According to a study in Algeria, paraquat is known to
in cowpea (29). induce oxidative stress in plants, leading to diminished
Butaforce and Weed Crusher caused the most pronounced chlorophyll content and reduced shoot and root biomass,
reductions in germination and seedling growth, as observed in fenugreek seedlings (32).
particularly at higher concentrations. Butaforce completely Growth of Sorghum bicolor was significantly stunted in
inhibited seedling growth at its highest tested level, likely across all pesticide treaments except for the radicle growth
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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

in plants treated with kombat (lambda-cyhalothrin). specific, with herbicides generally exerting more
Similar inhibitory effects were observed in other studies detrimental effects than insecticides. While some
where glyphosate and paraquat treatments resulted in agrochemicals such as lambda-cyhalothrin may exhibit
significantly reduced growth of Sorghum bicolor (17). A growth-promoting effects at low concentrations, others
study conducted in Ghana reported that high such as paraquat and butachlor are consistently associated
concentrations DDT and lambda-cyhalothrin significantly with severe inhibition of early plant development. These
reduced seed germination rate and seedling vigor in findings underscore the importance of carefully selecting
vegetables (33). and managing pesticide application to minimize ecological
Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that pesticide harm and ensure optimal crop establishment.
induced phytotoxicity is both species and compound-
Table 1. Seed germination and mean plumule and radicle growth of Zea mays exposed to pesticides after 5 days.
Concentration (ml/L) Germination (%) MGT (days) MGR Mean ± SD (cm) Plumule Radicle
Control 88 2.14 0.47 5.70 ± 1.56ᵅ 9.20 ± 2.62ᵅ
4.69 Butaforce 76 2.84 0.35 3.40 ± 1.74ᵅᵇ 2.56 ± 0.66ᶜᵈ
9.38 Butaforce 36 2 0.5 2.92 ± 2.12ᵇᶜ 2.04 ± 1.26ᵈ
18.75 Butaforce 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
9.38 Glyweli 44 2.36 0.42 0.82 ± 0.19ᶜᵈ 0.46 ± 0.21ᵈ
18.75 Glyweli 56 2.14 0.47 0.76 ± 0.37ᶜᵈ 0.40 ± 0.10ᵈ
25 Glyweli 56 2.64 0.38 0.66 ± 0.15ᶜᵈ 0.38 ± 0.08ᵈ
1.25 Kombat 60 2.44 0.41 4.22 ± 1.02ᵅᵇ 7.62 ± 1.15ᵅᵇ
2.5 Kombat 72 2.11 0.47 4.74 ± 0.96ᵅᵇ 5.54 ± 1.36ᵇᶜ
5 Kombat 72 2.33 0.43 5.06 ± 0.56ᵅᵇ 5.80 ± 1.02ᵇᶜ
4.69 Weed Crusher 24 2.17 0.46 0.62 ± 0.44ᶜᵈ 0.82 ± 0.59ᵈ
9.38 Weed Crusher 20 3.4 0.29 0.36 ± 0.21ᵈ 0.24 ± 0.22ᵈ
18.75WeedCrusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
Means in the same column that do not share a letter are significantly different at P≤0.05
Table 2. Seed germination and mean plumule and radicle growth of Phaseolus vulgaris exposed to pesticides after 5 days.
Concentration (ml/L) Germination (%) MGT (days) MGR Mean ± SD (cm) Plumule Radicle
Control 65 3.69 0.27 2.20 ± 0.93ᵅ 3.32 ± 1.06ᵅᵇ
4.69 Butaforce 20 2 0.5 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 1.82 ± 1.09ᵇᶜᵈ
9.38 Butaforce 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
18.75 Butaforce 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
9.38 Glyweli 40 2 0.5 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 1.66 ± 0.40ᵇᶜᵈ
18.75 Glyweli 36 2 0.5 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 1.70 ± 0.48ᵇᶜᵈ
25 Glyweli 26 2 0.5 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 1.26 ± 0.46ᶜᵈ
1.25 Kombat 36 2.33 0.43 1.72 ± 0.98ᵅ 2.50 ± 0.59ᵅᵇᶜ
2.5 Kombat 32 2 0.5 2.50 ± 1.57ᵅ 3.36 ± 0.62ᵅᵇ
5 Kombat 40 2 0.5 2.04 ± 1.16ᵅ 3.76 ± 1.88ᵅ
4.69 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
9.38 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
18.75 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
Means in the same column that do not share a letter are significantly different at P≤0.05

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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

