Vidyalankar Institute of Technology

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication

Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
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 Syllabus

• Mod1- Introduction to Internet of Things: Definition and

characteristics of IoT, History and evolution of IoT,
Architectural layers of an IoT system (perception, network,
application, data management), Levels of IoT
• Mod4- Hardware Fundamentals: Introduction to various
sensors (temperature, humidity, pressure, motion, etc.)
Actuators and their types (solenoids, motors, relays)
Microcontrollers and development boards (e.g., Arduino,
Raspberry Pi) Interfacing sensors and actuators with
microcontrollers Introduction to embedded system design
principles

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2
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 Syllabus
• Mod3- Sensor Interfaces: Digital Interfaces: UART, Serial
Peripheral Interface (SPI), I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit),
Controller Area Network (CAN), Middleware Technologies,
Communication Protocols and Models. Practical Components
Programming with interface in Arduino, MBed and Raspberry
Pi
• Mod2- Communication Protocols : IoT Edge to Cloud
protocols: HTTP, REST APIs, WebSocket, MQTT, COAP,
Comparison of Protocols.M2M Communication Protocols,
Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth low energy. RFID IoT System,
RFID IoT Network Architecture, ZigBee IP/ZigBee SE2.0, Wifi
(WLAN), Message Communication protocols for connected
devices Data exchange formats: JSON & XML

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3
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 Syllabus

• Mod5- Software Development for IoT: Introduction to

programming languages for IoT (e.g., Python, C++) Data
acquisition, processing, and visualization techniques,
Introduction to IoT platforms and frameworks Security
considerations in IoT applications
• Mod6- IOT Applications and USE Cases: Case Studies
Illustrating IoT Design in Applications like Home Automation,
Smart Cities, Environment, Agriculture, Healthcare.

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4
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 Reference and Text Bokks

• Arshdeep Bahga and Vijay Madisetti, “Internet of Things: A

Hands-on Approach, Universities Press. 2
• Raj Kamal, “Internet of Things: Architecture and Design
Principles”, McGraw Hill Education, First edition
• David Hanes, Gonzalo Salgueiro, Patrick Grossetete, Robert
Barton, Jerome Henry,"IoT Fundamentals: Networking
Technologies, Protocols, and Use Cases for the Internet of
Things”
• N. Ida, Sensors, Actuators and Their Interfaces, Scitech
Publishers, 2014

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5
([email protected])
 Assessment scheme

• ISA-15
• Average of MSE1, MSE2 -20
• ESE-40
• Practical ISA-25
• Practical ESE-25.

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6
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 Introduction
• The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the interconnectivity
of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other
items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and
connectivity which enables these objects to connect and
exchange data
• The IoT concept involves extending Internet connectivity
beyond traditional devices like desktop and laptop
computers, smartphones and tablets to a diverse range of
devices and everyday things
• The ultimate goal of IoT is to offer advanced connectivity
of devices, systems, and services that goes beyond
machine-to-machine communications and covers a
variety of protocols, domains, and applications.

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7
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 Some examples of IoT devices include

Smart Homes:
▪ Home Automation: Control lighting, temperature, appliances,
and security systems remotely
▪ Smart Appliances: Refrigerators that track inventory, ovens
that preheat automatically, and washing machines that
optimize water usage
▪ Home Security: Smart doorbells, security cameras, and
motion sensors for enhanced .home safety

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8
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 Some examples of IoT devices include

Healthcare:
▪ Remote Patient Monitoring: Track vital signs, medication
adherence, and activity levels of patients remotely
▪ Wearable Devices: Fitness trackers, smartwatches, and other
wearables for personalized health monitoring
▪ Telemedicine: Enable remote consultations and diagnostics
between patients and healthcare providers.

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9
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 Some examples of IoT devices include
Smart Cities:
▪ Smart Transportation: Traffic management systems, smart
parking, and public transportation tracking
▪ Smart Grids: Optimize energy distribution and consumption
▪ Environmental Monitoring: Monitor air and water quality,
waste management, and noise pollution
Agriculture:
▪ Precision Agriculture: Monitor soil moisture, weather
conditions, and crop health to optimize irrigation and
fertilization
▪ Automated Farming: Automate tasks like planting, harvesting,
and weeding.

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10
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 History of IOT
• 1982 – Vending machine: The first glimpse of IoT emerged
as a vending machine at Carnegie Mellon University was
connected to the internet to report its inventory and status,
paving the way for remote monitoring
• 1990 – Toaster: Early IoT innovation saw a toaster
connected to the internet, allowing users to control it
remotely, foreshadowing the convenience of smart home
devices.

Department of EXTC
11
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 History of IOT
• 1999 – IoT Coined (Kevin Ashton): Kevin Ashton coined
the term “Internet of Things” to describe the
interconnected network of devices communicating and
sharing data, laying the foundation for a new era of
connectivity
• 2000 – LG Smart Fridge: The LG Smart Fridge marked a
breakthrough, enabling users to check and manage
refrigerator contents remotely, showcasing the potential of
IoT in daily life
• 2004 – Smart Watch: The advent of smartwatches
introduced IoT to the wearable tech realm, offering fitness
tracking and notifications on-the-go.

Department of EXTC
12
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 History of IOT
• 2007 – Smart iPhone: Apple’s iPhone became a game-
changer, integrating IoT capabilities with apps that
connected users to a myriad of services and devices,
transforming smartphones into hubs
• 2009 – Car Testing: IoT entered the automotive industry,
enhancing vehicles with sensors for real-time diagnostics,
performance monitoring, and remote testing
• 2011 – Smart TV: The introduction of Smart TVs brought IoT
to the living room, enabling internet connectivity for
streaming, app usage, and interactive content.

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13
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 History of IOT
• 2013 – Google Lens: Google Lens showcased IoT’s
potential in image recognition, allowing smartphones to
provide information about objects in the physical world
• 2014 – Echo: Amazon’s Echo, equipped with the virtual
assistant Alexa, demonstrated the power of voice-
activated IoT, making smart homes more intuitive and
responsive
• 2015 – Tesla Autopilot: Tesla’s Autopilot system
exemplified IoT in automobiles, introducing semi-
autonomous driving capabilities through interconnected
sensors and software.
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 Four Key Components of IOT

• Device or sensor
• Connectivity
• Data processing
• User Interface.

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 Key Components of IoT

Sensors and Actuators and Sensors:

▪ These are the devices that gather data from the physical
world. They can measure various parameters like
temperature, humidity, pressure, motion, light, sound, and
more
▪ Actuators: These devices take action based on the data
received, For example:
➢ a motor might be activated to open a window, or a valve might be
adjusted to control water flow.

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16
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 Key Components of IoT
Connectivity:
▪ This refers to the communication pathways that enable data
transfer between devices and the network of devices.
Common connectivity options include:
▪ Wi-Fi: Widely used for home and office environments
▪ Bluetooth: Suitable for short-range communication between
devices
▪ Cellular Networks (4G/5G): Provide broader coverage for
mobile devices and remote locations
▪ Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWAN): Ideal for devices
with low power consumption and long battery life.

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 Key Components of IoT

Data Processing: This involves collecting, storing, and analyzing

the data generated by IoT devices
▪ Data Collection: Data is gathered from various sources,
including sensors, user input, and other devices
▪ Data Storage: Data is stored in databases or cloud platforms
for further processing and analysis
▪ Data Analytics: Techniques like machine learning and artificial
intelligence are used to extract valuable insights from the
data, such as identifying patterns, predicting trends, and
making informed decisions.

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 Key Components of IoT

User Interface: This is the way in which users interact with the
IoT system. It can include:
▪ Mobile Apps: Allow users to monitor data, control devices,
and receive alerts
▪ Web Portals: Provide access to data visualizations,
dashboards, and control panels
▪ Voice Assistants: Enable users to interact with IoT devices
using voice commands
These four components work together to create a
comprehensive IoT system that can collect data, process
information, and take actions based on the insights gained.

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 Architecture of IoT

• The architecture of IoT is divided into 4 different layers i.e.

➢ Sensing Layer
➢ Network Layer
➢ Data processing Layer, and
➢ Application Layer.

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Architecture of IoT

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 Architecture of IoT

• Sensing Layer: The sensing layer is the first layer of

the Internet of Things architecture and is responsible for
collecting data from different sources. This layer
includes sensors and actuators that are placed in the
environment to gather information about temperature,
humidity, light, sound, and other physical parameters.
Wired or wireless communication protocols connect these
devices to the network layer.

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22
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 Architecture of IoT
• Network Layer: The network layer of an IoT architecture is
responsible for providing communication and connectivity
between devices in the IoT system. It includes protocols
and technologies that enable devices to connect and
communicate with each other and with the wider internet.
Examples of network technologies that are commonly
used in IoT include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular
networks. Additionally, the network layer may
include gateways and routers that act as intermediaries
between devices and the wider internet and may also
include security features such as encryption and
authentication to protect against unauthorized access.

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 Architecture of IoT
• Data processing Layer: The data processing layer of IoT architecture
refers to the software and hardware components that are responsible
for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data from IoT devices. This
layer is responsible for receiving raw data from the devices, processing
it, and making it available for further analysis or action. The data
processing layer includes a variety of technologies and tools, such as
data management systems, analytics platforms, and machine
learning algorithms. These tools are used to extract meaningful
insights from the data and make decisions based on that data.
Example of a technology used in the data processing layer is a data
lake, which is a centralized repository for storing raw data from IoT
devices.

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 Architecture of IoT
• Application Layer: The application layer of IoT architecture is the
topmost layer that interacts directly with the end-user. It is responsible
for providing user-friendly interfaces and functionalities that enable
users to access and control IoT devices
➢ This layer includes various software and applications such as mobile apps, web
portals, and other user interfaces that are designed to interact with the underlying
IoT infrastructure
➢ It also includes middleware services that allow different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and share data seamlessly. The application layer also includes
analytics and processing capabilities that allow data to be analyzed and
transformed into meaningful insights. This can include machine learning
algorithms, data visualization tools, and other advanced analytics capabilities.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized by the following key features
that are mentioned below.
1. Connectivity- Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT
infrastructure. Things of IoT should be connected to the IoT
infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can connect, this should be
guaranteed at all times
2. Intelligence and Identity- The extraction of knowledge from the
generated data is very important. For example,
➢ a sensor generates data, but that data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly.
Each IoT device has a unique identity. This identification is helpful in tracking the
equipment and at times for querying its status.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
3. Scalability- The number of elements connected to the IoT
zone is increasing day by day. Hence, an IoT setup should be
capable of handling the massive expansion. The data
generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should be
handled appropriately
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)- IoT devices
should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts
and scenarios (may be operating, architectural, environment )
➢ Assume a camera meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to
work in different conditions and different light situations (morning,
afternoon, and night).

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
5. Architecture- IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It
should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturers ‘ products to
function in the IoT network. IoT is not owned by anyone engineering
branch. IoT is a reality when multiple domains come together
6. Safety- There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users
getting compromised when all his/her devices are connected to the
internet. This can cause a loss to the user. Hence, data security is the
major challenge. IoT networks may also be at risk. Therefore, equipment
safety is also critical
7. Self Configuring- This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT
devices are able to upgrade their software in accordance with requirements with a
minimum of user participation. Additionally, they can set up the network, allowing
for the addition of new devices to an already-existing network.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things

8. Interoperability- IoT devices use standardized protocols and

technologies to ensure they can communicate with each other and other
systems. Interoperability is one of the key characteristics of the Internet of
Things (IoT). It refers to the ability of different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and exchange data with each other, regardless of the
underlying technology or manufacturer.
• Without interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual
silos of data and devices, making it difficult to share information and
create new services and applications.
• To achieve interoperability, IoT devices, and systems use standardized
communication protocols and data formats.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
9. Embedded Sensors and Actuators- Embedded sensors and actuators are
critical components of the Internet of Things (IoT). They allow IoT devices to
interact with their environment and collect and transmit data:
• Sensors are devices that can detect changes in the environment, such as
temperature, light, sound, or movement. In IoT systems, sensors are
embedded into devices, allowing them to collect data about the environment
• Actuators are devices that can interact with the environment, such as turning
on lights, opening or closing doors, or controlling the speed of a motor. In IoT
systems, actuators are embedded into devices, allowing them to perform
actions based on data collected by sensors
• IoT devices are equipped with sensors and actuators that allow them to collect
and transmit data, as well as to interact with the environment.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
10. Autonomous operation- Autonomous operation refers to the ability of IoT devices and systems to
operate independently and make decisions without human intervention. This is a crucial characteristic of
the Internet of Things (IoT) and enables a wide range of new applications and services.
• In IoT systems, devices and systems are equipped with sensors, actuators, and processing power,
allowing them to collect and process data about the environment, make decisions based on that
data, and take action accordingly.
• For example, an IoT system might use sensors to detect changes in temperature or light levels in a
room, and then use actuators to adjust the temperature or turn on the lights based on that data. This
allows for the automation of many tasks, such as energy management, home automation, and
predictive maintenance.
• Another example of autonomous operation in IoT is self-healing networks, where IoT devices can
automatically detect and repair problems, such as network outages, without human intervention.
• Autonomous operation is made possible by advances in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and
cloud computing, which enable IoT devices and systems to process and analyze large amounts of
data in real time and make decisions based on that data.
• Overall, the autonomous operation is an important characteristic of IoT systems, allowing them to
deliver new and innovative services and applications that can improve efficiency, reduce costs, and
enhance the user experience. IoT devices are designed to operate autonomously, without direct
human intervention, making it possible to automate a wide range of processes and tasks.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
11. Data-driven- Data-driven is a key characteristic of the Internet of Things (IoT).
IoT devices and systems collect vast amounts of data from sensors and other
sources, which can be analyzed and used to make data-driven decisions
• This data is used to gain insights into the environment, improve operational
efficiency, and make informed decisions
• Data from sensors and other sources is used to predict when equipment is
likely to fail, allowing for proactive maintenance and reducing the risk of
unplanned downtime
• Data-driven IoT is made possible by advances in big data technologies, such
as distributed data processing and cloud computing, which allow for the
efficient analysis and management of large amounts of data in real time.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 12. Security- Security is a critical concern for the Internet
of Things (IoT), as IoT devices and systems handle sensitive
data and are connected to critical infrastructure. The
increasing number of connected devices and the amount
of data being transmitted over the Internet make IoT
systems a prime target for cyberattacks……..

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 12. Security- …..
• To secure IoT systems, multiple layers of security are necessary, including:
• physical security- Physical security involves protecting the physical devices
from unauthorized access or tampering. This can be achieved through
measures such as secure enclosures, access controls, and tamper-proofing
• network security- Network security involves protecting the communication
networks that connect IoT devices, including Wi-Fi networks, cellular
networks, and wired networks. This can be achieved through encryption,
secure authentication, and firewalls
• data security.- Data security involves protecting the data collected and
transmitted by IoT devices and systems. This can be achieved through
encryption, secure storage, and access controls.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 13. Ubiquity- Ubiquity refers to the widespread and pervasive
presence of the Internet of Things (IoT) devices and systems in our
daily lives. The goal of IoT is to create a seamless and interconnected
world where devices and systems can communicate and share data
seamlessly and transparently
• For example, in a smart home, a person could use their smartphone to
control the temperature, lighting, and other systems in their home,
even when they are away
• Overall, ubiquity is a key characteristic of the IoT, and it is essential for
realizing the full potential of IoT and creating a truly interconnected
and smart world.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 14. Context Awareness- Context awareness refers to the ability of
Internet of Things (IoT) devices and systems to understand and
respond to the environment and context in which they are operating.
This is achieved through the use of sensors and other technologies
that can detect and collect data about the environment.
• For example, in a smart home, a context-aware IoT system could
adjust the temperature, lighting, and other systems based on the time
of day, the presence of people in the home, and other factors.

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 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 2

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Syllabus

• Mod1- Introduction to Internet of Things: Definition and

characteristics of IoT, History and evolution of IoT,
Architectural layers of an IoT system (perception, network,
application, data management), Levels of IoT
• Mod4- Hardware Fundamentals: Introduction to various
sensors (temperature, humidity, pressure, motion, etc.)
Actuators and their types (solenoids, motors, relays)
Microcontrollers and development boards (e.g., Arduino,
Raspberry Pi) Interfacing sensors and actuators with
microcontrollers Introduction to embedded system design
principles

Department of EXTC
2
([email protected])
 Syllabus
• Mod3- Sensor Interfaces: Digital Interfaces: UART, Serial
Peripheral Interface (SPI), I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit),
Controller Area Network (CAN), Middleware Technologies,
Communication Protocols and Models. Practical Components
Programming with interface in Arduino, MBed and Raspberry
Pi
• Mod2- Communication Protocols : IoT Edge to Cloud
protocols: HTTP, REST APIs, WebSocket, MQTT, COAP,
Comparison of Protocols.M2M Communication Protocols,
Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth low energy. RFID IoT System,
RFID IoT Network Architecture, ZigBee IP/ZigBee SE2.0, Wifi
(WLAN), Message Communication protocols for connected
devices Data exchange formats: JSON & XML

Department of EXTC
3
([email protected])
 Syllabus

• Mod5- Software Development for IoT: Introduction to

programming languages for IoT (e.g., Python, C++) Data
acquisition, processing, and visualization techniques,
Introduction to IoT platforms and frameworks Security
considerations in IoT applications
• Mod6- IOT Applications and USE Cases: Case Studies
Illustrating IoT Design in Applications like Home Automation,
Smart Cities, Environment, Agriculture, Healthcare.

Department of EXTC
4
([email protected])
 Reference and Text Bokks

• Arshdeep Bahga and Vijay Madisetti, “Internet of Things: A

Hands-on Approach, Universities Press. 2
• Raj Kamal, “Internet of Things: Architecture and Design
Principles”, McGraw Hill Education, First edition
• David Hanes, Gonzalo Salgueiro, Patrick Grossetete, Robert
Barton, Jerome Henry,"IoT Fundamentals: Networking
Technologies, Protocols, and Use Cases for the Internet of
Things”
• N. Ida, Sensors, Actuators and Their Interfaces, Scitech
Publishers, 2014

Department of EXTC
5
([email protected])
 Assessment scheme

• ISA-15
• Average of MSE1, MSE2 -20
• ESE-40
• Practical ISA-25
• Practical ESE-25.

