Chapter
Medicinal Plants and Its
Pharmacological Values
Smita G. Bhat
Abstract
Plants have been used as a source of medicine for the treatment of different
diseases from thousands of years ago. There is numerous evidences are available
for use of plants as a medicine in the treatment of diseases in Indian, Egyptian,
Chinese, Greek and Roman system of medicine. Pharmacognosy is the study of
medicines derived from natural sources, mainly from plants which may further
lead to development of new drug. The exploration, extraction and screening of
biological diversity such as herbs, spices, microbes and other natural resources is
the worldwide activity in recent years. Phytochemicals are the naturally available
bioactive compounds which are derived from different plant parts and are primar-
ily responsible for biological activities. The most important chemical compounds
which are present in the plants are alkaloids, phenols, saponins, carbohydrates,
terpenoids, steroids, flavonoids and tannins etc.
Keywords: Medicinal plants, pharmacognosy, phytochemicals, biological activities
1. Introduction
Since from ancient period man depended on nature for their survival and lives
strictly connected with nature. Man depends upon surrounding environment for
their livelihood, healthcare, and sustenance and also for basic needs (food, fibers,
shelter, clothing and gum). Besides providing basic necessities, plants also provided
his requirement of medicine. Along with the plant man has been started using
animal products and other bio-resources available in nature for preparation of
medicine. As a result, different traditional medicine systems have evolved based on
environmental condition, social and cultural background with respect to the ethnic
group in different countries [1, 2].
Plants are served as major natural resources for traditional as well as modern
medicinal system all over the world. The therapeutic potential of plants and plant
products can be traced back to thousands of years ago. The information with
respect to medicinal benefits of plants with other therapies has been preserved in
several documentations in Babylonia, Egypt, China, Greece and Rome etc. Previous
works of Theophrastus (370–287 B.C.), Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), Hippocrates
(460–370 B.C.) and Dioscorides (50–100 A.D) are providing evidence that Greeks
and Romans are familiar with many of today’s plant drugs. The “Ebers Papyrus”,
the best known Egyptian pharmaceutical record documented over 700 drugs
represents the history of Egyptian medicine (1500 BC). Erh-ya (300B.C), Svu-ching
(1000B.C) and Ben-tsao (1250A.D) are the early herbal documentations available in
China, describes more than 600 medicinal plants [3]. In Asia, the earliest records of
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Natural Medicinal Plants
Figure 1.
Natural system of herbal medicine used in India.
plants usage are found in the clay tablets in Mesapotamia (1700 BC). In India, herbal
remedies and health care preparations are also described in ancient texts like ‘Charka
Samhita’ (100–800 B.C), ‘Sushruta Samhita’ (800–700 B.C), ‘Rigveda’ (1400–1800
B.C) and ‘Atharva-veda’ (4500–2500 B.C). Ayurveda is the fundamental source
of Vedic knowledge for understanding remedial properties of plants (1000 BC).
Ayurveda is considered as ancient medicinal system and it is the compilation of
‘Charka Samhita’, ‘Sushruta Samhita’ and ‘Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita’ [4]. In addi-
tion to Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani are other conventional systems of medicine
providing additional information of plant based drugs used in India. ‘Unani’ system
of medicine originated in Greece and introduced to India by Arabs and Persians
after the discovery of sea route to India. During 10th to 15th century, ‘Sidda’ system
of medicine originated in southern parts of India and is parallel to Ayurvedic system
of medicine (Figure 1) [5].
Now a day the herbal medicine has renewed attention and hopeful both practical
and scientific view points. Herbal remedies are complex mixture different parts
of single herb or many herbs which may sometime produce synergistic effect with
each other ensuing in the increased therapeutic potential of drug. The identification
of biologically active compound responsible for its medicinal property and there is
a crucial requirement for quality control. So the correct identification and quality
assessment is important to ensure quality of herbal medicine, which contributes
to its safety and efficacy. Therapeutic action of herbal formulation depends on its
photochemical constituents. The photochemical investigation of the medicinally
important plants should be carried out, as this would be beneficial in standardiza-
tion, quality assessment and efficacy of herbal drugs. Thus pharmacognosy is
considered as important tool to study medicinal plants for their identification,
validation and standardization [6, 7].
