Thermodynamic Cycles

Thermodynamic Cycles

• Air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary analyses

of IC engine cycles.

• Simplifications to the real cycle include:

1) Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
2) Combustion process not considered
3) Intake and exhaust processes not considered
4) Engine friction and heat losses not considered
5) Specific heats independent of temperature

• The two types of reciprocating engine cycles analyzed are:

1) Spark ignition – Otto cycle
2) Compression ignition – Diesel cycle

1
 SI Engine Cycle vs Thermodynamic Otto Cycle

FUEL
A
I Ignition
R

Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

Qin Qout

Air
Otto TC
Cycle
BC

Compression Const volume Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process

Actual SI Engine cycle

Ignition

TC BC

2
 Air-Standard Otto cycle

Process 1 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2  3 Constant volume heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection

Compression ratio:
v1 v 4
r 
v 2 v3
Qin

Qout

v2 v1
BC TC BC
TC

First Law Analysis of Otto Cycle

12 Isentropic Compression AIR

Q W
(u2  u1 )   ( in )
m m
Win
 (u 2  u1 )  cv (T2  T1 )
m
k 1
T2  v1  P2 T2 v1
   r k 1  
T1  v2  P1 T1 v2

23 Constant Volume Heat Addition

Qin W
(u 3  u 2 )  (  ) Qin
m m AIR
TC
Qin
 (u3  u 2 )  cv (T3  T2 )
m
P3 T3

P2 T2

3
3  4 Isentropic Expansion
Q W
(u 4  u 3 )   ( out ) AIR
m m
Wout
 (u3  u4 )  cv (T3  T4 )
m
k 1
T4  v3  1 P4 T4 v3
    
T3  v4  r k 1 P3 T3 v4

4  1 Constant Volume Heat Removal

Qout W
(u1  u4 )  ( )
m m AIR Qout
Qout
 (u 4  u1 )  cv (T4  T1 ) BC
m
P4 P1

T4 T1

First Law Analysis Parameters

Net cycle work:

Wcycle  Wout  Win  mu3  u4   mu2  u1 

Cycle thermal efficiency:

 th 
Wcycle

u3  u4   u2  u1   u3  u2   u4  u1   1  u4  u1
Qin u3  u2  u3  u 2 u3  u 2
cv (T4  T1 ) T 1
 1  1  1  1  k 1
cv (T3  T2 ) T2 r

Indicated mean effective pressure is:

Wcycle imep Qin  r  1  Qin / m  r 

imep     th    th
V1  V2 P1 P1V1  r  1  k  1 u1  r  1 

4
 Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

1
 th  1
const cV r k 1

Typical SI
engines
9 < r < 11

k = 1.4

• Spark ignition engine compression ratio limited by T3 (autoignition)

and P3 (material strength), both ~rk

• For r = 8 the efficiency is 56% which is twice the actual indicated value

Effect of Specific Heat Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

1
 th  1
const cV r k 1

Specific heat
ratio (k)

Cylinder temperatures vary between 20K and 2000K so 1.2 < k < 1.4
k = 1.3 most representative

5
 Factors Affecting Work per Cycle
The net cycle work of an engine can be increased by either:
i) Increasing the r (1’2)
ii) Increase Qin (23”)

3’’
Wcycle Qin  r 
P
imep    th
V1  V2 V1  r  1 
3 (ii)
4’’
Qin 4
Wcycle
4’
2
(i)

1
1’

V2 V1

Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency and MEP

imep Qin  r  1
  1  k 
P1 P1V1  r  1  r 

k = 1.3

6
 Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines

• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached TC
and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.

• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 15o)

Fuel injection starts

Fuel injection starts

Early CI engine Modern CI engine

• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated by

a constant pressure heat addition process  Diesel Cycle

• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated

by a combination of constant volume and constant pressure  Dual Cycle

Early CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle

Fuel injected
A
at TC
I
R

Air Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

Qin Qout

Air
Diesel
Cycle
BC

Compression Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process

7
 Air-Standard Diesel cycle

Process 1 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2  3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection

Cut-off ratio:
Qin
v3
rc 
v2

Qout

v2 v1
TC BC
TC BC

First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle

Equations for processes 12, 41 are the same as those presented
for the Otto cycle

23 Constant Pressure Heat Addition AIR

Qin
Q P V  V2 
(u3  u 2 )  ( in )  2 3
m m
Qin
 (u3  P3 v3 )  (u 2  P2 v 2 )
m
Qin
 ( h3  h2 )  c p (T3  T2 )
m

RT2 RT3 T v
P   3  3  rc
v2 v3 T2 v 2

8
 3  4 Isentropic Expansion
Q W
(u 4  u 3 )   ( out )
m m AIR

Wout
 (u3  u4 )  cv (T3  T4 )
m
v4 v4 v 2 v1 v2 r
note v4=v1 so     
v3 v2 v3 v 2 v3 rc