Department of EXTC
6
([email protected])
 Introduction
• The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the interconnectivity
of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other
items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and
connectivity which enables these objects to connect and
exchange data
• The IoT concept involves extending Internet connectivity
beyond traditional devices like desktop and laptop
computers, smartphones and tablets to a diverse range of
devices and everyday things
• The ultimate goal of IoT is to offer advanced connectivity
of devices, systems, and services that goes beyond
machine-to-machine communications and covers a
variety of protocols, domains, and applications.

Department of EXTC
7
([email protected])
 Some examples of IoT devices include

Smart Homes:
▪ Home Automation: Control lighting, temperature, appliances,
and security systems remotely
▪ Smart Appliances: Refrigerators that track inventory, ovens
that preheat automatically, and washing machines that
optimize water usage
▪ Home Security: Smart doorbells, security cameras, and
motion sensors for enhanced .home safety

Department of EXTC
8
([email protected])
 Some examples of IoT devices include

Healthcare:
▪ Remote Patient Monitoring: Track vital signs, medication
adherence, and activity levels of patients remotely
▪ Wearable Devices: Fitness trackers, smartwatches, and other
wearables for personalized health monitoring
▪ Telemedicine: Enable remote consultations and diagnostics
between patients and healthcare providers.

Department of EXTC
9
([email protected])
 Some examples of IoT devices include
Smart Cities:
▪ Smart Transportation: Traffic management systems, smart
parking, and public transportation tracking
▪ Smart Grids: Optimize energy distribution and consumption
▪ Environmental Monitoring: Monitor air and water quality,
waste management, and noise pollution
Agriculture:
▪ Precision Agriculture: Monitor soil moisture, weather
conditions, and crop health to optimize irrigation and
fertilization
▪ Automated Farming: Automate tasks like planting, harvesting,
and weeding.

Department of EXTC
10
([email protected])
 History of IOT
• 1982 – Vending machine: The first glimpse of IoT emerged
as a vending machine at Carnegie Mellon University was
connected to the internet to report its inventory and status,
paving the way for remote monitoring
• 1990 – Toaster: Early IoT innovation saw a toaster
connected to the internet, allowing users to control it
remotely, foreshadowing the convenience of smart home
devices.

Department of EXTC
11
([email protected])
 History of IOT
• 1999 – IoT Coined (Kevin Ashton): Kevin Ashton coined
the term “Internet of Things” to describe the
interconnected network of devices communicating and
sharing data, laying the foundation for a new era of
connectivity
• 2000 – LG Smart Fridge: The LG Smart Fridge marked a
breakthrough, enabling users to check and manage
refrigerator contents remotely, showcasing the potential of
IoT in daily life
• 2004 – Smart Watch: The advent of smartwatches
introduced IoT to the wearable tech realm, offering fitness
tracking and notifications on-the-go.

Department of EXTC
12
([email protected])
 History of IOT
• 2007 – Smart iPhone: Apple’s iPhone became a game-
changer, integrating IoT capabilities with apps that
connected users to a myriad of services and devices,
transforming smartphones into hubs
• 2009 – Car Testing: IoT entered the automotive industry,
enhancing vehicles with sensors for real-time diagnostics,
performance monitoring, and remote testing
• 2011 – Smart TV: The introduction of Smart TVs brought IoT
to the living room, enabling internet connectivity for
streaming, app usage, and interactive content.

Department of EXTC
13
([email protected])
 History of IOT
• 2013 – Google Lens: Google Lens showcased IoT’s
potential in image recognition, allowing smartphones to
provide information about objects in the physical world
• 2014 – Echo: Amazon’s Echo, equipped with the virtual
assistant Alexa, demonstrated the power of voice-
activated IoT, making smart homes more intuitive and
responsive
• 2015 – Tesla Autopilot: Tesla’s Autopilot system
exemplified IoT in automobiles, introducing semi-
autonomous driving capabilities through interconnected
sensors and software.
Department of EXTC
14
([email protected])
 Four Key Components of IOT

• Device or sensor
• Connectivity
• Data processing
• User Interface.

Department of EXTC
15
([email protected])
 Key Components of IoT

Sensors and Actuators and Sensors:

▪ These are the devices that gather data from the physical
world. They can measure various parameters like
temperature, humidity, pressure, motion, light, sound, and
more
▪ Actuators: These devices take action based on the data
received, For example:
➢ a motor might be activated to open a window, or a valve might be
adjusted to control water flow.

Department of EXTC
16
([email protected])
 Key Components of IoT
Connectivity:
▪ This refers to the communication pathways that enable data
transfer between devices and the network of devices.
Common connectivity options include:
▪ Wi-Fi: Widely used for home and office environments
▪ Bluetooth: Suitable for short-range communication between
devices
▪ Cellular Networks (4G/5G): Provide broader coverage for
mobile devices and remote locations
▪ Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWAN): Ideal for devices
with low power consumption and long battery life.

Department of EXTC
17
([email protected])
 Key Components of IoT

Data Processing: This involves collecting, storing, and analyzing

the data generated by IoT devices
▪ Data Collection: Data is gathered from various sources,
including sensors, user input, and other devices
▪ Data Storage: Data is stored in databases or cloud platforms
for further processing and analysis
▪ Data Analytics: Techniques like machine learning and artificial
intelligence are used to extract valuable insights from the
data, such as identifying patterns, predicting trends, and
making informed decisions.

Department of EXTC
18
([email protected])
 Key Components of IoT

User Interface: This is the way in which users interact with the
IoT system. It can include:
▪ Mobile Apps: Allow users to monitor data, control devices,
and receive alerts
▪ Web Portals: Provide access to data visualizations,
dashboards, and control panels
▪ Voice Assistants: Enable users to interact with IoT devices
using voice commands
These four components work together to create a
comprehensive IoT system that can collect data, process
information, and take actions based on the insights gained.

Department of EXTC
19
([email protected])
 Architecture of IoT

• The architecture of IoT is divided into 4 different layers i.e.

➢ Sensing Layer
➢ Network Layer
➢ Data processing Layer, and
➢ Application Layer.

Department of EXTC
20
([email protected])
Architecture of IoT

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21
([email protected])
 Architecture of IoT

• Sensing Layer: The sensing layer is the first layer of

the Internet of Things architecture and is responsible for
collecting data from different sources. This layer
includes sensors and actuators that are placed in the
environment to gather information about temperature,
humidity, light, sound, and other physical parameters.
Wired or wireless communication protocols connect these
devices to the network layer.

Department of EXTC
22
([email protected])
 Architecture of IoT
• Network Layer: The network layer of an IoT architecture is
responsible for providing communication and connectivity
between devices in the IoT system. It includes protocols
and technologies that enable devices to connect and
communicate with each other and with the wider internet.
Examples of network technologies that are commonly
used in IoT include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular
networks. Additionally, the network layer may
include gateways and routers that act as intermediaries
between devices and the wider internet and may also
include security features such as encryption and
authentication to protect against unauthorized access.

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 Architecture of IoT
• Data processing Layer: The data processing layer of IoT architecture
refers to the software and hardware components that are responsible
for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data from IoT devices. This
layer is responsible for receiving raw data from the devices, processing
it, and making it available for further analysis or action. The data
processing layer includes a variety of technologies and tools, such as
data management systems, analytics platforms, and machine
learning algorithms. These tools are used to extract meaningful
insights from the data and make decisions based on that data.
Example of a technology used in the data processing layer is a data
lake, which is a centralized repository for storing raw data from IoT
devices.

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 Architecture of IoT
• Application Layer: The application layer of IoT architecture is the
topmost layer that interacts directly with the end-user. It is responsible
for providing user-friendly interfaces and functionalities that enable
users to access and control IoT devices
➢ This layer includes various software and applications such as mobile apps, web
portals, and other user interfaces that are designed to interact with the underlying
IoT infrastructure
➢ It also includes middleware services that allow different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and share data seamlessly. The application layer also includes
analytics and processing capabilities that allow data to be analyzed and
transformed into meaningful insights. This can include machine learning
algorithms, data visualization tools, and other advanced analytics capabilities.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized by the following key features
that are mentioned below.
1. Connectivity- Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT
infrastructure. Things of IoT should be connected to the IoT
infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can connect, this should be
guaranteed at all times
2. Intelligence and Identity- The extraction of knowledge from the
generated data is very important. For example,
➢ a sensor generates data, but that data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly.
Each IoT device has a unique identity. This identification is helpful in tracking the
equipment and at times for querying its status.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
3. Scalability- The number of elements connected to the IoT
zone is increasing day by day. Hence, an IoT setup should be
capable of handling the massive expansion. The data
generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should be
handled appropriately
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)- IoT devices
should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts
and scenarios (may be operating, architectural, environment )
➢ Assume a camera meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to
work in different conditions and different light situations (morning,
afternoon, and night).

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
5. Architecture- IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It
should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturers ‘ products to
function in the IoT network. IoT is not owned by anyone engineering
branch. IoT is a reality when multiple domains come together
6. Safety- There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users
getting compromised when all his/her devices are connected to the
internet. This can cause a loss to the user. Hence, data security is the
major challenge. IoT networks may also be at risk. Therefore, equipment
safety is also critical
7. Self Configuring- This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT
devices are able to upgrade their software in accordance with requirements with a
minimum of user participation. Additionally, they can set up the network, allowing
for the addition of new devices to an already-existing network.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things

8. Interoperability- IoT devices use standardized protocols and

technologies to ensure they can communicate with each other and other
systems. Interoperability is one of the key characteristics of the Internet of
Things (IoT). It refers to the ability of different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and exchange data with each other, regardless of the
underlying technology or manufacturer.
• Without interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual
silos of data and devices, making it difficult to share information and
create new services and applications.
• To achieve interoperability, IoT devices, and systems use standardized
communication protocols and data formats.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
9. Embedded Sensors and Actuators- Embedded sensors and actuators are
critical components of the Internet of Things (IoT). They allow IoT devices to
interact with their environment and collect and transmit data:
• Sensors are devices that can detect changes in the environment, such as
temperature, light, sound, or movement. In IoT systems, sensors are
embedded into devices, allowing them to collect data about the environment
• Actuators are devices that can interact with the environment, such as turning
on lights, opening or closing doors, or controlling the speed of a motor. In IoT
systems, actuators are embedded into devices, allowing them to perform
actions based on data collected by sensors
• IoT devices are equipped with sensors and actuators that allow them to collect
and transmit data, as well as to interact with the environment.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
10. Autonomous operation- Autonomous operation refers to the ability of IoT devices and systems to
operate independently and make decisions without human intervention. This is a crucial characteristic of
the Internet of Things (IoT) and enables a wide range of new applications and services.
• In IoT systems, devices and systems are equipped with sensors, actuators, and processing power,
allowing them to collect and process data about the environment, make decisions based on that
data, and take action accordingly.
• For example, an IoT system might use sensors to detect changes in temperature or light levels in a
room, and then use actuators to adjust the temperature or turn on the lights based on that data. This
allows for the automation of many tasks, such as energy management, home automation, and
predictive maintenance.
• Another example of autonomous operation in IoT is self-healing networks, where IoT devices can
automatically detect and repair problems, such as network outages, without human intervention.
• Autonomous operation is made possible by advances in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and
cloud computing, which enable IoT devices and systems to process and analyze large amounts of
data in real time and make decisions based on that data.
• Overall, the autonomous operation is an important characteristic of IoT systems, allowing them to
deliver new and innovative services and applications that can improve efficiency, reduce costs, and
enhance the user experience. IoT devices are designed to operate autonomously, without direct
human intervention, making it possible to automate a wide range of processes and tasks.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
11. Data-driven- Data-driven is a key characteristic of the Internet of Things (IoT).
IoT devices and systems collect vast amounts of data from sensors and other
sources, which can be analyzed and used to make data-driven decisions
• This data is used to gain insights into the environment, improve operational
efficiency, and make informed decisions
• Data from sensors and other sources is used to predict when equipment is
likely to fail, allowing for proactive maintenance and reducing the risk of
unplanned downtime
• Data-driven IoT is made possible by advances in big data technologies, such
as distributed data processing and cloud computing, which allow for the
efficient analysis and management of large amounts of data in real time.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 12. Security- Security is a critical concern for the Internet
of Things (IoT), as IoT devices and systems handle sensitive
data and are connected to critical infrastructure. The
increasing number of connected devices and the amount
of data being transmitted over the Internet make IoT
systems a prime target for cyberattacks……..

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 12. Security- …..
• To secure IoT systems, multiple layers of security are necessary, including:
• physical security- Physical security involves protecting the physical devices
from unauthorized access or tampering. This can be achieved through
measures such as secure enclosures, access controls, and tamper-proofing
• network security- Network security involves protecting the communication
networks that connect IoT devices, including Wi-Fi networks, cellular
networks, and wired networks. This can be achieved through encryption,
secure authentication, and firewalls
• data security.- Data security involves protecting the data collected and
transmitted by IoT devices and systems. This can be achieved through
encryption, secure storage, and access controls.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 13. Ubiquity- Ubiquity refers to the widespread and pervasive
presence of the Internet of Things (IoT) devices and systems in our
daily lives. The goal of IoT is to create a seamless and interconnected
world where devices and systems can communicate and share data
seamlessly and transparently
• For example, in a smart home, a person could use their smartphone to
control the temperature, lighting, and other systems in their home,
even when they are away
• Overall, ubiquity is a key characteristic of the IoT, and it is essential for
realizing the full potential of IoT and creating a truly interconnected
and smart world.

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 Characteristics of the Internet of Things
• 14. Context Awareness- Context awareness refers to the ability of
Internet of Things (IoT) devices and systems to understand and
respond to the environment and context in which they are operating.
This is achieved through the use of sensors and other technologies
that can detect and collect data about the environment.
• For example, in a smart home, a context-aware IoT system could
adjust the temperature, lighting, and other systems based on the time
of day, the presence of people in the home, and other factors.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-1
• A single node/device in a level-1 IoT system performs
sensing and/or actuation, stores data, performs analysis,
and hosts the application
• It is appropriate for modelling low-cost and low-complexity
approaches where the data involved is minimal and the
analysis criteria are not particularly challenging
• The data sensed is processed locally
• Monitoring and control are performed using a mobile app
or a web app.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-1
Example-
• An app is used to monitor in-home automation, a few home
appliances, lights and/or other home appliances
• A REST service is used to view and update the status of lights and
appliances by altering values in a local database.
• The controller service constantly tracks the database, keeps track of
equipment, and activates relay switches
• The locally deployed framework offers a graphical user interface (GUI)
from which the user can control lights and other household
appliances.

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 Department of EXTC
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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-2
• IoT Level2-
• It consists of a single node that performs sensing, actuation, and local
analysis (IoT Device and collected data).
• In this IoT Stage, a database and framework are set up in the cloud.
• It is useful for solutions where the data is large, but the primary
analysis criterion is not computationally intensive and can be
performed locally.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-2
• Example-
• Let us consider an example of Smart irrigation- A single node monitors
soil moisture and controls the irrigation system
• If the moisture level falls below the prescribed predefined threshold,
the irrigation system is enabled
• An IoT system detects soil moisture, and the controller service tracks it
and sends the data to the cloud
• Moisture levels are shown to users in an application, which can be
used to create an irrigation schedule
• This level has a voluminous size of data. Hence cloud storage is used
• Data analysis is carried out locally. Cloud is used for only storage
purposes.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-3
• IoT Level3
➢ It only has one node. In the cloud, a database and an application are
created
➢ It is appropriate for solutions involving large amounts of data and
computationally intensive research criteria
• Example- As an example, consider package monitoring in a distribution
system
• The movements that occur to the package are reviewed here. If they
exceed the threshold, an alarm is triggered
• To detect these movements, the IoT system has gyroscope and
accelerometer sensors
• The controller service uses Websocket API to send real-time data to the
cloud, which is useful in real-time applications due to its low overhead.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-3
• A cloud-based WebSocket-based service retrieves real-time data from
IoT devices and stores it in a database, it retrieves it as required for
analysis
• The data is voluminous, i.e. large data, in this case. The data sensing
frequency is high, and the collected sensed data is stored on the cloud
because it is large
• Data is analyzed in the cloud, and control actions are activated using a mobile
app or a web app based on the results of the analysis.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-4
• IoT Level4- • It has a number of nodes that conduct local analysis. It
has a database and application that are hosted in the cloud. These IoT
systems provide both local and cloud-based observer nodes that can
subscribe to and receive collected data in the cloud via IoT node
devices
• It is appropriate for solutions involving multiple nodes, large amounts
of data, and computationally intensive analysis requirements

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-4
• Example- As an example, consider an IoT-based noise monitoring device
• In this system, several nodes are dispatched in various locations to detect
noise in a specific region
• Sound sensors are examples of Nodes/Devices in this context
• Each Node/Device is self-contained, with its own controller service that
delivers data to the cloud for storage and processing
• This level includes numerous sensors, data collection, and analysis, as well as
a control and monitoring app

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 Department of EXTC
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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-5
• IoT Level5- There are several end nodes and a supervisor node. For sensing
and/or actuation, the end nodes are used
• The Coordinator Node model gathers data and transfers it to the cloud from
the end nodes
• Ideal for solutions focused on wireless networks with large data and computer-
intensive analysis requirements.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-5
• Examples- Take a Forest Fire Detection System example
• Nodes/devices are mainly used to detect temperature, moisture, and CO2
levels in this kind of system.
• So, what sensors could have been used properly must be clear to you? Fine!
Fine! Here the sensors are used for temperature, humidity, and CO2
• These nodes detected the data, the coordinator node collects the data and the
controller service on the coordinator is migrated into the cloud
• Node Coordinator serves as a portal to the IoT-based system and provides
Internet access
• Analytics module can be used to predict/generate results to the data stored in
the cloud
• The data collection and data analysis are performed at the cloud level.

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 Levels of IoT- IoT Level-6
IoT Level6- It has several separate end nodes used for monitoring and/or
transferring data to the cloud. Our database is built on the Cloud
• The analytics portion analyses and stores data in the cloud database and
displays cloud-based results
• The centralized controller knows all nodes' status and delivers command
signals to the nodes

Example- Take an example of a system of weather surveillance

• Numerous temperature, humidity, stress, etc. sensors are contained in this
system
• These nodes are installed in various locations and are sent via the WebSocket-
based API to cloud-based storage in real-time.