2. Bioprospecting of medicinal plants
Biodiversity prospecting or bioprospecting of the medicinal plants is the
worldwide activity in the current years. Biodiversity prospecting is the exploration,
extraction and screening of biological diversity and indigenous knowledge for
commercially valuable genetic and biochemical resources. In early stages, bio-
prospecting mainly focused on the plants from the forest ecosystem. But in recent
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years, various other forms of biodiversity such as insects, algae and microorganisms
have been explored with substantial success [8]. During recent years this activity
involves the use of advanced technologies to develop new pharmaceuticals, agro-
chemicals, cosmetics and other bi-products from biological diversity [9]. With the
help of advanced technology and sophisticated techniques and tools it has become
effective way to conduct research on metabolic response of living system, genetic
manipulation and novel drug discovery through bioprospecting. Various bio-active
molecules have been isolated and tested for their pharmacological activities [10].
3. Pharmocognosy of medicinal plants
The term pharmocognosy was first time coined by the Austrian physician
Schmidt in 1811. A “crude drug” means a dried unprepared natural material of
plant, animal or mineral origin, which is used for medicine. The word pharma-
cognosy is derived from the Greek word pharmakon-drug and gnosis- knowledge.
Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources, mainly
from plants which may further lead to development of new drug. Phytochemicals
(‘Phyto’ means plant) are biologically active natural chemical constituent of plants
such as sugar, amino acids, protein, chlorophyll, alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids,
tannins etc. Phytochemicals are active ingredients which possess therapeutic
properties and are considered as a medicine or drug. More than 4000 phytochemi-
cals have been obtained cataloged and are classified by protective function, physical
and chemical characteristics of which 150 phytochemicals have been studied in
details [11]. Latest outcome suggest that majority of phytochemicals have benefi-
cial activities like anti- microbial, anti-malarial, anti- diabetic, anti-arthritic and
anti-cancerous etc. The medicinal, biological and pharmaceutical value of phyto-
constituents helps in the utilization and exploration of plant resources in recent
years. The chemical information of plant coupled with medicinal properties and
supported by other biological activities will add additional value for development of
valuable herbal drugs [12].
During pharmacognostic investigations, physico-chemical analysis also con-
sidered as important parameter in evaluation and identification of crude drug.
Macroscopic and microscopic analysis is necessary for the detection of adulterants,
contaminants of herbal drug and for assessing quality before going for further
study. The extractive value and solubility value is useful to evaluate specific chemi-
cal constituent dry yield in different solvents. Ash value analysis is useful in deter-
mination of unrelated matter (sand and soil) adhering to the surface of plant [13].
Moisture content is essential for evaluation of stability of crude drug. Fluorescence
analysis is a reliable tool for standardization of crude drug. The different chemical
constituent present in the plant extract showed characteristic fluorescence when
illuminated suitably. Certain chemical substances that are not naturally fluores-
cence themselves are treated with different reagent to attain fluorescence [14].
4. Phytochemicals of medicinal plants
The curative properties of medicinal plants are due to presence of major group
of active components which are mainly alkaloids, triterpenoids, essential oils and
phenolic compounds etc. Alkaloids are the secondary metabolites of plants having
noticeable pharmacological activity. Roots, leaves, bark and seeds are common parts
of plants which contain alkaliods. In general the alkaloids occur as salts of citric
acid, oxalic acid, acetic acid and tartaric acid. These are mostly colorless, water
3
Natural Medicinal Plants
insoluble and non-polar solvents soluble in nature. Pharmacologically, alkaloids act
as cardiac depressants, antihypertensive, anti-leukemic, analgesic, nerve stimulants
and local anesthetic. Triterpenoids are made up of six isoprene units. Saponins,
sterols and cardiac glycosides are chief triterpenes. The medicinal plants which have
saponins are roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, tuberous roots of Asparagus racemosus and
roots of Smilax glabra. Typically sterols are animal substances but recently detected
from plants also. Ergosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol and β- sitosterol are chief
sterols derived from plants. In several plants characteristic odor is due to presence
of essential oils or volatile oils which occur in lysigenous or schizogenous cavities, in
glandular hairs or in specialized tubes. A variety of plant parts such as leaves of lem-
ongrass, bark of cinnamon, flower buds of clove, nutmeg seeds and camphorwood
contains volatile oils. The phenolic compound are soluble in water and includes
phenols, phenolic acids, phenyl propanoids, coumarins, phenyl propenes, flavonoid
pigments, anthocyanins, flavonols, flavones and tannins [15].