P4 v4 P3v3 P T r
  4  4 c
T4 T3 P3 T3 r

k 1 k 1
T4  v3  r 
   c
T3  v4  r

Thermal Efficiency

Qout m u u
 Diesel  1   1 4 1
cycle Qin m h3  h2

For cold air-standard the above reduces to:

 Diesel  1 

1  1 rck  1   Otto  1 
1
   recall,
const cV 
r k 1  k rc  1   r k 1

Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than one so for the
same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal efficiency
than the Otto cycle

Note: CI needs higher r compared to SI to ignite fuel

9
 Thermal Efficiency

Typical CI Engines
15 < r < 20

When rc (= v 3/v2)1 the Diesel cycle efficiency approaches the

efficiency of the Otto cycle

Higher efficiency is obtained by adding less heat per cycle, Qin,

 run engine at higher speed to get the same power.

The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent variable
a more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two are related by:
k  1  Qin  1
rc  1    as Qin 0, rc1
k  P1V1  r k 1

k = 1.3

k = 1.3

10
 Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle

Fuel injected
A at 15o bTC
I
R

Air Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

Qin Qin Qout

Air
Diesel TC
Cycle
BC

Compression Const volume Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process Process

Dual Cycle
Process 1  2 Isentropic compression
Process 2  2.5 Constant volume heat addition
Process 2.5  3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection

2.5 3 Qin
3

2 Qin
2.5

4
4 2

1
1 Qout

Qin
 (u 2.5  u 2 )  ( h3  h2.5 )  cv (T2.5  T2 )  c p (T3  T2.5 )
m

11
 Thermal Efficiency

Qout m u4  u1
 Dual  1  1
cycle Qin m (u2.5  u2 )  (h3  h2.5 )

1  rck  1 
 Dual  1 
const cv r  (  1)  k rc  1 
k 1 

v3 P3
where rc  and  
v2.5 P2

Note, the Otto cycle (rc=1) and the Diesel cycle (=1) are special cases:

1
 Diesel  1 

1  1 rck  1 
Otto  1    
r k 1
const cV
k 1

r  k rc  1  

The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either:

i) the fractions of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition
(common assumption is to equally split the heat addition), or
ii) maximum pressure P3.

Transformation of rc and  into more natural variables yields

k  1  Qin  1   1 1 P3
rc  1    k 1  
k  P1V1  r k  1  r k P1

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:
Otto   Dual   Diesel

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak pressure P3
(actual design limitation in engines):
 Diesel   Dual   otto

12
 For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 For the same inlet conditions P1, V1
and the same compression ratio P2/P1: and the same peak pressure P3:

Pmax
Pressure, P
Pressure, P

“x” →“2.5”

Qout Po
th  1 
Qin
Po
Specific Volume
1
Specific Volume  Tds
 1  43
2 Tds Tmax
tto
O al
Du
sel el
Temperature, T

Die Dies
Temperature, T

al
Du
to
Ot

Entropy Entropy

13
 Finite Heat Release Model

• In the Otto cycle it is assumed that heat is released instantaneously.

A finite heat release model specifies heat release as a function of crank
angle.

• The cumulative heat release or burn fraction xb is given by:

     n 
s
xb ( )  1  exp  a   0 < xb < 1
   d  

where  = crank angle

s = start of heat release
d = duration of heat release
n = form factor
Used to fit to experimental data
a = efficiency factor

Finite Heat Release

A typical heat release curve consists of an initial spark ignition phase,

followed by a rapid burning phase and ends with burning completion phase
.99

dQ  Qin dxb

The curve asymptotically approaches 1 so the end of combustion is defined

by an arbitrary limit, such as 90% or 99% complete combustion where
xb = 0.90 or 0.99 corresponding values for efficiency factor a are 2.3 and 4.6

The rate of heat release as a function of crank angle is:

n 1
dQ dx  na     s  
 Qin b  Qin  1  xb   
d d  d   d  

14
 Finite Heat Release Model
Applying First Law to the closed system containing the gas in the cylinder
for a small crank angle change, d ,

dU  Q  W
 PV 
assuming ideal gas dU  mcv dT  mcv d  
 mR 

cv
Q  PdV  PdV  VdP 
R
per unit crank angle

dQ dV cv  dV dP 
P  P V 
d d R  d d 

dP P dV k  1  dQ 
 k   
d V d V  d 

Finite Heat Release Model

The cylinder volume in terms of crank angle, V(), is

Vd Vd
V ( )  
r 1 2

R  1  cos   ( R 2  sin 2  )1 2 
Differentiating wrt 

dV Vd
d

 sin  1  cos  ( R 2  sin 2  ) 1 2
2

 2
where Vd  B S  displacement volume
4
r  compression ratio
2l
R
s

For the portion of the compression and expansion strokes with no heat
release, where  < s and  > s + d  dQ/d = 0

15
 Finite Heat Release Model Results

Start of heat release:

Engine 1 - 20o bTC
Engine 2 - TC

Duration 40o

Finite Heat Release Model Results

16