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 Design challenge in IoT
• Design challenges in IoT (Internet of Things) refer to the technical difficulties
and trade-offs involved in creating connected devices that are both functional
and secure. Some of the key design challenges in IoT include:
• Interoperability: Interoperability refers to the ability of different systems,
devices, or components to work together seamlessly and exchange data
effectively. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), interoperability is a
critical challenge, as a large number of diverse devices are being connected to
the internet. The lack of standardization in the IoT can lead to difficulties in
communication and data exchange between devices, resulting in an
fragmented and inefficient system. To overcome this challenge, organizations
and industry groups are working to establish standards and protocols to
ensure interoperability between IoT devices. This includes the development of
common communication protocols, data formats, and security standards.
Interoperability is important for enabling the full potential of the IoT and
allowing connected devices to work together effectively and efficiently.
Ensuring that different IoT devices can work together seamlessly and exchange
data effectively.

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 Design challenge in IoT
• Security: Security is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT) as it involves the
protection of sensitive data and systems from unauthorized access, theft, or damage. IoT
devices are often vulnerable to cyber attacks due to their increased exposure to the internet
and their limited computing resources. Some of the security challenges in IoT include:
1. Device security: Ensuring that IoT devices are protected from malware and unauthorized
access.
2. Network security: Protecting the communication between IoT devices and the network from
cyber attacks.
3. Data security: Securing the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices from unauthorized
access or tampering.
4. Privacy: Protecting the privacy of individuals whose personal information is collected and
transmitted by IoT devices. To address these security challenges, organizations should
implement robust security measures such as encryption, firewalls, and regular software
updates. Additionally, they should conduct regular security audits and assessments to identify
and address potential security risks. By prioritizing security, organizations can help to protect
the sensitive data and systems involved in IoT and reduce the risk of cyber-attacks. Protecting
IoT devices and the sensitive data they collect and transmit from cyber threats and
unauthorized access.

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 Design challenge in IoT
• Scalability: Scalability refers to the ability of a system to handle increasing
workloads or numbers of users without a significant decline in performance. In
the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), scalability is a major challenge as the
number of connected devices is rapidly growing, leading to an increased
volume of data and communication. Scalability challenges in IoT include:
1. Data management: Effectively managing and storing the large amounts of data
generated by IoT devices.
2. Network capacity: Ensuring that networks have sufficient capacity to handle
the increased volume of data and communication.
3. Device management: Efficiently managing the growing number of IoT devices
and ensuring that they can be easily configured and maintained.

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 Design challenge in IoT
1. To address these scalability challenges, organizations should adopt scalable
architectures, such as cloud computing, that can accommodate the
growing number of IoT devices and the data they generate.
Additionally, they should implement efficient data management and storage
solutions, such as distributed databases and data lakes, to handle the
increased volume of data. By prioritizing scalability, organizations can ensure
that their IoT systems can handle the growing number of connected
devices and continue to deliver high performance and efficiency. Designing
systems that can accommodate large numbers of connected devices
and manage the resulting data flow effectively.

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 Design challenge in IoT
•Reliability: Reliability refers to the ability of a system to perform its intended
function consistently and without failure over time. In the context of the Internet of
Things (IoT), reliability is a critical concern, as the failure of even a single IoT device
can have significant consequences. Some of the reliability challenges in IoT
include:
1. Device failure: Ensuring that IoT devices are designed and built to be reliable
and function correctly even in harsh environments.
2. Network connectivity: Maintaining stable and reliable connections between IoT
devices and the network, even in the face of hardware or software failures.
3. Data accuracy: Ensuring that the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices
is accurate and reliable.

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 Design challenge in IoT
1. To address these reliability challenges, organizations should implement robust
and reliable hardware and software designs for IoT devices, and conduct
regular testing and maintenance to identify and resolve any issues. They
should also implement redundant systems and failover mechanisms to ensure
that the system continues to function in the event of a failure. By
prioritizing reliability, organizations can help ensure that their IoT systems
perform consistently and without failure, delivering the intended
benefits and results. Ensuring that IoT systems remain functional and
accessible even in the face of hardware or software failures.

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 Design Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)
• Power consumption: Power consumption refers to the amount of energy that
a system or device uses. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), power
consumption is a critical challenge, as many IoT devices are designed to be
small, low-power, and operate using batteries. Some of the power
consumption challenges in IoT include:
1. Battery life: Ensuring that IoT devices have sufficient battery life to operate
without frequent recharging or replacement.
2. Energy efficiency: Making sure that IoT devices are designed to use energy
efficiently and reduce the overall power consumption of the system.
• Power management: Implementing effective power management techniques,
such as sleep modes, to reduce the power consumption of IoT devices when
they are not in use.

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 Design Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)
• To address these power consumption challenges, organizations should adopt
low-power technologies and energy-efficient designs for IoT devices. They
should also implement effective power management techniques, such as
sleep modes, to reduce the power consumption of IoT devices when they are
not in use. By prioritizing power consumption, organizations can help
ensure that their IoT systems are energy efficient, reducing costs and
environmental impact. Minimizing the power consumption of IoT devices
to extend battery life and reduce costs.

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 Design Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)
• Privacy: Privacy is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT), as IoT
devices collect, store, and transmit large amounts of personal and sensitive
information. Some of the privacy challenges in IoT include:
1. Data collection: Ensuring that only the necessary data is collected and that it
is collected in a way that respects individuals’ privacy rights.
2. Data storage: Ensuring that the data collected by IoT devices is stored securely
and that access to it is strictly controlled.
3. Data sharing: Controlling who has access to the data collected by IoT devices
and ensuring that it is not shared without proper authorization.

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 Design Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)
• To address these privacy challenges, organizations should implement robust
privacy policies and procedures, such as data protection, data minimization,
and data retention. They should also educate users on the privacy
implications of using IoT devices and encourage them to take steps to protect
their privacy. Additionally, organizations should adopt privacy-
enhancing technologies, such as encryption and anonymization, to protect the
privacy of individuals whose information is collected by IoT devices. By
prioritizing privacy, organizations can help to ensure that individuals’ rights and
freedoms are respected, and that sensitive information is protected
from unauthorized access or misuse. Protecting the privacy of individuals
whose personal information is collected and transmitted by IoT
devices.

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 Design Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)
• Battery life is a limitation –
Issues in packaging and integration of small-sized chip with low weight and
less power consumption. If you’ve been following the mobile space, you’ve
likely see how every yr it looks like there’s no restriction in terms of display
screen size. Take the upward thrust of ‘phablets’, for instance, which can be
telephones nearly as huge as tablets. Although helpful, the bigger monitors
aren’t always only for convenience, rather, instead, display screen sizes are
growing to accommodate larger batteries. Computers have getting slimmer,
but battery energy stays the same.

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 Design Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)
• Increased cost and time to market –
Embedded systems are lightly constrained by cost.
The need originates to drive better approaches when designing the IoT devices
in order to handle the cost modelling or cost optimally with digital electronic
components.
Designers also need to solve the design time problem and bring the embedded
device at the right time to the market.
• Security of the system –
Systems have to be designed and implemented to be robust and reliable and
have to be secure with cryptographic algorithms and security procedures.
It involves different approaches to secure all the components of embedded
systems from prototype to deployment.
Designers and engineers must carefully balance these design challenges to create
IoT systems that are functional, secure, and scalable.

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 Security challenges in IoT
1. Lack of encryption – Although encryption is a great way to prevent hackers
from accessing data, it is also one of the leading IoT security challenges. These
drives like the storage and processing capabilities that would be found on a
traditional computer. The result is an increase in attacks where hackers can
easily manipulate the algorithms that were designed for protection.
2. Insufficient testing and updating – With the increase in the number of
IoT(internet of things) devices, IoT manufacturers are more eager to produce
and deliver their device as fast as they can without giving security too much of
although. Most of these devices and IoT products do not get enough testing
and updates and are prone to hackers and other security issues.
3. Brute forcing and the risk of default passwords – Weak credentials and login
details leave nearly all IoT devices vulnerable to password hacking and brute
force. Any company that uses factory default credentials on their devices is
placing both their business and its assets and the customer and their valuable
information at risk of being susceptible to a brute force attack.

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4. IoT Malware and ransomware – Increases with increase in devices.

Ransomware uses encryption to effectively lock out users from various devices
and platforms and still use a user’s valuable data and info.
Example –
A hacker can hijack a computer camera and take pictures.
By using malware access points, the hackers can demand ransom to unlock the
device and return the data.
5.IoT botnet aiming at cryptocurrency – IoT botnet workers can manipulate data
privacy, which could be massive risks for an open Crypto market. The exact value
and creation of cryptocurrencies code face danger from mal-intentioned hackers.
The blockchain companies are trying to boost security. Blockchain technology
itself is not particularly vulnerable, but the app development process is

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6. Inadequate device security : Inadequate device security refers to the lack of proper
measures to protect electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, and IoT
devices from cyber attacks, hacking, data theft, and unauthorized access. This can
happen due to outdated software, weak passwords, unpatched vulnerabilities, lack of
encryption, and other security risks. It is important to regularly update the software and
implement strong security measures to ensure the security and privacy of sensitive
information stored on these devices. Many IoT devices have weak security features and
can be easily hacked.
7. Lack of standardization: Lack of standardization refers to the absence of agreed-
upon specifications or protocols in a particular field or industry. This can result in
different systems, products, or processes being incompatible with each other, leading
to confusion, inefficiency, and decreased interoperability. For example, in the context
of technology, a lack of standardization can cause difficulties in communication and
data exchange between different devices and systems. Establishing standards and
protocols can help overcome this and ensure uniformity and compatibility. There is a
lack of standardization in IoT devices, making it difficult to secure them consistently.

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8. Vulnerability to network attacks: Vulnerability to network attacks refers to the

susceptibility of a network, system or device to being compromised or exploited by
cyber criminals. This can happen due to weaknesses in the network infrastructure,
unpatched software, poor password management, or a lack of appropriate security
measures. Network attacks can result in data theft, loss of privacy, disruption of
services, and financial loss. To reduce vulnerability to network attacks, it’s important to
implement strong security measures such as firewalls, encryption, and regular
software updates, as well as educate users on safe internet practices. IoT devices rely
on networks, making them vulnerable to attacks like denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
9. Unsecured data transmission: Unsecured data transmission refers to the transfer
of data over a network or the internet without adequate protection. This can leave the
data vulnerable to interception, tampering, or theft by malicious actors. Unsecured
data transmission can occur when data is transmitted over an unencrypted network
connection or when insecure protocols are used. To protect sensitive data during
transmission, it is important to use secure protocols such as SSL/TLS or VPN, and to
encrypt the data before sending it. This can help to ensure the confidentiality and
integrity of the data, even if it is intercepted during transmission. IoT devices often
transmit sensitive data, which may be vulnerable to eavesdropping or tampering if not
properly secured.

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 Security challenges in IoT
10. Privacy concerns: Privacy concerns refer to issues related to the collection, storage, use, and sharing
of personal information. This can include concerns about who has access to personal information, how it
is being used, and whether it is being protected from unauthorized access or misuse. In the digital age,
privacy concerns have become increasingly important as personal information is being collected and
stored on an unprecedented scale. To address privacy concerns, individuals and organizations need to
implement appropriate security measures to protect personal information, be transparent about how it is
being used, and respect individuals’ rights to control their own information. Additionally, privacy laws and
regulations have been established to provide guidelines and protections for individuals’ personal
information. The vast amount of data generated by IoT devices raises privacy concerns, as personal
information could be collected and used without consent.
11. Software vulnerabilities: Software vulnerabilities are weaknesses or flaws in software code that can
be exploited by attackers to gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive information, or carry out malicious
activities. Software vulnerabilities can arise from errors or mistakes made during the development
process, or from the use of outdated or unsupported software. Attackers can exploit these vulnerabilities
to gain control over a system, install malware, or steal sensitive information. To reduce the risk of
software vulnerabilities, it is important for software developers to follow secure coding practices and for
users to keep their software up-to-date and properly configured. Additionally, organizations and
individuals should implement robust security measures, such as firewalls, antivirus software, and
intrusion detection systems, to protect against potential threats. IoT devices often have software
vulnerabilities, which can be exploited by attackers to gain access to devices and networks.

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 Security challenges in IoT

12. Insider threats: Insider threats refer to security risks that come from within an
organization, rather than from external sources such as hackers or cyber
criminals. These threats can take many forms, such as employees who
intentionally or unintentionally cause harm to the organization, contractors who
misuse their access privileges, or insiders who are coerced into compromising the
security of the organization. Insider threats can result in data breaches, theft of
intellectual property, and damage to the reputation of the organization. To mitigate
the risk of insider threats, organizations should implement strict access controls,
monitor employee activity, and provide regular training on security and privacy
policies. Additionally, organizations should have a plan in place to detect, respond
to, and recover from security incidents involving insiders. Employees or
contractors with access to IoT systems can pose a security risk if they intentionally
or unintentionally cause harm.

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 Deployment challenges in IoT
• The deployment of Internet of Things (IoT) systems can present several challenges, including:
1. Connectivity – It is the foremost concern while connecting devices, applications and cloud
platforms. Connected devices that provide useful front and information are extremely
valuable. But poor connectivity becomes a challenge where IoT sensors are required to
monitor process data and supply information.
2. Cross platform capability – IoT applications must be developed, keeping in mind the
technological changes of the future. Its development requires a balance of hardware and
software functions. It is a challenge for IoT application developers to ensure that the device
and IoT platform drivers the best performance despite heavy device rates and fixings.
3. Data collection and processing – In IoT development, data plays an important role. What is
more critical here is the processing or usefulness of stored data. Along with security and
privacy, development teams need to ensure that they plan well for the way data is collected,
stored or processed within an environment.
4. Lack of skill set – All of the development challenges above can only be handled if there is a
proper skilled resource working on the IoT application development. The right talent will always
get you past the major challenges and will be an important IoT application development asset.

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 Deployment challenges in IoT
5. Integration: Ensuring that IoT devices and systems integrate seamlessly with
existing technology and infrastructure.
6. Network infrastructure: Building and maintaining the network infrastructure
needed to support the large number of connected IoT devices.
7. Device management: Efficiently managing and maintaining the large number
of IoT devices in a deployment.
8. Data management: Managing and analyzing the large amounts of data
generated by IoT devices, and integrating it with existing data systems.
9. Security: Ensuring that the IoT deployment is secure from threats such as cyber
attacks, data breaches, and unauthorized access.
10. Cost: Balancing the cost of deploying and maintaining an IoT system with the
benefits it delivers.

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 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 3

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Mod4-Hardware Fundamentals

• Introduction to various sensors (temperature, humidity,

pressure, motion, etc.)
• Actuators and their types (solenoids, motors, relays)
• Microcontrollers and development boards (e.g., Arduino,
Raspberry Pi)
• Interfacing sensors and actuators with microcontrollers
• Introduction to embedded system design principles.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

• Sensors - The sensor attains a physical parameter and

converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g.
electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any
device or material to detect the presence of a particular
physical quantity
➢ The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-
readable form like changes in characteristics, changes in
resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

• Sensors- Detect and measure changes in the environment, like

temperature, pressure, or light intensity. Sensors convert physical
phenomena into a measurable signal. The output signal from a
sensor may need to be processed further, like amplified or converted
to an electrical signal
• Transducers- Convert one form of energy into another, like
mechanical energy into electrical signals. Transducers are often
used at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

• Sensors characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

• 1. Static characteristics : It is about how the output of a sensor

changes in response to an input change after steady state condition
• Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give
a result close to the true value of the measured quantity. It gives
Express the correctness of the output .
➢ It is measured by absolute and relative errors
➢ Absolute error = Measured value – True value
➢ Relative error = Measured value/True value.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

• Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the

physical quantity within which the sensor can actually
sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind
of response
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -
2000c to 800c.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of
sensors. Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is
able to sense The higher the resolution, better the precision,

• Precision: It is the ability of a measuring instrument to give the same

reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the
same prescribed conditions
➢ It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value

➢ It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in
the response/output of the system with respect to incremental
change in input parameters
➢ It can be found from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor

➢ It is the smallest amount of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s
reading

• Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly

straight line. Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static
calibration curve plots the output amplitude versus the input
amplitude under static conditions
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

• Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor

from a specific reading when kept at that value for a long
period of time
• Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a
sequence under the same conditions. The measurements
have to be made under a short enough time duration so as
not to allow significant long-term drift.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Dynamic Characteristics : Properties of the systems
• Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input
signal with no delay. It does not include energy-storing
elements
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements
• First-order system: When the output approaches its final value
gradually
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element
• Second-order system: Complex output response. The output
response of the sensor oscillates before steady state.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Sensor Classification :
• Passive & Active
• Analog & digital
• Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor – Passive sensors requires external power to operate it. Can
not independently sense the input. Ex- strain gauges, Thermistors, RTD etc
2. Active Sensor – They does not require external power supply to operate it.
They can Independently sense the input. Example- Thermocouple is an
example.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
3. Analog Sensor – The response or output of the sensor is some
continuous function of its input parameter. Ex- Temperature sensor,
LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect (Drawback=?)
4. Digital sensor – Response in binary/digital nature. Design to overcome
the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along with the analog sensor, it also
comprises extra electronics for digital conversion. Example – Passive
infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
5. Scalar sensor – Detects the input parameter only based on its
magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a function of magnitude of some
input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor
6. Vector sensor – The response of the sensor depends on the
magnitude of the direction and orientation of input parameter. Example
– Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
Types of sensors –
• Electrical sensor : Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non
contact
• Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the
component complete an electrical circuit
• Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical
principles of either induction for detecting metals or capacitance
for detecting non metals as well.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
Types of sensors –
• Light sensor: Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of
the important sensor
• Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today
• The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to
the intensity of the ambient light i.e when the intensity of light
increases, it’s resistance decreases and vise versa.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Touch sensor: Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus
is known as touch sensor. It’s name suggests that detection of
something
• They are classified into two types:
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
• Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types
• Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Optical sensor: In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by
breaking a light beam which falls onto a light sensitive device such as a
photocell
• Speed Sensor: Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle
which is in motion is known as speed sensor. For example – Wind Speed
Sensors, Speedometer
• PIR Sensor: PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic
sensor that is used for the tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light
radiating from objects in its field of view. It is mainly used for detecting human
motion and movement detection (?)
• Ultrasonic Sensor: The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working
principle of SONAR or RADAR in which the interpretation of echoes from sound
waves to evaluate the presence or attributes of a target by generating the high
frequency sound waves.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Temperature sensor: Temperature sensor is a device, used to
measure the temperature using an electrical signal. It requires a
thermocouple or RTD(Resistance temperature Detector). It is the most
common and most popular sensor
• In Temperature sensor, the change in the temperature correspond to
change in its physical property like resistance or voltage.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
• Types of temperature sensor:
• Thermocouple sensor
• Thermistor sensor
• Resistance temperature detector
• Thermometer
• IR temperature sensor
• Semiconductor based sensor

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
1. Thermocouple sensor It produces a voltage when the temperature of one of
the points differs from the reference temperature at other parts of the circuits
2. Thermistor sensor – This type of sensors is widely used in the human
thermometers. If there are changes in the temperatures, then the electric
current or resistance also change. The thermistor is made by using the
semiconductor materials with a resistivity which is especially sensitive to
temperature. The resistance of a thermistor decreases with increasing
temperature so that when the temperature changes, the resistance changes
predictable.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
1. Resistance temperature detector – Temperature sensors with a resistor what
changes the resistive value cumulatively temperature changes.
Resistance temperature detector(RTD) are used in a wide temperatures range
from -500c to 5000c for thin film and for the wire wound variety the range is
from the +2000c to 8500c
2. Thermometer – It is a device which is used to measure the temperature of any
class solid or liquid, in this type of alcohol is used in a tube whose volume is
changed by changing the temperature. Its volume is directly proportional to
temperature.