5. Biological activity of medicinal plants
Due to the presence of bioactive molecules plants are used as phytomedicine
to cure many complaints. Catharanthus roseus has ‘vinblastine’ and ‘vincristine’
and used in cancer. Rauwolfia serpentina is hypotensive due to presence of ‘ser-
pentine’, ‘reserpine’ and ‘ajmalicine’. Papaver somniferum contains ‘morphine’
and ‘codeine’ and is analgesic and sedative. ‘Artemisinin’ is effective against
malaria derived from A. annua. Similarly, the bioactive components of plants
‘Withanaloides’ reported from Withania somnifera useful in treatment of arthritis.
‘Charantin’ a steroidal saponin, isolated from Momordica charantia reported for
anti-diabetic activity. ‘Diospyrin’ reported from Diosyros species acts as anti-
leishmanial agent. ‘Tephdidoside’ is a flavanol glycoside derived from Tephorsea
candida found to be active against human cancer [16]. ‘Berberine’ derived from
Berberis vulgaris reported for antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial activity.
‘Digoxin’obtained from Digitalis lanata used in heart diseases. Similarly, ‘Quinine’
isolated from Cinchona robusta acts as antimalerial, antiparasitic agent. Another
compound ‘Allicin’ isolated from A. sativum reported for its cardioprotective, anti-
inflammatory activity [17].
More than 35,000 plant species have been investigated and resulted in the
discovery of anticancer drugs such as ‘Vincristine’, ‘Vinblastine’, ‘Taxol’, ‘Etoposide
analogs’, ‘Camptothecin’ etc. Many number of effective drugs derived from higher
plants were alkaloid ‘Paclitaxol’, isolated from Taxus brevifolia used in treatment of
ovarian and breast cancers [18]. ‘Andrographolide’, active diterpine derived from
A. paniculata acts as a noble anticancer agent against cancers of breast, ovary,
stomach, colon, prostate, kidney, nasopharynx malignant melanoma and leukemia.
‘Thymoquinone’ and ‘dithymoquinone’ of Nigella sativa shows anticancer activity
against different types of cancers such as colon, prostate, pancreas, uterus, malig-
nant ascites, malignant lymphoma, malignant melanoma, sarcomas and leukemia.
However, ‘Plumbagin’ isolated from Plumbago zeylanica hinders growth and spread
of breast cancer, liver cancer, fibro-sarcoma, malignant ascites and leukemia by cell
proliferation [19].
A wide range of reports are available on phytochemicals and pharmacological
activity of medicinal plants. Several workers have reported biological activity of
medicinal plants. Pharmacognostic and preliminary phytochemical analysis of
Colocasia esculenta dried tubers were calculated. The tubers are good source of carbo-
hydrate, protein and starch. Nutritional analysis showed moisture content (56.8%),
ash content (1.22%), carbohydrate (3000 mg/100gm), protein (824 mg/100gm)
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and starch (2700 mg/100gm) in dry tubers. Phytochemical analysis revealed the
presence of alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins and phenols [20].
A. aspera important medicinal plants reported in Ayurvedic literature with number
of medicinal property. Phytochemical investigation of plant extracts were subjected
to qualitative screening test for various constituents. This revealed the presence
protein, glycosides, alkaloids, tannins and phenolic compound, steroid reducing
sugars and saponin glycosides [21]. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical evaluation
of Tridax procumbens were studied. The quantitative microscopical and histological
study is done revealed the presence of Tricomes, palisade tissue, trachieds and ves-
sels in powder microscopy. Phytochemical analysis of the whole plant is done and
the presence of carbohydrates, sterioids, phenols and tannins were reported and
quercitin is confirmed using HPTLC [22].