Table 3. Seed germination and mean plumule and radicle growth of Pennisetum glaucum exposed to pesticides after 5 days.
Concentration (ml/L) Germination (%) MGT (days) MGR Mean ± SD (cm) Plumule Radicle
Control 96 2.21 0.45 3.36 ± 0.80ᵅ 5.10 ± 1.47ᵅ
4.69 Butaforce 88 4.41 0.23 0.26 ± 0.09ᵇᶜ 0.26 ± 0.09ᵇᶜ
9.38 Butaforce 20 5 0.2 0.10 ± 0.00ᵇᶜ 0.10 ± 0.00ᶜ
18.75 Butaforce 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ
9.38 Glyweli 64 2.38 0.42 0.30 ± 0.10ᵇᶜ 0.36 ± 0.05ᵇᶜ
18.75 Glyweli 56 2.29 0.44 0.26 ± 0.05ᵇᶜ 0.26 ± 0.05ᵇᶜ
25 Glyweli 52 2.54 0.39 0.26 ± 0.09ᵇᶜ 0.26 ± 0.05ᵇᶜ
1.25 Kombat 76 2.32 0.43 1.00 ± 0.26ᵇ 4.60 ± 1.19ᵅ
2.5 Kombat 64 2.38 0.42 0.74 ± 0.27ᵇᶜ 5.20 ± 0.86ᵅ
5 Kombat 68 3 0.33 0.76bc ± 0.27ᵇᶜ 2.24 ± 1.55ᵇ
4.69 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ
9.38 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ
18.75 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ
Means in the same column that do not share a letter are significantly different at P≤0.05
Table 4. Seed germination and mean plumule and radicle growth of Oryza sativa exposed to pesticides after 5 days.
Concentration (ml/L) Germination (%) MGT (days) MGR Mean ± SD (cm) Plumule Radicle
Control 96 3.17 0.32 1.58 ± 0.67ᵅ 2.44 ± 1.09ᵅ
4.69 Butaforce 20 5 0.2 0.10 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.10 ± 0.00ᵈ
9.38 Butaforce 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
18.75 Butaforce 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
9.38 Glyweli 48 4.17 0.24 0.18 ± 0.04ᵇ 0.18 ± 0.04ᶜᵈ
18.75 Glyweli 36 5 0.2 0.10 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.10 ± 0.00ᵈ
25 Glyweli 24 5 0.2 0.10 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.10 ± 0.00ᵈ
1.25 Kombat 76 3.63 0.28 0.62 ± 0.28ᵇ 1.90 ± 0.64ᵅᵇ
2.5 Kombat 76 3.84 0.26 0.60 ± 0.24ᵇ 1.50abc ± 0.90ᵅᵇᶜ
5 Kombat 84 3.57 0.28 0.68 ± 0.24ᵇ 0.76 ± 0.18ᵇᶜᵈ
4.69 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
9.38 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
18.75 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵈ
Means in the same column that do not share a letter are significantly different at P≤0.05
Table 5. Seed germination and mean plumule and radicle growth of Sorghum bicolor exposed to pesticides after 5 days.
Concentration (ml/L) Germination(%) MGT (days) MGR Mean ± SD (cm) Plumule Radicle
Control 92 2 0.5 5.86 ± 0.98ᵅ 6.82 ± 1.46ᵅ
4.69 Butaforce 72 2.33 0.43 0.62 ± 0.37ᶜ 0.52 ± 0.19ᵇ
9.38 Butaforce 48 4.17 0.24 0.48 ± 0.23ᶜ 0.30 ± 0.10ᵇ
18.75 Butaforce 20 5 0.2 0.04 ± 0.05ᶜ 0.04 ± 0.06ᵇ
9.38 Glyweli 92 2.35 0.43 0.20 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.20 ± 0.00ᵇ
18.75 Glyweli 64 2 0.5 0.20 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.20 ± 0.00ᵇ

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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

25 Glyweli 76 2 0.5 0.20 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.20 ± 0.00ᵇ

1.25 Kombat 92 2.39 0.42 3.46 ± 0.83ᵇ 6.24 ± 0.96ᵅ
2.5 Kombat 88 2.91 0.34 2.98 ± 0.77ᵇ 5.36 ± 2.04ᵅ
5 Kombat 92 3.04 0.33 2.72 ± 0.96ᵇ 4.82 ± 2.21ᵅ
4.69 Weed Crusher 60 4.47 0.22 0.22 ± 0.16ᶜ 0.16 ± 0.06ᵇ
9.38 Weed Crusher 20 5 0.2 0.08 ± 0.04ᶜ 0.08 ± 0.05ᵇ
18.75 Weed Crusher 0 0 0 0.00 ± 0.00ᶜ 0.00 ± 0.00ᵇ
Means in the same column that do not share a letter are significantly different at P≤0.05.

Fig 3. Pennisetum glaucum treated with Butaforce,

Fig 1. Zea mays treated with Butaforce, Glyweli, Kombat Glyweli, Kombat and Weedcrusher from top to bottom
and Weedcrusher from top to bottom respectively respectively (increasing concentration from left to right)
(increasing concentration from left to right) with the with the solitary dish being the control.
solitary dish being the control

Fig 2. Phaseolus vulgaris treated with Butaforce, Glyweli,

Kombat and Weedcrusher from top to bottom respectively
(increasing concentration from left to right) with the Fig 4. Oryza sativa treated with Butaforce, Glyweli,
solitary dish being the control. Kombat and Weedcrusher from top to bottom respectively
(increasing concentration from left to right) with the
solitary dish being the control.

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Mustapha et al. Impact of Pesticide Exposure on Germination of Selected Legume and Cereal Crops Grown in
Northeastern Nigeria

Laboratory space was provided by the Department of

Ecology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi,
Nigeria.

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