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 Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
1. IR temperature sensor – These are an electronic and non contacting sensors
which have a certain characteristic such that it can EMIT the IR radiations. Two
types of IR temperature sensor used in market are IR sensor and Quantum IR
sensor. The surface temperature detected by emitting radiation
2. Semiconductor based sensor – It operates with the reverse bias has a small
capacitance and low leakage current. They are formed on thin wafers of
silicon. They are compact, produce linear output and have a small range of
temperature. They also have low-cost and accurate.

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 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 4: 4 Feb 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Mod4-Hardware Fundamentals

• Introduction to various sensors (temperature, humidity, pressure, motion, etc.) √

• Actuators and their types (solenoids, motors, relays) √

• Microcontrollers and development boards (e.g., Arduino,

Raspberry Pi)
• Interfacing sensors and actuators with microcontrollers
• Introduction to embedded system design principles.

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 Arduino

• specifications of Arduino uno- The Arduino Uno is a

popular open-source microcontroller board based on the
Microchip ATmega328P microcontroller. It's widely used
by hobbyists, makers, and professionals for various
projects, from simple electronics to complex automation
systems
• The Arduino Uno is a versatile and affordable platform for learning about and
working with microcontrollers. Its extensive documentation and large
community make it an excellent choice for beginners and experienced users
alike.

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 Arduino

• Here are the key specifications of the Arduino Uno:

➢ Microcontroller: ATmega328P
➢ Architecture: 8-bit AVR
➢ Clock Speed: 16 MHz
➢ Flash Memory: 32 KB (0.5 KB used by the bootloader)
➢ SRAM: 2 KB
➢ EEPROM: 1 KB.

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 Arduino

• Power:
➢ Operating Voltage: 5V
➢ Recommended Input Voltage: 7-12V
➢ Input Voltage Limits: 6-20V
➢ Power Supply: USB or external power source (AC adapter
or battery).

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 Arduino

• Input/Output:
➢ Digital I/O Pins: 14 (6 of which can be used as PWM outputs)
➢ Analog Input Pins: 6
➢ PWM Pins: 6 (Digital Pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11)
➢ DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
➢ DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA.

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 Arduino

• Communication:
➢ Serial: UART TTL (5V) on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX)
➢ USB: For programming and serial communication
➢ SPI: Using digital pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and 13
(SCK)
➢ I2C: Using analog pins A4 (SDA) and A5 (SCL) .

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 Arduino

• Other Features:
– Reset Button: To reset the microcontroller
– ICSP Header: For programming the microcontroller directly
– Built-in LED: Connected to digital pin 13
• Physical Characteristics:
– Dimensions: Approximately 68.6 mm x 53.4 mm
– Weight: Approximately 25 g

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 Arduino

• Limitations of Arduino in IoT:

– Processing Power: Arduino boards have limited processing power
compared to more powerful microcontrollers or single-board
computers
– Memory: Arduino boards have limited memory, which can be a
constraint for complex applications
– Real-time Capabilities: Arduino boards may not be suitable for
applications with strict real-time requirements.

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 Arduino
• Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
• Simplicity Built-in Tools : The Arduino IDE is designed with
simplicity in mind, making it user-friendly, especially for
beginners
➢ provides a text editor for writing code and a set of tools to compile
and upload that code to the Arduino board
• Cross-Platform: The IDE is cross-platform, meaning it can be
installed and run on Windows, macOS, and Linux operating
systems
➢ This makes it accessible to a wide range of users, regardless of their
preferred operating system.

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 Arduino

• Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

• Library Management: The IDE simplifies the process of using external
libraries, which are collections of pre-written code that can be used to
extend the functionality of Arduino projects. The Library Manager allows
users to easily install, update, and manage these libraries easily
• Serial Monitor: The IDE includes a Serial Monitor, which allows
communication between the Arduino board and the computer. This is
useful for debugging code, displaying sensor data, and sending commands
to the Arduino board.

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 Arduino
• Pushing Code
– Bootloader: Arduino boards come with a pre-programmed
bootloader, which is a small piece of code that allows the
board to be programmed via the USB connection without
needing any additional hardware
– Simplified Process: The process of pushing code to an
Arduino board is straightforward and user-friendly, making it
easy for beginners to get started with programming and
hardware interaction
• Operating System
– No Traditional OS: Arduino boards, particularly the Uno, do
not run a traditional operating system like Windows or Linux.

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 Arduino

• Programming Language
– C/C++ Based: The primary programming language used with Arduino
is a simplified version of C/C++. It includes a set of libraries and
functions that make it easier
– Beginner-Friendly: The Arduino programming language is designed to
be beginner-friendly, with a simplified syntax and a focus on ease of
use. This makes it accessible to people with little or no prior
programming experience.

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 Arduino
• Openness
– Open-Source Hardware and Software: Arduino is an open-
source platform, meaning that both the hardware designs
and the software are freely available to anyone
– Large Community: The open-source nature of Arduino has
led to a large and active community of users, who provide
support, share projects, and contribute to the
development of the platform. This makes it easy to find
help and resources when working with Arduino
– Flexibility and Extensibility: The openness of Arduino
allows for a high degree of flexibility and extensibility.
Users can easily modify the hardware designs, add new
features, and create custom libraries to meet their specific
needs.

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 Raspberry Pi

• structure of Raspberry Pi

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 Raspberry Pi

The Raspberry Pi, in its essence, is a miniature computer built

onto a single circuit board. Here's a breakdown of its key
structural components:
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB):
– The PCB is the foundation of the Raspberry Pi. It's a flat, rigid board
that houses all the electronic components and provides the electrical
connections between them
– Think of it as the skeleton and nervous system of the Raspberry Pi,
holding everything together and enabling communication.

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 Raspberry Pi

• System on a Chip (SoC): The heart of the Raspberry Pi is the

SoC. This is a single chip that contains the main processing
units:
– Central Processing Unit (CPU): The "brain" of the computer,
responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations.
Raspberry Pi typically uses ARM-based processors known for their
balance of performance and power efficiency
– Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): Handles graphics-related tasks, such
as displaying images and videos. This is important for multimedia
applications and gaming
– Memory Controller: Manages the flow of data between the CPU, GPU,
and RAM.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Memory (RAM):
– Random Access Memory (RAM) is where the Raspberry Pi stores
data and programs that are currently in use. It's like the
computer's short-term memory, allowing for quick access to
information
– The amount of RAM varies between Raspberry Pi models,
influencing how many applications can be run smoothly at the
same time
• Storage:
– Unlike traditional computers with hard drives or SSDs, the
Raspberry Pi uses a micro-SD card for storage. This card holds
the operating system, applications, and user files
– The size and speed of the microSD card can impact the
performance of the Raspberry Pi.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Input/Output (I/O) Ports: The Raspberry Pi has a variety of

ports for connecting peripherals and interacting with the
outside world:
– USB Ports: For connecting keyboards, mice, storage devices, and
other accessories.
– HDMI Port: For connecting a monitor or TV to display the
output.
– Ethernet Port (some models): For wired network connectivity.
– Wi-Fi and Bluetooth (some models): For wireless network and
device connectivity
• GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) Pins: These pins allow
the Raspberry Pi to interact with electronic components,
sensors, and actuators, making it ideal for hardware projects.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Power Supply:
– The Raspberry Pi is typically powered via a micro USB or USB-C
connector. It requires a stable power supply to operate correctly
• Additional Components: Depending on the model, the
Raspberry Pi may include other components like:
– Camera Connector: For connecting a camera module
– Display Connector: For connecting a touchscreen display
– Audio Jack: For connecting headphones or speakers.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Overall Structure:
– The Raspberry Pi's structure is designed to be compact and efficient.
All the components are carefully placed on the PCB to optimize
performance and minimize size. This design makes it a versatile
platform for a wide range of applications, from basic computing to
complex IoT projects.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Here are some of its most important features:

• Small and Affordable:
– Compact Size: The Raspberry Pi is designed to be small
and compact, typically about the size of a credit card. This
makes it easy to integrate into various projects and
devices.
– Low Cost: One of the most significant features of the
Raspberry Pi is its affordability. It is designed to be an
accessible computing platform, with prices starting as low
as $5 for some models.

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 Raspberry Pi
• Versatile and Powerful:
– General-Purpose Computing: Despite its small size and low cost, the
Raspberry Pi is a fully functional computer that can run a variety of
operating systems, including Linux distributions.
– Powerful Processor: Modern Raspberry Pi models feature powerful
processors that can handle a wide range of tasks, from basic
computing to more demanding applications like media streaming and
gaming.
– Ample Memory: Depending on the model, the Raspberry Pi comes
with varying amounts of RAM, allowing it to run multiple applications
simultaneously and handle more complex tasks.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Connectivity and Expansion:

– Connectivity Options: The Raspberry Pi offers a variety of
connectivity options, including USB ports, HDMI ports, Ethernet ports,
and Wi-Fi and Bluetooth on some models. This allows it to connect to
various peripherals, displays, and networks
– GPIO Pins: The Raspberry Pi features General Purpose Input/Output
(GPIO) pins, which allow it to interact with the physical world. These
pins can be used to connect sensors, actuators, and other electronic
components, making the Raspberry Pi ideal for hardware projects and
IoT applications.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Open and Community-Driven:

– Open-Source Software: The Raspberry Pi primarily runs on open-
source operating systems, such as Raspberry Pi OS (formerly
Raspbian), which is based on Debian Linux. This provides a flexible and
customizable software environment
– Large Community: The Raspberry Pi has a large and active community
of users, which provides ample support, resources, and project ideas.
This makes it easy for beginners to get started and for experienced
users to find solutions to their problems.

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 Raspberry Pi

• Educational and Prototyping Focus:

– Educational Tool: The Raspberry Pi was originally designed as an
educational tool to promote computer science in schools and
developing countries. Its affordability and ease of use make it an
excellent platform for learning about programming, electronics, and
computer hardware
– Prototyping Platform: The Raspberry Pi's versatility and connectivity
options make it a popular choice for prototyping IoT devices, smart
home systems, and other electronic projects.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators

• The processor may be operating in a polling mode in which it

reads the sensor’s output either continuously, at fixed
intervals, or at irregular intervals, according to needs
• During periods in which the processor does not read the
sensor, other functions may be performed, but the sensor’s
output is not available
• This period may be very short (microseconds) or as long as
needed or practical.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators

• Another useful mode of operation is the interrupt mode

• Here, the sensor or some other event issues an interrupt
signal, which then starts the processor’s operation
• A very common mode of operation is for the processor to
either be in sleep mode or engaged in other operations,
ignoring the sensor or actuator it monitors
• Then, when an interrupt signal is issued, the processor
proceeds to read the sensor’s output.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators

• The interrupt may be initiated at regular intervals (timed) or it

may be initiated by the output of the sensor. For example,
when the sensor output exceeds a given value (or drops
below a certain value), an interrupt may be issued
• Beyond the mode of operation, interfacing must take into
account a number of other issues. The most common of these
are discussed next.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators

• Signal level- Depending on the output of the sensor, the

processor may be able to read the data and process it directly
or it may require the use of an analog module on board
(comparator, A/D converter, etc.)
• The requirement sensors and actuators impose on the
processor stem from the type of signal they generate, the
level of the signal, as well as frequency
• In most cases, the signals are low-voltage, low-power.
Piezoelectric devices, for example, may generate voltages
much above what processors can handle, and electric motors
and magnetic actuators almost always require more power
than processors can supply.
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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Impedance- If a sensor or actuator can be connected directly to a
processor in terms of voltage levels, we still have to take into account the
impedance of the I/O port
• When a pin is set as input, it becomes a high-impedance input, on the
order of a few megaohms. Typically, the current flowing into a pin when in
input mode is less than 1 mA. This is ideal when low-output impedance
sensors are connected
• Thus, for example, many sensors, including resistive, Hall effect, and
magnetic sensors, can be connected directly, provided that the voltage
level is appropriate. But there are sensors that cannot be connected
directly. One example is any sensor that supplies a current as output.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Frequency and frequency response- Most sensors and actuators are
relatively slow devices and are unlikely to pose a problem for processors in
terms of speed or frequency response
• But there are many sensors that, while their own response is sufficiently
slow, are part of oscillating circuits generating frequencies higher than the
capability of a micro processor
• Of course, one can divide the frequency of the input signal, say, by 100,
but this defeats the purpose by reducing the sensitivity of the sensor
• Alternatively an F/V converter can be used and the voltage produced can
then be measured through an A/D converter. A process of this type is likely
to introduce errors due to both conversions, and these errors come on top
of the errors in sensing.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Input signal conditioning- The power and signal requirements of
processors place some restrictions on interfacing of sensors and actuators
• Since processors operate between about 1.8 V and 6 V (5 V and 3.3 V are
the most common voltages), it is important that the sensor’s signal be in
this range as well
• To accomplish this, amplification, attenuation, scaling, changes in the
offset of the signal, and signal translation are often needed.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Input signal conditioning-
➢ Offset- Offset is the DC signal on which the sensor’s output variations ride.
This is a common occurrence in sensors
✓ This can be solved in many ways. One is to remove the DC signal altogether. This can be
done, for example, through an instrumentation amplifier by supplying DC Offset value to
the inverting input and the signal to the noninverting input and setting the amplification
to 1
✓ It is also possible to simply reduce the signal to acceptable levels by increasing the value
of the fixed series resistor in output voltage divider
➢ Scaling The input- to a processor can be scaled either by amplifying the
signal (scale factor larger than1) or by dividing it through an appropriate
resistive network (attenuation of the signal).

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Input signal conditioning-
➢ Isolation- Electrical isolation of the signal from a sensor or to an actuator is
sometimes needed
➢ This might be the case when the sensor is directly in contact with higher
voltages or when it must be floating (i.e., not connected to ground)
➢ Actuators may need to operate at much higher voltages than a microprocessor
and signal isolation again becomes necessary
➢ Loading- Anything connected to the sensor represents a load. Microprocessors
are no exception, but because their input impedance is high, many sensors can
be connected directly without concern for loading by the microprocessor
➢ Of course, there are exceptions to this rule
➢ In any case, a careful analysis of the loading effects on the sensors and the
effects on sensitivity, span, and response must be done whenever anything is
connected to a sensor.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Input signal conditioning-
➢ Output signals- The output from an I/O port in a microprocessor is of the
same level as the processor’s supply voltage (typically 1.8 V–6 V). The
maximum current an I/O pin can drive into a load depends on the way the
load is connected, but it is on the order of 20 mA–25 mA per I/O pin.
➢ This can be used to drive small loads directly, but for many applications,
the power must be boosted by an appropriate circuit
➢ Sometimes, when the voltage level is appropriate, only current needs to
be boosted
➢ but in other cases, both current and voltage will have to be changed. For
example, we might want to drive a 12-V DC motor consuming 1 A from the
output of a microprocessor.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Errors- The fact is that any circuit used for interfacing necessarily adds its
own errors to the overall errors of the system processors are no exception
➢ Resolution errors- Resolution refers to a number of different issues in
microprocessors. In a unit such as an A/D converter, it refers to the
minimum increment in the input that can be read as a distinct value
➢ For example, a 10-bit A/D converter with a reference voltage of 5 V has a
resolution of 5/ 1024= 4.88 mV: In converting a sensor’s output, the
output can only be distinguished in increments of 4.88 mV. This represents
an error of (4.88 103/5) x 100 = 0.1%. Perhaps, this is acceptable, but it
may be higher than the errors of many sensors.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Errors-
➢ Computation errors- Microprocessors are designed as general-purpose
controllers, not as computers
➢ user should be careful with non-integer mathematics, especially with
floating-point calculations—these require more resources than integer
operations and entail approximations and truncation of numbers, leading
to the introduction of errors, whereas integer operations are faster and
are exact
➢ Sampling and quantization errors- Another source of errors, one that is
not as well defined as resolution errors, is due to sampling.

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 General requirements for interfacing sensors and
actuators
• Errors-
➢ Conversion errors- The components of the microprocessor are not perfect
and all are subject to temperature variations, drift, and manufacturing
variations. Any operation, particularly conversion, introduces errors. If one
uses the internal comparator with the internal voltage reference, the
actual value of the reference voltage will influence the output.