In parallel, phytochemical screening of Cinnamomum zeylanicum shows the
presence of carbohydrate, glycoside, protein, tannins, saponins, flavonoids and
terpenoids. The proximate analysis revealed that water soluble extractive values of
leaves was 29.75, total ash value was 9.75, acid insoluble ash was found to be 2.50
and sulphated ash was 37.35. Anti- microbial activity of the disk diffusion method
showed that chloroform and hydro-ethanol extracts of leaf were more effective
against Gram–positive bacteria in vitro [23].
Antimicrobial activity of different extract of Cynodon dactylon was tested against
disease causing bacterial pathogens using the agar well diffusion method. Areal
parts of ethanol extract show more activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Staphylococcus aureus with zone of inhibition 13.83 ± 0.29 mm and 2.0 ± 0.10 mm
respectively. A total 20 compounds were identified from the hydroalcoholic extract
of the whole parts through GC–MS analysis. Among all, hexadecanoic acid, ethyl
ester inolenic acid, ethyl ester was the major components of the hydroalcoholic
extract and hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester was abundant. The antioxidant activity of
the hydro-alcoholic extract of aerial parts was studied in vitro by different methods.
Of this superoxide radical scavenging assay revealed a maximum inhibition of
93.33%. Total antioxidant capacity equivalent of ascorbic acid was 172.39 mg/g of
extract. Similaly, anticancer activity of methanolic extracts of leaves was studied
in ascitic lymphoma (ELA) in Swiss albino mice. Results demonstrate that metha-
nolic extract was found to be antiproliferative at lower concentrations and induced
apoptotic cell death in COLO 320 DM cells [24].
Pothos scandens another medicinally important plant screened for its various
biological activity. At lower concentration of ethanol extract was found to have
more antimicrobial activity compare to other. The ethanol extract of root showed
significant free radical scavenging activity with DPPH and superoxide radical
scavenging activity (IC50 0.284 mg/mL and 70.84%). The active compounds of
ethanol extract of aerial parts investigated through GC–MS analysis. This depicts
that Dodecanoic acid, tetra decanoicacid and n- hexadecanoic acid acts as anti-
oxidant. Similarly cytotoxicity of same plant was evaluated against MCF-7 (breast
cancer) cell lines by MTT assay and results revealed that the extract has significant
cytotoxic activity with an IC50 of 90.18 ± 5.20 μg/ml and also cell death of MCF-7
treated with the extract was due to the induction of apoptosis, which was confirmed
by comet assay [25].
The in vitro cytotoxic activity of Colocasia gigantea extract on cervical cancer
(Hela) and human white blood cells (WBC) was conducted. Bioassay-guided
fractionation method showed that not all parts promote cytotoxic activity. The leaf
fraction of dichloromethane showed significant cell proliferation effect on Hela
cells, but not on WBCs. The n-hexane tuber fraction only exhibited significant
cytotoxicity on Hela cells (IC50 585 μg/ml) and encouraged WBC cell prolifera-
tion. From the GC–MS spectrometry it was found the 4, 22-Stigmastadiene-3-one,
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Natural Medicinal Plants
Diazoprogesterone, 9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, hexyl ester, and Oleic Acid were the
components of n- hexane tuber fraction which had cytotoxic potential. Tuber frac-
tion of n- hexane shows potential for cervical cancer treatment [26].
6. Current status of herbal medicine
World Health Organization estimated that 80% of the populations of developing
countries still depend on plant drugs for their primary health care needs. According
to survey of World Health Organization, the practitioners of traditional medicinal
system treat about 8% of patients of India, 85% in Burma and 90% in Bangladesh.
India comprises of 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world. The country
accounts for an average of 8% of the total global biodiversity with approximately
49,000 species of plants of which 4,900 are endemic [27]. Approximately 2,65,000
species of seed plants exists on earth and less than half of these have been studied
systematically for their chemical composition and medicinal value [28].
Greater part of drugs now available in the market is simple semi-synthetic derived
from naturally occurring substances. Up to 50% the approved herbal drugs used
today are from either directly or indirectly synthesized from natural products includ-
ing plants, microorganisms, fungi and animals. According to an estimate, about 25%
of the world pharmaceutical products find a significant degree of origin in indigenous
communities, which represents more than a 2000 billion dollar share market [29].