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 Characteristics of Embedded systems

Embedded systems can be classified into small-scale, medium-

scale, and sophisticated systems based on the performance of
their microcontrollers
• Task-specific: Embedded systems are designed to perform a
specific function within a larger system.
• Real-time operation: Embedded systems can operate in real-
time.
• Resource constraints: Embedded systems are designed to be
efficient and use resources wisely.

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 Characteristics of Embedded systems

• Reliability: Embedded systems are designed to be reliable and

perform consistently
• Compact size: Embedded systems are designed to be compact
and take up minimal space
• Efficient software: Embedded systems use efficient software
to perform their tasks
• Interfacing capabilities: Embedded systems can interface with
other systems and devices
• Cost sensitivity: Embedded systems are designed to be cost-
effective

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 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 5: 10 Feb 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

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 Mod4- Sensor Interfaces
• Digital Interfaces:
➢ UART
➢ Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
➢ I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit)
➢ Controller Area Network (CAN)
➢ Middleware Technologies
➢ Communication Protocols and Models
➢ Practical Components Programming with interface in Arduino, MBed
and Raspberry Pi

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)

• The SPI bus is a synchronous serial communication interface used for

short-distance communication, primarily in embedded systems it is
Master-Slave configuration with full-duplex communication, meaning
data can be sent and received simultaneously
• It allows microcontrollers and other digital devices to communicate with
each other quickly and easily
• The SPI bus is very common way to connect peripherals like sensors,
memory chips, displays, and more
• It is used in IoT and embedded systems to connect devices and
sensors in various applications like smart homes, healthcare systems,
and industrial automation.

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
• Motorola originally developed the SPI bus in the late 1980s, many
other manufacturers have adopted the standard over the years
• The Serial Peripheral Interface bus (SPI) is used to transfer low- to
medium-speed data (up to about 5MBytes/second) in embedded systems
and SPI supports full-duplex communication, meaning data can be sent
and received simultaneously
• SPI is intended for short-distance communication, typically on the
same PCB. Longer distances can lead to signal degradation and
communication errors.

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)

• SPI is a point-to-point bus that has a single master and one or more slaves.
It uses four signals:
➢ slave select (SS)

➢ master out slave in(MOSI)

➢ master in slave out (MISO)

➢ and clock (SCLK)

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
• How SPI works?
• Master: One device on the SPI bus is designated as the master. This is usually a
microcontroller. The master controls the communication
• Slave: One or more devices are designated as slaves. These are typically
peripherals like sensors, memory chips, displays, etc.
• Connections: The master and slaves are connected via four main lines:
➢ MOSI (Master Out, Slave In): Data transmitted from the master to the
slave on this line
➢ MISO (Master In, Slave Out): Data transmitted from the slave to the
master on this line
➢ SCLK (Serial Clock): Clock signal generated by the master to synchronize
data transfer and given to slave
➢ CS/SS (Chip Select/Slave Select): Signal used by the master to select
which slave it wants to communicate with.

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)

• The master and slave both contain shift registers, and the SPI bus connects
them together to make one long, distributed shift register
• In operation, data to be sent is loaded into the master shift register (for a
write) or the slave shift register, and the SPI controller issues enough
clocks to shift all data bits out of one shift register and into the other.
Typically, the MSB is shifted out first
• Multiple slaves can be connected to the same SPI bus, but each requires its
own dedicated CS line from the master.

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Simple SPI Write Transaction

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Simple SPI Read Transaction

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 Department of EXTC
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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)

• Data Transfer (Simultaneous Send and Receive):

• Data is transmitted serially, one bit at a time, on the MOSI and MISO lines
• The master and slave simultaneously send and receive data. This is a key
feature of SPI
• The data is typically transmitted in 8-bit chunks (bytes), but other word sizes
are possible
• After the data transfer is complete, the master deactivates the slave by
pulling the CS/SS line high.

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
• Example: Sending a Byte:
– Let's say the master wants to send the byte 0x2A (binary 00101010) to a
slave
– The master pulls the slave's CS/SS line low
– The master starts generating the clock signal
– For each bit in the byte: The master places the bit on the MOSI line
• The clock signal transitions (rising or falling edge, based on CPHA)
• The slave reads the bit from the MOSI line
• Simultaneously, the slave might be sending data back to the master on
the MISO line
• After all 8 bits are sent, the master pulls the CS/SS line high to end the
communication.

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 reading data from ADC using SPI protocol
• Initialization:
• Microcontroller Setup: The microcontroller's SPI peripheral is configured.
This includes: Setting the SPI clock parameters this determine when data is
sampled and shifted, Enabling the SPI module, configuring the pins connected
to MOSI, MISO, SCLK, and CS as SPI pins
• ADC Connection: The ADC is physically connected to the microcontroller via the SPI
bus:

o MOSI (Master Out Slave In): Data from microcontroller to ADC.

o MISO (Master In Slave Out): Data from ADC to microcontroller.

o SCLK (Serial Clock): Clock signal generated by the microcontroller.

o CS (Chip Select): Active-low signal to select the ADC.

• ADC Configuration (if needed): Some ADCs might require initial configuration through
SPI commands to set parameters like resolution, input range, etc.

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 reading data from ADC using SPI protocol
• ADC Connection: The ADC is physically connected to the microcontroller via
the SPI bus: MOSI (Master Out Slave In): Data from microcontroller to ADC,
MISO (Master In Slave Out): Data from ADC to microcontroller, SCLK (Serial
Clock): Clock signal generated by the microcontroller, CS (Chip Select):
Active-low signal to select the ADC.
• Chip Select (CS) Activation: The microcontroller initiates communication by
pulling the ADC's CS line low. This enables the ADC and signals that it's ready
to communicate
• Initiate Conversion (if needed): Some ADCs require an explicit command to
start an analog-to-digital conversion. The microcontroller sends this command
to the ADC if necessary.

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 reading data from ADC using SPI protocol
• Read Data: Once the ADC has performed the conversion (or if no conversion
was needed), the microcontroller reads the digital data from the ADC. The
microcontroller clocks in the data bytes from the ADC over the MISO line
• Chip Select (CS) Deactivation: After the data transfer is complete, the
microcontroller pulls the ADC's CS line high to disable the ADC and terminate
the communication
• The exact sequence of commands and register addresses depends on the
specific ADC being used. Refer to the ADC's datasheet for detailed
information.

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 I2C bus protocol
• What is I2C Bus?
• Transmitting and receiving the information between two or
more than two devices require a communication path
called as a bus system
• A I2C bus is a bidirectional two-wired serial bus which is
used to transport the data between integrated circuits. The
I2C stands for “Inter Integrated Circuit”
• It was first introduced by the Philips semiconductors in
1982. The I2C bus consists of three data transfer speeds
such as standard, fast-mode and high-speed-mode. The I2C
bus supports 7-bit and 10-bit address space.
 I2C Signal Lines…….

I2C Signal Lines

 I2C Signal Lines…….

• The I2C is a serial bus protocol consisting of two signal lines

such as SCL and SDL lines which are used to communicate
with the devices
• The SCL stands for a ‘serial clock line’ and this signal is
always driven by the ‘master device’
• The SDL stands for the ‘serial data line’, and this signal is
driven by either the master or the I2C peripherals.
 I2C Interfaces………..
• It supports Multimaster communication, which means two
masters are used to communicate the external devices
• Many slave devices are interfaced to the microcontroller
with the help of the I2C bus
• The I2C protocol used to connect a maximum of 128
devices that are all connected to communicate with the
SCL and SDL lines of the master unit as well as the slave
devices.
 I2C Interface

embedded system diagram

 I2C Data Transfer Rates
• The data rate has to be chosen between:
➢ 100 kbps- standard mode
➢ 400 kbps- fast mode and
➢ 3.4 Mbps- high speed mode
➢ Some I²C variants include 10 kbps (low speed mode) and
1 Mbps (fast mode)
• The 9-bit data is sent for each transfer wherein 8-bits are
sent by the transmitter MSB to LSB, and the 9th bit is an
acknowledgement bit sent by the receiver.
I2C Protocol……..
 I2C The Data Read Format….

Data Transfer Format

 I2C Protocol……..
• Step1: First, the master device issues a start condition to inform all the
slave devices so that they listen on the serial data line
• Step2: The master device sends the address of the target slave device
which is compared with all the slave devices addresses as connected to
the SCL and SDL lines. If anyone address matches, that device is
selected, and the remaining all devices are disconnected from the SCL
and SDL lines
• Step3: The slave device with a matched address received from the
master, responds with an acknowledgement to the master thereafter
communication is established between both the master and slave
devices on the data bus.
 Terminology Used in I2C Protocols…..
• Transmitter: The device that sends data to the bus is called
transmitter
• Receiver: The device that receives data from the bus is
called a receiver
• Master: The device that initiates transfers to generate a
clock signals and terminate a transfer is called a master
• Slave: The device addressed by a master is called a slave.
 Terminology Used in I2C Protocols

• Multimaster: More than one master can attempt to control

the bus at the same time without corrupting the message
is called a Multimaster
• Arbitration: Procedure to ensure that, if more than one
master simultaneously tries to control the bus – only one is
allowed to do so.
 Reading data from ADC using

Initialization:
• Microcontroller Setup: The microcontroller's I2C peripheral is configured.
This includes setting the I2C clock speed, enabling the I2C module, and
configuring the pins connected to SDA and SCL as I2C pins
• ADC Connection: The ADC is physically connected to the microcontroller via
the I2C bus (SDA and SCL lines). Pull-up resistors are connected to both SDA
and SCL lines. The ADC's address is also configured, either through hardware
(jumper settings) or software (if the ADC supports it).

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 Reading data from ADC using

• Start Condition: The microcontroller initiates communication by generating a

START condition on the I2C bus. This is done by pulling the SDA line low while
the SCL line is high. This signals the beginning of a new I2C transaction
• Address Transmission: The microcontroller sends the 7-bit address of the
ADC over the SDA line, followed by a read/write (R/W) bit. Since we're reading
data from the ADC, the R/W bit will be set to '1' (read). Each bit of the address
and R/W bit is transmitted on the SDA line, synchronized by the SCL clock
pulses
• Acknowledge (ACK): The ADC, upon recognizing its address, responds with an
acknowledge (ACK) bit by pulling the SDA line low for one clock cycle. This
confirms that the ADC has received the address and is ready to
communicate.

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 Reading data from ADC using
• Initiate Conversion (if needed): Some ADCs require an explicit command to
start an analog-to-digital conversion. The microcontroller sends this command
to the ADC if necessary
• Read Data: Once the ADC has performed the conversion (or if no conversion
was needed), the microcontroller reads the digital data from the ADC. The
microcontroller switches to receive mode and clocks in the data bytes from
the ADC over the SDA line. Each byte of data is followed by an ACK from the
microcontroller
• Not Acknowledge (NACK): After reading the last byte of data, the
microcontroller sends a Not Acknowledge (NACK) bit by leaving the SDA line
high for one clock cycle. This signals the end of the data transfer
• Stop Condition: The microcontroller terminates the communication by
generating a STOP condition on the I2C bus. This is done by pulling the SDA line
high while the SCL line is high.

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 Department of EXTC
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 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 6: 18 Feb 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
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 Mod4- Sensor Interfaces
• Digital Interfaces:
➢ UART
➢ Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)- √
➢ I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit)- √
➢ Controller Area Network (CAN)
➢ Middleware Technologies
➢ Communication Protocols and Models
➢ Practical Components Programming with interface in Arduino, MBed
and Raspberry Pi

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 UART

• UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

• UART, is a serial, asynchronous, full-duplex communication
protocol that is widely used in the embedded field as a serial
communication protocol that enables devices to exchange data with
each other
• Asynchronous Communication: Unlike synchronous
communication, UART doesn't rely on a shared clock signal between
devices. This simplifies the hardware design as only two wires are
needed for data transmission (one for sending, one for receiving)
➢ To ensure proper communication, both devices must agree on a
common data rate, known as the baud rate, which determines how
quickly data is transmitted.

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 UART

• UART Connecting- A UART channel has two data lines. RX pin that
receives serial data and a TX pin on each device transmit data serialll
➢ Each device’s RX pin is connected to the other device’s TX pin. Note that there are
no shared clock lines! This is the “async” aspect of the universal async receiver
sender

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 UART
• A UART TX/RX pair is typically held at a high voltage when not transmitting data,
and transmission is started by pulling the line low. Data is typically transferred
in the form of packets, which consist of the following:
➢ Start bit
➢ Data frame (5 to 9 bits – typically LSB first)
➢ Parity bit (optional)

➢ Stop bits (1 to 2 bits line driven from low to high) .

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 UART

• Asynchronous communication takes one character as the

transmission unit
• The time interval between two characters in communication is not
fixed, but the time interval between two adjacent bits in the same
• The data transfer rate is expressed in the baud rate, that is, the
number of bits transmitted per second
➢ For example, if the data transmission rate is 120 characters/second,
and each character is 10 bits (1 start bit, 7 data bits, 1 check bit, 1 stop
bit), then the baud rate of its transmission is 10 ×120 = 1200
characters/second = 1200 baud.

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Baud rate
Since there is no clock signal in asynchronous communication,
the two communication devices need to agree on a baud rate.
Common ones are 4800, 9600, 115200, etc.

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 UART
The data communication format is as follows:

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 UART
The data communication format is as follows:

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 UART

• Start Bit- Every time a communication starts, the sender

sends a logic “0” signal, indicating the beginning of the
transmission character
➢ Because the bus is at a high level when it is idle, a signal that is
clearly different from the idle state, and start bit is sent first when
communication is started

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 UART

• Data Bit- After the start bit is the data we want to transmit.
The data bits can be 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 bits, etc. to form a
character (usually 8 bits). Such as ASCII code (7 bits), and
extended BCD code (8 bits). The LSBis sent first, and MSB
is sent last

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 UART

• Parity Bit- After adding this bit to the data bit, the number
of “1” bits should igit is always 1 (not commonly
used)……….

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 UART
• …..The check digit is actually the adjustment number, and
the serial port check is divided into several ways:
• No Parity
• Odd Parity: If the number of “1” in the data bit is an even
number, the parity bit is “1”, and if the number of “1” is
odd, the parity bit is “0”
• Even Parity: If the number of “1” in the data is an even
number, the parity bit is “0”, and if it is an odd number, the
parity bit is “1”
• Mark Parity: The check digit is always 1 (not commonly
used)
• Parity: The parity bit is always 0 (not commonly used).
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 UART
• Stop Bit- It is an end marker for character data. It can be
1-bit, 1.5-bit, or 2-bit.
➢ Since the data is timed on the transmission line, and each device has
its own clock, it is likely that there will be a small out-of-sync between
the two devices in the communication
➢ So the stop bit not only indicates the end of the transfer but also
provides the computer with an opportunity to correct the clock
➢ The more stop bits, the more stable the data transmission, but the
slower the data transmission speed.

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 CAN bus

• A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a robust vehicle

bus standard designed to allow microcontrollers and
devices to communicate with each other in applications
without a host computer and it is a message-based
protocol
 CAN History
• Development of the CAN bus started in 1983. The protocol
was officially released in 1986. The first CAN controller
chips, produced by Intel and Philips, came in the market in
1987
• Released in 1991 the Mercedes-Benz W140 was the first
production vehicle to feature a CAN-based multiplex wiring
system.
 CAN Applications -Automotive
• The modern automobile may have as many as 100
electronic control units (ECU) for various subsystem
• Typically the biggest processor is the engine control unit.
Others are used for transmission, airbags, antilock
braking/ABS, cruise control, electric power steering, audio
systems, power windows, doors, mirror adjustment,
battery and recharging systems for hybrid/electric cars, etc
• Some of these form independent subsystems, but
communications among others are essential.
 Architecture……..
• CAN is a multi-master serial bus standard for connecting
Electronic Control Units [ECUs] also known as nodes
• Two or more nodes are required on the CAN network to
communicate
• All nodes are connected to each other through a two wire
bus. The wires are a twisted pair with a 120 Ω (nominal)
characteristic impedance.
Architecture……..
CANbus Node……..
 CANbus Node………..
• CAN controller: often an integral part of the
microcontroller
– Receiving: the CAN controller stores the received
serial bits from the bus until an entire message is
available.
 CANbus Node………..
– Sending: the host processor sends the transmit
message(s) to a CAN controller, which transmits the bits
serially onto the bus when the bus is free
• Transceiver:
– Receiving: it converts the data stream from CANbus
levels to levels that the CAN controller uses. It usually
has protective circuitry to protect the CAN controller
– Transmitting: it converts the data stream from the CAN
controller to CANbus levels.
 CANbus Node………..
• Each node is able to send and receive messages, but not
simultaneously
• A message or Frame consists primarily of the ID
(identifier), which represents the priority of the message,
up to eight data bytes and other overhead are also part of
the message
• The improved CAN FD extends the length of the data
section to up to 64 bytes per frame.
 Data transmission………..
• If a logical 1 is transmitted by all transmitting nodes at the same time,
then a logical 1 is seen by all of the nodes, including both the
transmitting node(s) and receiving node(s)
• If a logical 0 is transmitted by all transmitting node(s) at the same
time, then a logical 0 is seen by all nodes
• If a logical 0 is being transmitted by some nodes, and a logical 1 is
being transmitted by some nodes, then a logical 0 is seen by all nodes
including the node(s) transmitting the logical 1.
 Data transmission………..
• When the 7th ID bit is transmitted, the node with the ID of
16 transmits a 1 (recessive) for its ID, and the node with the
ID of 15 transmits a 0 (dominant) for its ID
• When this happens, the node with the ID of 16 knows it
transmitted a 1, but sees a 0 and realizes that there is a
collision and it lost arbitration
• Node 16 stops transmitting which allows the node with ID
of 15 to continue its transmission without any loss of data.
The node with the lowest ID will always win the arbitration,
and therefore has the highest priority.
 Specifications
• Bit rates up to 1 Mbit/s are possible at network lengths below
40 m. Decreasing the bit rate allows longer network distances
(e.g., 500 m at 125 kbit/s).
 Middleware Technologies-
• Middleware Technologies- IoT middleware connects hardware and
software in a wireless sensor network, providing data collection,
device detection, cloud integration and security capabilities
• What is middleware?
➢ Middleware is software that bridges the gap between applications
and operating systems (OSes) by providing a method for
communication and data management
➢ This capability is useful for applications that otherwise do not have
any way to exchange data with other software tools or databases.
 Middleware Technologies-
• Why is it called middleware?
➢ Middleware is so named because it sits between an OS and the
applications that run on it in the software stack. Specifically, it sits
between the client-side requests on the front end and the back-end
resource being requested
➢ A client -- typically an application residing on the front end, i.e., where the
user interacts with the software -- can make a request with network-based
interactions. Resources such as databases, message queues, NoSQL data
stores and file servers are part of the back end. Middleware sits between
these ends to facilitate communication and data sharing between them.
 Middleware Technologies-
• Middleware components- Middleware typically consists of these
components:
• Management console. Provides an overview of the middleware's activities
and configurations
• Client interface. Communicates with the involved applications, databases
or other services
• Internal interface. Ensures that components function cohesively
• Platform interface. Ensures compatibility between software.
• Contract manager. Defines the procedures that applications must follow
for data exchange
• Session manager. Creates secure communication channels between the
middleware and applications
• Database manager. Integrates with different databases
• Runtime monitor. Continuously monitors middleware data movements
and generates reports for developers.
Middleware Technologies-
Middleware Technologies-
 Department of EXTC
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 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 7: 25 Feb 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Middleware Technologies-
• Middleware Technologies-
• What is middleware?
• IoT Middleware is software that bridges the gap between applications
and operating systems (OSes) by providing a method for communication
and data management. This capability is useful for applications that
otherwise do not have any way to exchange data with other software tools
or databases.
 Middleware Technologies-
• Why is it called middleware?
• Middleware is so named because it sits between an OS and the
applications that run on it in the software stack. Specifically, it sits
between the client-side requests on the front end and the back-end
resource being requested.
• A client -- typically an application residing on the front end, i.e., where the
user interacts with the software, can make a request with network-based
interactions
• Resources such as databases, message queues, NoSQL data stores and file
servers are part of the back end
• Middleware sits between these ends to facilitate communication and data
sharing between them.
 Middleware Technologies-
• How middleware works
• Middleware abstracts communication processes between
software components with the help of services. In doing so, it enables
applications, even those written in different programming languages, to
communicate
• Communication is established with a common messaging service to
transfer data -- for example, Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP),
representational state transfer (REST) or JavaScript Object Notation etc.
 Middleware Technologies-
• What is abstraction?
• Abstraction sometimes works in art, the object that remains is
a representation of the original, with unwanted detail
omitted. The resulting object itself can be referred to as an
abstraction, meaning a named entity made up of selected
attributes and behavior specific to a particular usage of the
originating entity. Abstraction is related to both encapsulation
and data hiding.
 Middleware Technologies-
• Why use middleware?
• Early on, middleware was used mainly as a mediator between an
application front end and back-end resources. Today, middleware serves
many more functions, including the following:
➢ Application development
➢ Manage connectivity to various back-end resources
➢ Implement logic based on client requests
➢ Handle concurrent processing, load balancing, transaction management.
 Middleware Technologies-
• Middleware products and providers- Most middleware products are
available in both on-premises and cloud-based versions. Popular
middleware vendors and products include the following:
➢ IBM Worklight
➢ Microsoft BizTalk Server
➢ Red Hat JBoss Enterprise Application Platform
➢ Oracle Fusion Middleware
➢ SAP Process Orchestration
➢ Apache Kafka and Apache Carmel.
 Mod2- Communication Protocols
• IoT Edge to Cloud protocols:
• HTTP
• REST APIs
• WebSocket
• MQTT
• COAP
• Comparison of Protocols…….

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 Mod2- Communication Protocols
• M2M Communication Protocols
• Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth low energy
• RFID IoT System, RFID IoT Network Architecture
• ZigBee IP/ZigBee SE2.0
• Wifi (WLAN)
• Message Communication protocols for connected devices Data exchange
formats:
➢ JSON & XML.

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 Bluetooth……

• Bluetooth holds a great promise because it can provide

Wireless communication to embedded systems and IoT at
very low cost
• Salient features of Bluetooth technology are:
➢ It is a low cost technology- its cost is less than cable
connections and while operated on battery power
consumption is also less.
 Bluetooth……
➢ It is based on radio transmission in ISM band [ISM band
refers to a group of radio bands or parts of the radio
spectrum that are internationally reserved for the use of
radio frequency (RF) energy intended for scientific, medical
and industrial requirements rather than for
communications]that is not controlled by any government
authority and hence no special approval is required to use
Bluetooth radio system
➢ It is based on open standards formulated by a consortium
of industries and large number of equipment vendors are
committed to this technology.
 Bluetooth……

• Set of devices form PAN if they are in Radio vicinity (Typically

10m radius) of each other
• When device comes in radio vicinity of another device,
Bluetooth protocols facilitate their forming a network
• Such networks are called ad-hoc network.
 Bluetooth System Specifications……
• Frequency of operation: Bluetooth devices operated in the
ISM band in the frequency range 2400-2483.5 MHz
➢ This band consist of 79 channels of 1MHz bandwidth, with
lower guard band of 2 MHz and upper guard band of 3.5
MHz
➢ Device transmits data using frequency hopping i.e. each
packet is transmitted in different channel
➢ Receiving device has to switch to that channel to receive
that channel, that provides secure communication
➢ Nominal frequency hop rate is 1600 hops per second.
 Bluetooth System Specifications……

• Modulation: Gaussian frequency Shift Keying (GFSK) is used

as modulation technique
➢ Binary-1 is represented by a positive frequency deviation
➢ Binary-0 by negative frequency deviation
➢ Bit-Error-Rate (BER) of minimum 0.1% is ensured i.e. there will
not be more than 1 error for every 1000 bits transmitted .
 Bluetooth System Specifications……

• Operating class: Three classes of devices are defined in

Bluetooth specification-
➢ Class 1: Device transmit maximum of 100 mw, the range of
such device is 100 m
➢ Class 2: Device transmit 10mw, the range is 50m
➢ Class 3: Device transmit 1mw and range is 10m.
 Bluetooth System Specifications……

• Service supported: Both data and voice services are

supported by Bluetooth devices-
➢ For voice communication Synchronous Connection Oriented
(SCO) links are used
➢ For data communication Asynchronous Connection Less
(ACL) are used
➢ For data services, devices data in the form of packets
➢ Receiving device acknowledges the packet or error that
packet is received or error
➢ If packet is received with error then it is retransmitted……….
 Bluetooth System Specifications……

➢ It is possible to broadcast packets by one device to all the

other devices in the network
➢ In broadcast mode there is no acknowledgement
• Data rates: Bluetooth device can support three synchronous
voice channels and one asynchronous data channel-
➢ For voice communication, 64kbps data rate is used in both
directions……….
 Bluetooth System Specifications……

➢ For data communication-

✓ In asymmetric channel data rates are 723.2 Kbps in one
direction and 57.6 Kbps in other direction
✓ In symmetric channel data rate is 433.9 Kbps in both
directions
 Bluetooth System Specifications……

• Network Topology: In a PAN, a set of devices from a small

network is called piconet-
➢ In piconet there is one master and one or more slaves
➢ It is possible for master and slave to switch roles- a slave
can become master
➢ Piconet can have maximum 7-slaves which can actively
communicate with master
➢ In addition piconet can contain many slaves that are in
parked mode.
 Bluetooth System Specifications……
• Communication between Master and Slave: Master and
slave communicates in the form of packets-
➢ Each packet is transmitted in a time slot
➢ Each time slot is 625 μs duration
➢ Master start transmission in even slot by sending a packet
addressed to a slave and slave sends packet in odd
numbered slot
➢ If packet extends more than one slot, hop frequency
remains same for the entire packet.
 Bluetooth System Specifications……

• Bluetooth Addressing: each Bluetooth module is given a

address containing three fields, Lower Address Part (LAP)
with 24 bits, Upper Address Part (UAP) with 8 bits and Non
significant Address Part with 16 bits-
➢ This address is unique to every Bluetooth device referred
to as BD_ADDR
➢ Each active member in a piconet will have a 3-bit address
➢ Parked member address is either 48-bit BD_ADDR or 8-bit
parked number.
 Bluetooth System Specifications
• Bluetooth profile: To ensure interoperability between
devices manufactured by different vendors, Bluetooth SIG
released the Bluetooth profiles
• Bluetooth profiles are defined for headset, cordless phone,
fax machine, serial communication, file transfer
synchronization of data between two devices etc.
Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

• Baseband and RF: the baseband layer is for establishing the

layers between devices based on the types of service
required ACL for data service and SCO for voice service.
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..
• Link Manager Protocol (LMP): The LMP is used to set up and control the
link. Link manager on one device exchanges message with Link manager
on other device. Functions of LMP are as follows-
➢ Authentication- To communicate with other device one has to verify it
➢ Encryption- To maintain confidentiality
➢ Clock-Offset-Request: Synchronizing the clock between master and slave
➢ Timing accuracy Information Request: To ensure synchronization, the
master can request the slave for timing accuracy information
➢ LMP version: It need to be ensured version number of LMP protocol is
exchanged……….
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

➢ The type of packet supported: Different Bluetooth enabled

devices may support different features
➢ Switching Master/slave role: Master and slave in piconet can
switch role using LMP message
➢ Name request: Device can be given user friendly name,
having maximum of 248 bits in ASCII format. Device can
request for the name through LMP message.
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..
➢ Detach: Message exchange to close connection
➢ Hold mode: To place ACL link in Hold for a specified time
when there is no data to send. This feature is mainly to
save the power
➢ Park mode: To be in synchronization with master but not
participate in data exchange
➢ Power control: To request for transmitting less power.
This is useful particularly for class-1 devices which are
capable of transmitting 100mw of power.
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

➢ Quality-of-service (QoS) parameter exchange: In application

that require good quality transmission link, quality of service
parameter can be specified. These parameter includes
repetition for broadcast packets, delay and bandwidth
allocation
➢ request SCO link: To request for SCO link after ACL link is
established.
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

➢ Link supervision: To monitor link when the device goes out

of range (Through time out mechanism)
➢ Connection establishment: To establish connection
Bluetooth device will implement the base band, RF and
LMP/ layers in hardware /firmware combination.
• Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP): This
runs above the baseband and carries out data link layer
functionality-
➢ It is only for ACL link
➢ Dose not support SCO link
➢ This protocol runs on host such as laptop.
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

• Service Discovery Protocol (SDP): This protocol is heart of

any network that supports ad-hoc networking-
➢ SDP provides Bluetooth environment to create ad-hoc
networks
➢ It is used for discovering the services offered by the device.
SDP offers following services-
✓ Device can search for service needed by it in piconet
✓ Can discover service based on class of services e.g. select
desire printer
✓ Mechanism to find out when service becomes unavailable
when the device goes out of radio range.
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

• RF COMM: This is transport protocol to emulate serial

communication (RS 232 Serial Port) over L2CAP. Through RF
COMM two devices can communicate using serial
communication protocols over Bluetooth radio
• Telephony Control protocol Specifications (TCS): To establish
voice communication between two Bluetooth devices we
need SCO link. SCO links are not handled by L2CAP………….
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

➢ TCS defines call control signalling for establishing speech and

data calls between Bluetooth devices
➢ This protocol is based on ITU standard Q.931, which is a
standard for signalling in ISDN .
• Host Control Interface (HCI): HIC provides a standard
interface between the Bluetooth module and the host
software, so that we can buy any hardware module from one
vendor and software module from another vendor……..
 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture……..

➢ If we have Bluetooth enabled laptop or computer (host), we

can connect a small Bluetooth module to the USB port of the
laptop and run the protocol stack on the laptop.
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth BR/EDR- LE
• Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range communications system
intended to replace the cable(s) connecting portable and/or fixed
electronic devices
• There are two forms of Bluetooth wireless technology systems, both
including device discovery, connection establishment and connection
mechanisms
• BR/EDR operates in the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz. The system
employs a frequency hopping transceiver to combat interference and
fading.
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth Classic
• Basic Rate (BR) includes optional Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) Alternate
Media Access Control (MAC) and Physical (PHY) layer extensions
• The Basic Rate system offers synchronous and asynchronous connections
with data rates of:
➢ 721.2 kb/s for Basic Rate
➢ 2.1 Mb/s for Enhanced Data Rate and
➢ high speed operation up to 54 Mb/s with the 802.11 AMP.
 Bluetooth
• The Bluetooth Classic radio, also referred to as Bluetooth Basic
Rate/Enhanced Data Rate (BR/EDR), is a low power radio that streams
data over 79 channels in the 2.4GHz unlicensed industrial, scientific, and
medical (ISM) frequency band
• Supporting point-to-point device communication, Bluetooth Classic is
mainly used to enable wireless audio streaming and has become the
standard radio protocol behind wireless speakers, headphones, and in-car
entertainment systems
• The Bluetooth Classic radio also enables data transfer applications,
including various IoT devices.
 Bluetooth
• During typical operation a physical radio channel is shared by a group of
devices that are synchronized to a common clock and frequency hopping
pattern:
• Master: the device that provides the synchronization reference
• Slave: all other devices synchronized to a master’s clock and frequency
hopping pattern
• Piconet: a group of devices synchronized in this master/slave fashion form
a piconet.
Parameters Bluetooth Low Energy (LE) Bluetooth Classic
Frequency Band 2.4GHz ISM Band (2.402 – 2.480 2.4GHz ISM Band (2.402 – 2.480
GHz Utilized) GHz Utilized)
Channels 40 channels with 2 MHz spacing 79 channels with 1 MHz spacing
(3 advertising channels/37 data
channels)
Channel Usage Frequency-Hopping Spread Frequency-Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS) Spectrum (FHSS)
Modulation GFSK GFSK, π/4 DQPSK, 8DPSK
Data Rate LE 2M PHY: 2 Mb/s EDR PHY (8DPSK): 3 Mb/s
LE 1M PHY: 1 Mb/s EDR PHY (π/4 DQPSK): 2 Mb/s
LE Coded PHY (S=2): 500 Kb/s BR PHY (GFSK): 1 Mb/s
LE Coded PHY (S=8): 125 Kb/s
Tx Power* ≤ 100 mW (+20 dBm) ≤ 100 mW (+20 dBm)
Rx Sensitivity LE 2M PHY: ≤-70 dBm ≤-70 dBm
LE 1M PHY: ≤-70 dBm
LE Coded PHY (S=2): ≤-75 dBm
LE Coded PHY (S=8): ≤-82 dBm
Data Transports Asynchronous Connection- Asynchronous Connection-
oriented oriented
Isochronous Connection-oriented Synchronous Connection-oriented
Asynchronous Connectionless
Synchronous Connectionless
Isochronous Connectionless
Communication Topologies Point-to-Point (including piconet) Point-to-Point (including piconet)
Broadcast
Mesh
Positioning Features Presence: Advertising None
Direction: Direction
Finding (AoA/AoD)
Distance: RSSI, Channel Sounding
Department of EXTC
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 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 9: 11th March 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Mod2- Communication Protocols
• Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth low energy- √
• ZigBee IP/ZigBee SE2.0 - √
• Wifi(WLAN)- √
• RFID IoT System ----Today
• RFID IoT Network Architecture ------ Today
• HTTP ------ Today
• REST API- ------ Today
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• What is RFID?
➢ RFID, or Radio Frequency Identification, is a technology that
uses radio/electromagnetic waves to automatically identify,
and track tags attached to objects like people, animals, Bags,
Parcel, vehicle. It is a wireless system that mainly uses two
components:
✓ Tags and
✓ Readers……..
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• What is RFID?
➢ Tag- RFID tags are small, electronic devices that store and
transmit information. They can be attached to various objects
that need to be identified/track wirelessly
✓ The tag emits radio waves that contain data
✓ An RFID antenna picks up the radio waves
✓ The antenna sends the radio waves to an RFID reader
• The RFID reader sends the data to a computer program….
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• What is RFID?
➢ Reader- The RFID reader is a network-connected device that
can be portable or permanently attached. It uses radio waves
to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once activated, the
tag sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated
into data.
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• How it works?
• Specific radio frequencies energize and activate RFID
tags(passive Tag) allowing RFID readers to access stored
information. Unlike passive tags, battery-powered RFID tags
(active Tag) constantly transmit and don’t need to be
energized
➢ A reader emits radio waves
➢ The tag responds by sending back signals containing
data/information stored
➢ The reader captures the data from the tag, may be given to
application or database.
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RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• RFID applications
➢ Inventory management: Tracks inventory in real-time,
reduces errors, and increases efficiency
➢ Asset tracking: Monitors the location and status of assets,
preventing loss and optimizing utilization
➢ Supply chain management: Enhances visibility and accuracy
in tracking products throughout the supply chain
➢ Access control: Grants or restricts access to buildings, rooms,
or devices
➢ Retail: Enables efficient stock management, theft prevention,
and improved customer experience.
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• Principle of RFID-
• A Tag is an electronic circuit which transmits its ID using RF
signals
• The ID transmits to a reader, then that transmits along with
the additional information to a remote server or cloud
connected through the Internet
• The additional information is as per the application. For
example, for a tracking application, it is location and time-
stamped data along with the ID………
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• Principle of RFID-
• Example bellow gives the methods for communication of an
ID from a tag and its reading by a reader
➢ Communication is according to UART protocol of 10-bit per
character. Reading RFID tag for processing is as follows—
✓ the tag circuit communicates first a header, which corresponds to ASCII
code for a carriage return. The code is 13d
✓ Then ten digits (bytes) communicate which correspond to unique tag ID
✓ The end byte is for communicating the finishing of data
✓ The byte corresponds to new line ASCII code. The code is 10d
✓ Twelve bytes (1 start byte+ 10 ID bytes+ 1 end byte) communicate
serially.
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• RFID frequency range- RFID systems operate across several
frequency ranges, each with its own characteristics and
applications. Here's a breakdown of the primary frequency
bands:
• Low Frequency (LF):
➢ Typically operates at 125 kHz or 134 kHz
➢ Short read range (a few centimeters)
➢ Commonly used for access control and object tracking
• High Frequency (HF):
➢ Primarily operates at 13.56 MHz
➢ Moderate read range (up to about 1 meter)
➢ Used in applications like smart cards, ticketing, and Near Field Communication
(NFC)………..
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• Ultra-High Frequency (UHF):
➢ Ranges from 860 MHz to 960 MHz
➢ Longer read range (up to several meters)
➢ Faster data transfer rates
➢ Widely used for supply chain management, inventory control, and
retail applications
• Microwave:
➢ Commonly operates at 2.45 GHz
➢ Longest read range
➢ Used in applications like toll collection and some industrial tracking.
 Department of EXTC
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RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• components needed in a system for IoT applications and
services-
• The components of an RFID IoT system are:
• RFID is a tiny chip- which functions as a tag or label onto an object. The
chip is one of two types—
➢ Passive
➢ active
• A transceiver- It communicates in a range 10 cm to 200 m according to the
chip. The chip does UART communication to the reader either using RF link
or does NFC………
RFID- Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• Data processing subsystem: A reader associates a data processing
subsystem which consists of a computing device and a middleware
and provides connectivity to the Internet, directly or through a
gateway. A reader circuit may send data directly or through a
computer, mobile or tablet to the Internet. The computations for
transmission (of the contents information of tagged device) are
usually little
• Middleware: Middleware are software components used at the
reader, read manager, data store for the transaction data store and
APIs of the applications
• Applications and services: Other associated applications software
use the data store at the cloud or web server.
 HTTP and REST APIs: The Foundation of Web
Interactions
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
• What it is:
– The foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web
– Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a set of rules that govern how
information is exchanged between a web server and a client. It's the main
protocol for transmitting information on the internet.
– A request-response protocol between a client (e.g., a web browser) and a
server
 HTTP and REST APIs: The Foundation of Web
Interactions
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
• Key features:
– Uses URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) to identify resources
– Stateless: Each request is treated independently
o Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is called stateless because the server
doesn't save session information between requests from a client. This means
that each request is independent of previous requests.
• Typical use:
– Loading web pages, submitting forms, downloading files.
 HTTP and REST APIs: The Foundation of Web
Interactions
• REST APIs (Representational State Transfer Application Programming
Interfaces):
• What it is:
– An architectural style for designing networked applications
– Relies on HTTP for communication
– Uses standard HTTP methods to perform operations on resources
• Key features:
– Stateless i.e. HTTP doesn’t store information between request
and response cycles. This is called stateless functionality
– Uses URLs to represent resources
– Data is typically exchanged in JSON or XML format
– Focuses on resources and their representations
• Typical use:
• Building web services, mobile app backends, integrating applications.
 HTTP and REST APIs: The Foundation of Web
Interactions