In many developed countries, the percentage of the population which has used
herbal medicines at least once is 48% in Australia, 70% in Canada, 42% in USA, 38%
in Belgium and 75% in France. Malaysia, spent US$ 500 million annually on herbal
health care, compared to about US$ 300 million on allopathic medicine. In USA,
annual spending on conventional medicines was estimated at US$ 2700 million. In
Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, annual expenditure for herbal medicine
is estimated US$ 80 million, US$ 2400 million and US$ 2300 million respectively. In
several parts of the world, outflow on herbal medicinal products is not only signifi-
cant, but also growing rapidly [30].
The allopathic medicine has side effects and hazardous to human beings. After
realizing toxicity and adverse effects of allopathic medicines, a shift in universal
trend from synthetic to herbal medicines has been observed both in developed and
developing countries [27]. The most important facts about herbal medicine are that
these medicines have no side effect and available in low of cost. Therefore high dose
of herbal medicine or wrong medicine consumed by patient mistakenly does not
cause any adverse effect on the body.
7. Conservation of medicinal plants
Medicinal plants are the basic raw materials of pharmaceutical industries and is
highly depends on medicinal plant for extraction of medicinally important com-
pounds. During this time with the advancement of science and technology, over
growing demand of pharmaceutical industries, the useful medicinal plants were
over exploited by the men. So there is a need of conservation and propagation of
valuable, rare and endangered medicinal plants by using advanced biotechnology
methods [31].
Plants occupy a major sector of health care system and represent a most impor-
tant natural resource. Therefore conservation of species is most effectively achieved
through the management of the wild population and natural habitats. In most of
cases medicinal plants either do not produce seeds or too small seeds. In order to
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overcome these barriers ex-situ techniques can be used to complement in-situ meth-
ods and for some instance it may be appropriate for some species. So conservation
of medicinal plants can be accomplished by the ex-situ that is outside the natural
habitat by cultivating and maintaining plants through long term conservation of
plant propagules in plant tissue culture repositories [32]. In vitro techniques have
been increasingly applied for mass propagation and conservation of germplasm as it
has superiority over alternative strategies. Hence there is a need for conservation of
medicinal plant biodiversity for the present and forth coming generation by adapt-
ing the appropriate strategy with proper conservation method [33, 34].
Recently in India, several institutes and organizations involved in differ-
ent aspects of drug discovery and conservation medicinal plant from natural
resources. Initiative work designed for finding novel bioactive compound from
plant, fungi, microbes etc. are set up by Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR), Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Regional Research
Laboratory (RRL), Jammu and Kashmir. Golden Triangle Partnership (GTP) in
collaboration with Department of Ayush, CSIR and ICMR involved in the valida-
tion of traditional ayurvedic medicine for effective drug discovery. During last few
decades, the Department of Biotechnology and Government of India has set up two
Micropropagation Technology Parks at National Chemical Laboratory (NCL), Pune
and Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi [16].
8. Conclusion
Since time immemorial plants are utilized as chief source of therapeutic agents.
The medicinal plants are not only the source of healthcare but also an important
product of world trade. In last few years the trade of medicinal plant is increase
rapidly because herbal drugs are easily available at lowest prices and less side effects
[35]. The remedial properties of plants due to presence of intricate chemical compo-
nents with different compositions and biological function.
Herbal medicine is widely practiced in worldwide and is considered to effective
and affordable. Recently significant attention has been made to utilize eco-friendly
and bio-friendly plant based product for cure of different human diseases [28].
This increases global pharmaceutical demand from last few years. Due to increasing
demand of supply of plants as a raw material in pharmaceutical industries, biologi-
cal diversity of plants is in danger. Therefore there is a need to advance research
for the development and characterization of natural drugs with the help of better
screening methods from plants and other natural sources. However, medicinal
plants often being subjected to scientific validation and for discovery of safe and
potential natural drug to fight against diseases [36, 37].
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Natural Medicinal Plants
Author details
Smita G. Bhat
P.G. Department of Studies in Botany, Karnatak University,
Dharwad, Karnataka, India
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
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