• Relationship:
– HTTP is the underlying protocol, and REST APIs are an
architectural style that utilizes HTTP
– Think of HTTP as the delivery truck, and REST APIs as the
standardized way of packaging and labelling the goods
being delivered.
 HTTP and REST APIs: The Foundation of Web
Interactions
• Real Application:
– e-commerce: When you browse an online store, your web
browser uses HTTP to request product information from
the server. The e-commerce platform's backend likely
exposes a REST API that provides this data in a structured
format (like JSON). When you add an item to your cart,
your browser sends a POST request to the API, and when
you place an order, another series of API calls handles the
transaction.
– Essentially any website or app that pulls data from a
server, to display to a user, is very likely using HTTP, and if
the data is well structured, it is very likely using a REST API.
 REST APIs
• It is safe to say that we’ve not seen the true power and
potential of IoT yet (2023). The IoT market is set to almost
double in value in the next five years – from $760 billion to
$1386 in 2026. And this growth would not even be possible
without APIs
• API stands for Application Programming Interface
➢ It’s a set of lines of codes and specifications that allow two devices to
communicate with one another
➢ They serve as the interface between different programs
➢ And, to put it bluntly, the whole concept of IoT falls down without
APIs
➢ Moreover, the emergence of easy-to-code web API IoT – or Rest APIs –
has made IoT more developer-friendly than ever before.
 REST APIs
• What is REST API?
➢ REST stands for REpresentational State Transfer. It’s an
architectural style for developing web services
➢ A lot of people believe that REST is one of many IoT protocols.
However, REST itself is a development concept, not an IoT
protocol
➢ Web services are defined on the principles of REST and can be
defined as RESTful web services or RESTful APIs…………
 REST APIs
• What is REST API?
• An API works by making a request for information known as
an API call. The API architecture, in this case REST, dictates
how to format that call, as well as dictating in what format the
response will be
• REST is the basis for the most widely used form of. However,
REST typically uses HTTP or CoAP to work with specific
components in a particular IoT device. The components may
include:
➢ Files
➢ Objects
➢ Media.
 REST APIs
• How REST APIs Work
➢ A REST API has an architecture made up of clients and servers
➢ If a RESTful client web application needs a particular piece of
information from another application
➢ it can make an API call in any language. REST dictates that the
response must come in the same language as the request
➢ whether that be JSON, XML, plain text, or Python, are just a
few examples. JSON is the most commonly used……….
 REST APIs
• How REST APIs Work
➢ The request format will include a header that contains a
unique identifier and metadata
➢ This data tells the responding web service exactly what
information is needed and allows the requesting and
responding services to track the status of the request
➢ The response will also include a header that explains how to
read and process the information contained therein.
 REST APIs
• What’s the Difference Between REST and RESTful?
➢ While the two terms might be confusing, a RESTful web
service is simply a service that abides by the REST
architectural framework
➢ So a REST API is the same as a RESTful API
• There are undoubtedly some limitations with REST as an API,
but it’s one of the best option for your IoT system. REST
requires little bandwidth, is easy to scale up, and supports any
programming language.
 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 10: 18th March 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Mod2- Communication Protocols
• Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth low energy- √
• ZigBee IP/ZigBee SE2.0 - √
• Wifi(WLAN)- √
• RFID IoT System - - √
• RFID IoT Network Architecture - √
• HTTP - √
• REST API - √
• COAP -----Today
• WebSocket ------ Today.
 Quick review of last lecture
• What is API?
➢ API is a collection of communication protocols and
subroutines used by various programs to communicate
between them. A programmer can make use of various API
tools to make their program easier and simpler
➢ And hence API facilitates programmers with an efficient way
to develop their software programs
➢ A developer extensively uses APIs in his/her software to
implement various features by using an API call without
writing complex codes for the same
➢ Also, an API is similar to a GUI (Graphical User Interface) with
one major difference. Unlike GUIs, an API helps software
developers to access web tools.
 Quick review of last lecture
• How do APIs Work?
➢ Think of a client-server architecture where the client sends the request via
a medium to the server and receives the response through the same
medium. An API acts as a communication medium between two programs
or systems for functioning
➢ Steps followed in the working of APIs –
➢ The client initiates the requests via the APIs URI (Uniform Resource
Identifier)
➢ The API makes a call to the server after receiving the request
➢ Then the server sends the response back to the API with the information
➢ Finally, the API transfers the data to the client.
 Quick review of last lecture
• What is REST API?
➢ REpresentational State Transfer (REST) is an architectural
style that defines a set of constraints to be used for
creating web services. REST API is a way of accessing
web services in a simple and flexible way without having
any processing
➢ RESTful API is a type of API, that helps web service
applications communicate with each other
➢ REST most often uses the HTTP protocol and transfers data
using JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)……….
 Quick review of last lecture
• What is REST API?
➢ REST is one of the most popular choices for getting data from the
web due to its flexibility, speed, and simplicity
➢ Until 2000, SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol), developed by Microsoft,
was the most widely used platform for client-server interactions. While
SOAP was both useful and popular, the protocol had two disadvantages
➢ 6 REST API Constraints
✓ Uniform Interface
✓ Client-Server Architecture
✓ Statelessness
✓ Layered System
✓ Cacheable
✓ Code-on-demand.
 WebSocket
• The WebSocket protocol is used in IoT systems to enable real-time
communication between a server and a client, including audio and video
support
• Here are some advantages of WebSockets:
➢ Full-duplex communication: Allows data to be sent and received
simultaneously
• Low latency: Data can be transmitted with minimal delay once a
connection is established
• Reduced overhead: WebSockets have less overhead than HTTP because
they don't require headers and handshakes for each request-response
cycle
• Scalability: WebSockets are scalable.
 WebSocket
• WebSockets are used in IoT systems in situations where:
➢ Constant communication between a server and a client is necessary
➢ Audio and video support is required
➢ WebSockets are implemented in the Scaleway IoT to connect web
applications to the Hub. The IoT Hub creates two default networks:
✓ MQTT network: For exchanging messages between constrained
devices and the hub
✓ WebSocket network: For sending and receiving MQTT messages
directly in a browser
 WebSocket
• WebSockets are used in IoT systems in situations where:
➢ Constant communication between a server and a client is necessary
➢ Audio and video support is required
➢ WebSockets are implemented in the Scaleway IoT Hub (Scaleway
IoT Hub is a message broker that connects devices to cloud
infrastructure. It uses protocols like MQTT, Sigfox, LoRaWAN, REST,
and Websockets) to connect web applications to the Hub. The IoT
Hub creates two default networks:
✓ MQTT network: For exchanging messages between constrained
devices and the hub
✓ WebSocket network: For sending and receiving MQTT messages
directly in a browser
 WebSocket
• How WebSocket works?
➢ WebSocket is bidirectional, a full-duplex protocol that is used
in the same scenario of client-server communication, unlike
HTTP which starts from ws:// or wss://
➢ It is a stateful protocol, which means the connection between
client and server will stay alive until it gets terminated by
either party (client or server). After closing the connection by
either of the client or server, the connection is terminated
from both ends……..
 WebSocket
• How WebSocket works?
➢ Let’s take an example of client-server communication, there is
the client which is a web browser, and a server:
✓ whenever we initiate the connection between client and server
✓ the client-server makes the handshaking and decides to create a new
connection
✓ and this connection will keep alive until terminated by any of them
➢ When the connection is established and alive the
communication takes place using the same connection
channel until it is terminated……………………….
 WebSocket
• How WebSocket works?
➢ Once the communication link is established and the
connections are opened, message exchange will take place in
bidirectional mode
➢ The way in which the socket works is slightly different from
how HTTP works, the status code 101 denotes the switching
protocol in WebSocket………
 WebSocket
• How WebSocket works?
➢ Once the communication link is established and the connections are
opened, message exchange will take place in bidirectional
➢ The way in which the socket works is slightly different from how HTTP
works, the status code 101 denotes the switching protocol in WebSocket
 WebSocket
• When can a web socket be used?
➢ Real-time web application: Real-time web application uses a web socket
to show the data at client end, which is continuously being sent by the
backend server, that is why WebSocket is faster and improves the
application performance.
e.g. in a trading website or bitcoin trading, for displaying the price
fluctuation and movement data is continuously pushed by the backend
server to the client end by using a WebSocket channel

• Gaming application: In a Gaming application, you might focus on that,

data is continuously received by the server, and without refreshing the UI,
it will take effect on the screen, UI gets automatically refreshed without
even establishing the new connection, so it is very helpful in a Gaming
application…………
 WebSocket
• When can a web socket be used?
➢ Chat application: Chat applications use WebSockets to establish the
connection only once for exchange, publishing, and broadcasting the
message among the subscribers. It reuses the same WebSocket
connection, for sending and receiving the message and for one-to-one
message transfer.
 WebSocket
• When not to use WebSocket?
➢ WebSocket can be used if we want any real-time updated or continuous
streams of data that are being transmitted over the network but if we
want to fetch old data, or want to get the data only once to process it
with an application we should go with HTTP protocol
➢ old data which is not required very frequently or fetched only once can be
queried by the simple HTTP request, so in this scenario, it’s better not use
WebSocket
• Note: RESTful web services are sufficient to get the data from the server if
we are loading the data only once.
WebSocket Connection HTTP Connection

WebSocket is a bidirectional
communication protocol that can send The HTTP protocol is a unidirectional
the data from the client to the server or protocol that works on top of TCP protocol
from the server to the client by reusing which is a connection-oriented transport
the established connection channel. layer protocol, we can create the
The connection is kept alive until connection by using HTTP request methods
terminated by either the client or the after getting the response HTTP connection
server. get closed.

Almost all the real-time applications like

(trading, monitoring, notification)
services use WebSocket to receive the
data on a single communication Simple RESTful application uses HTTP
channel. protocol which is stateless.

It is used when we do not want to retain a

connection for a particular amount of time
All the frequently updated applications or reuse the connection for transmitting
used WebSocket because it is faster data; An HTTP connection is slower than
than HTTP Connection. WebSockets.
Department of EXTC
17
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 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• CoAP or Constrained Application Protocol, as the name
suggests, is an application layer protocol that was introduced
by the Internet Engineering Task Force in the year 2014
• CoAP is designed for the constrained environment. It is a
web-based protocol that resembles HTTP. It is also based on
the request-response model and REST-style architecture, this
protocol considers the various objects in the network as
resources………
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• These resources are uniquely assigned a URI or Uniform
Resource Identifier. The data from one resource to
another resource is transferred in the form of CoAP
message packets
• The Client requests for some resources and in response
to that, the server sends some response over which the
client sends an acknowledgement
• Although, some types of CoAP do not involve the
receiver sending acknowledgments for the information
received.
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a special web
transfer protocol that operates with constrained nodes and
networks
• Devices/nodes may have
➢ limited processor
➢ Memory
➢ Bandwith and
➢ power resources
• CoAP is intended to be:
➢ Simple
➢ low-overhead and
➢ efficient, making it ideal for machine-to-machine communication……
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• CoAP supports multicast, which enables one-to-many
communication. This is useful when a single message needs
to reach multiple devices simultaneously
• CoAP is often used for machine-to-machine (M2M)
applications such as smart energy and building automation.
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• How Does CoAP Works?
• Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is an application layer
protocol designed for resource-constrained devices and networks
• Client-Server Model: CoAP model is essentially a client/server
model enabling the client to request for service from server as
needed and the server responds to client's request
• Resource-Oriented: CoAP treats various objects in the network as
resources, each uniquely identified by a URI (Uniform Resource
Identifier). Clients can request information about these resources,
and servers provide responses
• Methods: CoAP supports several methods similar to HTTP:
– GET
– POST
– DELETE
– PUT.
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• Message Format of CoAP
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• CoAP messages are encoded in binary-format or 0/1 format. Like other
message formats, CoAP message has a header and a payload section
along with an optional section
• The size of CoAP header is 4 bytes or 32 bits. This size is fixed for every
CoAP message
• Whereas the other part of message is the optional part which includes
payload and tokens of variable size ranging from 0-8 bytes
• The message format of CoAP contains the following fields:
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• Version - The size of version field is 2 bits. It represents the
version of the CoAP protocol.
• Type Code - The size of type field is 2 bits. There are four
types of messages namely confirmable, non-confirmable,
acknowledgement and reset represented by the bit patterns
00, 01, 10, 11 respectively.
• Option Count (OC)- The size of option count field is 4 bits.
These 4 bits, means there could be a total of 16 possible
options in header.
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• Code - The size of code field is 8 bits. This indicates whether
message is empty, request message or response message
• Message ID - The size of message ID field is 16 bits. It is used
to detect the message duplication and types of messages
• Tokens [Optional] - The size of tokens field is variable which
ranges from 0-8 bytes. It's used to match a response with
request.
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• Options [Optional] - The options field in CoAP message has a
variable size. It defines the type of payload message
• Payload [Optional] - Similar to options field, the payload field
has a variable size. The payload of requests or of responses is
typically a representation of the requested resource or the
result of the requested action.
 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 11: 25th April 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Mod5- Software Development for IoT
• Introduction to programming languages for IoT (e.g., Python,
C++)
• Data acquisition, processing, and visualization techniques
• Introduction to IoT platforms and frameworks Security
considerations in IoT applications.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Years back, we had never imagined that the day will come
when we would just stand in front of our door and it could
automatically open, the lights would automatically turn on
when we enter the room, the AC temperature would be
automatically adjusted, we would be testing self-driving cars
that can navigate traffic autonomously, real-time monitoring
of patients remotely, we will walk and our watch will count
steps and list continues
• If we wonder about how these things are made possible then
IoT technology comes into the picture. Internet of Things
(IoT) technology is growing faster than expected.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Here, is the list of programming languages that are best for IoT
Development:
➢ C
➢ C++
➢ JAVA
➢ JavaScript
➢ Python
➢ PHPoC(PHP on Chip)
➢ Swift
➢ Rust
➢ Lua
➢ Go (Golang) etc.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Here, is the list of programming languages that are best for
IoT Development:
➢ C, C++
✓ Efficiency and Speed:C and C++ are widely used for programming
microcontrollers and embedded systems due to their close-to-hardware
capabilities and minimal resource usage. They are well-suited for IoT
devices with limited resources (memory, processing power)
✓ Access to Hardware: These languages allow direct manipulation of
hardware components such as sensors, actuators, and communication
interfaces, which is often necessary in IoT systems
✓ Real-time Performance: C and C++ provide real-time performance
needed for time-sensitive applications, such as controlling actuators or
monitoring environmental changes.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Here, is the list of programming languages that are best for
IoT Development:
➢ JAVA- Cross-platform IoT applications, mobile applications,
large-scale systems. Cross-Platform Compatibility:
✓ Cross-Platform Compatibility: Java is used for building cross-platform IoT
applications, especially in environments where the devices interact with
both embedded systems and cloud applications
✓ Scalability: Java can handle large-scale applications, making it ideal for
enterprise-level IoT solutions
✓ Android Development: Java is the primary language for Android app
development, allowing IoT systems to be controlled and monitored
through mobile apps.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Here, is the list of programming languages that are best for
IoT Development:
➢ JavaScript- Real-time applications, web-based IoT platforms, and
cloud communication. JavaScript, especially with Node.js, is well-
suited for handling asynchronous operations, which are common in
IoT systems that rely on real-time data and events from multiple
devices.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Here, is the list of programming languages that are best for
IoT Development:
➢ Python- Data processing, cloud communication, rapid development,
and prototyping are the requirements
✓ Ease of Use: Python is known for its simple syntax, making it an ideal
language for rapid development and prototyping in IoT systems. It is
beginner-friendly and widely used for cloud-based IoT applications
✓ Libraries and Frameworks: Python has a vast number of libraries and
frameworks for IoT development, such as:
✓ MicroPython (for microcontrollers)
✓ Raspberry Pi GPIO library (for interacting with the GPIO pins on Raspberry Pi)
✓ and Paho MQTT (for IoT communication)
✓ Cloud Integration: Python's ability to integrate with cloud services like
AWS, Azure, and Google Cloud makes it a great choice for processing and
analyzing large volumes of IoT data.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Here, is the list of programming languages that are best for
IoT Development:
• Swift- A high-performance language used for developing
native iOS applications and is becoming popular in IoT due to
its security features
✓ Swift is a modern, high-performance programming language
developed by Apple Inc. It is widely used for developing software for
iOS and macOS, and is also used in some Internet of Things (IoT)
applications.
 Introduction to programming languages for IoT
• Here, is the list of programming languages that are best for
IoT Development:
➢ Rust- Rust is designed to prevent memory-related issues like buffer
overflows, making it a strong choice for building safe and reliable IoT
applications
➢ Lua- Lua is a lightweight scripting language commonly used in
constrained environments where resources like memory and CPU power
are limited
➢ Go (Golang)- Cloud-based IoT systems, high-performance applications.
 Data Acquisition
• What is Data Acquisition?
➢ Data acquisition software development plays a crucial role in
the Internet of Things (IoT) by enabling the collection,
processing, and management of data from various connected
devices.
 Data Acquisition
• What is Data Acquisition?
• Core Functions:
➢ Data Collection:
– It facilitates the gathering of raw data from diverse IoT sensors
and devices. This involves handling various data formats and
communication protocols
– It ensures the reliable and consistent capture of data, even in
challenging environments
➢ Signal Conditioning:
– Often, raw sensor data needs to be processed before it can be used.
This software helps to filter, amplify, and convert analog signals into
digital ones
– It improves the accuracy and reliability of the data by removing noise
and correcting for sensor imperfections
 Data Acquisition
• What is Data Acquisition?
• Core Functions:
➢ Data Processing: It enables real-time or near real-time processing of
the acquired data. This can involve tasks such as data validation,
aggregation, and transformation.
➢ Data Storage and Management: It provides mechanisms for storing
the collected data in a structured and organized manner. This includes
managing data storage, retrieval, and archiving
➢ Data Visualization: It often includes tools for visualizing the acquired
data, allowing users to monitor trends and identify patterns.
✓ This can involve creating dashboards, charts, and graphs.
 Data Acquisition
• What is Data Acquisition?
• Core Functions:
➢ Communication: It handles the communication between IoT devices,
data storage systems, and applications. This includes transmitting data
over various networks and protocols
➢ Security: It implements security measures to protect the integrity and
confidentiality of the acquired data. This is crucial for ensuring the
reliability and trustworthiness of IoT systems.
 Data Acquisition
• Importance in IoT:
➢ IoT generates massive amounts of data, and data acquisition software is
essential for managing this data effectively
➢ It enables real-time monitoring and control of IoT devices, which is critical
for many applications
➢ It provides the foundation for data analytics and machine learning, which
can be used to gain valuable insights from IoT data
➢ Essentially it is the software that allows the real world analog data to be
converted into digital data that computers can use
➢ In essence, data acquisition software bridges the gap between the physical
world and the digital world, enabling the full potential of IoT.
Data Acquisition
 Data Acquisition
• Sensors: Devices that gather information about physical or
environmental conditions, such as temperature, pressure, or light intensity
• Signal Conditioning: To ensure accurate measurement, the raw sensor
data undergoes preprocessing to filter out any noise and scale it
appropriately
• Data Logger: Hardware or software that records and stores the
conditioned data over time
• Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts analog sensor signals
into digital data that computers can process
• Calibration and Calibration Standards: To ensure accuracy the sensors and
system are periodically calibrated against known standards
• Interface: Connects the data acquisition system to a computer or
controller for data transfer and control.
 Data Acquisition
• Communication Protocols: The transmission and reception of data
between a system and external devices or networks is known as data
communication
• Storage: For storing recorded data, there are a range of options
available, including memory cards, hard drives, or cloud storage. These
provide both temporary and permanent storage solutions.
• User Interface: This system allows users to interact with and control the
data acquisition system effectively.
• Calibration and Calibration Standards: To ensure accuracy the
sensors and system are periodically calibrated against known
standards.
 Visualization techniques
• Significance of Visualization Techniques in IoT
➢ Visualization techniques in IoT are essential for turning raw data collected
from sensors, devices, or systems into understandable, actionable
insights. In IoT systems, data flows from various devices in real-time, and
without proper visualization, this data would be overwhelming, difficult to
interpret, and unusable for decision-making
➢ Visualization techniques are essential for making IoT data actionable.
They provide insights into complex datasets, help identify trends, detect
anomalies, and facilitate data-driven decision-making
➢ By presenting data in a visual format, IoT systems can enhance user
experience, improve system efficiency, and support real-time monitoring
and control, making them invaluable in various IoT applications such as
smart homes, healthcare, smart cities, and industrial IoT systems.
 Visualization techniques
• Significance of Visualization in IoT:
➢ Enhanced Data Comprehension: IoT data is often complex and multi-
dimensional. Visualization simplifies this data, making it easier to identify
patterns, trends, and anomalies
➢ Real-Time Monitoring and Analysis: Many IoT applications require real-
time monitoring of critical parameters. Visualization tools provide live
dashboards and displays, enabling users to track performance and respond to
events promptly
➢ Improved Decision-Making: By presenting data in a clear and concise
manner, visualization empowers users to make informed decisions based on
real-time insights
➢ Anomaly Detection:Visual representations can quickly highlight deviations
from normal behavior, enabling early detection of potential problems
➢ Predictive Maintenance: Visualizing historical and real-time data can
help predict equipment failures and schedule maintenance proactively.
 Visualization techniques
• Visualization Techniques Used in IoT: Here are some common
visualization techniques used in IoT systems:
➢ Dashboards: Provide a centralized view of key performance
indicators (KPIs) and metrics
➢ Charts and Graphs: Line charts, bar charts, pie charts, and scatter
plots are used to display data trends and relationships
➢ Maps: Geospatial visualization is used to display location-based
data, such as tracking assets or monitoring environmental
conditions
➢ Heatmaps: Used to visualize data density and patterns, such as
sensor readings across a geographical area
➢ Gauges: Used to display real-time values of critical parameters
➢ Time Series Plots: Used to display data points collected over time,
which is very common in IOT data.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

• The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of connected devices

that can communicate with each other, share data, and
perform tasks without human intervention. The importance
of communication in IoT cannot be overstated, as it is the
foundation on which the entire system is built. The devices
that make up the IoT ecosystem need to be able to
communicate with each other in order to function properly
and achieve their intended purpose.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

• Effective communication in IoT enables devices to share data,

receive instructions, and respond to requests in a timely and
accurate manner. This is critical for the successful
implementation of IoT solutions across various industries,
such as healthcare, manufacturing, transportation, and smart
homes.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

• For example, in a smart home, the communication between

the devices (such as lights, thermostats, and security systems)
allows them to work together to create a more convenient
and secure living environment for the occupants
• Similarly, in a healthcare setting, IoT devices can be used to
monitor patients remotely and alert healthcare providers in
case of an emergency, ensuring that timely medical
intervention is provided.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

• Types of Communication Models in IoT- There are several

communication models that can be used in the Internet of
Things (IoT) ecosystem, depending on the requirements of
the use case. The three main communication models used in
IoT are……….
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

1. Client-Server Model
➢ In the Client-Server communication model, the client sends
encoded requests to the server for information as needed. This
model is stateless, meaning that each request is handled
independently and data is not retained between requests. The
server categorizes the request, retrieves the data from the
database, converts it to an encoded response that is sent back to
the client. The client then receives the response
➢ On the other hand, in the Request-Response communication
model, the client sends a request to the server and the server
responds to the request by deciding how to retrieve the data or
resources needed to prepare the response. Once prepared, the
server sends the response back to the client.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

2. Publish-Subscribe Model
• The Publish-Subscribe communication model consists of three entities:
➢ Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.
• Publishers are responsible for generating and sending data to specific topics
managed by the broker. Publishers are not aware of the consumers subscribed to
the topic
• Consumers subscribe to the topics managed by the broker to receive data from
the publishers. The broker is responsible for sending the data to the appropriate
consumers based on their subscription to specific topics
• The broker is responsible for accepting data from the publishers and forwarding it
to the appropriate consumers subscribed to that specific topic. The broker is the
only entity that has information regarding the consumer to which a particular topic
belongs, and publishers are not aware of this information.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

3. Push-Pull Model
• The Push-Pull communication model consists of three entities:
➢ data publishers, data consumers, and data queues
• Publishers and consumers are not aware of each other. Publishers push messages
or data into the queue, and consumers on the other end pull data out of the
queue. The queue acts as a buffer for messages when there is a difference in the
rate of data push or pull by the publisher and consumer
• Queues play an essential role in decoupling messaging between the producer and
consumer, and they act as a buffer in situations where there is a mismatch in the
rate at which data is pushed by producers and pulled by consumers
• This buffer helps ensure smooth communication between the two entities.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

4. Exclusive Pair Model

• Exclusive Pairs are communication models that provide full-duplex, bidirectional
communication between a client and server. These models are designed for
constant or continuous connections between the two entities
• Once a connection is established, both the client and server can exchange
messages with each other. As long as the client does not request to close the
connection, it remains open, and the server is aware of every open connection.
This enables the client and server to communicate seamlessly and in real-time.
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)
• Future of IoT Communication Models
• The future of IoT communication models is exciting and promising. As the
number of connected devices and applications continue to increase, the
need for efficient and effective communication models will become even
more critical
• One of the most significant trends in IoT communication models is the
shift towards edge computing. This approach involves processing data
closer to the source, rather than transmitting it to a centralized cloud
server. By moving processing closer to the edge of the network, latency
can be reduced, and real-time responses can be achieved. This approach
also reduces the amount of data that needs to be transmitted, reducing
bandwidth requirements and improving efficiency……………
 Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things)

• Future of IoT Communication Models

• Another trend is the development of hybrid communication models that
combine different communication protocols to achieve the best possible
results. For example, a hybrid model might combine the Publish-Subscribe
model with the Request-Response model to achieve real-time data
updates while still allowing for targeted data requests.
 Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering
Even semester 2024-25
Sem-VI
Professional Elective
Principles of Internet of Things (PIoT)
ET33T
Lecture No. 12: 1st April 2025

Subject Teacher: Vijay M. Purohit1

Department of EXTC
([email protected])
 Mod2- Communication Protocols
• Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth low energy- √
• ZigBee IP/ZigBee SE2.0 - √
• Wifi(WLAN)- √
• RFID IoT System - - √
• RFID IoT Network Architecture - √
• HTTP - √
• REST API - √
• COAP - √
• WebSocket - √
• MQTT -------- Today
• M2M Communication Protocols -------- Today
• Message Communication protocols for connected devices Data exchange
formats: JSON & XML -------- Today
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• MQTT is a simple, lightweight messaging protocol used to
establish communication between multiple devices. It is a
TCP-based protocol relying on the publish-subscribe model.
This communication protocol is suitable for transmitting data
between resource-constrained devices having low
bandwidth, low computational power requirements and
limited battery. Hence this messaging protocol is widely used
for communication in the IoT Framework……………..
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• MQTT is a network messaging protocol originally developed
by IBM for IoT projects.
• It allows communication between devices over TCP/IP and
has a “publish-subscribe” model
• MQTT requires an “MQTT Broker” for its “publish-subscribe”
method. The Broker is software that runs on a computer and
acts as a sort of Post Office in which devices can send their
data and receive data that they are “subscribed” to
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• Publish-Subscribe Model
• This model involves multiple clients interacting with each
other, without having any direct connection established
between them. All clients communicate with other clients
only via a third party known as a Broker.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• MQTT Client and Broker
• Clients publish (transmits) messages on different topics to
brokers. The broker is the central server that receives these
messages and filters them based on their topics. It then sends
these messages to respective clients that have subscribed to
those different topics
• The heart of any publish/subscribe protocol is the MQTT
broker. A broker can handle up to thousands of concurrently
connected MQTT customers. All communications must be
received by the broker, who will then sort them, ascertain
who subscribed to each one, and deliver the messages to the
clients who have subscribed.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• Publishers and subscribers, which denote whether a client is
publishing messages or has subscribed to receive messages
• The same MQTT client can be used to accomplish these two
features. A publish occurs when a client or device want to
submit data to a server or broker.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• All persistent customers’ sessions, including missed messages
and subscriptions, are likewise kept by the Broker.
• When a broker and a subscribing client lose contact, the
broker will store messages in a buffer and send them to the
subscriber whenever the broker is back up and running
• The broker has the right to cut off communication with
subscribers and send them a cached message

Department of EXTC
8
([email protected])
Publish-Subscribe Model

Department of EXTC
9
([email protected])
 Department of EXTC
10
([email protected])
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• The QoS stipulates three different levels of priority:
• QoS 0, which is somewhat confusingly also called “at most once
delivery.” At most once delivery means the message can’t be
delivered more than once, even if it loses some information on the
way. QoS 0 works great when the quality doesn’t need to be all that
high
• QoS 1, aka “at least once delivery” guarantees the delivery of a
message in full at least once. If there was data loss the first time the
message got delivered, the system can duplicate the message to
ensure all parts are received
• QoS 2 is also known as “exactly once delivery.” QoS 2 guarantees
delivery of a message without data loss just like QoS 1, but instead
of duplicating the message, it simply uses more power to ensure a
higher-quality delivery at the outset
• Using this priority system, MQTT becomes reliable when it needs to
be and less so when low power consumption is the most important
factor.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• Characteristics of MQTT
➢ Lightweight: MQTT is designed to be lightweight, making it suitable for
use in constrained environments. The protocol minimizes bandwidth and
processing power, overhead
• Publish-Subscribe Model: In the publish-subscribe version, clients
(publishers) send messages to subjects, and different clients (subscribers)
acquire messages from subjects of interest
• Quality of Service (QoS) Levels: MQTT supports exclusive stages of
message delivery warranty, referred to as Quality of Service (QoS). QoS
levels range from 0 to 2, providing various stages of reliability and
message transport guarantees, relying at the utility necessities.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• Retained Messages: MQTT lets in agents to store retained
messages on topics, making sure that new subscribers acquire the
maximum latest message posted on a subject right now after
subscribing. This characteristic is beneficial for fame updates and
configuration settings
• Last Will and Testament (LWT): MQTT clients can specify a Last Will
and Testament message to be posted by way of the broker in the
occasion of an sudden consumer disconnect. This function affords a
mechanism for detecting patron failures and dealing with them
gracefully
• Security: MQTT helps various protection mechanisms, consisting
of Transport Layer Security (TLS) encryption and authentication
mechanisms which include username/password and consumer
certificates. These capabilities make certain the confidentiality,
integrity, and authenticity of messages exchanged over MQTT
connections.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• When discussing MQTT messages, it's crucial to understand that they
consist of two primary components: the topic and the payload. Here's a
breakdown with examples:
• EX1. MQTT Topics: These are string-based labels that the MQTT broker
uses to filter messages. They're hierarchical, similar to file paths, and allow
clients to subscribe to specific data streams
• Examples: home/livingroom/temperature: This topic might carry
temperature readings from a sensor in the living room
• home/kitchen/light: This could represent the on/off status of a kitchen
light
• sensors/+/temperature: Using the "+" wildcard, this topic would
subscribe to temperature readings from any sensor within the "sensors"
• hierarchy.devices/#: Using the "#" wildcard, this would subscribe to all
messages under the "devices"
• hierarchy.car/1234/gps/latitude: this could be the latitude reading from
the gps module in car number 1234.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• MQTT Payloads: This is the actual data being transmitted. It can be in
various formats, including:
➢ Plain text:Example:
✓ "ON", "OFF", "25.5“
➢ JSON:Example:
✓ {"temperature": 25.5, "humidity": 60}
✓ Example: {"light_state": "ON"}
➢ Binary data: This is used for transmitting images, audio, or other non-
textual data.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• Putting it Together: Here are some examples of complete
MQTT messages:
➢ Topic: home/livingroom/temperature
✓ Payload: "22.3" (plain text)
➢ Topic: home/kitchen/light
✓ Payload: {"light_state": "OFF"} (JSON)
➢ Topic: sensors/sensor1/temperature
✓ Payload: {"value": 27.1, "unit": "Celsius"} (JSON)
➢ Topic: car/1234/gps/latitude
✓ Payload: "40.7128" (plain text).
Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, or MQTT
• Key takeaways:
➢ MQTT topics provide the routing mechanism
➢ MQTT payloads carry the actual data
➢ The flexibility of the payload data allows MQTT to be used in a
very wide variety of IOT applications.
 Data Exchange Formats: JSON & XML
• In the realm of data exchange, JSON and XML stand as two of the
most widely used formats. Each possesses its own strengths and
weaknesses, making them suitable for different applications.
• JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)
➢ Simplicity: JSON's syntax is straightforward, resembling JavaScript
object notation. This makes it easy to read and write for both
humans and machines
➢ Compactness: JSON files tend to be more compact than XML,
resulting in faster data transfer and smaller file sizes
➢ Language Independence: JSON is language-agnostic, making it
suitable for various programming languages and platforms
➢ Wide Adoption: JSON has gained significant popularity due to its
simplicity and efficiency, and it's widely used in web applications
and APIs.
 Data Exchange Formats: JSON & XML
• Example of JSON:
{
"name": "Alice", "age": 30,
"city": "New York",
"hobbies": ["reading", "coding", "hiking"]
}
 Data Exchange Formats: JSON & XML
• XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
➢ Structure and Validation: XML uses tags to define data
elements and their relationships, providing a structured and
self-describing format
➢ Rich Feature Set: XML supports a wide range of features,
including namespaces, schemas, and data types, making it
suitable for complex data structures
➢ Versatility: XML is used in various applications, from
configuration files to data interchange and document storage
➢ Legacy Systems: Many legacy systems still rely on XML due to
its long-standing presence and established standards.
 Data Exchange Formats: JSON & XML
Example of XML:
<person> <name>Alice</name>
<age>30</age>
<city>New York</city>
<hobbies>
<hobby>reading</hobby> <hobby>coding</hobby>
<hobby>hiking</hobby>
</hobbies>
</person>
Data Exchange Formats: JSON & XML